Paper-4, Booklet-1, Ethics

delivery of key services such as primary education and health is at the local level, this calls for special attention to ensuring the effectiveness and efficiency of local governments.  Governments at lower levels can only function efficiently if they are empowered to do so. This is particularly relevant for the PRIs, which currently suffer from inadequate devolution of funds as well as functionaries to carry out the functions constitutionally assigned to them.  An overarching requirement is that the rule of law must be firmly established. This is relevant not only for relations between the government and individuals enabling individuals to demand their rights but also for relations between individuals or businesses.  Finally, the entire system must function in a manner which is seen to be fair and inclusive. This is a perceptional issue but it is real nonetheless. Disadvantaged groups, especially the SCs, STs, minorities and others, must feel they have an equal stake and should perceive an adequate flow of benefits to ensure the legitimacy of the State. 51

CORRUPTION Corruption refers to the act of misuse and abuse of power especially by those in the government for personal gains either pecuniary or a favor. The menace of corruption is pervasive in India, from petty bribes demanded by the policemen to multi-crore scams at the highest political level like 2G scam. It is not only limited to government authorities but can be seen within the private sector as well, for instance, the Satyam scandal. India has been ranked at 78th place out of 180 countries in ‗Corruption Perception Index‘ (CPI) released by Transparency International in 2018 against 2017‘s 81st, where it had slid from 79th in 2016. A general lack of political will, weak institutions and few political rights create an environment where corruption flourishes with little opposition. 52

CONSEQUENCES OF CORRUPTION  It degrades the social and moral fabric of the society, erodes the credibility of the government and leads to exploitation and violation of fundamental rights of the poor and marginalized by the state. For instance, diversion of PDS ration deprives poor and violates their right to food; Frauds in conducting EIAs and collusion with the illegal miners militates against the right to clean environment.  It hampers ease of doing business. As the recently released Global Competitiveness Index has pointed out ―The private sector still considers corruption to be the most problematic factor for doing business in India‖. This obstructs private investments which create jobs and hampers innovation leading to brain drain from India  The rising inequality due to poor outcomes of the welfare schemes such as ICDS, NRHM (scams have been unearthed in many states like UP), NREGA etc. is another result of the leakages and diversion of the resources to ghost beneficiaries.  Corruption in the tax administration leads to high tax evasion, generating black money – an offspring and food of corruption. According to various estimates the size of parallel economy in India is as much as 50% of GDP.  Corruption increases the cost of production which ultimately has to be borne by the consumer. In the project execution such as roads and bridges it leads to adoption of poor quality of material claiming the lives of many due to the collapse.  Illegal lobbying has led to elite bias in the state policies. For instance, tertiary healthcare and higher education receive more political and policy attention than the primary health and education.  Various researches have pointed out direct correlation between corruption, poor quality of public services and criminalization of politics.  Corruption in the past has led to encroachment of the ecologically sensitive areas such as wetlands in the urban areas for real estate projects increasing the vulnerability to disasters such as floods and droughts.  Corruption in the law enforcement agencies such as police undermines rule of law and leads to growth of an unholy nexus between the state and criminals. The corrupt administration willingly submits itself to the whims of the ruling party in violation of their duty of public service.  Corruption in police leads to under-reporting of crime encouraging the criminals and judicial corruption compels people to adopt extra-legal methods to get the justice. 53

MEASURES TAKEN TO CONTROL IT LEGAL Prevention Of Corruption Act 1988 Provides a definition for corruption and lists out the acts which would amount to as corruption such as bribes, gifts for favors etc. Seeks to create a balance between need to bring corrupt to the books and protect honest officers. Includes employees of the central government and the union territories, the employees of public undertakings, nationalized banks etc. Special judges are appointed for trial under the act who can order a summary trial in appropriate cases It was recently amended in 2018 to punish collusive bribe givers and prescribe stricter punishments. Benami Property Act 1988 Recent amendments have widened the definition of the benami property and allow the government to confiscate such properties without any hassles of court approvals. Central Vigilance Commission Act 2003 Gives statutory status to CVC. Central Vigilance Commissioner shall be appointed by President on recommendation of a Committee consisting of the PM, MHA and LoP in LS. Covers AIS officers, Gazetted officers of centre, senior members of the public sector banks etc. Commission, while conducting the inquiry, has all the powers of a Civil Court. Right to Information Act 2005 Makes disclosure of information a legal right of the public to promote transparency. Section 4 mandates proactive disclosure of the information and digitization of the records. Many RTI activists have used it to bring out the irregularities in the functioning of the public authorities e.g. Vyapam scam of MP. 54

Whistleblower protection Act 2014 More than 60 RTI activists have been murdered and many more assaulted due to lack of protection WPA accords special protection to the people who disclose the acts of wrongdoing in the government. Provides anonymity and protection from prosecution under acts such as Official Secret Act 1923 Lokpal and Lokayukta Act 2013 Appoints an independent authority Lokpal at centre and Lokayukta at states to probe into the complaints of wrongdoing by the public servants. Lokpal will be appointed by committee consisting of PM, LoP, CJI, Speaker and an eminent jurist. ADMINISTRATIVE E-governance initiatives E-gov apart from advancing the good governance objectives of accountability and transparency, also seeks to reduce the manual interface between state and citizen thus preventing the incidences of bribery. Initiatives like service delivery through CSCs, digitization of the land record, JAM, DBT, E-biz (single window system), e-marketplace etc. help prevent corruption. Citizen Charters and Public Service delivery and Grievance Redress Acts in states Many states like Karnataka (SAKLA initiative) and Rajasthan have enacted such acts to make bureaucracy legally accountable for delivering quality service within stipulate time periods. Bihar is the only state to have a Grievance Redress Act covering all departments These acts also create grievance redress mechanism (GRMs) for the public to ensure effective enforcement of the act. CPGRAMS is another such GRM created under e-gov project. ECONOMIC Liberalization and Privatization License-Permit-Quota proved to be a highly potent tool in the hands of bureaucracy to misuse the power of their offices to amass illegal wealth. The LPG era proved to be a chink in the armor of bureaucratic 55

discretion. Recent efforts in improving the ease of doing business such as FDI liberalization will further erode the power of bureaucracy over the functioning of the market. GST Reduced cost of compliance by simplification and digitization of the tax architecture and e-waybills that remove the need of check posts on the state borders are some of the ways through which GST can help reduce the corruption. Demonetisation Large amount of black money saved as currency notes was abolished in one go, and the economy was pushed towards digital transactions, having more transparency. WAY FORWARD To make real progress against corruption and strengthen democracy around the world, Transparency International calls on all governments to:  strengthen the institutions responsible for maintaining checks and balances over political power, and ensure their ability to operate without intimidation;  close the implementation gap between anti-corruption legislation, practice and enforcement;  support civil society organisations which enhance political engagement and public oversight over government spending, particularly at the local level;  support a free and independent media, and ensure the safety of journalists and their ability to work without intimidation or harassment. 56

WORK CULTURE An organization is formed to achieve certain goals and objectives by bringing individuals together on a common platform and motivating them to deliver their level best. It is essential for the employees to enjoy at the workplace for them to develop a sense of loyalty towards it. Work culture plays an important role in extracting the best out of employees and making them stick to the organization for a longer duration. The organization must offer a positive ambience to the employees for them to concentrate on their work rather than interfering in each other‘s work. Work culture is a concept which deals in the study of:  Beliefs, thought processes, attitudes of the employees.  Ideologies and principles of the organization. It is the work culture which decides the way employees interact with each other and how an organization functions. In layman‘s language work culture refers to the mentality of the employees which further decides the ambience of the organization. An organization is said to have a strong work culture when the employees follow the organization‘s rules and regulations and adhere to the existing guidelines. However there are certain organizations where employees are reluctant to follow the instructions and are made to work only by strict procedures. Such organizations have a weak culture. A healthy work culture leads to satisfied employees and an increased productivity. CHARACTERISTICS OF A HEALTHY WORK CULTURE  Employees must be cordial with each other: One must respect his fellow worker. Backbiting is considered strictly unprofessional and must be avoided for a healthy work culture. One gains nothing out of conflicts and nasty politics at work.  Each employee should be treated as one: Partiality leads to demotivated employees and eventually an unhealthy work culture. Employees should be judged only by their work and nothing else. Personal relationships should take a backseat at the workplace. Don‘t favour anyone just because he is your relative.  Appreciating the top performers is important: Praise the employees to expect good work from them every time. Give them a pat on their back. Let them feel indispensable for their organization. 57

