Nobelium Volume 5 2019

Spring 2019 1

Letter from the Editor Dear Readers, The Nobelium staff thanks you for taking the time to read this issue of the magazine. Every publication of Nobelium is the result of months of editing, revising, layout, and more. We always hope to produce a singularly exceptional magazine; however, this particular publication is especially meaningful for the seniors on staff and me. The Nobelium Magazine began three years ago with a small group of students who were passionate about making science interesting and engaging for the whole Nobles community. Since then, we have experienced trag- edies and setbacks. Sophomore year we faced the shocking loss of our co-founder and friend Jane Song. Howev- er, we have also experienced triumphs and moments of great pride. Since its inception, Nobelium has published five successful volumes of which we know that Jane would have been proud. Personally, this magazine has provided a very real education in human fragility, compassion, and perse- verance. Whenever I remove a newly printed issue from that cardboard box, I flip it over to look at the image on the back cover: a black violin. This graphic, present on the back cover of each volume of Nobelium, ensures that Jane and her memory will endure. This issue of Nobelium features investigations of various ethically questionable scientific experiments. Writers Gabby Rayev, Sammy Guerrero and Keren Luo examine the Tuskegee Airmen Experiment, the Man- hattan Project, and the HeLa cell line controversy respectively. In a thorough moral analysis, each author weighs scientific breakthroughs obtained by such studies against the humanitarian consequences. As always, the Nobelium staff owes a tremendous thank you to both our incredible faculty advisor, Ms. Tonge and the Nobles STEM department. If it were not for their unwavering support, Nobelium would still be just an idea instead of the magazine it is today. Sincerely, Lev Sandler Co-founder Editor-in-Chief 2 Nobelium Magazine • Spring 2019

Meet the Team Editer in Chief LEv Sandler Content Manager Julia Lyne Co-Chairs of Layout Clara GUzman and Lindsey Qian Copy Editors Willie Griffin and Liam Smith Editors of Biology Emily St. John and Sarah mansour Editor of Chemistry Nick Bern Editor of Psychology Michaela Sylvia Editors of Computer SCience keren Luo and Ami Nwaoha Staff Writers Editor of Physics Jennifer Do-Dai Isabel Kelly Anna Perez Keren Luo Sammy Guerrero Olivia Cheung Griffin Callaghan Hannah Epstein Harrison Theriault Nattalie Gualdron Layout Staff Susan Rowley Meghan Pauly Gabby Rayev Matt Cullinane Liam Nawara Claire Shapiro Niki Apostolicas Anushka Harve Grace Smith Sidnie Kulik Anna Perez Anya Cheng Leela Dubois Vivian Li Nattalie Gualdron Jennifer Do-Dai Charlie Guerra Sidnie Kulik 3

TABLE OF CON TENTS 4 Nobelium Magazine • Spring 2019

6 HELA CELLS 22 CRYSTALS AND STARS BY KEREN LUO BY NATTALIE GUALDRON 8 BAD BLOOD 24 HUNTINGTON’S DISEASE BY GABBY RAYEV BY JENNIFER DO-DAI 10 25MANHATTAN PROJECT WIRELESS CHARGER BY SAMMY GUERREO BY HANNAH EPSTEIN 12 26BATS AND MARBURG VIRUS POLAR VORTEX BY SUSAN ROWLEY BY LEELA DUBOIS 14 AIR POLLUTION 28 COFFEE AND GROWTH BY OLIVIA CHEUNG BY SIDNIE KULIK 16 CANNABIS 30 TREE PROTEINS BY NIKI APOSTOLICAS BY ANYA CHENG 18 STEAM STARSHIP 32 DREAMS BY GRIFFIN CALLAGHAN BY ANNA PEREZ 20 34NEURODEGENERATIVE ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE BY ANUSHKA HARVE BY LIAM NAWARA 5

HeLa BY Keren Luo Cells: Medical researchers grow human cells in The the laboratory to study how they function, how Story of diseases are developed, and to test out theoretical The treatments for disease without endangering pa- Immortal tients. In order to do this, researchers need to have Cell Line a huge population of cells that are identical to each other and can replicate indefinitely. After cycles of dividing and replicating, however, cells typically stop proliferating and die. Medical researchers then discovered a new method to study cells and test treatments for any given disease. In 1951, a scientist from Johns Hop- kins named George Gey received a sample of strange-looking tumor cells taken from a poor, dying black woman, Henrietta Lacks, who had cer- vical cancer. To his surprise, these tumor cells kept dividing, eventually producing an endlessly divid- ing cell population in which all cells were identical to each other. This availed the first “immortal” cell line—the HeLa cells, named for Henrietta Lacks. Henrietta Lacks was an African American tobacco farmer born in 1920. She was diagnosed with cervical cancer in 1951 at Johns Hopkins Hospital. Prior to her arrival at the hospital, Dr. Richard TeLinde, one of the top cervical cancer experts in the country, had been taking tissue samples from patients, usually without their knowledge. TeLinde extracted tissue samples from Lacks and sent them to George Gey, a cell biologist at Johns Hopkins Hospital. Gey was “determined to grow the first immortal human cells: a contin- uously dividing line of cells all descended from one original sample. Cells that would constantly replenish themselves and never die” (Skloot). Un- like typical cells that can divide roughly 50 times before undergoing apoptosis, the HeLa cells can 6 Nobelium Magazine • Spring 2019

