Paper-1, Booklet-3, History

 The emerging Congress approach to world problem, the awareness of India's position in the world, were clearly enunciated in Jawaharlal Nehru's presidential address to the Lucknow Congress in 1936. States People's Struggle  The fourth major development during this period was the spread of national movement to the princely States.  Appalling economic, political and social conditions prevailed in most of them.  The bulk of the State revenues were spent on the luxuries of the princes.  In several States serfdom, slavery, and forced labour flourished.  Throughout history, a corrupt and decadent ruler was checked to some extent by the challenge of internal revolt or external aggression.  Moreover, the British authorities began to use the princes to prevent the growth of national unity and to counter the rising national movement.  In 1921, the Chamber of Princeswas created to enable the princes to meet and discuss under British guidance matters of common interest.  In the Government of India Act of 1935, the proposed federal structure was so planned as to check the forces of nationalism.  It was provided that the princes would get two-fifth of the seats in the Upper House and one-third of the seats in the Lower House.  People of many of the princely States now began to organise movements for democratic rights and popular governments.  The All-India States Peopled Conference had already been founded in December 1927 to coordinate political activities in the different States.  The Civil Disobedience Movement produced a deep impact on the minds of the people of these States and stirred them into political activity.  The National Congress supported the States People's struggle and urged the princes to introduce democratic representative government and to grant fundamental civil rights.  In 1938, when the Congress defined its goal of independence it included the independence of the princely States.  Next year, at the Tripuri session, it decided to take a more active part in the States People's movements.  Jawaharlal Nehru became the President of the All-India States People's Conference in 1939. National Movement during the Second World War 51

 The Second World War broke out in September, 1939 when Nazi Germany invaded Poland in pursuance of Hitler's scheme for German expansion.  The Government of India immediately joined the war without consulting the National Congress or the elected members of the central legislature.  The National Congress was in full sympathy with the victims of fascist aggression.  It was willing to help the forces of democracy in their struggle against fascism.  But, the Congress leaders asked, how was it possible for an enslaved nation to aid others in their fight for freedom?  They therefore demanded that India must be declared free-or at least effective power put in Indian hands-before it could actively participate in the war.  The British Government refused to accept this demand and tried to pit the religious minorities and Princes against the Congress.  The Congress, therefore, asked its ministries to resign.  In October, 1940, Gandhi gave the call for a limited Satyagraha by a few selected individuals.  The Satyagraha was kept limited so as not to embarrass Britain's war effort by a mass upheaval in India.  Vinoba Bhave was the first to offer Satyagraha.  The recently released Congress leaders denounced Japanese aggression and once again offered to fully cooperate in the defence of India and the Allied cause if Britain transferred the substance of power to India immediately and promised complete independence after the war.  The British Government now desperately wanted the active co-operation of Indians in the war effort.  To secure this cooperation it send to India in March 1942 a mission headed by a Cabiner Minister, Sir Stafford Cripps, who had earlier been a radical member of the Labour Party and a strong supporter of the Indian national movement.  Even though Cripps declared that the aim of British policy in India was \"the earliest possible realisation of self-government in India‖, detailed negotiations between him and the Congress leaders broke down.  The British Government refused to accept the Congress demand for the immediate transfer of effective power to Indians.  The failure of the Cripps Mission embittered the people of India. The Quit India Movement 52

 Their discontent was further fuelled by war-time shortages and rising prices.  The period from April to August, 1942 was one of daily heightening tension, with Gandhiji becoming more and more militant as Japanese forces moved towards India and the spectre of Japanese conquest began to haunt the people and their leaders.  The Congress now decided to take active steps to compel the British to accept the Indian demand for independence.  The All India Congress Committee met at Bombay on 8 August, 1942.  It passed the famous Quit India Resolution and proposed the starting of a non-violent mass struggle under Gandhi's leadership to achieve this aim.  The resolution declared―... the immediate ending of British rule in India is an urgent necessity, both for the sake of India and for the success of the cause of the United Nations. ... India, the classic land of modem imperialism, has become the crux of the question, for by the freedom of India will Britain and the United Nations be judged, and the peoples of Asia and Africa be filled with hope and enthusiasm. A free India will assure this success by throwing all her great resources in the struggle for freedom and against the aggression of Nazism, Fascism and Imperialism.‖  Addressing the Congress delegates on the night of 8 August, 1942Gandhi said: I, therefore, want freedom immediately, this very night, before dawn, if it can be had. ... Fraud and untruth today are stalking the world. ... You may take it from me that I am not going to strike a bargain with the Viceroy for ministries and the like. I am not going to be satisfied with anything short of complete freedom. ... Here is a mantra, a short one that I give you. You may imprint it on your hearts and let every breath of yours give expression to it. The mantra is: ―Do or Die.‖  But before the Congress could start a movement, the Government struck hard.  Early in the morning of 9 August, Gandhi and other Congress leaders were arrested and taken to unknown destinations, and the Congress was once again declared illegal.  The news of these arrests left the country aghast, and a spontaneous movement ofprotest arose everywhere, giving expression to the pent up anger of the people.  Left leaderless and without any organisation, the people reacted in any manner they could.  All over the country there were hartals, strikes in factories, schools and colleges, and demonstrations which were lathi-charged and fired upon.  In many places the rebels seized temporary control over towns, cities, and villages.  In some areas, such as Balliain Eastern U.R, Tamlukin Midnapore district of Bengal, and Sataradistrict of Bombay, the revolutionaries set up ‗parallel government‘.  In general, the students, workers and peasants provided the backbone of the 'revolt' while the upper classes and the bureaucracy remained loyal to the Government.  The Government on its part went all out to crush the 1942 movement.  The Revolt of 1942, as it has been termed, was in fact short-lived. 53

 Its importance lay in the fact that it demonstrated the depth that nationalist feeling had reached in the country and the great capacity for struggle and sacrifice that the people had developed.  In 1943, Bengal was plunged into the worst famine in recent history. Within a few months, over three million people died of starvation.  Subhas Chandra Bose had escaped from India in March. 1941 to go to the Soviet Union for help. But when the Soviet Union joined the allies in June, 1941, he went to Germany.  In February, 1943 he left for Japan to organise an armed struggle against the British rule with Japanese help.  In Singapore he formed the Azad Hind Fauj (Indian National Army or INA for short) to conduct a military campaign for the liberation of India.  He was assisted by Rash Behari Bose, an old terrorist revolutionary.  Before the arrival of Subhas Bose, steps towards the organisation of the INA had been taken by General Mohan Singh (who had been a Captain in the British Indian Army).  Subhas Bose, who was now called Netaji gave his followers the battle cry of 'Jai Hind5. The INA joined the Japanese army in its march on India from Burma.  Inspired by the aim of freeing their homeland, the soldiers and officers of the INA hoped to enter India as its liberators with Subhas Bose at the head of the Provisional Government of Free India.  With the collapse of Japan in the War during 1944-45, the INA too met defeat, and Subhas Bose was killed in an aeroplane accident on his way to Tokyo. Post-War Struggle  The Government decided to put on trial in the Red Fort at Delhi Shah Nawaz Khan, Gurdial SinghDhillonand Prem Sehgalofficers of the INA, who had earlier been officers in the British Indian army.  They were accused of having broken the oath of loyalty to the British Crown and thus of having become 'traitors'.  The British Government was this time in no position to ignore Indian opinion. Even though the Court Martial held the INA prisoners guilty, the Government felt it expedient to set them free.  The changed attitude of the British Government is explained by several factors.  Firstly, the war had changed the balance of power in the world.  Moreover, there was a change of government in Britain. The Conservatives were replaced by the Labour Party, many of whose members supported the Congress demands.  The INA had shown that patriotic ideas had entered the ranks of the professional Indian army, the chief instrument of British rule in India.  Another straw in the wind was the famous revolt of the Indian naval ratingsat Bombay in February, 1946.  Moreover there were also widespread strikes in the Royal Indian Air Forces. 54