 Don‟t criticize the ones who have not performed well, instead ask them to pull up their socks for the next time. Give them one more opportunity rather than firing them immediately.  Encourage discussions at the workplace: Employees must discuss issues among themselves to reach to better conclusions. Each one should have the liberty to express his views. The team leaders and managers must interact with the subordinates frequently.  Transparency is essential at all levels for better relationships among employees and a healthy work culture. Manipulating information and data tampering is a strict no-no at the workplace. Let information flow in its desired form.  Organization must have employee friendly policies and practical guidelines. Expecting an employee to work till late night on his birthday is simply impractical. Rules and regulations should be made to benefit the employees. Employees must maintain the decorum of the organization. Discipline is important at the workplace.  The ―Hitler approach‖ does not fit in the current scenario. Bosses should be more like mentors to the employees. The team leaders should be a source of inspiration for the subordinates. The superiors are expected to provide a sense of direction to the employees and guide them whenever needed. The team members should have an easy access to their boss‘s cabin.  Promote team building activities to bind the employees together: Conduct training programs, workshops, seminars and presentations to upgrade the existing skills of the employees. Prepare them for the tough times. They should be ready under any odd circumstances or change in the work culture. CONCLUSION Today the notion of ethics is extremely widespread. They are an important part of our personal and our working life. With a positive work ethic, individuals can become more focused and responsible regarding their work. The individual can also cultivate a sense of achievement, and this too, has positive effects on their career development, and also on the culture and productivity within the enterprise. As we have seen, ethics are fundamentally the modus operandi of activity and any work or task where one keeps in mind the synergy and harmony of coworkers involved which is simply one‘s demeanour with respect to others, and towards work. Ethics in the work environment means those positive facets that accumulatively, define the staff of a company, e.g. Integrity, determination, dedication, initiative and so on. 58

CORPORATE GOVERNANCE Corporate Governance can be understood as a system of internal controls and procedures by which individual companies are managed. It provides a framework that defines the rights, roles and responsibilities of different groups - management, board, controlling shareholders, and minority or non-controlling shareholders - within an organization. At its core, corporate governance is the arrangement of checks, balances, and incentives a company needs to minimize and manage the conflicting interests between insiders and external shareowners. OBJECTIVES OF CORPORATE GOVERNANCE  Board members act in the best interests of shareholders.  The Company acts in a lawful and ethical manner in their dealings with all stakeholders and their representatives.  All shareholders have the same right to participate in the governance of the Company and receive fair treatment from the Board and management, and all rights of Shareholders and other stakeholders are clearly delineated and communicated.  The Board and its committees are structured to act independently from management, individuals or entities that have control over management, and other non-Shareholder groups.  Appropriate controls and procedures are in place covering management's activities in running the day to-day operations of the Company.  The Company's operating and financial activities, as well as its governance activities, are constantly reported to Shareholders in a fair, accurate, timely, reliable, relevant, complete and verifiable manner. How well a Company achieves these goals depends, in large part, on the adequacy of the Company's corporate governance structure and the strength of the shareholder's voice in corporate governance matters, through shareowner voting rights. The success of the Board in safeguarding shareowner interests depends on these factors. 59

NEED FOR CORPORATE GOVERNANCE IN INDIA  The liberalization and de-regulation world over gave greater freedom in management. This demands even greater responsibilities.  The players in the field are many hence competition brings in its wake weakness in standards of reporting and accountability.  Market conditions are increasingly becoming complex in the light of global developments like WTO, removal of barriers/reduction in duties.  The failure of corporations due to lack of transparency and disclosures and instances of falsification of accounts/embezzlement and the effect of such undesirable practices in other companies. 60

EVOLUTION OF CORPORATE GOVERNANCE IN MODERN INDIA The initiatives taken by the Government of India in 1991, aimed at economic liberalization and globalization of the domestic economy, led India to initiate the reform process in order to suitably respond to the developments taking place the world over. Confederation of Indian Industry (CII) - Desirable Corporate Governance Code (1998) Drawing heavily from the Anglo-Saxon Model of Corporate Governance, CII took a special initiative on Corporate Governance, the first institutional initiative in Indian Industry, to develop and promote a code for Corporate Governance to be adopted and followed by Indian companies, whether in the private sector, the public sector, banks or financial institutions, all of which are corporate entities. It laid down four ideals, which should be the guiding force of a company's philosophy on Corporate Governance: 1. Transparency 2. Accountability 3. Disclosure 4. Value Creation. Kumar Mangalam Birla Committee The Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) set up a Committee in 1999 under the Chairmanship of Kumar Mangalam Birla to promote and raise standards of corporate governance. The recommendations of the Committee, aimed at improving the standards of Corporate Governance, are divided into mandatory and non-mandatory recommendations. The said recommendations have been made applicable to all listed companies with paid-up capital of Rs. 3 crores and above or net worth of Rs. 25 crores or more at any time in the history of the company. The ultimate responsibility for putting the recommendations into practice lies directly with the Board of Directors and the management of the company. Naresh Chandra Committee Naresh Chandra Committee was appointed in the year 2002 to examine various corporate governance issues. Among others, the Committee was entrusted to analyse and recommend changes, if necessary, in diverse areas such as: the statutory auditor-company relationship; the need for rotation of statutory audit firms or partners; the procedure for appointment of auditors and determination of audit fees; measures required to ensure that the management and companies actually present true and fair statement of the financial affairs of companies; adequacy of regulation of chartered accountants, company secretaries and other similar statutory oversight functionaries; advantages of setting up an independent regulator similar to the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board in the SOX Act, and if so, its constitution, and the role of independent directors, and how their independence and effectiveness can be ensured. 61

N.R. Narayana Murthy Committee Report (2003) In the year 2002, SEBI analyzed the statistics of compliance with the clause 49 by listed companies and felt that there was a need to look beyond mere systems and procedures if corporate governance was to be made effective in protecting the interest of investors. SEBI therefore constituted a Committee under the Chairmanship of Shri N.R. Narayana Murthy, for reviewing the implementation of the corporate governance code by listed companies and issued revised clause 49 based on its recommendations. Dr. Jirani Expert Committee Report on Company Law (2005) In 2004, the Government constituted a committee under the Chairmanship of Dr. J.J. Irani with the task of advising the Government on the proposed revisions to the Companies Act, 1956 with the objective to have a simplified compact law that would be able to address the changes taking place in the national and international scenario, enable adoption of internationally accepted best practices as well as provide adequate flexibility for timely evolution of new arrangements in response to the requirements of ever-changing business models. This committee recommended the formation of Limited Liability Partnership (LLP) and One Person Company in India. NASSCOM The National Association of Software and Services Companies (NASSCOM) also formed a Corporate Governance and Ethics Committee chaired by N.R. Narayana Murthy, a leading figure in the field of Indian corporate governance reforms. The Committee issued its recommendations in mid-2010, focusing on the stakeholders in the company. The report emphasized recommendations relating to the audit committee and a whistle blower policy, and also addressed the issue of the need to improve shareholder rights. CONCLUSION Despite these wide-ranging developments in regulation and policy, what becomes increasingly apparent in India is that the reform process has not addressed, or effectively addressed, a key challenge at the heart of the governance problem, namely the accountability of promoters to other shareholders. Even though most listed companies have large controlling shareholders, typically a family, the regulation of related-party transactions in India is minimal. Promoters have considerable freedom of action in undertaking such transactions and are subject to only limited regulatory controls. They are also permitted to issue preferential warrants to themselves at an effective discount to the market price-something that would not be condoned in more developed markets. So, reforms and stricter regulation are the need of the hour. 62