divide indefinitely. they divide and adapt to the culture plates so rap- When a cell undergoes apoptosis, a form idly. Without proper maintenance, HeLa cells can contaminate other cell cultures in the laboratory. of programmed cell death, it shrinks and devel- A scientist later discovered that “HeLa cells could ops blebs, or bubble-like protrusions, on its sur- float on dust particles in the air and travel on face. The nucleus and other organelles of the cell unwashed hands and contaminate other cultures. shrink and chop up into small segments. The cell It became an enormous controversy” (Zielinski). then disintegrates and is consumed by phagocytes Furthermore, one group of scientists tracked down which are a type of cell that is capable of engulfing Lacks’s relatives and wanted to extract cell sam- other small cells. Apoptosis also prevents possi- ples from them in order to make a genome map of ble genetic errors after these rounds of division Henrietta Lacks’s gene, in order to solve the con- and replication. The HeLa cells, however, have tamination problem. Aside from scientific contro- an active version of telomerase, an enzyme that versies, there are also bioethical issues surround adds nucleotides to the telomeres of cancer cells. HeLa cells. Neither Henrietta Lacks nor her fam- The telomere is a region of repetitive nucleotide ily gave doctors permission to harvest her cells. sequences at the end of chromosomes that can The cells were also later commercialized, and her prevent them from deterioration during cell divi- family records were published without consent. sion, which prevents the incremental shortening of Lacks’s family did not find out about the scientific telomeres, a process that is implicated in aging and ubiquity of HeLa cells until 25 years after Henri- eventual cell death. In this way, the HeLa cells cir- etta’s death. In 1976, a postdoc approached Henri- cumvented the Hayflick Limit, the number of cell etta’s husband and informed him that his wife was divisions that cells can typically undergo before still “alive” in the laboratory. Understandably, Mr, reaching apoptosis. That is what allows the HeLa Lacks and Henrietta’s family were shocked; her cells to divide indefinitely, creating an immortal daughter, Deborah, who had no memory of her cell line in which all cells are identical to one an- mother because she was an infant when Henrietta other. passed away, was confused and desperate to know: Since HeLa cells can easily replicate viruses, the Did it hurt her mother when scientists injected her scientist Jonas Salk used them to test vaccines; cells with viruses and toxins? Had scientists cloned they’ve since been used to study diseases such as her mother? And could her mother’s cells help sci- measles, mumps, HIV and Ebola (Ted-ed). To- entists tell her about her mother, answering ques- day, these HeLa cells are being used all around tions like what her favorite color was and if she the world, with more than 600,000 medical jour- liked to dance (Zielinski)? Henrietta’s son was also nal articles published about their use and at least enraged when he found out scientists were selling 11,000 patents related to their use. Though there vials of his mother’s cells. The Lacks family lived are thousands of other cell lines, HeLa remains the in poverty, and the money researchers made from most popular because it is easy to grow, ship and HeLa cells could benefit the family substantially. store. After more than 60 years since the discovery The story of HeLa cells and the immortal cell line of HeLa cells, “one scientist estimates that if you encourages scientists to think critically about the could pile all HeLa cells ever grown onto a scale, many conflicting ways in which taking human cell they’d weigh more than 50 million metric tons—an samples can both benefit the scientific community inconceivable number, given that an individual cell and harm the individual. weighs almost nothing” (NPR), and if you could lay HeLa cells end-to-end, they could wrap around earth three times. Though HeLa cells are widely used in scientific research, many controversies still surround them. HeLa cells are often difficult to control because 7

By Gabby Rayev Bad Blood There is no way to state this softly: the in- organs, disease that can be transmitted sexually or famous Tuskegee Experiments, officially called the congenitally, meaning that it can be transmitted by a Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro pregnant mother to her child, and is first observed as Male, was one of the worst, most unethical, and rac- patches on the skin. Syphilis can cause serious long- ist breaches of medical trust in all of US history. The term health problems such as arthritis, brain damage, study resulted in more than a hundred black men and blindness if left untreated. There is not much dying from either syphilis or syphilis related causes. information about the demographics of syphilis prior Syphilis is a curable disease that could have easily to the 1950s; however, the disease was common as a been treated throughout most of the duration of the result of a lack of sexual protection and knowledge. study. This study and its lasting ramifications caused Prior to the advent of penicillin, syphilis was mainly a further erosion of trust in medicine and the gov- treated by injecting metals such as bismuth, arsenic, ernment for some of the black community. and mercury, but these treatments were often toxic and ineffective, resulting in a worsened overall con- Syphilis is a venereal, meaning related to sex 8 Nobelium Magazine • Spring 2019

dition for the patient. to autopsy. As written by Harvard professor Allen In 1932, the Tuskegee Experiments targeted Brandt in his ethical review of the study, “deceit was integral to the study” as when doctors would perform poor black sharecroppers with syphilis. The Public painful and dangerous spinal taps for the sake of Health Service (PHS), the branch of government that research, they would tell the patients that the spinal oversaw the study, worked with the historically black taps were actually beneficial for their health as they Tuskegee University to recruit 600 poor black share- were described as “special free treatment” (Brandt) in croppers, 399 of which had syphilis, 201 of which did a letter sent to participants. In 1947, when penicillin not. The recruiting was done in Tuskegee, Alabama, became the accepted treatment for syphilis, patients the area that had the highest rates of syphilis in the again were lied to and not given the treatment. Even country at the time. The recruiters had marketed the with a cure, they were left to die. But, in the directors’ study by offering medical treatment for “bad blood,” opinions, that cure was only available to white Amer- a term that loosely covered diseases and conditions icans. such as syphilis, anemia, and fatigue. The recruiters offered free transportation to and from hospitals, The Tuskegee Experiments were ultimately free hot lunches, free medicine for any disease other stopped in 1972 when a PHS employee, who was ex- than syphilis, and free burial after autopsies were tremely dissatisfied with the response to ethical con- performed. The men were also told that the study cerns about the study, leaked information about the would last six months, as the goal of the study was study to a reporter. The reporter, Jean Heller, wrote to conduct autopsies, a full body examination after a front-page story about the study which appeared death, on each of the men. Throughout the study, the in the New York Times in 1972 and incited wide- men were repeatedly given placebos or “non effec- spread public outcry about the study. It was quickly tive drugs” told that they were being treated, even shut down, but most of the damage had already been though the directors “had no intention of providing done. 28 participants had perished from syphilis, any treatment for the infected men” (Racism and re- 100 more had passed away from related complica- search: The case of the Tuskegee Syphilis study). The tions, at least 40 spouses had been diagnosed with researchers rather focused on continuously collect- it and the disease had been passed to 19 children at ing medical data from the men through check-ups birth (Nix). The study also resulted in widespread while also running procedures such as spinal taps to suspicion of the government and its medical institu- investigate the intricacies of the patients’ conditions. tions throughout the black community as the “deceit Throughout the study, any possibility for treatment used by the researchers and the disregard shown for for the men was avoided. For instance, in 1936, local the participants’ health have created a suspicion of doctors were specifically told to not help the patients government”(Nix). The study was a gross violation in any way, or in 1940, when the directors of the of medical trust, guided by racism, filled with lies, study excluded all of the participants in the study terminated only by shame, and a dark mark on the from antisyphilitic treatment offered by the military. history of science and medicine in the United States. The directors recruited a black nurse, Eunice Rivers, whose job was to transport patients, convince pa- tients to continue with the study, and ensure that the patients did not receive any information or treatment for their syphilis. Rivers represented the willingness of the doctors to lie about the realities of the study as her presence helped to convince the subjects that the study was “therapy from the government doctors” (Brandt). In reality, they were receiving placebos as the doctors waited for the patients to be brought 9