 The Indian Signal Corps at Jabalpur also went on strike.  There was the Naval Mutiny and the struggle for the release of INA prisoners.  The most militant of the post-war struggles was the Tebhaga struggleby the share croppers of Bengal who declared that they would pay not one-half but one third of the crop to the landlords.  The British Government, therefore, sent in March, 1946 a Cabinet Mission to India to negotiate with the Indian leaders the terms for the transfer of power to Indians.  The Cabinet Mission proposed a two-tiered federal plan which was expected to maintain national unity while conceding the largest measure of regional autonomy.  There was to be a federation of the provinces and the States, with the federal centre and communications.  At the same time, individual provinces could form regional unions to which they could surrender by mutual agreement some of their powers.  Both the National Congress and the Muslim League accepted this plan.  But the two could not agree on the plan for an interim government which would convene a constituent assembly to frame a constitution for the free, federal India.  In the end, in September, 1946, an Interim Cabinet, headed by Jawaharlal Nehruwas formed by the Congress.  The Muslim League joined the Cabinet in October after some hesitation; but it decided to boycott the constituent assembly.  On 20 February, 1947, Clement AttleeBritish Premier, declared that the British would quit India by June, 1948.  But the elation of coming independence was marred by the large-scale communal riots during and after August, 1946.  The Hindu and Muslim communalists blamed each other for starting the heinous killings and competed with each other in cruelty.  Mahatma Gandhi, engulfed in gloom at this total disregard of elementary humanity and seeing truth and non-violence cast to the winds, toured East Bengal and Bihar on foot to check the riots.  Finally, Lord Mountbatten, who had come to India as Viceroy in March, 1947, worked out a compromise after long discussions with the leaders of the Congress and the Muslim League: the country was to be free but not united.  India was to be partitioned and a new state of Pakistan was to be created along with a free India.  The nationalist leaders agreed to the partition of India in order to avoid the large-scale blood-bath and communal riots threatened. But they did not accept the two-nation theory.  They agreed to the separation of only those areas where the influence of the Muslim League was predominant. Thus, Punjab, Bengal and Assam were to be partitioned.  The Muslim League was to get 'a moth-eaten‘. 55

 In the North-West Frontier Province, and the Sylhet district of Assam where the influence of the League was doubtful, a plebiscite was to be held.  Even Jinnah was in the end forced to revise his two-nation theory lying at the heart of communalism.  The announcement that India and Pakistan would be free was made on 3 June, 1947.  The princely States were given the choice of joining either of the new states.  Under the pressure of the popular States People's movements and guided by the masterful diplomacy of Sardar Patel, the Home Minister, most of them acceded to India.  The Nawab of Junagadh, the Nizam of Hyderabad, and the Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir held back for some time.  The Nawab of Junagadh, a small State on the coast of Kathiawar, announced accession to Pakistan even though the people of the State desired to join India.  In the end, Indian troops occupied the State and a plebiscitewas held which went in favour of joining India.  The Nizam of Hyderabad made an attempt to claim an independent status but was forced to accede in 1948 after an internal revolt had broken out in its Telengana area and after Indian troops had marched into Hyderabad.  The Maharaja of Kashmir also delayed accession to India or Pakistan even though the popular forces led by the National Conference wanted accession to India.  However, he acceded to India in October, 1947 after Pathans and irregular armed forces of Pakistan invaded Kashmir.  On 15 August, 1947, India celebrated with joy its first day of freedom.  The sacrifices of generation of patriots and the blood of countless martyrs had borne fruit.  In a memorable address to the Constituent Assembly on the night of 14 August, Jawaharlal Nehru, giving expression to the feeling of the people, said:\"Long years ago we made a tryst with destiny, and now the time comes when we shall redeem our pledge, not wholly or in full measure, but very At the stroke of the midnight hour, when the world sleeps, India will awake to life and freedom.  Gandhiji had been touring the hate-torn parts of the country.  He had come to Calcutta from the Punjab and proposed going to Noakhali.  He spent the Independence Day by fasting and spinning.  On the evening of 30 January, 1948Gandhiji was shot dead.  Rabindranath Tagorehad remarked there months before his death in 1941. \"The wheels of fate will someday compel the English to give up their Indian Empire. But what kind of India will they leave behind, what stark misery? When the stream of their centuries administration runs dry at last, what a waste of mud and filth will they leave behind them‖. 56

 The freedom struggle had, however, not only overthrown colonial rule, it had also evolved a vision of what free India would be like. 57

Moderates and Extremist Leadership of Congress Moderates Extremists Phase (Period) 1885-1905 1905-1920 Aim  Aimed at administrative and  Aim of getting Swaraj Ideology constitutional reforms.  Wanted to end the tyranny rule of  Wanted more Indians in the British. administration and not to an end of British rule.  They were secular in their attitudes, though not always forthright enough to rise above their sectarian interests.  They knew the exploitative nature of British rule but wanted its reforms and not expulsion.  They believe in the efficacy  They were radical in their of peaceful and approach. Demands of extremists constitutional agitation were aggressive.  They had great faith in the  They believed in atmashakti or British sense of justice and self-reliance as a weapon against fair play. domination.  They were inspired by the  Ideological inspiration was Indian ideas of western History, Cultural heritage, philosophers like Mill, national education and Hindu Burke, Spencer and traditional symbols. Hence, they Bentham. Moderates revived the Ganapati and Shivaji imbibed western ideas of festivals to arouse the masses. 58

liberalism, democracy,  They wanted to inculcate pride in equity and freedom. India‘s glorious culture to generate the spirit of nationalism. They invoked goddesses Kali or Durga for strength to fight for the motherland.  Guided by four: principles Swarajya, Swadeshi, Boycott of foreign goods and National education to make the Indian aware. Methodology  They follow the principles of  They believe in militant methods. Leaders 3P: Petition, Prayer and  They follow the principle of Social Support Protest. atmashakti or self-reliance as a Contribution  They believed in cooperation weapon against domination. and reconciliation.  Method of Non-Cooperation.  They advocated democracy, constitutionalism and progress. A.O. Hume. W.C. Banerjee. Lala Lajpat Rai, Lokmanya Bal Surendra Nath Banerjee, Gangadhar Tilak. Bipin Chandra Pal, Aurobindo Ghosem Rajnarayan Bose, Dadabhai Naoroji, Feroze Shah Mehta. Gopalakrishna Gokhale. and Ashwini Kumar Dutt Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya. Badruddin Tyabji. Justice Ranade and G.Subramanya Aiyar Zamindars and Upper middle Educated middle and lower middle classes in towns classes in towns  Economic Critique of British  Demand of Swaraj Imperialism  Mass movement  Constitutional Reforms and  Spread of national education Propaganda in Legislature 59

 Campaign for General  Upliftment of downtrodden Administrative Reforms  Nationalism  Support to revolutionary  Defence of Civil Rights movements  Rise of communalism  Encouraged co-operative organisation  Set up charitable association for rural sanitation, preventive police duties, regulation of fairs and pilgrim gatherings for providing relief fund during famines and other calamities. 60

Role of Women in Freedom Struggle The question of social reform remained alive in the nationalist debates during freedom struggle. Women‘s consciousness around social and national question grew simultaneously. Both men and women were leading the social reform movements since the 1880s and among various debates ‗Personal is Political‘ was the recurring theme. Factors which helped in arousing women‘s consciousness  Gandhi, during the freedom movement in 1920, successfully managed to evolve his discourse on the position of women both within and outside the domain of home. Issues such as child marriage and widow remarriage were simultaneously addressed.  The late 19th century educational reforms produced a new variety of reading and writing public. Educational and political awareness through newspapers influenced the educated. They discussed about radical ideas for women empowerment. E.g. In 1908, Rokeya Sakhawat wrote ‗Sultana‘s Dream‘ in which idea of women‘s own governance system was introduced.  19th century women‘s own organisation mushroomed all over India. Sarala Debi Chaudhurani organised ‗Bharat Stree Mahamandal‘ in 1910. She combined Hindu revivalism with political protest Role played by women in freedom struggle  During Swadeshi campaign their activities were limited to boycott of foreign clothand picketing of liquor shops. A nationalistic cult around Bharat Mata (mother India) started to emerge which further necessitated the role of women.  In the second phase of women participation, idea of Home Rule and constitutionalism became dominant. Some western women played significant role in this. Annie Besant, who became the first woman president of Indian National congress, launched Home Rule movement.  Margret Cousins drafted Indian women‘s voting rights bill and launched Women‘s India Association. Sarojini Naidu emerged as an important national leader who later became the President of INC.  In third phase, the women‘s participation in Non Cooperation movement helped in incorporating women from all over India. Independent bodies of women such as Rashtriya 61