POLITICAL MORAL THINKERS 63

SOCRATES Much of Western philosophy finds its basis in the thoughts and teachings of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle: the Big Three ancient Greek philosophers. The virtue ethics of Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, the Epicureans, and the Stoics were very individualistic and primarily concerned with helping one person become a better person though self-improvement. Virtue ethics emphasize the role of one's character and the virtues that one's character embodies for determining or evaluating ethical behaviour. Virtue ethics is one of the three major approaches to normative ethics, often contrasted to deontology (mainly Kantianism), which emphasizes duty to rules, and consequentialism (Mainly utilitarianism), which derives rightness or wrongness from the outcome of the act itself. Although virtue ethics lacks in popularity, many people still think it is indispensable. Virtue ethics requires us to understand how to transform ourselves into better people. That means we have to understand what is moral, how to be motivated to be moral, and how to actually behave morally.  According to Socrates, the ideal life focuses on self-development, especially the pursuit of goodness, virtue, justice, integrity, and friendship.  Materialism is the enemy of achieving the ideal life.  Knowledge means for Ethics: Laid great emphasis on attaining knowledge and considered that like knowledge virtue can be learnt.  Self-knowledge: Necessary for ethical actions. His quote ‗A life unexamined is not worth living‘ pretty much sums up his predisposition in this aspect.  On Seeking Good, Evil and Ignorance: He believed that man always sought what is good and a failure to do so (pursuing evil) was either due to failure to achieve good or due to lack of knowledge (ignorance).  He laid a great emphasis on the importance of reasons in life. Moral problems can be solved by reasoning.  True happiness: He believed that the true happiness of an individual lay in doing what is good.  A man should give preference to learning virtues, in a manner similar to acquiring knowledge, in contrast to the pursuit of material wealth.  A man always seeks his own good, if he possesses the proper knowledge and wisdom. 64

Basically, the ideas of Socrates teach us to lead an ethical life, in which we should keep ourselves away from evil and pursue the good. At the same time, they also teach us that knowledge and wisdom are more important in life than material pleasures. But, despite the noble intentions behind his ideas, many of them are considered as too idealistic. The correlation of rational behaviour, with seeking one‘s good at all times is not tenable on all occasions. This is possible as evil acts are often performed involuntarily, or unconsciously, without one getting to know about it. At the same time, a man cannot lead one‘s life in its entirety without material wealth, and in fact, seeks to achieve materialism through the application of knowledge and wisdom Socrates‘ ideas on studies had a considerable influence and played a foundational role in the development of ethical ideas of Platonism, Hedonism, Cynicism and Stoicism. CRITICISM Socratic Method of enquiry was scientific and rational. He questioned the established religious beliefs by engaging in logical debates with all and sundry. Because of this challenge to the existing system, fundamentalists of the society accused him of promoting atheism. SOME OF HIS TEACHING An unxamined life is Best way to live life is Injustice harms your not worth living. of self development, soul. It is better to not accumulation of suffer one, than material wealth. committing it. Virtue brings I know nothing, happiness for self except the fact of my too. It cant be taught. ignorance. 65

PLATO He was a disciple of Socrates and propagated his ideas further. He was the first western thinker who wrote his works & whose works remained intact. Socrates only discussed about moral problems whereas Plato discussed moral as well as worldly philosophical problems with equal importance. They also included Mathematics, nature etc. But Plato always agreed with Socrates that the real harm possible to a person is the harm to the soul and therefore it is preferable to suffer wrong than commit it. Just like Socrates, Plato taught people to ―to think of oneself (and any question) independently & to be ready to question everybody & everything.‖ To quote Plato – ―Philosophy begins in wonder‖ Plato's beliefs and writings contributed much to organized study of ethics. Plato believed that all people in some way desired happiness. A person's actions do not always create happiness but this is because people do not know what their actions will produce. Happiness is a result of a healthy soul but moral virtue makes up the health of the soul. It can be said that human well-being (eudemonia) is the highest aim of moral thought and conduct, and the virtues are the requisite skills and dispositions needed to attain it. People do not always seek to be virtuous but this is because they do not realize that moral virtue produces happiness. However, Plato set forth that if a person knows that moral virtue leads to happiness, he or she should act according to this knowledge. Being moral or ethical, then, has its basis in knowledge or reason. If a person knows that virtue leads to happiness but acts contrary to this idea, he or she is immoral, and immoral behaviour is the sign of a diseased soul. Plato said that good men had to be those who were just, temperate, courageous and wise. He was speaking of moral excellence in a somewhat similar way than that of Socrates. The relation he gives between State citizens and moral excellence: he says that for a State to be good, it has to allow, help and even encourage people to be good as individuals that good citizens were those who were good as persons and thus useful to the nation, and that moral excellence, or Virtue, is the basis of every sound society and the only way to have great men lead other great men properly. He establishes that justice is so great a good that it is worth any sacrifice. 66

PLATO‟S CONTRIBUTIONS Book-  In this book, he discussed nature of justice Republic  He gave blueprint of an ideal state. Book-  Inquisition into the nature of love. Symposium  ―Academy‖ was the name of Plato‘s house where he gave coaching to adult Term- students. Academy  Thus the word ―academy‖ got associated with any building where young mature people receive higher education.  Later this evolved into self-financed “College”. Apology  It demonstrates dramatic accounts of the events leading to his death, depict matters of concerns, ethical living, and simplicity of thought and expression. For Plato the external world, as given in senses, is only an appearance. He uses various expressions to describe the sensible and phenomenal world such as–the many, the divisible, the becoming, and non-being. The real world according to Plato is an abstract realm of eternal and unchanging Ideas or Forms. The objects and things of the physical world are appearances or phenomena which are like images of the Forms in the world of Ideas. Plato calls the Forms as archetypes and the objects of the material world as their copies or adumbrations. Plato believes that philosophers gain knowledge of the Forms (or being) through the intellectual perceptions of the soul. IDEA OF GOOD: Plato considers the good from three sides – 1. He considers the good as Idea or good in itself as mentioned above. In this aspect, it is distinct from its manifestations in science, truth, beauty and virtue. 2. He considers the good as individual virtue. 3. He regards the good as ethical world in the political State. 67

IDEA OF SOUL AND JUSTICE: Plato divides soul into three parts–rational, spirited and appetitive: 1. Wisdom or prudence is virtue of reason, the first part of the soul. Wisdom is the directing or measuring virtue. For instance, without it, courage will become a rash impulse, and quiet endurance will degenerate into stony indifference. 2. Valour is the virtue of spirit, the second part of the soul. Valour preserves the rational intelligence which is often beset with anxieties in its struggle against pain and pleasure, desire and fear. 3. The third part of the soul consists of biological appetites. It is necessary to control their propensity towards excess. Temperance regulates human passions and signifies the submission of non-rational elements to reason. Justice refers to the harmonious functioning of the related elements of the soul. Justice in Plato‘s sense makes an individual concentrate on his duties; it can be thought of as the sense of duty. In the ideal commonwealth of Plato, every citizen will perform his assigned duties without craving for the (more attractive or powerful) roles of others. SOME OF HIS TEACHING Good people don't Necessity is the mother First and noblest of all need laws, and bad of all invention. victories of a man is to people find ways conquer himself. around them. You can discover more It is easy to forgive a about a person in an child who is afraid of hour of play, than in a year of conversation. dark, but the real tragedy is when men are afraid of light. 68

ARISTOTLE Aristotle is a systematic academic philosopher. His approach, unlike that of Plato, is down to earth and common-sensical. He wrote the treatise Nicomachean Ethics. He propounded the concept of Summum bonum or the ultimate objective which men seek. He identified it with refined intellectual pleasures and philosophical contemplation. Aristotle, however, does not wholly exclude what many would regard as common sources of happiness like friendship, family bonds and creature comforts. Aristotle makes a distinction between intellectual and ethical virtues. The highest virtues belong to the life of reason or intellect. Ethical virtues consist in the subordination of human passions and appetites to reason. Aristotle regards passions as the matter of virtue and reason as its form. If passions, as ascetics propose, are extirpated, virtue will become an empty shell or a concept without content. Aristotle opposes the Socratic view that knowledge of morals is sufficient to make a man virtuous. According to Aristotle, the unruly human passions can be disciplined only by constant exercise of self-control. Aristotle‘s celebrated doctrine of virtue defines it as the mean between two extremes. Every virtue lies in between two vices. The choice of mean is not like bisecting a straight line or calculating the average of two numbers. The choice depends on the individual and the circumstances of any particular case. It results from the good judgment of the individual or from his good sense and tact. 69