Manhattan Across the globe, many people know the While the effort was dubbed “The Manhattan Project” much of this research occurred outside of impact nuclear weapons have had on politics and Manhattan. Manhattan was simply where the project’s ethics. Nuclear weapons have both ended conflicts and overseers worked. The lab that was mainly responsi- started them. While many U.S. citizens know about the ble for the production of this weapon was a weapons use of the atomic bomb in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, research lab based in Los Alamos, New Mexico. This few know about its complex development. Until the lab was under the direction of J. Robert Oppenheimer, bomb was used on Japan in 1945, it was completely who worked very closely with Leslie Groves, the hidden from the public. Ordinary U.S. citizens had no military general who oversaw the Manhattan project idea about its existence or its production and planned (Atomic Heritage Foundation). Together, they dedi- use in World War II. In fact, “...the Manhattan Project cated 2 billion dollars to this project. In the end, their began in 1938 when German scientists Otto Hahn mission was successful; they created and tested new, and Fritz Strassmann inadvertently discovered nuclear forceful weapons. fission” (Atomic Heritage Foundation). Nuclear fission is when a neutron is fired at an unstable nucleus (a In order for these weapons to have the desired nucleus without enough force to naturally remain sta- amount of power, Oppenheimer and Groves needed ble). When this happens, the nucleus of the atom splits, to find an element that could generate enough energy. sending neutrons in a variety of different directions. Initially, the early bombs were powered by uranium. These neutrons then collide with more nearby atoms, However, after the discovery of plutonium, scientists causing them to split as well. If this chain reaction con- incorporated this element into their studies as well tinues, a massive amount of energy is released (Atom (Bradford). Despite the similar usage of uranium and Archive). Eventually, this discovery would prove to be plutonium, their effects are quite different. Plutoni- critical to the development of nuclear weapons. If an um is much more radioactive than uranium, and as element could be discovered that was stable enough to a result, has a much more devastating impact on the maintain its form for a period of time but then collapse environment (Wolchover). This is a result of plutonium after being bombarded, it could potentially be used to emitting alpha radiation (alpha particles are emitted create a weapon unlike any other. This is, in essence, when the nucleus of plutonium splits) instead of beta the Manhattan project: the pursuit to find an atom that or gamma radiation. Alpha radiation is more harmful could be packed within a bomb while releasing enough than the other forms of radiation because alpha parti- energy when detonated to destroy anything in its path. cles are physically larger and carry more charge. This gives them the capability to quickly react with sur- 10 Nobelium Magazine • Spring 2019

Project BY SAMMY GUERRERO surrounding particles. If the cells of living organisms years. are nearby, the alpha particles can react with them as Fat Man, the second atomic weapon devel- well, interfering with normal cellular processes (Aus- tralian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agen- oped, was even more powerful. Supported by plutoni- cy). In addition, the half-life of plutonium is signifi- um-239, this weapon was about 10 times stronger than cantly shorter than that of uranium: 24,100 years as Little Boy (Atomic Heritage Foundation). It would opposed to 4.5 billion years. In essence, these numbers eventually be used on Nagasaki, demolishing that city refer to the amount of time required for the original as well. Since then, no nuclear weapons have been used matter to deplete to half its size. While an element with in a war or otherwise. a longer half-life might seem more harmful because it takes longer to decay, the opposite is actually true. Around 16 hours after Little Boy was dropped Elements with a shorter half-life emit stronger radioac- on Hiroshima, President Truman addressed the na- tivity, making them more harmful than elements with tion and explained the course of action he took. As a a longer half-life (United States Nuclear Regulatory result, the public finally became aware of the existence Commission). of nuclear weapons. Today, for better or for worse, the bomb’s legacy lives on. Research in the field of nuclear In an attempt to save American lives and bring engineering and nuclear weapons development is still World War II to a decisive end, President Harry Tru- underway and rapidly progressing. Nuclear engineering man ordered Little Boy, the first of the atomic bombs has been applied beyond nuclear weapons and expand- created, to be dropped over the Japanese city of Hiro- ed into a variety of other fields. For example, today, shima. With a weight of nearly 10,000 pounds and fu- about 17% of the world’s electricity is nuclear-generated eled by the power of the uranium, Little Boy delivered (Blix). This means that every day, nuclear reactions are a force that was roughly equivalent to 15,000 pounds of being used to provide power to people across the globe. TNT (Atomic Heritage Foundation). When dropped, One way this can happen is when atoms are split and the ground temperature reached as high as 300,000 cause a chain reaction. When this occurs, it generates degrees Celsius, but most places experienced tempera- heat that can be used to make steam. This steam can tures around 6,000 degrees Celsius. Initial death toll then be directed towards a turbine generator. The steam estimates after the bomb was dropped were around causes the turbine to spin, generating electricity (Duke 140,000 people, but that number has since increased University). Therefore, although there can be a neg- (historyhit.com). In addition, this count doesn’t include ative connotation associated with the idea of nuclear those who were injured or those that died from radia- energy and engineering, there are both positive and tion exposure in the coming days, weeks, months, and negative aspects to it. 11

Bats and Marburg Virus By Susan Rowley Rousettus aegyptiacus fruit bats are on the movements of the bats (Sun). On a big- hosts of the deadly Marburg virus, a relative of ger scale, there is concern about Marburg virus the Ebola virus (About Marburg Hemorrhagic turning into a global threat and even used in Fever). This means that the fruit bats are able biological warfare because there is no explicit to carry the virus without harm (Deadly Mar- treatment once contracted, and it is lethal nine burg Virus Found in Sierra Leone Bats). The times out of ten (Weapons of Mass Destruction bats then pass on the virus through saliva and (WMD)). excrement (Sun). Aside from these facts, much The scientists’ – wearing helmets, face of the relationship between the fruit bats and shields, protective gowns, Kevlar-lined pants the Marburg virus is an enigma. It is known to protect against snakes that also inhabit the that the Marburg virus leads to the the viral cave, cut resistant leather gloves, and two pairs Marburg hemorrhagic fever which attacks of medical gloves – goal was to attach a min- multiple systems of the human body, specifi- iscule GPS tracking device on twenty bats to cally the body’s vascular system. Also known as determine their nightly the circulatory system, the vascular system is flight patterns (Sun). The bats were caught comprised of the vessels which transport blood with a net and then transferred to a pillowcase and lymph in the body (Overview of the Vas- before being fit with GPS trackers, which cular System). Furthermore, the body’s abili- were glued onto the bats’ backs ty to regulate itself is severely compromised, (Sun). The results of the causing hemorrhaging or bleeding (Viral Hem- GPS trackers showed bats orrhagic Fevers (VHFs)). flying up to 15 miles in Once night falls and the bats leave their a night, all in different caves, the number of unknown variables in- directions (Sun). Which- creases dramatically. Thus, scientists from the ever fruits the bats ate United States Center for Disease Control are during the night were now working to track fruit bats from the Bat Cave contaminated with the bats’ in Queen Elizabeth National Park, Uganda to saliva and could transfer the Marburg discover their flight patterns in order to identi- virus to whoever eats or handles that fruit or fy human populations that may be at the great- tree (Sun). The results of this study will be able est risk of contracting this lethal disease based to help scientists and health officials for years 12 Nobelium Magazine • Spring 2019

to come learn more about the spread of Marburg and consequently be better able to contain it. Michelle Barnes, a US civilian, travelled home to Colorado from Uganda after visiting the same cave (Barnes). On the way home she began to experience symptoms of headache, rash, and nausea. She went into multi-system organ failure during her first week back in the United States (Barnes). It took over a year, but Barnes eventually was tested for Marburg, and it was discovered that she had somehow contracted the rare disease (Barnes). She also realized that she had been in contact with hundreds of peo- ple during its most contagious period, potentially spreading it to all those she encountered (Barnes). It is unclear how Barnes contracted the disease as she never touched or was bitten by a bat, and whether or not she ate fruit contaminated by bats is uncertain (Barnes). However, Barnes’ near death experience is being used for a good cause. As her body fought off the virus, she developed antibodies for the Marburg virus, and scientists are currently using those antibodies to develop an experimental vaccine (Barnes). 13