Stree Sanghas were fused with District Congress Committees. It also saw inclusion of women from all sections – Hindu/ Muslim, widows, scheduled/marginalised sections.  Bi Amma, the mother of Ali brothers addressed 6000 women to join men in picketing. In Andhra Pradesh, a vibrant Durgabai collected over a thousand devadasi to hear Gandhi‘s speech.  Gandhi‘s vision tried to transform widow‘s personal renunciation into a political ideology. It was this politicized and idealized Hindu widowhood which was used by Gandhi to motivate public consciousness towards a pacific but consistent struggle.  The next stage of national movement saw mounted levels of scale and space of women‘s participation. In a book called Mother India, the writer Katherine Mayo criticised the Hindu men and slave like condition of women within the family. Nationalists and reformers were compelled to focus on families and making the domestic space non-violent. Also this criticism bound Indian men and women together to national honour.  During Civil Disobedience, women volunteers participated in marches boycotts and prabhat pheris. Desh Sevika Sangh, patriotic groups within their association, was formed for passive resistance. Sarojini Naidu, Muhtulaxmi Reddy, Margret Cousins were put in jail.  In the event of men‘s arrest, the women‘s organisation took on the task of carrying on civil disobedience and organising meetings. Once the women‘s nationalist consciousness was awakened in varying degrees, they began exploring different methodologies of achieving political freedom.  Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) saw contribution by Durgavati Devi who helped Bhagat singh in his escape after the Saunders killing. Kalpna Dutt of Indian Republican Army led the armed resistance along with Surya sen.She was joined with Pritilata Waddedar in 1931 in attacking the European club in Chittagong. The image and magnitude of participation of the Indian women within the national movement was drawn from the multi-layerednations of Mother India and Victorian morality. The women who led nationalist campaign were mostly upper middle class. Yet in the recent year Dalit and Tribal women have been claiming participation in the nation‘s history. Many such histories are waiting to be written. 62

Mahatma Gandhi and Subhash Chandra Bose Both Mahatma Gandhi and Subhash Chandra Bose were stalwarts of Indian freedom struggle. Gandhi and Bose both enjoyed immense popular support and displayed immense respect for each other but differed in their approach andhad different understanding of political reality:  Subhash Chandra Bose adopted violent means for liberation of India and thus led Indian National Army. Gandhi on the other hand was a firm believer of non-violence and led peaceful mass protests.  Ideologically Gandhi subscribed to socialist pattern of society where fruits of labour were evenly distributed and favoured trusteeship pattern of relation between Capitalist and labourers. Subhash Chandra was a keen follower of radicalleftist ideology and organized trade unions.  SCB wanted to grab the opportunity provided by Second World War for India‘s freedom, thus approached Germany,Japan while Gandhi saw fascism and Nazism a greater danger to Indian polity and society thusco-operated with British. Thus they had a different understanding of same event.  Religious teachings had great importance in the life of Gandhi while Subhash Chandra Bose was a leftist and rationalist.  Gandhi‘s idea of freedom was based on self-rule and rule over self. Bose viewed freedom not onlyin terms of political self-rule but also freedom from socio-economic inequalities, casteism, intolerance etc. 63

If Gandhi wasn’t there? Gandhi sacrificed four decades of his life for the country and spent many years of his life in British jails.Many times during the freedom movement, he went on fast unto death and achieved successful outcomes.But in this, he was no exception.There were numerous freedom fighters, both sung and unsung, who devoted their whole life for the cause of Indian freedom.Many historians have attributed the Indian freedom to other reasons than leadership of Gandhi.They argue that:  With or without Gandhi, India was going to be free because the British Empire had expanded too much to be managed.  In the words of Atlee, the impact of Gandhi on British was ‗minimal‘, it was Subhash Chandra Bose, who had infused nationalism in army personnel; andthis had shaken the empire.  Further, it was the Second World War that played a crucial role in independence of India. The Second World War ruined the economy of the Britain and British were finding unable to maintain their colonies. In the aftermath of World War-II, USA and USSR put pressure on the European countries to free their colonies. In the light of above arguments, it might sound that without Gandhi also India would have achieved freedom sooner or later.However, there are many other aspects of Gandhi‘s role, that not only helped India to achieve freedom but also to ―preserve it‖.  Before the arrival of Gandhi, the fight against colonial British was sporadic and there was no leader at the national level to unite the struggle against the British.  The concept of Indian Nationalism had not taken a concrete shape before emergence of Gandhi as a national leaderIt was because of Gandhi – that for the first time, mass mobilization at such a wide scale occurred in India in 1920s and 1930s.  He organised the masses by fighting for their social issues like peasant problems, tax matters,labour issues etc.  He was able to encourage the masses to go for Swadeshi made goods and reject the Britain made goods.  His non-violence methods highlighted the brutal policies of the British.Americans were greatly appreciative of Gandhi‘s non-violence and they pressured the British government to give independence to India These methods of Gandhi have been questioned also.Gandhi might not be right with some of his methods but we cannot deny that the freedom movement would have fallen apart without him. 64

List of Viceroy and Important achievements Governor General Important achievements/Events Warren Hastings(1772-1785)  First Governor of Bengal (Presidency of Fort William).  In 1814 he made a Privy Counsellor.  Zamindars were given judicial powers; establishment of civil and criminal courts in each district.  In 1781, he founded the Calcutta Madrasa, for promotion of Islamic studies.  He founded the Asiatic Society of Bengal with William Jones in 1784. Sir John Macpherson(1785-1786)  He held the post temporarily. Lord Cornwallis(1786-1793)  Introduced Permanent Settlement of Bengal (also called Zamindari system).  He introduced Police reforms according to which each district was divided into 400 square miles and placed under a police superintendent.  Introduction of Civil Services in India. Sir John Shore(1793-1798)  He followed policy of non-intervention. Lord Wellesley(1798-1805)  Introduced Charter Act of 1793.  He adopted the policy of Subsidiary Alliance- a system to keep the Indian rulers under control and to make British the supreme power.  He opened College to train the Company‘s servants in Calcutta. So, Known as the Father of Civil Services in India.  He founded the Fort William College at Calcutta. 65

Sir George Barlow(1805-1807)  The important event which took place in his Lord Minto I(1807-1813) time was Mutiny of Vellore in 1806 in which Lord Hastings(1812-1823) the Indian soldiers killed many English Lord Amherst(1823-1828) officials. Lord William Bentick(1828-1835)  He concluded the Treaty of Amritsar (1809) with Maharaja Ranjit Singh  He ended the policy of non-intervention, which was followed by Sir John Shore.  He abolished the censorship of press.  Introduced Ryotwari and Mahalawari system in Bombay.  His tenure was known for First Anglo Burmese War (1824-26) and Mutiny of Barrackpur (1824)  Lord William Henry Cavendish-Bentinck (Lord William Bentick) was British Soldier and Statesman.  He was first Governor General of India.  He carried out social reforms such as abolition of Sati Pratha with the help of Rajaram Mohan Roy, Suppression of Thuggee.  Established first Medical College in Calcutta.  He made English as the language of higher education.  He also suppressed female infanticide and child sacrifice. Sir Charles Metcalfe(1835-1836)  He held the post temporarily and removed restriction on Vernacular press. 66

Lord Auckland(1836-1842)  First Afghan War was fought in his reign. Lord Dalhousie(1848-1856)  Opened first Railway line from Bombay to Lord Canning(1856-1862) Thane in 1853. Lord Lawrence(1864-1869)  Opened first Telegraph line from Calcutta to Agar in 1853.  Introduced Doctrine of Lapse captured Satara (1848), Jaipur and Sambhalpur (1849), Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1853), Nagpur (1854).  Many bridges were constructed and started Grand Trunk Road.  Established Postal system which made communication easier.  In 1854, Wood‘s Dispatch was passed, which provided the proper system of education from School to University.  Widow Remarriage Bill was passed.  He was the Governor General during Mutiny of 1857 and after the war, he was made first Viceroy of India.  He withdrew Doctrine of lapse.  Indian Council Act was passed in 1861  University of Bombay, Calcutta, Madras was established in 1857  High Court was established at Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras in 1865.  He created Indian Forest Department.  Opened telegraph line with Europe.  He introduced various reforms and became the member of Punjab Board of Administration after second Sikh war.  He was known as the Savior of Punjab. 67

