Self-Regulation and Self-Control

42 42  Roy F. Baumeister et al. 4 The differences between the control condition and the two high-c​ hoice conditions failed to reach significance if we used the error term from the ANOVA as the pooled vari- ance estimate. The proattitudinal-c​hoice condition did differ from the control condi- tion in a standard t test using only the variance in those two cells, t(18) = 2.94, p < .01. The counterattitudinal-c​hoice condition differed marginally from the no-​speech con- trol using this latter method, t(18) = 1.71, p = .105. The high variance in the counter- attitudinal-n​ o-​choice condition entailed that it also differed only marginally from the ­counterattitudinal-​choice condition if the actual variance in those cells was used rather than the error term, t(17) = 1.90, p = .07. 5 Of course, participants were informed that they were free to leave at any time. Still, most participants prefered to complete the procedure and leave the experiment having accomplished something, as opposed to leaving in the middle of the procedure. References Allison, S. T., & Messick, D. M. (1988). The feature-​positive effect, attitude strength, and degree of perceived consensus. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 14, 231–​241. Banaji, M. R., & Prentice, D. A. (1994). The self in social contexts. In L. Porter & M. Rosenzweig (Eds.), Annual review of psychology (Vol. 45, pp. 297–3​ 32). Palo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews. Bargh, J. A. (1982). Attention and automaticity in the processing of self-r​elevant informa- tion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, 425–​436. Bargh, J. A. (1994). The four horsemen of automaticity: Awareness, intention, efficiency, and control in social cognition. In R. S. Wyer, Ji, & T. K. Srull (Eds.), Handbook of social cognition (pp. 1–4​ 0). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Bargh, J. A. (1997). The automaticity of everyday life. In R. S. Wyer (Ed.), Advances in social cognition (Vol. 10, pp. 1–​61). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Baumeister, R. F. (1998). The self. In D. T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (4th ed., pp. 680–​740). New York: McGraw-​Hill. Baumeister, R. F., Heatherton, T. F., & Tice, D. M. (1994). Losing control: How and why people fail at self-​regulation. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Brehm, J. (1966). A theory of psychological reactance. New York: Academic Press. Brockner, J., Shaw, M. C., & Rubin, J. Z. (1979). Factors affecting withdrawal from an escalating conflict: Quitting before it’s too late. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 15, 492–5​ 03. Burger, J. M. (1989), Negative reactions to increases in perceived per-s​onal control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 246–​256. Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1981). Attention and self-​regulation: A control theory approach to human behavior. New York: Springer-​Verlag. Cioffi, D., & Garner, R. (1996). On doing the decision: The effects of active vs. passive choice on commitment and self-​perception. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 133–​147. Cohen, S. (1980). Aftereffects of stress on human performance and social behavior: A review of research and theory. Psychological Bulletin, 88, 82–1​ 08. Cooper, J., & Fazio, R. H. (1984). A new look at dissonance theory. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 17, pp. 229–​266). New York: Academic Press. Cooper, J., & Scher, S. J. (1994). Actions and attitudes: The role of responsibility and aver- sive consequences in persuasion. In T. Brock & S. Shavitt (Eds.), The psychology of persuasion (pp. 95–1​ 11). San Francisco: Freeman.

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44 44  Roy F. Baumeister et al. Muraven, M., Tice, D. M., & Baumeister, R. F. (1998). Self-​control as limited resource: Regulatory depletion patterns. Journal of Personality and Social, Psychology, 74, 774–​789. Rothbaum, F., Weisz, J. R., & Snyder, S.S. (1982). Changing the world and changing the self: A two-p​ rocess model of perceived control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42, 5–​37. Scher S. J., & Cooper, J. (1989). The motivational basis of dissonance: The singular role of behavioral consequences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 899–​906. Schlenker, B. R. (1980). Impression management: The self-c​oncept, social identity, and interpersonal relations. Monterey, CA: Brooks/​Cole. Taylor, S. E. (1983). Adjusnnent to threatening events: A theory of cognitive adaptation. American Psychologist, 38, 1161–1​ 173. Taylor, S. E. (1989). Positive illusions:  Creative self-​deception and the healthy mind. New  York: Basic Books. Tesser, A. (1988). Toward a self-​evaluation maintenance model of social behavior. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 21, pp. 181–2​ 27). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Tetlock, P. E. (1983). Accountability and complexity of thought. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 74–8​ 3. Tetlock, P. E. (1985). Accountability: A social check on the fundamental attribution error. Social Psychology Quarterly, 48, 227–​236. Tetlock, P. E., & Boettger, R. (1989). Accountability:  A social magnifier of the dilution effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 388–​398. Wegner, D. M. (1989). White bears and other unwanted thoughts. New York: Vintage. Wegner, D. M. (1994). Ironic processes of mental control. Psychological Review, 101, 34–​52. Wegner, D. M., & Pennebaker, J. W. (Eds.). (1993). Handbook of mental control. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Wegner, D. M., Schneider, D. J., Carter, S. R., & White, T. L. (1987). Paradoxical effects of thought suppression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 5–1​ 3. White, R. (1959). Motivation reconsidered:  The concept of competence. Psychological Review, 66, 297–​333. Zanna, M. P., & Cooper, J. (1974). Dissonance and the pill: An attribution approach to studying the arousal properties of dissonance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 29, 703–​709. Zanna, M. P., Higgins, E. T., & Taves, P. A. (1976). Is dissonance phenomenologically aver- sive? Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 12, 530–5​ 38.