The By Olivia Cheung Chemistry Behind From the increasing number of wildfires Air Pollution in California to the extreme 60-degree tempera- tures in Massachusetts in February, protecting 14 Nobelium Magazine • Spring 2019 our natural environment is one of today’s most important global challenges. It is common knowl- edge that air pollution is a leading cause of climate change and acid rain, but it is less known how exactly pollution reacts with the natural compo- nents of our planet. Unlike the reactions we create in chemistry class, some reactions between nature and man-made pollution can have devastating consequences. You might already be aware of the hole in the ozone layer, but what is the chemistry behind its destruction? The answer lies in anthropogenic, or human-made, pollutants containing chloroflu- orocarbons or CFCs. These chemicals, composed of chlorine, fluorine, and carbon, are used in the production of aerosol cans, air conditioners, and refrigerators that we use every day. Although CFC molecules are chemically inactive in the lower atmosphere of Earth, they become dangerous reactants when they reach the upper atmosphere and stratosphere (Ocean Acidification). The CFC molecules are able to pass through those parts of the atmosphere because they are stable. When they reach a part of the atmosphere with high ener- gy photons such as the ozone layer, a layer of the stratosphere, the photons cause each individual element to separate from the CFC compound. Ozone, composed of O3, reacts with the lone chlorine, fluorine, and carbon atoms and

breaks down into 2 oxygen molecules. For exam- When carbon dioxide combines with water, an H+ ple, when one chlorine atom from CFC combines ion and bicarbonate molecule form (CO2 + H2O with an ozone molecule, they form chlorine oxide → H+ and HCO3-). When generated, the H+ ion is and an oxygen molecule (Cl + O3 → ClO + O2). added to water, and the water’s pH decreases, be- The chlorine oxide then combines with a free ox- coming more acidic (Van Dien). With 20-35% of ygen molecule in the ozone layer and creates lone carbon dioxide from man-made carbon emissions chlorine and another oxygen molecule (ClO + O. dissolving in our oceans and increasing acidity, → Cl + O2). This depletion of the ozone layer can marine life is threatened. For example, creatures be summarized by the equation O3 + O. → 2O2. with exoskeletons become unable to build their You can see that after each reaction, the lone chlo- shells (FOMIN). Acid rain can flow through an en- rine atom remains and acts as a catalyst to repeat tire ecosystem and thus affects the plants, animals, this reaction with other ozone molecules many, and environment that make up the ecosystem. many times. One molecule of chlorine can destroy Because these organisms are so tightly connected, 100,000 molecules of ozone (Welch)! Furthermore, damaging a small part of the ecosystem can harm the detrimental effects on the ozone layer last for the rest of it (EPA). decades as CFC molecules can exist for 20-100 years in the atmosphere (Tran). Sulfur dioxide, another common air pollut- ant, creates acid rain when combined with water Ozone is crucial to protecting the Earth and other materials in the atmosphere. When from the sun’s UVB (ultraviolet B-ray) radiation. sulfur dioxide is released by burning fossil fuels, it The human consequences of UVB radiation in- oxidizes in the atmosphere to create a sulfate ion clude skin cancers, melanoma, and cataracts. (2SO2 + O2 → 2SO32-). When the sulfate ion com- Such radiation also hinders the development and bines with water in the atmosphere, sulphuric acid growth of plants and directly reduces the phyto- forms (SO32- + H2O → H2SO4) which falls back plankton population in marine ecosystems. This to Earth along with natural precipitation (What reduction has a major impact on our lives since Causes Acid Rain?). Acid rain has harmful effects plants and phytoplankton supply all of the at- on aquatic ecosystems as it makes the water toxic mosphere’s oxygen (Health and Environmental for all of its organisms. Not only does the acid rain Effects of Ozone Layer Depletion). By continuing affect aquatic organisms, but it can also make its to use CFCs, this network of oxygen production is way throughout the food chain and ecosystem and harmed. detrimentally affect animals who rely on those or- ganisms for food (Acid Rain Facts). Acid rain does In addition to the depletion of the ozone not have specific health consequences for humans, layer by man-made CFCs, air pollution from but the air pollution it results from is detrimental human activities like burning fossil fuels damages to human health. When inhaled, sulfate and ni- the environment as well. This combustion reac- trate particles can affect the function of our lungs tion is a major cause of acid rain which, in turn, and heart (EPA). leads to the acidification of oceans. Produced by coal, oil industries, and the burning of fossil Understanding the chemistry behind air fuels, compounds such as CO2, SO2, and NOx pollution shows how we can begin to solve the become hazardous when combined with water. problems it causes. By completely replacing CFCs For example, when CO2 is released into the atmo- in our everyday products, eliminating the use of sphere, it reacts with other chemicals and water, coal and fossil fuels as energy sources to reduce falling back down to Earth as part of the carbon carbon emissions, and using renewable sources of cycle. Although CO2 is essential for the process energy like solar and wind power we can preserve of photosynthesis, an abundance causes problems what is left of our natural environment. We must when there becomes more carbon dioxide than protect our environment for future generations by the environment can naturally handle (Van Dien). taking these crucial steps. 15

the effects of cannabis The increase in legalization of can- have a negative effect on the brain. A similar experiment was tested on nabis, or marijuana, across the nation has about 46 teenagers by several researchers at caused cannabis to become more prevalent in the University of Vermont in 2019. How- communities, including the youth. Not only is ever, this experiment studied the effect of cannabis legal in some states for medical use, cannabis on the brain after several uses. The but it is also fully legalized in other states. report resulted in those who had used canna- The legalization of cannabis in Massachusetts bis once or twice at age 14 to have more grey has allowed for anyone the age of 21 or over matter at cannabinoid receptors in the brain to legally purchase this drug. Subsequent- (University of Vermont). This increased grey ly, this legalization has created an epidemic matter around cannabinoid receptors caus- among youth. There is a myth that because es the grey matter to become thicker rather cannabis is supposedly a non-addictive drug, than thinner as the brain undergoes pruning it is harmless to use; however, researchers during adolescence, disrupting the refinery of from the Lancaster University in England synaptic connections (University of Vermont). have come to the conclusion that long term In addition, there was a noticeable increase use of cannabis impairs memory (Instituto de in volume in the amygdala, the area in the Medicina Molecular). brain where emotions are processed, and the In 2018 Neil Dawson, head scientist at hippocampus, the area of the brain that is re- Lancaster University, conducted a study com- sponsible for memory development. This data paring the effects of cannabinoids in mice. He was especially worrying to scientists, as one or compared the results of two groups of mice, two uses of cannabis had caused a noticeable one being the control and the other being change in the volume of parts of the brain exposed to the cannabinoid drug (named WIN compared to kids who had not used canna- 55,212-2) (Instituto de Medicina Molecu- bis before. When one uses cannabis once, a lar). The group of mice that was exposed to drastic increase in cannabinoid receptors form the cannabinoid drug for a long period of time around the cortex, hippocampus, cerebellum, showed “significant memory impairments” and nucleus accumbens (National Institute (Instituto de Medicina Molecular). Scans of of Drug Abuse).These increased receptors on their brains showed that areas of the brain the hippocampus were found to cause mem- responsible for the learning and memory, such ory problems, such that it became difficult as the hippocampus and amygdala were dam- to learn new information. In addition, the aged as well as the corpus callosum, the con- exposure to cannabis may speed up the rate nection between the two hemispheres of the at which individuals lose neurons in the hip- brain. The result of the long term exposure pocampus, making it harder for individuals resulted in the mice not being able to differ- to learn and retain new information. Age entiate objects of familiarity with new objects. also plays an important role on the effect of From this experiment, scientists were able to cannabis on the brain. As the brain develops deduce that long-term use of cannabis does through teenage years, it undergoes a process 16 Nobelium Magazine • Spring 2019