Lord Mayo(1869-1872)  Started financial decentralization in India.  He established Rajkot College in Kathiawar and Lord Lytton(1876-1880) Mayo College in Ajmer for Indian princess. Lord Rippon(1880-1884)  First Census of India was held during his time Lord Dufferin(1884-1888) Lord Lansdowne(1888-1894) in 1871.  He organized Statistical survey of India.  He was the only Viceroy who was murdered in office by a pathan in Andaman in 1872.  The Delhi Durbar was held on January 1 1877, to decorate Queen Victoria with the title of Kaiser-i-hind.  Statutory Civil Service in 1879.  It was laid down that the candidates had to appear and pass the civil services examination which began to be held in England.  The maximum age for civil services was reduced from 21 to 19 years.  Vernacular press Act was passed in 1878.  Age for the entry in Civil Service exam was raised to 21 years.  First Factory act was passed during his time in 1881, it prohibited the child labour.  llbert Bill in 1883 was passed by him.  Passed Local Self Government act in 1882.  He formed the Indian National Congress.  Indian Council Act was passed in 1892.  Second Factory Act (1891) was passed during his time.  He appointed Durand Commission to define a line between British India and Afghanistan. 68

Lord Curzon(1899-1905)  Partition of Bengal (1905) into two provinces- Lord Minto(1905-1910) Bengal and East Bengal was done during his Lord Hardinge(1910-1916) time. Lord Chelmsford(1916-1921)  Passed the Ancient Monuments Act (1904), to restore India‘s cultural heritage. Thus, Lord Reading(1921-1926) established Archaeological Survey of India. Lord Irwin(1926-1931)  Morley-Minto reform was passed in 1909.  Partition of Bengal was cancelled.  Capital shifted from Calcutta to Delhi in 1911.  Gandhi ji returned to India from South Africa in 1915.  Home Rule moment was launched by Annie Beasant.  August Declaration of 1917, after which the control over the Indian Government would be transferred to Indian people.Rowlett Act 1919 was passedMontague-Chelmsford reform was passed.  Jallianwala Bagh Massacre 1919 took place during his time.  Non- Cooperation and Khilafat movement took place.  Women‘s University was founded at Poona in 1919  Suppressed of non-cooperation movement.  Chauri -Chaura incident took place.  Formation of Swaraj party.  Ahmedabad session of INS held in 1921.  Simon commission visited India in 1928.  Dandi March was held in 1930.  Civil Disobedience movement launched in 69

Lord Willingdon(1931-1936) 1930.  Gandhi- Irwin pact was signed and First Round Table Conference was held in 1931.  Poona Pact was signed.  Second and Third Round Table Conference was held during his time.  Communal Award started by British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald.  Government of India Act (1935) was passed. Lord Linlithgow(1936-1944)  Government of India Act enforced in provinces. Lord Wavell(1944-1947)  Cripps Mission visited India in 1942.  Quit India movement was started in 1942.  Second World War took place in 1939.  Shimla Conference was held on June 25, 1945 between Muslim League and Indian national Congress was failed.  Cabinet Mission Plan was launched in 1946.  On December 09, 1946, first meeting of Constituent Assembly was held. Lord Mountbatten(March 1947- August 1947)  Last Viceroy and first Governor General of free India.  Partition of India was done on June 3, 1947.  India Independent Act was passed on July 4, 1947 by British parliament. As per the Act India became independent on August 15, 1947.  He was succeeded by C. Rajagopalachari, who was the last Governor General of free India. 70

Important Acts and Reforms in British India The Regulating Act, 1773  It was the first attempted by British Parliament to regulate the affairs of the Company in India.  This act brought an end to Dual system of Government of India.  This was the first attempt towards Centralised Administration.  In this act, Governor of Bengal became Governor General for all British territories in India.  Bombay and Madras Presidency subordinated to Bengal Presidency in certain matters.  Supreme Court to be set up at Calcutta and also founded Calcutta Madarasa. The Pitts India Act, 1784(The East India Company Act 1784)  This Act gave the British Government supreme control over the Company‘s affairs and its administration in India.  It established dual system of governance: 1. Government by Board of Control 2. Government of Court of Directors.  The Board of Control was to guide and control the work of the Court of Directors.  Presidencies of Madras and Bombay were subordinated to the Governor-General and Council of Bengal in all matters of diplomacy. The Charter Act of 1813  The Charter Act 1813 is also known as The East India Company Act 1813.  The East Indian Company was deprived of its monopoly of trade with India except in tea and trade in China.  Under this act, a sum of one lakh rupees earn marked annually for education and this amount paid by the company. 71

The Charter Act of 1833  The Charter Act of 1833 brought an end to the East Indian Company‘s trade monopoly even in tea and trade with China.  The Act centralised the administration of India.  The Governor-General of Bengal became the Governor-General of India (1st Governor- General was Lord William Bentick).  Government of Madras and Bombay deprived of legislative powers.  A fourth member, law member, added to Council of Governor-General. The Charter Act of 1853  The Charter Act of 1853 extended life of the East Indian Company for an unspecified period.  Law member was made a full member of the Executive Council of the Governor-General.  Recruitment to Civil Services was based on open annual competitive examination (excluding Indians). The Government of India Act, 1858  Indian Administration transferred from Company to British crown i.e. end of rule of East India Company and beginning of direct rule of Crown.  In this act, the Court of Directors and Board of Control abolished. Thus the ‗Double Government‘ introduced by the Pitt‘s India Act of 1784 was finally ended.  The doctrine of lapse was also withdrawn under this act.  The post of Secretary of state for India was created (who were the member of the British cabinet and a direct representative of the Parliament).  Governor-General was to be called the ‗Viceroy‘ and was the direct representative of the crown in India.  A unitary and highly centralized administrative structure was created. 72

The Indian Councils Act, 1861  Foundation of Indian legislature was laid down in 1861 and the Policy of association of Indians in legislation started.  Legislative power of the Presidency Government deprived in 1833 was restored.  Under this act, the Civil Services became Indian Civil Services.  Portfolio (or Cabinet) system in the Government of India was introduced.  Viceroy could issue ordinances in case of emergency. The Indian Councils Act, 1892  In 1892, representative system started in India.  Council to have the power to discuss Budget and of addressing questions to the executive. The Indian Councils Act, 1909 (The Morely-Minto Reforms)  Morely was the Secretary of State and Minto was the Indian Viceroy.  It introduced for the first time indirect elections to the state Legislative councils.  Separate electorates were introduced for the Muslims.  Resolution could be moved before the Budget takes its final form. Supplementary questions could be asked. The Government of India Act, 1919 (The Montague-Chelmsford Reforms)  Devolution Rules: Subjects of administration were divided into two categories – ‗Central‘ and ‗Provincial‘. All important subjects (like Railways and Finance) were brought under the category of Central, while matters relating to the administration of the Provinces were classified as Provincial.  Dyarchy system introduced in the Provinces.  The Provincial subjects of administration were divided into two categories ‗Transferred‘ and ‗Reserved‘ subjects.  The Transferred subjects were to be administered by the Governor with the aid of ministers responsible to the Legislative Council. 73

 The Reserved subjects (Rail, Post, Telegraph, Finance, Law & order, etc.) were to be administered by the Governor and his Executive Council.  Indian legislature became ‗bicameral‘ for the first time.  Communal representation extended to Sikhs.  Secretary of State for India now to be paid from British revenue.  An officer of the High Commissioner of India was created in London. The Government of India Act, 1935  It provided for setting up of the Federation of India comprising British Indian provinces and Indian States (Princely States). The joining of Princely states was voluntary and as a result, the federation did not come into existence.  Dyarchy in the Provinces was replaced by Provincial autonomy. They were granted separate legal identity.  It main three fold division of powers: Federal, Provincial and Concurrent. Residuary powers were to be with Governor-General.  The Indian Council of Secretary of State for India was abolished.  Principle of separate electorate was extended to include Anglo-Indians, Indian Christmas and Europeans.  The Federal Bank (The Reserve Bank of India) and the Federal Court (Supreme Court of India) were established in 1935 and 1937 respectively. Indian Independence Act, 1947  Indian Independence Act, 1947 did not lay down any provision for the administration of India.  Partition of India and the establishment of two countries (India and Pakistan).  Consistent Assembly of each Dominion would have unlimited powers to frame and adopt any Constitution.  The office of the Secretary of State for India was to be abolished and his work was to be taken over by the Secretary of State for common wealth affairs. 74