Ego depletion Allison, S. T. , & Messick, D. M. (1988). The feature-positive effect, attitude strength, and degree of perceived consensus. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 14, 231–241. Banaji, M. R. , & Prentice, D. A. (1994). The self in social contexts. In L. Porter & M. Rosenzweig (Eds.), Annual review of psychology (Vol. 45, pp. 297–332). Palo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews. Bargh, J. A. (1982). Attention and automaticity in the processing of self-relevant information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 43, 425–436. Bargh, J. A. (1994). The four horsemen of automaticity: Awareness, intention, efficiency, and control in social cognition. In R. S. Wyer , Ji, & T. K. Srull (Eds.), Handbook of social cognition (pp. 1–40). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Bargh, J. A. (1997). The automaticity of everyday life. In R. S. Wyer (Ed.), Advances in social cognition (Vol. 10, pp. 1–61). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Baumeister, R. F. (1998). The self. In D. T. Gilbert , S. T. Fiske , & G. Lindzey (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (4th ed., pp. 680–740). New York: McGraw-Hill. Baumeister, R. F. , Heatherton, T. F. , & Tice, D. M. (1994). Losing control: How and why people fail at self-regulation . San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Brehm, J. (1966). A theory of psychological reactance . New York: Academic Press. Brockner, J. , Shaw, M. C. , & Rubin, J. Z. (1979). Factors affecting withdrawal from an escalating conflict: Quitting before it’s too late. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 15, 492–503. Burger, J. M. (1989), Negative reactions to increases in perceived per-sonal control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 56, 246–256. Carver, C. S. , & Scheier, M. F. (1981). Attention and self-regulation: A control theory approach to human behavior . New York: Springer-Verlag. Cioffi, D. , & Garner, R. (1996). On doing the decision: The effects of active vs. passive choice on commitment and self-perception. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 22, 133–147. Cohen, S. (1980). Aftereffects of stress on human performance and social behavior: A review of research and theory. Psychological Bulletin , 88, 82–108. Cooper, J. , & Fazio, R. H. (1984). A new look at dissonance theory. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 17, pp. 229–266). New York: Academic Press. Cooper, J. , & Scher, S. J. (1994). Actions and attitudes: The role of responsibility and aversive consequences in persuasion. In T. Brock & S. Shavitt (Eds.), The psychology of persuasion (pp. 95–111). San Francisco: Freeman. Cooper, J. , Zanna, M. P. , & Taves, P.A. (1978). Arousal as a necessary condition for attitude change following induced compliance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 36, 1101–1106. DeCharms, R. (1968). Personal causation . New York: Academic Press. Deci, E. L. , & Ryan, R. M. (1991). A motivational approach to self: Integration in personality. In R. Dienstbier (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation: Vol. 38. Perspectives on motivation (pp. 237–288). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Pres.s. Deci, E. L. , & Ryan, R. M. (1995). Human autonomy: The basis for true self-esteem. In M. Kernis (Ed.), Efficacy, agency, and self-esteem (pp. 31–49). New York: Plenum. Duval, S. , & Wicklund, R. A. (1972). A theory of objective self-awareness , New York: Academic Press. Epstein, S. (1973). The self-concept revisited: Or a theory of a theory. American Psychologist , 28, 404–416. Fazio, R.H. , Sherman, S. J. , & Herr, P. M. (1982). The feature-positive effect in the self- perception process: Does not doing matter as much as doing? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 42, 404–411. Feather, N. T. (1961). The relationship of persistence at a task to expectation of success and achievement related motives. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology , 63, 552–561. Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Festinger, L. , & Carlsmith, J.M. (1959). Cognitive consequences of forced compliance. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology , 58, 203–210.

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