by niki apostolicas in which the brain prunes neurons which causes there to be a contrast in grey and white matter (Center for Brain Health). Grey and white matter are similar in which they both pertain to memory. However grey matter contains dendrites and is where the synapses in the brain take place while white matter contains axons and connects grey matter with each other (Indiana). Those who used marijuana before the age of 16 had less of a contrast in grey and white matter which causes less gyrification compared to those who had not used marijuana be- fore. Gyrification creates folds along the brain which allow for more surface area and therefore more processing power in the brain (Gholipour). Less gyrification would cause for less surface area in the brian and therefore less processing pow- er. The more those test subjects had used cannabis, the more alterations to their brain were present rather than those who used cannabis once or twice (Center for Brain Health). Regardless, scientists became worried for teenagers, as this change in the brain affects long-term development. Overall, data has shown that us- ing cannabis has negative effects on the brain. Not only will long-term use have drastic effects on learning and memo- ry, but using the drug once or twice can also result in noticeable changes. The Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development and countless other organizations urge individuals, especially adolescents, to be aware of the risks before using cannabis. 17

The Steam Powered Spaceship By Griffin Callaghan 18 Nobelium Magazine • Spring 2019

One of the largest problems facing the how far technology has come, it may be a shock that the key to sustainable interplanetary travel groups that lead in space exploration, including may come from that same, simple idea of turning NASA and SpaceX, is how to fuel their spacecraft. water into power. Despite the tremendous leaps that have been made in creating more efficient and compact engines, Many probes that have been sent out into fuel is still bulky and takes up too much valuable space have found that water, or ice, is abundant in storage space (Specktor). Traveling with extra fuel our solar system (Seidel). Whether it be on a mete- would result in a trade-off in either safety com- or, on a moon, or on another planet, this ice can be ponents of a ship or in other resources that could easily accessed and turned into steam power. On be brought on the voyages. All three pieces of this December 31, 2018, the world’s first “space hop- balance: fuel, safety, and resources are necessary per” was tested successfully in a vacuum; it ex- for space travel, and without them, expanding the tracted water from simulated meteor soil, convert- area that can be explored becomes very difficult. It ed that water into fuel, and launched (Specktor). has been theorized that a possible solution to the fueling problem could come in the form of light This “hopper” is named WINE, or the sails. However, the technology necessary to build World Is Not Enough. WINE and its preliminary these sails is expensive and not readily available proof that it can refuel and relaunch after a stop yet (Seidel). could change the way we explore our solar system. While it is unlikely that a manned space mission Thus, a team at NASA has turned back to could be executed with the “microwave-sized” steam power. Steam power has existed for over WINE, it is now more possible than ever before three hundred years, with the first steam engine that a probe could explore as far away as Pluto, dating back to 1698 (Seidel). With this age, and more cheaply and efficiently than current probes (Specktor). Lastly, WINE offers an ability to ex- plore the far corners of our solar system and even beyond that could not be achieved with modern engines and technologies. By looking backward, NASA has pushed forward, closer than ever before to true exploration of space. 19

Neur o deg ener at ive Dis eas e By Anush k a Har ve Every 67 seconds someone in the US is diagnosed of developing a disease” (NIA). Here, having the form APOE ε4 of the “apolipoprotein E (APOE) gene on chromosome with Alzheimer’s disease (Disabled World). It’s one of the 19” serves as a risk factor (NIA). most puzzling and devastating diseases afflicting society today. Not only does it eat away at a person’s identity and However, both lifestyle and environmental factors can livelihood, but scientists still don’t fully understand why and similarly affect early and late onset Alzheimer’s. According to how it occurs. New discoveries are made every day about the the website Disabled World, 30% of people with Alzheimer’s origin, diagnosis, symptoms, and treatment of Alzheimer’s. also have heart disease, and 29% also have diabetes. Other What’s especially exciting is how researchers are investigating conditions such as high blood pressure, obesity (NIA), a cure. But the question remains, what do scientists actually and even depression (Scientific-American) can increase know about this complicated disease? the likelihood of Alzheimer’s. On the more positive side, there are activities that people can do to reduce the risk of Alzheimer’s is a degenerative neurological disease. developing Alzheimer’s. Having a good diet and social life, Neurological diseases, as might be revealed from the stem getting exercise, and challenging oneself mentally (by doing “-neuro”, are any diseases that impact the nervous system. crossword puzzles, for example) are all good lifestyle habits Some examples include: Huntington’s disease, epilepsy, and (NIA) that could possibly reduce the risk of contracting the Parkinson’s disease (MedlinePlus). The word degenerative disease. means that cells are either being damaged or dying; in the case of Alzheimer’s, nerve cells are damaged (MedlinePlus). The most difficult part of Alzheimer’s for both a patient Alzheimer’s is also a form of dementia, an umbrella term and their caregiver is not its origin, but what it can do to a for diseases that induce a “progressive decline in cognitive person. Symptoms start relatively small, but the impact grows function...beyond what might be expected from normal over time. The disease targets three main parts of the brain’s aging (Disabled World).” functions: thought, memory, and language. For example, people with Alzheimer’s might forget how they spent their So, how is this triple-threat disease developed in the first Saturday, the name of their coworker, or how to ask for less place? Usually, a mix of genetics, lifestyle, and environment cheese on their pasta. causes Alzheimer’s. The genetics varies depending on the type of Alzheimer’s. There are two types of Alzheimer’s: Soon, the symptoms start expanding; thought, memory, early-onset and late-onset. Early-onset is quite rare, and and language control many aspects of people’s lives. Someone can start in someone’s 30s to mid-60s. Genetic mutations might forget how to ride a bike, or become unable to answer on chromosomes 24, 14, and 1, which can be passed down when prompted with a question. MedlinePlus explains: through families, increase the chance of getting early- “People may not recognize family members. They may have onset Alzheimer’s (National Institute of Aging). Late-onset trouble speaking, reading or writing. They may forget how Alzheimer’s is the more common type, and usually develops to brush their teeth or comb their hair. Later on, they may when people are in their mid-60s (NIA). A genetic risk factor become anxious or aggressive, or wander away from home. is when a gene develops “variants” that impact a person’s “risk Eventually, they need total care” (MedlinePlus). Although the toll of Alzheimer’s on the afflicted person is enormous, “total 20 Nobelium Magazine • Spring 2019