He mentions two types of justice: distributive and corrective. Distributive justice refers to rewarding people according to merit. Corrective justice has to do with inflicting punishment for wrong doing. Aristotle upholds the freedom of human will. The correct moral choices follow from the exercise of reason. Politics is the ethics of the State. An individual‘s morality finds its end in the State, and is not possible without State. Aristotle rejects both the collectivist and individualist conceptions of the State. CRITICISM  The Aristotelian State confines its benefits and privileges to a chosen few.  In Aristotle‘s thought, there are other instances of acceptance of inequality which is repugnant to much modern sentiment.  Aristotle‘s ethics are marked by conventionality and smugness. SOME OF HIS TEACHINGS To make the right Law and education play a For happiness, be decisions, develop the key role in makong functional. To be citizens virtuous. functional, pursue right habits. excellence in all you do. Pleasure and pain To acquire practical determine happiness, wisdom, you ought to which is the ultimate practice and experience it. Mere learning general goal. rules won't help. 70

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PLATO AND ARISTOTLE PLATO ARISTOTLE He was Aristotle‘s teacher. He was Plato‘s best, most gifted & most famous student Books; republic, symposium ‘The Politics’ & ‘The Nicomachean Ethics’ (named after his Focused on values and institutions son, Nicomachus). Invented the word ―academy‖ Apart from values, ethics, politics, he also focused on many optional subjects like zoology, logic, psychology, botany,  Gave idea of ‗two‘ realms. astronomy, physics, poetry, meteorology, economy,  Wanted to direct minds of metaphysics, rhetoric etc. people from virtual realm  invented technical terms such as – energy, dynamics, and draw it nearer to deeper induction, demonstration, substance, attribute, reality lying behind it. essence, property, accident, category, topic,  In politics, Plato hated proposition and universal. democracy and advocated rule of ―philosopher king‖.  Even the title of the subject ‗Physics‘ gets its name  Plato hated arts – because from Aristotle‘s book with this title. arts make people‘s soul weak.  Aristotle rejected the idea of two worlds. He only gave recognition to this world. Anything beyond the possibility of experience was nothing for him  he denied carrying on empty talks about so called ‗Ideal Forms‘.  Aristotle writes of the dissimilarities of two systems as a neutral but interested observer.  Aristotle said arts is complementary to soul. Arts makes people strong. For example  Greek Tragedies gave insight into life and were also a medium for catharsis (‗purgation‘/‘cleansing‘) by pity & terror. 71

 Aristotle also developed the art of a plot as having ‗a beginning, a middle, and an end‘.  ―Poetry is more philosophical and more worthy of serious attention than history‖. Plato and Aristotle had disagreement ―Plato is dear to me, but dearer still is truth‖ – Aristotle. over many topics. He wrote a zoology book ―The History of Animals‖- even Charles Darwin bowed to it. 72

STOICISM Zeno (342-270 B.C.) was the founder of Stoicism. The famous Roman Stoics were Marcus Aurelius, Seneca and Epictetus. Stoicism rejected the idealism of Plato. It believes that concepts have no existence outside human mind. The world has a purpose, and is marked by order. Freedom of will cannot exist in a world governed by necessity. Men should follow not their inclinations or caprices but their reason. Stoics push to great lengths their opposition to pleasures and the need to control human passions. Stoics recommend extremely rigorous asceticism which runs counter to ordinary human nature. Stoics are quite unrelenting in their attitude. In their doctrine, virtue alone is good, only vice is evil, and all else is a matter of absolute indifference. The wise man possesses all virtues, and a fool has no virtue at all. This is a strange view. Stoics were far in advance of their times in their cosmopolitanism. Stoic is one who is unmoved in all times. For him, wisdom and virtues, not passion, are the basis for deciding right and wrong. They do not seek material pleasures. They even believed that all humans are equal because of a common rationality shared by them. If pain becomes too much, they don‘t hesitate in committing suicide. They are guided by the belief that ―No evil is honourable. Death is honourable. So, death is not evil.‖ In fact, they also believed that we all are guided by natural laws. So we should accept everything that nature (or life) throws at us, with calmness and courage. 73

SOME OF THEIR TEACHINGS Virtue is the real good. It is necessary and Goal of life is to live in sufficient for harmony with nature. happiness. There is no role of luck. A wise man limits his Listen more, speak less. wants to clearly achievable things. 74

EPICURUS Epicurus was an ancient Greek philosopher, who tried to eliminate feelings like fear and anxiety from individual‘s psyche, while promoting the emotions of well being, humanity and pleasure. He used to call his followers to meet in the garden, thus his philosophy came to be known as Philosophy of the Garden. It seeks pleasure, which was higher and noble in nature, and did not fall for ‗wine-women-and-song‘. Thus, he based his idea of goodness as the absence of pain and serenity of mind. Mere materialistic pleasure does not count for moral goodness. He viewed „phronesis‟ as the highest virtue. It means the ability to discerning the good and bad in different things. It implies a rational faculty of mind. Morality, for Epicurus, is what is conducive to the telos of the humankind. HIS IDEA OF HAPPINESS  Happiness is not a private affair but achieved in a society where like-minded individuals band together to help inspire one another‘s pursuit of happiness.  Thinking about past happy moments can help you forget your present sadness and difficulties.  False belief like Gods punishment for sins or death brings us pain but they are fiction and not to be believed.  We should come out of pleasure-pain cycle and have neutral state just like Vedanta philosophy to remain calm over both pleasure and pain.  Wisdom is needed to segregate the pleasure and pain to have useful pleasure.  Material things will not lead to happiness but contentment with simple things will bring happiness. HIS IDEA OF JUSTICE  He says Justice is agreement- neither to harm nor to be harmed.  He says that when communities are formed then laws are made to protect members from each other.  People are just because one is punished if caught. If not then fear of being caught would still cause pain.  Fear of punishment keep fools in line to not to do crime and wise man recognise the usefulness of laws but don't find any reason to engage in conduct punished by laws.  Only useful laws are just like for murder, but laws like racial laws are not just and they varies according to time and place 75

SOME OF HIS TEACHINGS Highest pleasure is If we keep our desires Just man is one who is obtainable from simple, we can satisfy free from disturbances. tranquility. them even if we are poor. Greatest reward of What is good is easy to righteousness is peace get, what is terrible is of mind. easy to endure. So, don't worry or fear! 76

SAINT THOMAS AQUINAS Saint Aquinas is seen as one of the greatest luminary of the Middle Ages. He was a monk, and based his ideas on the teleological approach of Aristotle, and viewed God as the ultimate end of humans. He believed that God has a plan for everyone, and we can attain our destiny/salvation, only with the divine support. He believed that God has a vision of creative development, enshrined in the dynamism of every being, which directs everyone towards his destiny. The eternal laws of the God are manifest in the natural laws of the world. This natural law is accessible to the humans only through partial revelations and partially through human reason. Thus, our destiny is not absolutely dependent on God‟s mercy. The norms of morality, thus, are nothing but God‘s eternal laws. The human reason grasp it through its reflections, based on the understanding of the natural laws. Compliance to this superior law is what constitutes morality and goodness. TYPES OF REASON Aquinas distinguished between Speculative and Practical Reason. Speculative Reason relates to the theoretical knowledge; while the latter deals with the practical aspects of the material world. He further distinguishes between the Argumentative Part and Intuitive Part of our intellect. It is the Intuitive Part of the Speculative Reason that deliberate and comes up with the ‗first principles‘. The first principles are the self-evident truths, that do not require any proof. These principles form the basic foundation of all arguments and beliefs. TYPES OF LAWS According to him, there are 4 types of laws: ETERNAL They represent God‘s rational purpose and plan for all things. They are timeless. LAWS If something is good, it will match its plan. NATURAL Natural laws are those primary precepts which individuals agree to. They appeal LAWS to an individual‘s reason, and are an internal set of rules that morally bind a rational person. Even, NGT is guided by natural laws. HUMAN LAWS They contain secondary precepts that are not internal, but are imposed by the government or society. We ought to follow them only if they are morally acceptable, and consistent with the natural laws. 77

DIVINE LAWS They are the divine equivalents of Natural laws, and only known through revelations, like the Ten Commandments. The doctrine (or principle) of double effect, by Thomas Aquinas, is often invoked to explain the permissibility of an action that causes a serious harm, such as the death of a human being, as a side effect of promoting some good end. According to this principle, sometimes it is permissible to cause a harm as a side effect (or ―double effect‖) of bringing about a good result even though it would not be permissible to cause such a harm as a means to bringing about the same good end. For example: If a woman accidentally kills her molester while attempting self defence, her act (of killing the molester) will still be moral if: 1. Act is a good one (self defense). 2. Act must come around before the consequences (act=self defense, consequence=killing). 3. Intention must be good. 4. Act must be for serious reasons. SOME OF HIS TEACHINGS Everything has a function Function of human Ultimate goal is (teleos) and an act that beings is to reason and happiness but that is fulfils that function is thereby recognise the achieved through the internal first precepts of good. love of God. natural laws. In this life, one can Morally virtuous action achieve limited and brings pleasure, both imperfect happiness. intellectual and physical. 78