Development of Education during British Period In pre-British days, Hindus and Muslims were educated through Pathsala and Madrassa respectively, but their advent created a new place of learning i.e. Missionaries. So that, they can create a class of Indian who would be ―Indian in blood and colour, but English in taste‖ who would act as interpreters between the Government and the masses. Education is a powerful tool to unlock the golden door of freedom which can change the world. With the advent of the British, their policies and measures breached the legacies of traditional schools of learning and this resulted in the need for creating a class of subordinates. To achieve this goal, they instituted a number of acts to create an Indian canvas of English colour through the education system. Initially, British East India Company was not concerned with the development of education system because their prime motive was trading and profit-making. To rule in India, they planned to educate a small section of upper and middle classes to create a class ―Indian in blood and colour but English in taste‖ who would act as interpreters between the Government and the masses. This was also called the ―downward filtration theory‖. The following steps and measures were taken by the British for the development of Education in India. The chronological development of Education during the British Period in India is discussed below: 1813 Act & the Education  Charles Grant and William Wilberforce, who was missionary activists, compelled the East India Company to give up its non-invention policy and make way for spreading education through English in order to teach western literature and preach Christianity.  The British Parliament added a clause in 1813 charter that Governor-General-in-Council less than one lakh for education and allowed the Christian Missionaries to spread their religious ideas in India.  Act had its own importance because it was first instance that British East India Company acknowledged for the promotion of education in India.  With the efforts of R.R.M Roy, the Calcutta College was established for imparting Western education. Also three Sanskrit colleges were set up at Calcutta. 75

General Committee of Public Instruction, 1823  This committee was formed to look after the development of education in India which was dominated by Orientalists who were the great supporter of Oriental learning rather than the Anglican.  Hence, they created paramount of pressure on the British India Company to promote Western Education.  As a result, spread of education in India got discursive between Orientalist-Anglicist and Macaulay‘s resolution come across with clear picture of British education system. Lord Macaulay‘s Education Policy, 1835  This policy was an attempt to create that system of education which educates only upper strata of society through English.  English become court language and Persian was abolished as court language.  Printings of English books were made free and available at very low price.  English education gets more fund as compare to oriental learning.  In 1849, JED Bethune founded Bethune School.  Agriculture Institute was established at Pusa (Bihar)  Engineering Institute was established at Roorkee. Wood‘s Dispatch, 1854  It is considered as the ―Magna Carta of English Education in India‖ and contained comprehensive plan for spreading education in India.  It states the responsibility of State for the spread of education to the masses.  It recommended the hierarchy education level- At bottom, vernacular primary school; at district, Anglo-vernacular High Schools and affiliated college, and affiliated universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras Presidency.  Recommended English as a medium of instruction for higher studies and vernacular at school level. Hunter Commission (1882-83)  It was formed to evaluate the achievements of Wood Dispatch of 1854 under W.W Hunter in 1882.  It underlined the state‘s role in the extension and improvement of primary education and secondary education.  It underlined the transfer of control to district and municipal boards. 76

 It recommended two division of secondary education- Literary up to university; Vocational for commercial career. Sadler Commission  It was formed to study on the problems Calcutta University and their recommendations were applicable to other universities also.  Their observations were as follows:  12-year school course  3-years degree after the intermediate stage  Centralised functioning of universities, unitary residential-teaching autonomous body.  Recommended extended facilities for applied scientific and technological education, teacher‘s training and female education. Hence, we can say the British education system were influence by the aspiration of Christian Missionaries. It was injected to ensure a cheap supply of educated Indians to increase a number of subordinate posts in administration and in British business concern. That‘s why, they emphasis on English as a medium of instruction and also to glorified British conquerors and their administration. 77

Economic Policies of British India The Britishers arrived in India in 1612, but there real interference in the Indian polity and economy started in 1757. The economic policies and its effects on the economy of India during the British Raj can be grouped into three phases.  The first phases were characterised by mercantilism which started after the Battle of Plassey in 1757 and continued till 1813. This phase was marked by the drain of wealth from India and direct colonial plunder by the East India Company through monopoly in trade and its other policies. It was the beginning of colonial exploitation of the economy of India.  The second phases were characterised by free industrial capitalism which started in 1813 and continued till 1858. The period saw the deindustrialisation and ruralisation of India and the commercialisation of Indian agriculture. It converted the economy of India into a market for British goods and a supplier of raw materials.  The third phases were the period of financial capitalism. It started from the closing years of 19th century and continued till independence. This face saw finance imperialism through managing agency forms, Export-Import firms, exchange banks etc. The First Phase of Mercantilism and the Economy of India The Drain of Wealth and Colonial Plunder  The only aim of East India Company was to make a profit by establishing Monopoly in the trade with India and East Indies. Initially, the British had to pay gold and silver bullion and their coins for buying Indian goods. This lead to drain of gold and silver from Britain to India, which was painful for the system of mercantilism.  However, after the Battle ofPlassey in 1757, the situation became favourable for the Britishers, as it changed the balance of power in the Indian polity and economy. In the 1750s and 1760s, the East India Company acquired political power in Bengal and South India and used it to secure maximum goods for minimum payment. It also opened the gate of open plunder of the economy of India by the British.  Secondly, the British East India Company used the land revenue for gaining huge profits. In 1793, the permanent settlement for land revenue was granted, and the land revenue was fixed at 3,400,000. Huge surpluses generated from the land revenue were repatriated to England. The Indian leaders linked this system of land revenue with the theory of drain of wealth. 78

 Thirdly, the East India Company officials amassed massive amounts of wealth which were extorted from Indian merchants from zamindars etc. and was sent to England. Between 1765 and 1770, East India Company repatriated around 33% of its total revenue in the form of goods.  Fourthly, the Britishers forced the Indian artisans to sell their products at cheap rates which became economically unviable, and they had to adopt agriculture as the primary occupation. Reasons Responsible for Mercantilism  The victory of British East India Company in the Battle of Plassey in 1757 and its later political successes allowed it to use the political power for gaining profits. The Indian rulers were not able to match the British excellence in military and political diplomacy. This negatively affected the Indian polity and economy.  The permanent settlement act brought by Lord Cornwallis in 1793 was responsible for the drain of land revenue from India to Britain. This caused hardships and exploitation of the rural economy of India.  The other Indian powers were unable to regulate and control the advancements of East India Company in India. This gave the Britishers freehand to plunder in India during this period of mercantilism. Impact of British Mercantilism Policy on Indian Polity and Economy  R.P. Dutt and Pandit Nehru were of the opinion that the seeds of capitalist development which had existed in India were destroyed and robbed by the Britishers. During the second half of 18th century British needed huge investment in its industries which was fulfilled by the plunder and drain of wealth from India, leading to extreme exploitation of the economy of India.  The revenue policies such as permanent settlement etc. were very exploitative. It created a long chain of intermediaries which made the land revenue system very exploitative for the peasantry. The resources of peasants helped the process of industrialisation in Britain.  The British policies of monopoly in trade and price control were responsible for the ruin of artisans.  The Britishers did not take any major initiative for the development of agricultural, industrial production, transport, and communication, education etc. All these were responsible for the degradation of Indian polity and economy. 79

The Second Phase of Trade Capitalism Deindustrialisation and Ruralisation of the Economy of India  During this period of industrial revolution in Britain, the British industries were led by the Indian capital which was drained out of India. This new phase of British capitalist exploitation from 1813 became more inhuman after the end of the monopoly of East India Company in the trade with India.  Before 1813, the Indian traditional handicraft industries were at their height while the British manufactured products were both inferior in quality and costlier than Indian Products. To protect the textile industry of Britain, the British government levied hefty import duties on Indian goods. This drastically reduced Indian exports to Britain.  However, the Britishers encouraged the export of raw materials from India which was required by the British machine based industries.  The economic philosophy of free trade championed by Adam Smith centred during this stage. However, this was one-way free trade i. e. free entry of British goods in India but burdensome tariff rates against Indian exports to Britain.  In 1824, Indian calicos had to pay a duty of 67%, Muslins 37%, Indian sugar had to pay a duty of 3 times of its price and some goods as high as 400% of import duty in Britain.  The laying of Railways from the 1850s under Governor-general Lord Dalhousie opened the interior markets of India for British goods. This led to the deindustrialisation of rural industries and the exploitation of the economy of India. Reasons for Deindustrialisation and Ruralisation of India in This Phase  The industrial revolution in Britain created a new capitalist glass that enjoyed tremendous blessings of the colonial administration and their policies. To serve the interest of this new capitalist class the monopoly of East India Company in the trade with India was removed and a new phase of exploitation of India began.  The British industrialists needed a market for their products, so they converted India into a market for Manchester goods and a supplier of raw materials.  Very high import duties were levied on Indian exports to Britain, which was necessary to make Britain the workshop of the world. 80