care” ensures that the family is not spared. Caregivers can undergo great stress and anxiety when a relative develops the condition (MedlinePlus). To watch a loved one slowly and painfully lose their humanity is a crushing experience. Therefore, it’s no wonder that researchers have been searching for a cure to Alzheimer’s for many years. However, there are many gaps in knowledge to fill and obstacles to overcome. In dealing with Alzheimer’s, there are four areas of research: improving diagnosis, improving treatment, preventing the disease, and curing the disease. P. Murali Doraiswamy, head of biological psychiatry at Duke University and co-author of “The Alzheimer’s Action Plan”, outlined advancements in each of these areas in a Scientific American interview. According to Doraiswamy, there has been a major breakthrough in diagnosis and treatment. The Alzheimer’s brain sometimes develops “beta-amyloid plaques and tangles,” which can be identified with an amyloid PET scan. Amyloid PET scans are a way of imaging the brain, which can help diagnose Alzheimer’s early. The scan can either be “plaque positive,” indicating the likelihood of developing Alzheimer’s, or “plaque negative,” indicating the opposite. This is extraordinary because these PET scans can show a “plaque positive” reading even before patients’ symptoms show up! If this consistently occurs, Doraiswamy says, Alzheimer’s could be diagnosed “purely based on biomarker and scan findings long, before memory symptoms start.” Additionally, in terms of prevention, Doraiswamy foresees the creation of “prevention plans that are personalized based on genetic, metabolic and neurological information.” Some clinical trials and research have already experimented with that. For embryos created using in vitro fertilization (IVF) (American Pregnancy Association), “pre-implantation genetic diagnosis has already been used to successfully deliver babies free of a deadly Alzheimer causing mutation—though only time will tell if deleting such dementia risk genes in humans has other consequences (Scientific-American).” Yet, according to Doraiswamy, the reason why the scientific community hasn’t had much progress is because scientists still need to answer some major questions. He explains, “Realistically speaking, there are several fundamental questions we don’t fully understand and have yet to answer: What causes the disease? Why do plaques and tangles form? Why are the memory centers the first to be destroyed?” (Scientific-American) For now, the best way to combat Alzheimer’s is to just keep researching, investigating, questioning, and experimenting. 1 in 3 seniors dies with Alzheimer’s or some other form of dementia (Disabled World) - a statistic that no one should accept. The more people that are aware of the disease, its impact, and research efforts, the faster scientists will be able to cure Alzheimer’s. 21

Stars Turning into Crystals By Nattalie Gualdron 22 Nobelium Magazine • Spring 2019

It turns out that thousands of stars in our wick chose 15,000 white dwarf stars within 300 light years from earth and observed their color galaxy are crystallizing. Although this was pre- and luminosity. Using their observations, they dicted over 50 years ago, it was not until recently identified an excess in the number of stars at a that astronomers at the University of Warwick specific color and luminosity that were not relat- discovered the first direct evidence of this theory ed to each other in terms of evolution meaning with the help of the European Space Agency’s Gaia they were not similar in age. They then used these satellite. observations and compared them to evolutionary models of stars which revealed that these stars had White dwarf stars are considered to be the reached the phase in their development in which final evolutionary state of many stars. It is formed heat is released in a large amount in order to cool when a low to medium solar mass star runs out down, resulting in a slowing down of this cooling of hydrogen fuel in its core and begins to burn process. This causes the star to stop dimming and helium, which sheds the star’s outermost layers. appear much younger. It is revealed that instead, 97% of the stars in our galaxy will eventually turn White Dwarf Stars have a solid core of oxygen and into white dwarfs at the end of their life cycles. carbon due to a phase transition, much like when Despite the fact that White Dwarfs lose a large water turns into ice but at a much higher tempera- portion of their mass, they are still extremely hot ture and density. Dr. Pier-Emmanuel Tremblay, and emit heat and light. They are approximate- who led the discovery, says, “This is the first direct ly the same size as the Earth but possess a mass evidence that white dwarfs crystallise, or transition between 0.15 solar masses to 1.2 solar masses and from liquid to solid. It was predicted fifty years ago cannot exceed 1.4 solar masses, which is known as that we should observe a pile-up in the number of the Chandrasekhar Limit. Over trillions of years, white dwarfs at certain luminosities and colours white dwarfs will cool down to the point that their due to crystallisation and only now this has been luminosity drops below a detectable level. observed” (Thousands of stars turning into crys- tals). While small, these stars still have a large gravitational pull which is counteracted and sup- Crystallization, also known as solidifica- ported by electron degeneracy pressure, the stellar tion, is the process of material becoming a solid application of the Pauli Exclusion Principle. This state. In the white dwarf ’s core, electrons and principle states that no two electrons can occupy atomic nuclei freely flow in a very high-density the same energy state at the same time. In a White liquid state. Crystallization applies the brakes to Dwarf Star, gravity is so strong that molecules electron-degenerate matter fluid flow as the fluid get crushed and atoms end up overlapping to the begins to solidify or turn into a somewhat of a sol- point where the electrons are stripped from their id, when the core cools down to about 10 million parent atomic nuclei and act as quasi-free particles degrees, forming a metallic core of mostly carbon. in plasma. This is called degenerate matter. Be- This discovery was all thanks to the data collected cause of the principle, not all the electrons can fit by the Gaia Satellite, “With Gaia we now have the into the lowest energy and are forced into higher distance, brightness and colour of hundreds of energy states. This behavior acts like an outward thousands of white dwarfs for a sizeable sample in pressure called the electron degeneracy pressure the outer disc of the Milky Way, spanning a range which supports a White Dwarf Star from collaps- of initial masses and all kinds of ages” (Gaia Re- ing into a black hole. Because of this, it was pre- veals How Sun-like Stars Turn After Their De- viously thought that the inside of a White Dwarf mise). Star was fully ionized and that electrons and atom- ic nuclei freely flow in a very high-density liquid 23 state but that a solid core might exist. However, there was no evidence to back up the claim. The astronomers at the University of War-