THOMAS HOBBES Thomas Hobbes was an Englishman. He lived at time when England was in the grip of civil war. There was complete confusion and anarchy. These conditions influenced the thinking of Thomas Hobbes and in this way he developed his Theory of Social Contract. According to Hobbes social contract theory, the ruler‟s powers are absolute because these are inalienable and indivisible. Besides the laws of the sovereign are commands. The ruler is the sole judge of what is right and what is wrong. The people have only one right and this is to obey him. The theory begins the state of nature. According to him it was pre-social. He explains the state of nature by analyzing human nature. According to him man by nature is selfish, egoistic and self- seeking. Whatever man does, it is only for the satisfaction of his desires. On many occasions man does not even hesitate in harming others for his own gains. So in the state of nature there was a competition. Man did not trust others. This distrust gave rise to hatred, which led to war. So in the state of nature there was a war of all against one and one against all. As a result of this in the state of nature there was no difference between right or wrong, just or unjust, became the rule of life and also might was, right. Man's life in the state of nature was solitary, poor, nasty brutish and short. Such state of affairs could not be borne by people for a very long time. They wanted peace, and for this purpose the people made a contract. How people have surrendered all their rights unconditionally to one man or to the assembly of men who became sovereign and the people became his subjects. The ruler is not party to the contract, which, therefore, is not binding on him. It is binding on the people because they are party to it. CRITICISM OF THE THEORY  Incorrect assumption of Hobbes that fear of death and extinction compelled men to make a contract and create the state.  Incorrect Analysis of Human Nature - Man is not always selfish. He is also social. He has the feeling of sympathy, love and co-operation.  Defective Assessment - The Contract according to Hobbes is not binding on the sovereign. But such a contract does not appeal to human reason in general and the reason of the people in the state of nature who were selfish and cunning.  His explanation of law is also not clear. Laws are not commands of the sovereign but they are will of the people. 79

SOME OF HIS TEACHINGS Human beings are Nothing is simply good motivated primarily by by itself. It is good if it is the desire of pleasure. desired by someone. Intense competition and conflict among self- interested individuals can be controlled by a social contract. 80

IMMANUEL KANT Immanuel Kant was also influential philosopher of 18th century. He was one of the earliest philosophers belonging to the enlightenment tradition, and often considered the father of German Idealism. Kant is popular in modern time for his contribution of his moral philosophy instead of developing dogmas of metaphysics and epistemology. His contributions to the field of life-extension, however, remain almost completely unexplored, despite the fact that certain claims made in his Theory of Ethics debatably qualify him as a historical precursor of the modern social movement and academic discipline of life-extension. Kant's theory is based on a deontological moral theory. This theoretical model stated that the rightness or wrongness of actions does not depend on their consequences but on whether they fulfil our duty. Kant believed that there was a supreme belief of morality, and he referred to it as The Categorical Imperative. Kant argued that a person is good or bad depending on the motivation of their actions and not on the goodness of the consequences of those actions. Kant debated that one can have moral worth (i.e., be a good person) only if one is inspired by morality. It can be said that if a person's emotions or desires cause them to do something, then that action cannot give them moral worth. This may be strange but there is good reason to agree with Kant‘s philosophy. Kant employs his justification of the subsistence of metaphysics as a discipline in his ethical philosophy. In abundance of theoretical studies, it is revealed that Immanuel Kant utilized practical reasoning in his moral theory and proposed that there exists only one moral obligation; categorical imperative. This obligation is resultant from the concept of duty, and described the categorical imperatives as the demands of moral decree, and further accentuated that an individual's behaviour ought to live up to the moral laws. These categorical imperatives should be the constitution governing all men, they should be the principles of human life. He stated that employing these imperatives, an individual regarded as coherent could be able to achieve specific ends using certain means. Kant's categorical imperative forms the basis of the deontological ethics. The vital principle of the metaphysics of morals hypothesizes that moral law is a base or foundation of reason in itself and it does not have to be influenced by other contingent factors. Main flaw of Kant's moral theory is that it fails to mention the role of human desire in the choices individuals make. Kant's theory prospers only in emphasizing moral versus immoral human actions, and specially makes it easier in making choices that absolutely involves evil versus good. It does not offer insight into what an individual should do in case he or she is faced by two evils, and he or she has to make a choice between the two. 81

BUDDHISM Buddhism is a set of moral guidelines and practices which, if followed, can bring people to the ultimate state of reality and peace. The Buddha described these morals after he reached enlightenment, or nirvana: the true understanding of the universe. Basic Buddhist principles of moral thought and action is karma. Fundamental conviction in Buddhism is that life is a cycle of birth, death and rebirth and that people‘s actions in not only the present but also in the past affect into what realm they are reborn and how their life is lived. This idea of the continued effects of all actions is the definition of karma. Until such time, as one becomes open-minded, one's actions in this life will determine the nature of future rebirths.. The Buddha's Four Noble Truths are another guiding norm of moral thought and action, particularly as expressed in the fourth truth, the Eightfold Path. The truths are as follows: 1. The Truth of Dukkha is that all conditional phenomena and experiences are not ultimately satisfying. 2. The Truth of the Origin of Dukkha is that craving for and clinging to what is pleasurable and aversion to what is not pleasurable result in becoming, rebirth, dissatisfaction, and redeath. 3. The Truth of the Cessation of Dukkha is that putting an end to this craving and clinging also means that rebirth, dissatisfaction, and redeath can no longer arise. 4. The Truth of the Path of Liberation from Dukkha is that by following the Noble Eightfold Path: 82

The wheel of Dharma pictorially depicts the eightfold path. The first three paths help in understanding the nature of dukkha. The fourth path is a practical means of overcoming dukkha. The paths are interconnected and constitute a way of living. 1. Right view is the intellectual aspect of wisdom. 2. Right intention is commitment to moral and mental self-improvement. 3. Right speech is route to moral discipline which sustains other virtues. 4. Right action includes: acting kindly and compassionately; to be honest; to respect the belongings of others; and to avoid sexual misconduct. 5. Right livelihood implies that one should follow righteous means of earning bread and that wealth has to be earned only through legal and nonviolent ways. 6. Right effort refers to harnessing psychic energy towards production of wholesome mental states. 7. Buddha says that we should perceive the world clearly and should not get carried away by the working of intellectual processes. For this purpose, he recommends four foundations of right mindfulness. These are contemplation of body, of feeling, of state of the mind and of the phenomena. 8. Right concentration signifies single-pointedness of the mind in which all mental faculties are unified and directed towards a single object. This leads to a mental state without passions, to self-control and tranquility. To concentrate on complete self-realisation, men need to follow three golden rules of taking shelter in Buddha, in Dharma and in Sangha (company of enlightened). Buddhism teaches man to live in peace and harmony. The Buddha exhorted his followers not to take His Teachings on blind faith but to accept them only after close investigation and inquiry as to whether the Teachings are really acceptable according to one's own intelligence and experience. Even though Buddha wanted his followers to absorb the Dhamma, he did not want them to accept it without clarity of mind and complete understanding. Buddha wanted all human beings to lead perfect lives to be kind, compassionate and considerate to one another and to exercise patience, tolerance and understanding in all activities and relationships. The Buddha, with his supreme wisdom, realised that there were weaknesses and pit-falls in human society. He introduced the Buddha Dhamma in order to enlighten, liberate and reform mankind to lead a meaningful life. His Teachings were clear and comprehensive. They covered the existence of a human being, from birth to the grave. Those who were unable to comprehend his teachings or were not prepared to accept his Teachings, would rate his Teachings as too idealistic and incapable of accomplishment. In spite of such assertions, his Teachings, if reduced to the simplest of terms, could be contained in just a few words: \"DO GOOD, SHUN EVIL AND PURIFY THE MIND\". 83