Impacts of British Policies on Deindustrialisation and Ruralisation of Economy of India  From being the largest exporter of textile goods, India was converted into a market for Manchester goods and a supplier of raw Materials. This new state of exploitation of India was more systematic, calculated and intense than the first phase of mercantilist plunder of India.  The one-way free trade not only lead to the destruction of Indian manufacturing industries but also ensured a growing market for British manufactured goods.  The period affected the artisans and weavers who were ruined and forced to take agriculture. All these led to the deindustrialisation of India and the decline of traditional cities leading to ruralization of India. Commercialisation of Agriculture  The Britishers required the supply of raw materials and exports from India like oil, jute, cotton etc. for the British industries. Therefore they allowed the Britishers to acquire land and setup as planters in India.  The British planters invested in indigo, rubber, coffee and tea plantation in India. The period saw merciless exploitation of the Indigo workers of Bengal.  The food crops were replaced by the commercial crops which had more remunerative value.  This trend was encouraged by the factors such as the emergence of a unified national market, growth, and spread of money economy, improvements in communication systems through railways and roads, growth in the internal trade and increase in international trade due to capital investments by Europeans etc. Reasons Responsible for Commercialization of Agriculture in India  The demand for raw materials from the British industries such as Lancashire cotton manufacturers etc. The colonial government supported the commercialization of agriculture in India.  It was necessary for the profits of British capitalists and the industrial development of Britain. Impacts of Commercialisation of Agriculture  The price fluctuations in the international markets badly hit the farmers, while when the prices increased; it was mostly the intermediaries who benefited from it. For example, with 81

the rise in prices of cotton in 1860, the intermediaries benefited from it, while the price slump after 1866 brought heavy indebtedness, famines and agrarian revolts for the farmers.  The high expenditure on the army, the salary of Britishers were ultimately borne by Indian taxpayers especially peasants.  The self-sufficiency of village community received a mortal blow during this phase. The union of agriculture and industry got disintegrated, and India was forcibly converted into a typical agricultural colony of British capitalism.  The purchasing power of Indians had fallen drastically while at the same time the per capita income and Britain grew. The major negative effects of British policies on the economy of India began showing up during this period. Third Phase of British Economic Policy - Finance Capitalism  During the second half of 19th century, several European Nations were able to industrialise themselves. Thus to compete with them, Britain decided to make large investments in India in various fields such as rail, road, Postal System, banking system etc.  The period saw an increased foreign investment in India due to cheap labour, cheap raw materials, and market in India and neighbourhood areas, and good profits in India.  Further, the British government in India welcomed them to invest and provided them all the help. The capital which was plundered from India was reinvested in the form of debt in various sectors.  Large investments in railways were made mostly with foreign capitalist Investments. It was ultimately to be paid by Indian taxpayers, while the benefits went to the British. Impacts of Finance Capitalism on India  Higher taxation for the Indian taxpayers. The plundered wealth was reinvested which further exploited the Indian economy.  Around 97% of British capital Investments in India before First World War was in the administration, plantation, transport, and finance. The main motive was commercial penetration of India and its exploitation.  Finance capitalism and other policies of British did not allow the rise of modern Industries as had happened in other European countries. 82

Development of Modern Industry in India  Initially, the British exports to India did not allow the rise of modern machine based industries in India. It was only in the latter half of 19th century they began to start in India.  The first cotton textile mill began in Bombay in 1853, which was set up by Cowasjee Nanabhoy Daver. The first Jute mill was set up in Rishra (Bengal) in 1855.  The Indian owned Industries like jute and cotton textiles were established in the second half of 19th century, while the iron and steel, cement, sugar etc. came in the 20th century.  There was a lack of sufficient technical manpower in India due to the neglect of technical education in India which retarded the healthy growth of Indian Industries.  The Indian owned Industries had to face unequal competition from the foreign companies and strong opposition from the foreign capitalist interests.  Further due to colonial factors the core and heavy industries wear neglected. Also, there were regional disparities in the industrial development which hampered the nation-building process. 83

Development of Indian Press during British Rule in India The evolution of Indian press was fraught with developmental difficulties, illiteracy, colonial constraints and repression. It disseminated the ideas of freedom and became prominent tool for freedom struggle. The Bengal Gazette or Calcutta General Advertiser‖ started by James Augustus in 1780 which was seized in 1872 because of its outspoken criticism of the Government. Later, more newspaper, journals came up - The Bengal Journal, Calcutta Chronicle, Madras Courier, and Bombay Herald. And this effort of Hickey laid the foundation of press in India. The evolution of Indian Press is discussed below: Lord Wellesley enacted Censorship of Press Act, 1799 It was enacted by the Lord Wellesley, anticipating French invasion of India. It imposed almost wartime press restrictions including pre-censorship which was later relaxed by the Lord hasting. Licensing Regulations, 1823 It was enacted by the John Adams. According to this regulation, press without licence was a penal offence. The restriction was directed mainly to Indian language newspapers or those edited by the Indians. Press Act of 1835 or Metcalfe Act Metcalfe (Governor General – 1835 – 36) repealed the obnoxious 1823 ordinance and was named, ―liberator of the Indian press‖ Licensing Act, 1857 This act imposed licensing restriction and the right to stop publication and circulation of book, newspaper or printed matter reserved with the Government. Registration Act, 1867 This act relaxed the restrictions put by Metcalf‗s Act of 1835 and hence states that Government acts as regulatory not restrictive body. 84

Vernacular Press Act, 1878 It was constituted for ‗better control‘ of the vernacular press and effectively punished and repressed seditious writing. The provisions of the Act are given below:  The district magistrate was empowered to call upon the printer and publisher of any vernacular newspaper to enter into a bond with the Government undertaking not to cause disaffection against the government or antipathy between persons of different religions, caste, race through published material; the printer and publisher could also be required to deposit security which could be seized if the offences reoccurred.  The magistrate‘s action was final and no appeal could be made in a court of law.  A vernacular newspaper could get an exemption from the operation of the Act by submitting proof to a government censor. Newspaper (Incitement to Offences) Act, 1908 This act empowered the magistrates to confiscate press property which published objectionable material likely to cause incitement to murder/acts of violence against the Extremist nationalist activity. Indian Press Act, 1910 This act was a revision of the Vernacular Act that empowered the local government to demand a security at registration from the printer/publisher and forfeit/deregister if it was an offending newspaper, and the printer of a newspaper was required to submit two copies of each issue to local government In a nutshell, we can say that the evolution of Indian press was fraught with developmental difficulties, illiteracy, colonial constraints and repression. It disseminated the ideas of freedom and became a prominent tool for freedom struggle. 85

WORLD HISTORY 86

FRENCH REVOLUTION The French Revolution opened a new chapter in the history of Europe. It marked a turning point in the history of humankind. The French Revolution put an end to the age old absolute monarchy, feudal laws and social inequality. It introduced for the first time the idea of republicanism based on ―Liberty, Equality and Fraternity‖. These ideas had influenced the entire continent of Europe and also the world. CAUSES POLITICAL France was ruled by the Bourbon dynasty. They firmly believed in the Divine Right SOCIAL theory – as they were representatives of God, they were answerable only to God. Louis XIV was a strong and powerful ruler of the Bourbon dynasty. His wars ruined the ECONOMIC economy of France. His successors Louis XV and Louis XVI were weak administrators. The French society was based on inequality. The society consisted of three major divisions, the nobles, clergy and the common people. The nobles had no political power but remained loyal to the king. Socio-economic inequality led to division within the society.  Nobles - They enjoyed many privileges and led a life of luxury. They were exempted from taxation.  Higher clergy - owned one fifth of the lands in France and enjoyed several privileges. Their number in France was around only five thousand. They lived in palatial houses and they were exempted from taxes.  Lower clergy - were denied all these privileges. Therefore, they turned against the higher clergy during the revolution.  Common people - Traders, lawyers, owners of industries, government servants, peasants and workers were in this category. It was said: ―the nobles fight, the clergy pray and the people pay‖. The taille or land tax was entirely paid by the peasants. The gabelle or salt tax was a burden on the common man. The head of each family had to pay the capitation tax. Besides paying these taxes to the king, they have to pay tithe(tax) to the Church.  The financial condition of France was very critical during the reign of Louis XVI. The national debt had increased beyond the limit. The national income was less than national expenditure. Hence, the king tried to mobilize national income by selling important offices of the government. 87