A Cure for Cancer in Huntington’s Disease? By Jennifer Do-Dai In the United States, around 30,000 people have Hun- death with siRNAs, we noticed that multiple, I mean many, cell death pathways are activated in parallel, and the fascinating part tington’s disease and 20,000 people are at risk for it (Paddock). was that the cells could not become resistant to this” (Hu). The Huntington’s disease is the progressive breakdown of nerve cells fact that the cancer cells did not become resistant is important, as in the brain and causes “a decline in thinking and reasoning skills, cancer cells often become resistant to forms of treatment render- including memory, concentration, judgment, and ability to plan ing them ineffective. and organize” (Alzheimer’s Association). This disease is caused by a mutation in the huntingtin gene. The DNA sequence CAG, Andrea Murmann, a research assistant professor at or the nitrogenous bases cytosine, adenosine, and guanine, which Northwestern, connected the kill-switch to Huntington’s disease. codes for the protein glutamine, is over-amplified in the hunting- Murmann reasoned that because the kill-switch function is found tin gene. While the CAG sequence usually appears from 10 to 35 in all cells, some people must have an overactive kill-switch which times in a healthy person’s huntingtin gene, it appears anywhere would lead to the destruction of cells and eventually tissues. from 36 to over 120 times in a person with Huntington’s (Ina- However, people with an overactive kill-switch would also have a cio). A larger number of these repeated CAG sequences leads to lower chance of developing cancer. Murmann believes that people Huntington’s disease developing earlier during a person’s lifetime. with Huntington’s have an overactive kill switch. This kill switch Usually, Huntington’s disease appears around the ages of 30 to destroys healthy nervous system cells. 50 and progresses over 10 to 25 years (Paddock). Unfortunately, scientists have yet to find a cure for this disease. This fatal disease As the mutation for Huntington’s causes many repeats is often passed down to children, as Huntington’s disease has an of the CAG sequence in the huntingtin gene, Murmann believes autosomal dominant inheritance pattern, so a person only has to that perhaps those CAG sequences can be formed into siRNA that inherit one copy of the gene to receive the disease: “If a parent has could potentially kill cancer cells. In order to test this theory, Peter the gene, each son or daughter has a one in two (50/50) chance of and his team used nanoparticles to deliver the siRNA into mice inheriting HD” (Huntington’s NSW ACT). with ovarian cancer. The nanoparticles were injected five times a week for two weeks, and an additional half of the mice were However, according to data, people with Huntington’s injected for an extra week. It was found that the siRNA “[induced] disease have an 80% less chance of developing cancer than those cell death in vitro in all tested cancer cell lines and [slowed] down without Huntington’s (Hu). Marcus Peter, a professor of cancer tumor growth in a preclinical mouse model of ovarian cancer with metabolism at the Feinberg School of Medicine at Northwestern no signs of toxicity to the mice” (Murmann et al.). Additionally, University in Chicago and his colleagues sought to explain this the siRNA made from CAGs “also effectively killed cell lines for statistic. According to Peter, all cells have a “kill-switch.” When a ovarian, breast, prostate, liver, brain, lung, skin, and colon cancer cell senses a defect in itself, it uses RNA interference to kill itself of mouse and human origin in a culture dish” (Inacio). This form to prevent further damage to the body. Peter described the kill- of treatment not only was able to significantly stop the growth switch as “a fantastic tool to interrogate the genome by selectively of tumors but it caused no side effects and the cancer cells did silencing individual genes and asking what happens to the cell” not become resistant. As it is believed that Huntington’s patients (Hu). Cell death could be induced in certain cancer cells by Peter have a long term exposure to siRNAs, from early in their lives to and his team by using small interfering RNA (siRNA). Usually, around 40 years, Peter said that “We believe a short-term treat- mRNA is transcribed from DNA and is translated in the ribo- ment cancer therapy for a few weeks might be possible, where somes to produce proteins. However, in a cancer cell containing we could treat a patient to kill the cancer cells without causing an siRNA with certain sequences, the mRNA is cut and destroyed the neurological issues that Huntington’s patients suffer from” by the siRNA so proteins are not able to be produced. This process (Inacio). Currently, Peter and his team are working on making eventually kills the cell. This process has been named system DISE sure that the nanoparticle reaches the tumor and stabilizing the (death induced by survival cell elimination) by Peter and his team. nanoparticle for storage. This nanoparticle could revolutionize Peter explained, “When we induce this particular form of cell cancer treatments as it can effectively kill cancer cells without causing damaging side effects in the body. 24 Nobelium Magazine • Spring 2019

Wireless Charger You can cut and mold By Hannah Epstein Any surface, including bags and pockets, can still charge devices once the sheet has been cut. The wiring that makes this possible is called H-tree wiring. now be transformed into charging ports for phone or H-tree wiring starts from the center of the power sheet other devices. Researchers have created a new way to and then extends out to the edges, making most of the wirelessly charge electronic devices using a flexible, coils still functional when edges are cut (Geek.com). cuttable sheet. With this sheet, there is no limit for With a normal wring which starts from the edges and the shape or size of the surface; it can be used almost then moves through the center, most of the coils’ power anywhere. would be cut off when the sheet is cut. Having the power come from the center maximizes the number of coils The flexible power transfer sheet was developed in use, therefore creating a larger and more powerful by researchers from the University of Tokyo, including charging surface. master’s student Ryo Takahashi. Takahashi began this project in order to power his robots more easily The center of the power transfer sheet is and efficiently (Science Daily). His main goal was to equipped with the central control unit. In order to use keep it wireless to make it more useful for his robots. the device, the central control unit is plugged into a Eventually, this led him to create a moldable and small, portable, and flat power source that provides cuttable power transfer sheet. “The sheet is thin and power throughout the sheet. The central control unit flexible so you can mold it around curved surfaces then activates the coils so the user can contactlessly such as bags and clothes. Our idea is anyone could charge devices (University of Tokyo). transform various surfaces into wireless charging areas,” says Takahashi (Geek.com). The unique design While these sheets currently provide enough of this product makes it easy to fit any given surface; all power to charge a smartphone or watch, one of you need to do is cut and mold! Takahashi’s goals is to raise the power in order to charge a small computer or laptop. Takahashi “would love to Similar to other contactless power chargers, see this sheet embedded in furniture, toys, bags, and this system uses coils in order to transfer power. The clothes,” (Science Daily). He hopes to make charging coils on the power transfer sheet are conductive, and more invisible, so homes and offices no longer have to they create a current in the corresponding coils inside have a mess of cables and wires. Soon, we could see this the device it is powering (ECN). What sets this charger technology being used in bags and clothing everywhere apart from others is that it is much thinner, gives a for an easier wireless charge. larger charging area, and it is wired so that coils can 25