These words were true during the Buddha‘s period. These words are just as true and applicable for the present and the future. If everyone does what is good for oneself and for others as well and completely shuns evil, that would affect others as well as oneself and the world would definitely be a better place to live in. Buddhist Teachings are designed to empower men and women to achieve fulfilment and satisfaction in this life through their own continued efforts and to boost them to create a social order conducive to the benefit and welfare of all mankind. It develops selfless moral codes, generosity, concern and a spirit of real discipline for the good and wellbeing of relations, friends and acquaintances. Buddhists morality is based on freedom i.e. on individual development. It is therefore relative. In fact, there cannot be any goodness nor any ethical principle if there is compulsion or determination from an agent outside ourselves. Buddha recognised that that the world offers both happiness and unhappiness. However, the states of happiness are transitory and changing. Hence, whatever we experience in the world leaves us with a sense of dissatisfaction. Unless we gain an insight into what gives us happiness and what is unable to do so, we will continue in a state of unhappiness. We look for happiness in external things rather than in our internal feelings and attitudes. As all sources of happiness are transient, any feeling of happiness is accompanied by dissatisfaction. We have to recognise this to start looking for real happiness. PRESCRIPTIONS FOR FAMILY AND SOCIETY  Parents are enjoined to provide intellectual education to children and bequeath property to them. Children should take care of their aged parents.  Disciples have to respect their teachers. Teachers have to instruct pupils in arts, sciences and virtues.  It is a husband‟s duty to treat his wife affectionately, provide her needs, and observe marital fidelity. The wife has to manage the household wisely and frugally, be faithful and loving towards her husband.  The master should treat his servants well, pay adequate wages and give periods of rest. The servants should be faithful, contented and serve their masters cheerfully. 84

SWAMI VIVEKANANDA Swami Vivekananda is one of the well-known philosophers as well as educationist in the history of Indian teaching. His educational views and ideas have been influenced by his philosophy of life. Swami Vivekananda believed in the Vedanta philosophy which considers that the ultimate goal of human life is to attain „Unity with the Creator‟. He believed that God resides in every human heart. So that, the best worship of God is service to mankind. According to Swami Vivekananda ‗Education means that process by which character is formed, strength of mind is increased, and intellect is sharpened, as a result of which one can stand on one‘s own feet‘. According to Swami Vivekananda, one idea stands out as the centre of all ethical system expressed in various forms, namely doing good to others. The guiding motive of mankind should be charity toward men and charity towards all animals. Lessons and beliefs of Swami Vivekananda stressed on different facets of religion, youth, education, faith, character building as well as social issues relating to India. Swami Vivekananda emphasized to provide the public only positive education, because negative thoughts deteriorate men. Swami Vivekananda told, if young boys and girls are encouraged and are not unnecessarily criticized all the time, they are bound to improve in time. Swami Vivekananda always thought that the development of a nation is not possible without real education. He opined that development of good personality in every human being is very essential in case of nation building. That‘s why, Swami Vivekananda emphasised on man-making education by which we can make a good citizen for our national development. According to Swami Vivekananda ‗Man-making means a harmonious development of the body, mind and soul‟. According to him, Moral values are the standards of good and evil, right or wrong which govern an individual‟s behaviour and choices. Moral values are the rules and guidelines, the mores, which an individual or a group has about what is right or wrong, good or evil. Moral values include some important characteristics: 1. Moral standards, with regard to behaviour. 2. Moral responsibility, referring to our conscience. 3. Moral identity or one who is capable of right or wrong action. 85

Vivekananda comprehended that mankind is passing through a disaster. The tremendous importance on the scientific and mechanical ways of life is fast reducing man to the status of a machine. Moral and religious values are being damaged. The fundamental ideologies of civilization are being overlooked. Conflicts of ideas, manners and habits are pervading the atmosphere. Disrespect for everything old is the fashion of the day. In this situation, Vivekananda explored the solutions of all these social and global troubles through education. Vivekananda stressed on such education through which moral values can be developed among the students so that they can conduct their life ethically. They can decide what is right or wrong; what is good or evil; what is justice or injustice. Vivekananda believed that if we can make a student as a good human being, the development of moral values within him is the prior task of education. According to him, ethics is the important aspect of personality. To accomplish such objectives, Vivekananda laid stress on religious education. Swami Vivekananda believed in the generous concept of religion. Essential elements of all religions are the same. No religion is inferior to other religion. Man should follow an attitude of respect for all religion. According to Vivekananda, love is the highest goal of religion. Man should imbibe love for all and hatred for none. Swami Vivekananda realized three things are necessary to make every man great and every nation great. 1. Conviction of the powers of goodness. 2. Absence of jealousy and suspicion. 3. Helping all who are trying to be and do well. Swami Vivekananda advocated that it is significant to give up jealousy and self-importance and learn to work unitedly for others. He told, purity, patience and perseverance overcome all obstacles. He suggested being courageous and working on. Patience and steady work, according to Swami Vivekananda, this is the only way to get success. In brief, Swami Vivekananda offered new direction to meaning and content in the thought of Political philosophy and, who stood firmly rooted in tradition in declaring that service of humans was service to God, that one should see Janardana, God, in Janata, the people. Swami Vivekananda reinforced the cause of egalitarianism and socialism and declared that it was the working class that would be the ruling class in the future. 86

MAHATMA GANDHI Mahatma Gandhi was eminent personality and known for his great ideologies all over the world. Mahatma Gandhi had immense sense of morality. Gandhi developed his life's work around two moral values. He realized that it was important to recognize the humanity of all people. He also felt that there is necessity to fight against injustice but to always do so in a way (non-violence) that protected everyone's human self-respect. He wanted to empower the Indian nation by empowering its people. In his famous book Hind Swaraj, he interrogated Western civilization, which he felt was unspiritual. He disapproved British democracy. In his opinion, it was thoroughly commercial. Its elected leaders looked after their own self-interest. In his concept of Swaraj, there was decentralization of power and India was to be a confederation of thousands of self-reliant and self-governing villages: innumerable circles of village republics. But these village republics were not to be hierarchically organized; instead they would be ‗oceanically‟ organized. In the ocean, all waves maintain similar levels and none dominates over others; similarly, to prevent oppression, no system should be hierarchically organized. Primarily, Gandhi ji was concerned about the attitude of man through his conduct. He emphasized that each man should aspire for living together which is called a social living and should strive also to live for mutual benefit. The entire life of Gandhi ji was based on two principles that include truth and nonviolence. Gandhian thought covers many aspects of human life. Gandhi, as leader of Indian national movement, and as prolific writer has commented on very many things. His thought is multi- dimensional and covers political, social, economic, religious and ethical aspects of human life. His ideas emerged partly from his inner religious convictions, partly from the exigencies of forging strategies for a mass political movement and partly from the influence of others such as Tolstoy, Carlyle and Thoreau. Gandhi was also influenced by ethical principles embedded in Buddhism, Jainism, Hinduism and Christianity. Gandhi considers that the ultimate goal of man is to realise the vision of God. And realisation of God is impossible unless one follows the path of truth, love, non-violence and service to humanity. Men should emulate, to the extent they can, the divine attributes in their conduct. Gandhi equates God with truth and love; as God is truth and love or nonviolence, practising these two virtues is the way to reach God. Gandhi urges Satyagrhis (those keen in pursuit of truth or a right cause or nonviolent protestors) to adopt these virtues. 87

OTHER TEACHINGS OF GANDHI  For Gandhi, human brotherhood and oneness follow from the unity of life. As part of God‘s creation, men share the same life.  As Gandhi identified God with virtues, it follows that men should be pure in heart. Gandhi insisted on cleanliness even in its physical manifestations.  Gandhi firmly believed that even for attaining noble objectives, men have to adopt only good means. Gandhi constantly emphasised that means have to be pure. This follows ipso facto from the conception of God as the embodiment of virtues.  Gandhi explained ahimsa in both negative and positive terms. Ahimsa requires complete self-purification. It also needs faith in the existence of soul which is distinct from body. Ahimsa is described as ‗soul force‟, ‗power of Atman‘, ‗power of love‘ and utter selflessness. Many prerequisites are necessary for steadfast pursuit of ahimsa. Foremost among these are truthfulness and fearlessness. Men need only fear God and no one else.  Gandhi advocated that evil should be tackled by means of non-violent non-cooperation with it. One should hate the evil deed but not its perpetrator. If all cooperation with evil is withdrawn, it will have nothing to act upon.  Gandhi says that everyone should earn his bread with his own hands or through manual labour. He calls it bread labour, and it alone gives man his right to eat.  It is impossible for a few to amass wealth without exploiting the rest.  Gandhi has introduced a concept in which the rich are regarded as trustees of wealth. Ultimately, as all property belongs to God, the excess or superfluous wealth which the rich possess belongs to society and should be used for supporting the poor.  Gandhi was the greatest advocate of religious tolerance. He preached equality of religions based on certain fundamental principles.  In the present time, the Gandhian emphasis on communal harmony is especially relevant to national integration. Gandhi did not merely pay lip sympathy to communal harmony. He considered it is a means of promoting an unbreakable bond of brotherhood between followers of different religions. 88