Important Events The States General consisted of three Estates Chambers. The first Estate was represented by the nobles, the second the clergy and the third by the common people. When the king called for its meeting, each Estate sat separately. However, the members of the third estate demanded a joint sitting and one vote for each member. As the first and second Estates did not concede to this demand, there was a deadlock. On 17th June 1789, the third Estate declared itself as the National Assembly. The king got alarmed and prevented them from entering the hall. But, the members of the National Assembly went to a nearby Tennis Court and took an oath to frame a new constitution. This is known as Tennis Court Oath. On 23rd June 1789, a special session of States General was held. The king declared the acts of the Third Estate as illegal. He also ordered that the three Estates should meet separately. But the third Estate refused to accept the king‘s orders. Hence, Louis XVI submitted to the will of the third Estate, which represented the common people. He ordered the three Estates to sit together. Thus the formation of National Assembly was completed. There was a shortage for bread in Paris. On 5th October, a large number of women went to the King‘s palace at Versailles to make a petition. They were not satisfied with the reply of the queen and hence they brought with them the king, the queen and their son to Paris. Outcomes And Impact  The National Assembly styled itself the Constituent Assembly. It drew up the Declaration of the Rights of Man. The new constitution drafted by the Constituent Assembly provided for a limited monarchy to France.  The titles of the nobles were abolished.  Judiciary was remodelled - New central and local courts were established. Judges were to be elected.  The method of torture was abolished.  Drastic action was also taken against the church - The monasteries were suppressed. Absolute religious toleration was proclaimed. The collection of tithes by the church was abolished. Then, measures were taken for the nationalization of church properties.  After drafting the new constitution, the National Assembly dissolved itself in 1791. The French Revolution of 1789 inaugurated a new era in the history of the mankind. The ideas of ―liberty, equality and fraternity‖ spread to other parts of the world. The Bourbon monarchy was 88

abolished. The Revolution rejected tyranny, divine right, conservatism, and feudal vestiges associated with bourbon rule in France. At the same time it failed to establish a permanent Republic in France. The French Revolution, after a violent turn led to the emergence of a great dictator, Napoleon Bonaparte. NAPOLEAN BONAPARTE France, in the period from 1789 to 1799 (French Revolution), moved from absolute to limited monarchy, through radical republicanism, to military dictatorship. Napoleon Bonaparte was a native of the French-owned island of Corsica. In 1796, Napoleon successfully commanded the French army fighting the Austrians and Sardinians in northern Italy. Then he led an expedition into Egypt to cripple England‘s trade. His fleet was defeated by Nelson at the Battle of the Nile. In the meantime, a second European Coalition had been organised against France. Napoleon Bonaparte established himself at the head of the Government as First Consul or Dictator. Napoleon defeated the Second Coalition and then the Third Coalition. He was master on the continent of Europe. Napoleon, an Emperor In 1804, Napoleon assumed the title of Emperor. Now France stretched from the Baltic to the Adriatic. Napoleon‘s brothers occupied the Thrones of Naples, Spain and Westphalia. The Kingdom of Italy, the Grand Duchy of Warsaw and the Confederation of the Rhine were reduced to the status of dependent States. Russia was an ally. Prussia and Austria were humbled and reduced in size. Only England remained strong. Napoleon said of England: ―No one has any interest in overturning a Government in which all who have any merit are in their right places‖. Napoleonic Reforms Napoleonic reforms completed and consolidated the work of the Revolution. He championed equality and fraternity, though not liberty. Napoleon strictly censored speech and the press wherever his power extended. However he did render a service to religious freedom when he gave Protestant and Jewish communities a religious status recognized by the State. Napoleon carried much of the idealism of the Revolution into the countries of Europe sweeping out tyrannous medieval laws and customs. In the German and Italian territories which Napoleon controlled, serfdom and feudalism were ended. In Europe were planted the seeds of religious tolerance, popular participation in the Government and equality. But while the magnificent despot went forward with some revolutionary reforms, it was his custom to repress new reform thinking. Napoleon was a paradox. 89

Rising France under Napoleon Era (His Contribution) Napoleon patronized learning. France surpassed the world in mathematics, physics and astronomy. Napoleon established the Bank of France which stabilized the currency by issuing paper money backed by an adequate gold reserve. His Concordat with the Pope (1801) reunited Church and State in France; it lasted until 1905. The Code of Napoleon, whereby obsolete and conflicting laws were eliminated, remains to this day the foundation of the legal system of France. Napoleon must be credited also with administrative and educational reforms. He adopted the plan of a State system of education. This powerful man carried through a far-reaching program of public works. He selected civil and military officials according to merit. He created the Legion of Honour to reward distinguished service to the State. Growth of Nationalism Napoleon did much to promote the growth of nationalism. He also began the modern warfare of whole nations in arms. His militarism resulted in three million dead, absorption in battle to the hindrance of trade and agriculture and terrible suffering. Furthermore, his towering ambition exposed France to her enemies. Causes of Napoleon‘s downfall  Naval weakness  His Continental System declaring the continent closed to British products  National revolts With English help, Spain revolted against Napoleon‘s brother. Purssia strengthened herself for a ―war of liberation‖. Tsar Alexander of Russia, unable to maintain the Continental System, broke with Napoleon. The ―Man of Destiny‖ invaded Russia with an army of half a million men. He escaped a few months later with only a few thousand survivors. Now Napoleon‘s enemies knew he could be defeated. A final coalition was organized, and Napoleon was defeated at Leipzig in 1813. Next year he was compelled to surrender at Paris, to abdicate, and to retire to the island of Elba. Napoleon Returned In the spring of 1815, Napoleon returned to France and again ruled as Emperor for a Hundred Days. But Napoleon was finally defeated at Waterloo by the English (under Wellington) and the Prussians (under Blucher). He spent the rest of his life in final exile on the island of St. Helena, prostrated to the depths of impotence. 90

AMERICAN REVOLUTION After the discovery of the American continent, there was a continuous migration of people from Europe to the New World. South America was colonized by Spain. The English and the French established their colonies in the North America. By the mid eighteenth century, the English had established their thirteen colonies along the Atlantic coast. Landless peasants, people seeking religious freedom and traders had settled there. Initially the relationship between the colonies and British Government was cordial. Although these colonies were controlled through the governors, they enjoyed political freedom. Each colony had its own assembly elected by the people. It enacted laws concerning local matters. However, the policies followed by the home government (Britain) had resulted in the confrontation. This ultimately led to the American War of Independence at the end of which the colonies became independent. Important Events The war started in 1775, when the first battle was fought between the British soldiers and the colonial militia at Lexington in Massachusetts. Soon, George Washington assumed the command of the army of the American colonies. The British General, Gage won a victory at Bunker Hill. The victory at Saratoga marked a turning point in the war. The French troops under Lafayette came to the help of the American colonies. Finally, the British troops under the command of General Cornwallis surrendered to Washington at Yorktown in 1781. The war came to an end by the Treaty of Paris in 1783. Outcome and Impact  The American colonies became free and the Republic of the United States of America was established.  The first democratic government with a written constitution in the world became a reality.  The Bill of Rights ensured fundamental rights to the citizens of the U.S.A.  The American War of Independence was also called the American Revolution because it inspired the French evolution.  It was not only a war against England but against aristocracy and reactionary elements. It was also a fight against colonial domination. 91

 It introduced new political, social and economic set upin the United States of America.  Democracy with separation of powers on the model suggested by French thinker Montesquieu was founded.  Capitalism also took strong roots. However, the rights of the sons of the soil, the Red Indians and the Negroes were not considered at that time. FIGURE: SIGNIFICANCE OF AMERICAN REVOLUTION 92