BHAGVAD GITA Bhagavat Gita prescribes that man should perform his duty without any desire for its fruits, without attachment and aversion, and without getting distracted by selfish and base motives. In brief, duty has to be performed for its own sake. Ultimately, duties have to be performed for realizing the vision of God. Duties are performed for the welfare of humanity and for the good of all living creatures. Gita preaches that the aim of our efforts is not happiness but good; personal and social good are the same. One has to control bad emotions such as – attachment, aversion, illusions, fears, lust, grief, anger, hatred, malice and envy. What we would call positive emotions are to be cultivated. These include universal goodwill and benevolence, kindness towards people in trouble, magnanimity, serenity, indifference to worldly concerns, and love and devotion to God. Unlike in Buddhism and Jainism, God is central to the moral system of the Gita. According to Gita, there are three paths to the realisation of God: 1. ACTION - ftarmayoga consists in performing one‘s duties disinterestedly (nishkama karma) in the service of God. 2. DEVOTION - Bhakti yoga is the route of devotion to God. 3. KNOWLEDGE - Jnana yoga is the approach to God based on attaining the enlightenment of soul through sacred knowledge. Gita associates a man‘s station in life, his Varna, and his psychological attributes. Experience shows that one‘s profession generally leaves a mark on one‘s character. Modern psychology also refers to human psychological types. Virtues which the Gita mentions are characteristic of the three principal occupational groups of the society. In modern terms, they can be associated with intellectual, heroic and commercial virtues. Bhagavat Gita mentions both positive and negative emotions, and advises us to manage them. We can also regard them as generalized lists of human virtues and vices: 89

HUMAN VICES HUMAN VIRTUES  Affection  Humility  Animosity  Kindness  Attachment  Magnanimity  Aversion  Forthrightness  Selfishness  Respecting teachers  Arrogance  Self control  Jealousy  Indifference to material  Greed  Hypocrisy pleasures  Malice, etc  Sensitivity to human condition and human suffering Contentment  Mental balance, etc The classification of right and wrong is based on scriptures. Right is that which scriptures prescribe; wrong is that which scriptures prohibit. Man acquires merit or virtue by doing good deeds; he collects demerit or vices by following evil. Virtues and vices are predispositions (to act) which get lodged in men‘s souls. They produce their results, good or bad, usually with a time lag, either in this or next life. These are the causes of our happiness or misery. The chain consists of: Good deed Merit Happiness Evil deed Demerit Misery One can overcome demerits by doing good acts; and one can also lose merit by committing sinful acts. There is a continuous cycle of births and deaths. It consists of birth, life, good deeds, bad deeds, merits, demerits, death, transmigration of soul, and rebirth. Release from this perpetual cycle comes through realisation of God through one of the three paths to salvation. This is the LAW OF KARMA. 90

DHARMA Mahabharata refers to many dimensions of dharma. Dharma is something common to the conduct of virtuous individuals in many places. Dharma always carries the sanction of conscience. It is good and promotes the welfare of the creatures. The different sides of Dharma are Vedic injunctions, customary conduct, voice of conscience and whatever promotes social welfare. In case of conflict between these, Vedic injunctions become ultimate arbiters. 91

JAINISM Jainism dates back to sixth century B.C. Its founder, Mahavira, is a contemporary of Buddha. Like Buddhism, Jainism also rose partly in reaction to the ritualism which marked Vedic religion. Elements of Jain teaching such as ahimsa, including opposition to animal sacrifices found expression even during Vedic period. Mahavira like Buddha admitted people from different ranks of society into Jainism. Unlike Buddhism, Jainism has survived in India throughout history despite the vicissitudes it faced. This is due to the strict adherence of Jains to their religious discipline. In Jainism, strict moral discipline is seen as the route to salvation. In its course, Jainism separated into two sects – Swetambaras and Digambaras. Swetambaras wear clothes, and Digambaras go without them. Ahimsa is a core moral principle of Jainism. It lays down that no existent being with life or the essence or potential of life should be injured. Injury is defined as its destruction, subjection or denial of its living essence or potential. Jain principle of Ahimsa in turn follows from the fact that sentient creatures are vulnerable to pain and sorrow. Just as pain and sorrow are undesirable to human beings, so are they to other creatures which breathe, live and possess the essence of or potential for life. For a Jain, life is a spiritual odyssey towards divine consciousness. This state is attained when men secure release from the bonds of karma. Ratnatraya or three ornaments open the path to salvation. These are—Samyak darshan or right faith, Samyak Jnana or right knowledge and Samyak charitra or right conduct. The ultimate objective of spiritual efforts is to find freedom from the misery of the world in which one‘s soul is enmeshed. 92

FIVE MORAL PRINCIPLES Jainism prescribes moral principles both for householders and monks. The codes for monks are more rigorous. The five common moral principles applicable both to monks and householders consist of: 1. Refraining from violence towards any living things Killing or hurting any living creature constitutes violence. Life in nature is equal; harming big or small animal life is equally bad. Violence includes not only physical injury to others but also emotional harm through bad behaviour or offensive language. Jainism accepts that householders cannot lead a life which causes no harm at all to sentient beings. A householder must therefore try to minimize the injury he causes to others. Eating animal flesh in any form is strictly forbidden. 2. Speaking the truth Jain conception of truth means faithful rendering of the visual and verbal evidence in one‘s possession. One cannot depart from truth even for saving oneself. This injunction is similar to Kant‟s Categorical Imperative which is absolutely inviolable. However, one can make an exception to this rule from an altruistic angle with a view to prevent harm to others. 3. Refraining from theft The concept of stealing is wider than its current legal meaning. It includes directly stealing something or asking others to steal it. Use of false measures or weights, and receiving of stolen property are also forms of stealing. One should return, when he finds any lost property, to its owner. Keeping such property for one‘s use is a form of theft. 4. Shunning adultery The fourth principle enjoins that a married person should not cast covetous glances at women. He should treat them respectfully. This rule of Brahmacharya applies to all men. 5. Eschewing greed for material wealth The fifth ethical principle urges men to curb their acquisitive instincts. Naturally, a householder needs a minimum income and wealth to support his family. He should not, however, get greedy and develop an inordinate love for wealth. This propensity invariably leads to dissatisfaction and suffering. Households should restrain their wants, and lead a simple, contented life. 93

The concept of God or a supreme being governing the universe is lacking in Jainism. The world, in its view, is governed by natural laws. In this regard, Jainism has a parallel in Stoicism. Another affinity with Stoicism consists in its advocacy of austere bodily and mental discipline. Jains are advised to ignore the superstitious beliefs popular among people. They should avoid the practice of performing rituals and ceremonies for pleasing gods. In their pursuit of self-perfection, men have to abandon pride. In a way, this idea also finds an echo in Christianity – pride is one of the seven deadly sins. Jainism traces human pride or arrogance to eight sources. Men usually take pride in their intelligence, their beauty, their noble family, their caste, their physical and mental strength, their magical powers, their mode of temple worship and their tapas (prolonged meditation) and yoga. One has to give up arrogance on these counts. Unless one gives up pride, he cannot become pure and humble in heart, and attain to divine consciousness. The Jain monks have to follow a more austere code than householders. They cannot live long at a place and have to lead a peripatetic life. They have to expose themselves to the elements in order to steel themselves against hunger, thirst, cold and heat. By leading an intensely austere life, based on sound moral and aesthetic principles, by making their hearts pure and humble, they become “jina” or spiritual conquerors. 94

CHANAKYA NEETI Chanakya (BC 371- BC 283) was an Indian teacher, philosopher, economist, jurist and royal advisor. He is traditionally identified as Kauṭilya or Vishnugupta, who authored the ancient Indian political treatise, the Arthashastra and also wrote Nitishashtra. Chanakya was a shrewd administrator and a master statesman. His theories on good governance are very important for doing away with corruption in the society. He was not only a political scientist, but also an economist, a diplomat and a successful war strategist. PHILOSOPHY OF CHANAKYA Chanakya wanted to create a society where people are not too much engrossed in the material aspects of life. He laid equal emphasis on spirituality too.  Equality for all was his motto.  Security of the citizens was of prior most importance to him.  He supported agriculture to the fullest as he considered it to be a state subject.  He believed in the protection of women and hence ended all forms of exploitation against them.  He gave utmost importance to land as a resource and hence proposed for its maximum utilization.  In order to harness the maximum optimization of the resources of the annexed kingdoms and empires, he looked after them very well.  He was a strategist and flared a balance between both the states and the citizens. He wanted the trade to flourish and hence bare minimum taxes were levied which benefitted the case of both the states and the citizens.  He wanted to build cities for trade both within and outside the state and he also encouraged building forts to counter against external aggression. 95

ETHICAL QUALITIES IN A LEADER  The leader is the face of the nation. He is responsible for everything that is happening in the community and hence is the society‘s reflection.  The leader should work for the attainment of its goal which is the welfare of its people.  The leader will lose the loyalty of its subjects if its disheartens them by his unjust actions.  A leader shouldn‟t propagate adharma; he should not favour the wicked, should punish the culprit and should not punish the innocent.  There should be no wasteful expenditure.  An ethical leader should not antagonize the wise and the elders.  He should hear all the urgent matters of his subjects and should not postpone them as justice delayed is justice denied. The king should be a leader – RAJ-RISHI CONCEPT  The concept of Rajrishi is very similar to that of the Philosopher King by Plato.  An ideal leader is a combination of Raja and Rishi. Like a Raja, he is dynamic, active, has decision-making capacity. At the same time, he should be able to connect with the spiritual and higher level of the world by being wise, should focus on philosophy.  A king should be promulgator of Dharma.  He should be a model for the masses.  There should be royal idealism in him.  He should possess the quality of inviting nature, self-restraint and spirit, intellect and intuition, enthusiasm.  He should control his lust, greed and attachment, vanity and pride.  Dharma should be considered as a social duty, moral law based on truth, civil law and performance of rituals by the king.  Satya, Ahimsa, celibacy and non-stealing should be prescribed for him  The king can promulgate new laws, but the basic principles should stick to the idea of Shastras.  He should be a firm believer in the moral order of the universe. 96

CHANAKYA NEETI: BOUNDED RATIONALITY  It is the idea where one is bounded by the information one has and sticks to it by limiting oneself. One should explore, cognitive minds should be stretched and one should find answers in the unlimited time to come to take decisions.  Kautilya realized the importance of good bureaucracy.  A king can walk only with the help of his subjects as one wheel cannot move a chariot.  The responsibilities of the ministers are to be stated by the king.  A king should supervise and monitor all works of all its subsidiaries.  A king should appoint counsellors and advisers and pay heed to them. CHANAKYA‟S OBSERVATIONS ON CORRUPTION Even at the time Kautilya wrote Arthasastra, commenting on the political economy of the Maurya era, he had said,  ― Just as it is not possible not to taste honey or poison placed on the surface of the tongue, even so, it is not possible for one dealing with the money of the king not to taste the money in however small a quantity‖  ―It is possible to know even the path of birds flying in the sky, but not the ways of officers moving with their intentions concealed.‖  Chanakya believed there should not be too much of personal interaction in professional life else it leads to corruption and hierarchy.  A man by nature is selfish and brutal. A man is like a horse that roams about when left free and hence fickle mind. One cannot be honest lifelong.  Team work is very important.  There should not be a waste of labour.  Nepotism and favouritism were also mentioned by Kautilya by government officials to favour their family members, friends etc. 97

 He also mentioned about the corruption in the judiciary and mentioned about strict punishment if innocents are penalized, else there is pendency of cases.  Taxes should be collected by being sweet and manipulative with sugar coated words which serve the purpose of both the state and the citizens.  A strict vigilance and monitoring on all the officials were the call of Chanakya. HIS STRATEGY TO FIGHT CORRUPTION  Kautilya believed in keeping spies to look after if the officials carried forward their work properly.  He also mentioned about the whistleblowers. They were given awards and incentives to blow off the corruption.  Public honour boosts their confidence and gives them a sense of pride of being more honest in future.  However, if wrong information is passed off, they were punished too. The death penalty was given for them.  Kautilya believed that government servants should be frequently transferred from one place to other so that corruption cannot start at a place.  Certain posts should be made temporary because permanency makes government servants haughty and they can take leverage.  Superintendents cannot take new mechanism without informing the king. Hence the concept of accountability was proposed by Kautilya.  Chanakya wrote that dispensing with the service of too many government servants is conducive to financial prosperity. This would help in faster and effective decision making. This reduces the scope of bribery and corruption in general. 98

TAOISM The common view of Taoism is that it encourages people to live with detachment and calm, resting in non-action and smiling at the vicissitudes of the world. Contrary to this common view, Taoists through the ages have developed various forms of community and proposed numerous sets of behavioral guidelines and texts on ethical considerations. Beyond the ancient philosophers, who are well-known for the moral dimension of their teachings, religious Taoist rules cover both ethics, i.e., the personal values of the individual, and morality, i.e., the communal norms and social values of the organisation. They range from basic moral rules against killing, stealing, lying, and sexual misconduct through suggestions for altruistic thinking and models of social interaction to behavioral details on how to bow, eat, and wash, as well as to the unfolding of universal ethics that teach people to think like the Tao itself. About eighty texts in the Taoist canon and its supplements describe such guidelines. They document just to what degree Taoist realization is based on how one lives one's life in interaction with the community-family, religious group, monastery, state, and cosmos. Ethics and morality, as well as the creation of community, emerge as central in the Taoist religion. Taoist ethics are concerned less with doing good acts than becoming a good person who lives in harmony with all things and people. Taoist ethics are inseparable from Taoist spirituality - both contain the same ideas. If a Taoist wants to live well they should take all their decisions in the context of the Tao, trying to see what will fit best with the natural order of things. Taoists thus always do what is required by events and their context, but they only do what is required, no more. RESPONSIBLE NON-ACTION: The constant and unmistakable teaching of the Tao Te Ching is that humans are indeed capable of intervening in life's events, but the evidence of life, which humans constantly ignore, is that such intervention is destructive to all involved, and that we therefore have a moral duty to refrain from taking such actions. So, in theory at least, Taoists tend not to initiate action - but wait for events to make action necessary - and avoid letting their own desires and compulsions push them into doing things. Taoists believe good behaviour is an essential part not only of self-improvement but of improving the world as a whole. 99

Cultivate the Tao within oneself; and one's virtue will be perfected. Cultivate it within the household, and one's virtue will be abundant. Cultivate it within the neighbourhood, and one's virtue will be enduring. Cultivate it within the nation, and one's virtue will be overflowing. Cultivate it within the entire world, and one's virtue will be universal. PERSONAL AND COMMUNITY ETHICS The Taoist ideal is for a person to take action by changing themselves, and thus becoming an example of the good life to others. They should develop themselves so that they live their life in complete harmony with the universe. So the philosophy is not doing good things; but becoming a good person. Changing oneself in that way will make the world a better place, because as a person behaves well towards other people and the world, the community will respond by becoming better itself. WOMEN Taoism is a gender-neutral religion. This is implied by the concept of Yin Yang which teaches that masculine and feminine are complementary, inseparable and equal. The Tao Te Ching uses female images such as the mother of the universe and the mother of all things when describing the Tao. Taoism has always accepted that women have an equal part to play in spiritual life. Women took priestly roles from the earliest days of organised Taoist religion and Taoist legend has many tales of female deities. Taoism emphasises characteristics that are usually thought of as feminine such as softness and yielding, modesty and non-aggression. It teaches that the weak will overcome the strong. POLITICS Taoist texts suggest that the ideal way for a leader to run their country is by example and with minimal intervention. So a good leader is one that the people respect and whose instructions are willingly followed. The good leader achieves this by living virtuously in private, and living publicly so as to influence his people for the good. 100