AMERICAN CIVIL WAR When American won Independence from England in 1776, there were 13 colonies which formed a federal government. Colonies expanded from east coast to west forming 34 states by 1861. There were differences between states in the north and states in the south – which resulted in the American Civil War. CAUSES OF AMERICAN CIVIL WAR The difference in the attitude towards slavery can be seen as the root cause of the American Civil War. This had repercussions in the economic and political sphere too. The factors which led to the outbreak of the Civil War in America can be consolidated as below. 1. Economic Disparity between Northern and Southern States  Northern states were industrialized while southern states where primarily agricultural. 93

 Northern states wanted a tax on imports from Britain while southern states wanted tax-free trade with Britain. 2. The issue with the attitude towards slavery  Industrialized northern states preferred paid labourers while agricultural southern states which had large plantations were dependent on slave labour.  Slavery was abolished in northern states in 1804 and they became ‗free states‘. 3. Movement for the abolition of slavery  A strong movement for the abolition of slavery began in the north. It called for the repeal of the controversial Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 (this act had mandated the return of runaway slaves to their masters). 4. The fear of reforms by Abraham Lincoln and the Republican Party  The immediate cause of the civil war was the American Presidential election in which the Republican Party candidate, Abraham Lincoln, won (1860).  While Abraham Lincoln stood for freedom of slaves, the Democratic candidate Stephan Arnold Douglas wanted slavery to continue. COURSE OF THE CIVIL WAR  Seven southern states declared their secession from the Union and established a Southern government – the Confederate States of America on February 9, 1861.  As soon as Lincoln won the election, the South started to secede from the union, fearing the federal Government will take away their right to own slaves. They no longer wanted to be part of the United States. Supporters of secession based their arguments on the idea of states‘ rights. They said they had voluntarily joined the union, so they could leave when they wanted. The American Civil War was fought to keep the South from leaving the Union. Slavery was the major issue that separated the North from the South.  The Confederacy adopted its own Constitution.  Jefferson Davis was its President.  War broke out in April 1861 when the Confederates attacked a U.S. fortress (Fort Sumter) at South Carolina. 94

 4 more states joined the Confederacy, making the total number of states 11.  In September 1862, Lincoln issued the Proclamation of Emancipation, which freed millions of slaves.  Turning point of the civil war was the Battle of Gettysburg in which the union soldiers defeated the Confederates. After the battle, President Lincoln gave his famous ―Gettysburg Address‖ wherein he called upon the Americans to resolve that ―a government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.‖Lincoln gave the famous Gettysburg Address – where he set before the nation the task of preserving the Union and democracy. His vision was a government of the people, by the people and for the people.  The war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the collapse of the Confederate government in 1865. General Lee surrendered his Confederate army to General Ulysses S Grant. SIGNIFICANCE AND OUTCOME 1. The war put an end to the institution of slavery. 2. The war abolished the secession of states for all times to come. 3. In the economic sphere, the war led to the growth of large scale manufacturing industries. 4. More area came under cultivation – particularly in the western regions on North America. 5. Use of more machines – which enhanced production. 6. Regulation of banking system ((National Banking Act) and use of paper currency contributed to the growth of the nationwide business. 7. New weapons were used. 8. Improvement in transport and communication. 9. Inspiration to other countries – to abolish slavery. 10. While the Revolution of 1776-1783 created the United States, the Civil War of 1861-1865 determined what kind of nation it would be. 95

ABRAHAM LINCOLN Abraham Lincoln was born in a humble background in 1809, in the state of Kentucky. In 1860, Lincoln was elected as the 16th President of the USA as a Republican Candidate. Lincoln played a great role in keeping the USA united. He refused to give southern states the right to secede from the Union. His greatest contribution to humanity was the abolition of slavery. After the civil war, citizens of all states of the USA were granted citizenship and equal rights. It was Abraham Lincoln who gave the famous principle of democracy – i.e. Government of the people, by the people and for the people. 96

OTHER REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENTS IN EUROPE The period after 1815 saw the emergence of revolutionary activity in every country in Europe. In some countries, the aim of the revolutionaries was the overthrow of autocratic rulers and the abolition of serfdom; in some it was the overthrow of foreign rule and in some others it was social, political and economic reforms. Nationalism emerged as a major force in this period. However, it is interesting to see that this nationalism was neither exclusive nor chauvinistic. Revolutionaries fighting for independence did not fight for their independence alone or against the despotism of their rulers only. They did not want their nation to dominate other nations. They were in fact inspired by the aim of fighting against despotism everywhere. They were united into a kind of international brotherhood of peoples against all despots.  Mazzini, one of the foremost leaders of the struggle for Italian unification and independence, formed a number of organizations such as Young Poland, Young Germany and Young Italy for the liberation of these countries.  Garibaldi, another great leader of the Italian revolutionaries, fought for the freedom of the peoples of South America.  The great English poet Lord Byron was also one of these revolutionaries. He fought for the freedom of Greece and died there. He declared that he would war with every despotism in every nation. These words of Byron best sum up the attitude of a large number of revolutionaries of the time. However, as the revolutionaries were united in their common aim of overthrowing despotism everywhere, the autocratic governments also were united to suppress every revolt and movement against any despotism. HOLY ALLIANCE  In 1815, the rulers of Austria, Britain, Russia and Prussia formed an alliance. One of the major declared aims of this alliance was to suppress any attempt by the people to overthrow a ruler whom these countries considered the ‗legitimate‘ ruler of the country. They were later joined by France, and called it a Holy Alliance. 97

 This alliance which many other rulers also joined was even more openly opposed to democratic ideas and movements than the first. After 1815 the rulers of Europe tried to suppress all movements for freedom and democracy in their own as well as in other countries.  The oppressive measures introduced by the rulers failed to curb the revolutionary movements in Europe. In 1830 revolutions broke out in a number of countries. The French monarch fled away to England and was succeeded by Louis Philippe who promised to rule according to the wishes of the people.  There was a revolt in Belgium for freedom from Holland. Insurrections broke out in various states of Italy and Germany and in Poland. Although most of these revolts were suppressed, the independence of two new nations was recognized— of Greece in 1830 and of Belgium in 1839. REVOLUTIONS OF 1848  Within a few years after the revolts of 1830 had been suppressed, the revolutionary movements in Europe again gained momentum. In 1848, revolutions broke out in almost every country of Europe, which dealt a mortal blow to the countries of the Holy Alliance. Early in 1848, there was a revolt in Italy.  In February, revolution broke out in France and Louis Philippe who had been installed as king after the 1830 revolution fled away. France again became a republic for some time but power was usurped by Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, popularly known as Napoleon III, a nephew of Napoleon, in 1852.France finally became a republic in 1871 when the empire of Louis Bonaparte collapsed.  The revolution in France was soon followed by uprisings in many towns of Germany. The rulers of many German states, including Prussia which was a member of the Holy Alliance, agreed to introduce many reforms.  Simultaneously, there were uprisings in Vienna, the capital, and in other towns of the Austrian empire, another member of the Holy Alliance. Metternich, the Chancellor of the empire, who was the most hated man in Europe, had to flee. The Austrian empire in those days was a large empire ruling over many nations of Europe. It ruled over Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Rumania, Poland, Yugoslavia and many other areas.  The revolutions of 1848 failed to overthrow the established oppressive regimes of Europe though they considerably weakened them. The most significant aspect of the 1848 revolutions was the emergence of a new political force in Europe. 98

 Following the Industrial Revolution, the workers were a major force in the revolutions of 1848. Their aim was not merely the overthrow of autocracies but also the destruction of the economic system that had grown with the Industrial Revolution— capitalism. Other participants in the revolutions— the capitalists, the merchants and other people belonging to the middle class—wanted constitutional reforms.  The first successful revolution that overthrew the autocratic monarchy took place in England in the seventeenth century. This had resulted in the establishment of the supremacy of Parliament in England. However, Parliament at that time was not a truly democratic institution. 99

UNIFICATION OF GERMANY One of the major features of the 19th century history of Europe was the struggles for national unification and independence. Greece, Belgium, Germany and Italy were important nations which emerged as united, independent states in the 19th century. In the 18th century, Germany was divided into a number of states. Some of these states were very small and did not extend beyond the limits of a city. During the Napoleonic wars, many of these states ceased to exist. At the end of the wars there were still thirty-eight independent states in Germany. Among them Prussia, Wurttemberg, Bavaria, and Saxony were fairly large. Prussia was the most powerful in military and in extent. It was also the most reactionary. The big landlords of Prussia known as Junkers formed the dominant section in Prussian society. Prussia was also one of the leaders of the Holy Alliance. 100