The Polar Vortex is Coming! By Leela Dubois 26 Nobelium Magazine • Spring 2019

The headlines started to hit in early Jan- jet stream is almost equivalent to a river in the air, which flows in a circle around the earth bend- uary 2019 and I began to worry...what is the po- ing around various pressure systems in the air. It lar vortex and why is it invading us? Are we all serves as a barrier that holds the polar vortex in going to die? I went to the Cambridge dictionary place and separates the warmer air in the south and looked up the definition of a vortex, and it is from the freezing air in the north. The jet stream defined as “a mass of air or water that spins around normally flows from west to east, but when strato- very fast and pulls objects into its empty center.” spheric warming occurs dips and bends can form, That still didn’t sound good, so I decided to try to causing the lower vortex to either shift south or learn more. split apart. (Cappucci) This is exactly what hap- pened in early January-- the vortex fractured, After doing some research I learned that splitting apart into three different sections, and the reality is not quite so scary, but as anyone cur- one piece drifted further south than it normally rently living in the midwest can tell you, it can still does because of the changes in the jet stream. This have a tremendous effect on our weather. The po- change in the jet stream and the split of the polar lar vortex is a mass of frigid air and swirling winds vortex caused cold arctic air to be blown down that usually hovers miles above either pole. There over the northeast and midwest. are actually two vortexes in each hemisphere, an upper one and a lower one. The upper vortex re- So what does this all mean for us? In late sides in the stratosphere, the second lowest layer of January, the blast of cold air started to hit the the atmosphere. (Cappucci) Because this vortex is midwest, sending temperatures plunging to record higher up it does not normally affect our weather lows. On January 30th, Chicago reached a tem- as much as the lower one does. The lower one stays perature of minus 23°F with a wind chill of minus in the lowest level of the atmosphere, the tropo- 52°F. Temperatures like this can cause frostbite sphere. The troposphere is the layer of the atmo- almost instantly, resulting in school closures sphere in which we live, and the layer where our throughout the midwest and the US postal ser- weather patterns are. As a result, the lower or tro- vice cancelled mail delivery (so much for “Neither pospheric polar vortex is the one that usually plays snow nor rain nor heat nor gloom of night stays an important role in our weather. (Grossman) The these couriers from the swift completion of their lower polar vortex moves from west to east around appointed rounds”(usps.gov)). The fracture in the a low-pressure point. This low pressure is due to polar vortex can lead up to four to eight weeks the year-round cold temperatures of the north of worsened and colder weather, so this could be pole. The cold temperatures shrink and condense a long winter for the midwest. Some scientists the air creating a low-pressure vacuum that sucks believe that global warming and rising tempera- other air into it. (Cappucci) The upper strato- tures will make fractures in the polar vortex more spheric vortex forms in the fall and lasts through common in the years to come, so we should all the winter, becoming strongest from December to be prepared for occasional more frigid winters. January before dissipating in late spring. (National (Grossman) Weather Service) What should we do during a polar vortex? Most of the time these two vortexes remain The answer is simple. Stay warm inside. Build a almost entirely disconnected from each other and fire, cook a hot meal, and get a good book or watch they have very little impact on our day to day lives. a movie. And, if you do have to go outside be sure However, occasionally the upper polar vortex gets to bundle up. disrupted by sudden stratospheric warming and fractures, or splits apart into several pieces, which 27 is what happened early this year. This warming disrupts the pressure in the upper vortex, which, in turn, can disrupt the jet stream. (Chrobak) The

Does coffee stunt your growth? By Sidnie Kulik Have you ever been told that drinking coffee will stunt your growth? Well, that statement is a myth! Coffee tends to get a poor reputation regarding health. Many have claimed that the beverage is linked with heart attacks, heart disease, and stunted growth. However, these hypotheses have been discredited by recent studies. Previously, Americans thought that caffeine con- sumption, particularly in adolescents, caused osteoporosis. Osteoporosis is a condition where bones can become weak, brittle, and form holes. Patients afflicted with osteoporosis do not receive adequate calcium, and therefore their bones are not able to grow. Calcium phosphate is an essential min- eral in the body. The calcium creates a hard surface which covers and strengthens the bone. Bones are living tissues that constantly renew themselves. There are two major cells in bones that help with this process. Osteoblasts are cells 2288 NNoobbeelliiuumm MMaaggaazziinnee •• SSpprriinngg 22001199

that help build new bones using the calcium taken out of the blood. The other type of cell, osteoclasts, are used to break down old bone and return the calcium to the blood- stream. This process repeats in order to maintain bone health and growth. Previous research hinted at an association be- tween caffeine consumption and a decrease in calcium ab- sorption, yet recent studies show that calcium absorption is barely affected by caffeine intake. However these effects are so small they could be offset by increasing the amount of milk consumed per day. In fact, only 1-2 tablespoons of milk in a 6-ounce cup of coffee would counteract the effect of the caffeine. Therefore, there is no significant relationship between coffee consumption and stunted growth. In fact, a recent study by Penn State showed no relation- ship between caffeine intake and adolescent bone gain. The study looked at American women for six years, from the ages of 12-18. Three groups were made and each con- sumed different amounts of caffeine per day. One group consumed less than 25 mg, another between 25-50 mg and the final group over 50mg. However, these scientists found that there was no relationship between the amount of coffee consumed and bone growth. There are some negative health effects to drinking coffee. Caffeine is a drug, meaning that is has a physiolog- ical effect on the body. Caffeine consumers can become addicted and dependent on it. Caffeine can also cause anxiety and insomnia, or a disruption in sleep patterns. It also increases blood sugar levels which creates problems regulating insulin for those who suffer from type two dia- betes, raises blood pressure, and can even lead to diabetes. Lastly, the acidity of coffee can irritate one’s gastrointesti- nal tract, causing indigestion and an upset stomach. Yet, there are many positives to coffee consump- tion as well. Studies have found that caffeine can reduce the risk of Alzheimer’s and dementia. The University of Florida has found that regular caffeine intake slowed the rate of cognitive decline in older adults. A study in 2013 by Harvard University showed that caffeinated coffee reduces the risk of suicide by 45 percent. A case in 2011 showed that caffeine consumption amongst older women decreased the chance of stroke by 20-25 percent. Addi- tionally, a recent study by NIH National Cancer Institute and the American Association of Retired Persons has found that both men and women who regularly drink coffee have a decreased chance of death by heart disease, respiratory disease, stroke, injuries and accidents, diabe- tes, and infections. So, no, coffee consumption does not stunt your growth. Caffeine consumption has many positives, but there are also potential risks, so it is up to you to decide: is the daily energizer worth it? 2299

Co ul d a Rar e Tr ee Hel p Cur e Canc er ? Effective cancer treatments are rare – they and Compound 30. Both of these could play a unique and critical role in the future of cancer’s pharmaceuti- normally don’t just grow on trees, but in the forests of cal industry. Southeastern China, Mingji Dai may have found one that does. The first compound that Dai discovered is Compound 29, a structural analog of one of the The tree in question is a Baishan fir. With only Baishan fir’s molecules. This compound does not have three left in the wild, it is the rarest conifer in the the ability to actually fight cancer, but Dai found it to world, leading to its status as critically endangered be extremely useful in combination therapy, which is by the IUCN Red List (iucnredlist.org). For many a strategy that combines more than one drug into a years, these trees had been studied to find treatments single medicine. To figure this out, Dai conducted an for obesity and diabetes. For a while, the efforts of experiment in which he observed how Compound 29 Chinese chemists seemed fruitless, until Mingji Dai interacted with other proteins. He found that Com- began to research the tree for possible medical appli- pound 29 attracts a protein called POLE3 (Sandoiu). cations. An organic chemist at Purdue University, Dai was fascinated by the Baishan firs. But researching POLE3 is an enzyme that aids in the repli- such an endangered species proved a challenge. Using cation and repair of DNA molecules. A defective only the bark and needles in order keep their small version of this enzyme is often particularly active in population intact, he took some of the tree’s mole- lung and pancreatic cancers, and the defect makes the cules to his lab and began his research. He started enzyme overly active. Aided by the defective POLE3 by creating synthetic versions of several of the tree’s enzyme, a tumor can grow and replicate very quick- molecules. He then altered the structure of some of ly. Dai and his team reasoned that if Compound 29 these replicas to create analogs, which are synthetic were combined with a drug that inhibits the POLE3 molecules that have slight modifications from the enzyme, like Etoposide, it could attract POLE3 and original. It was after this step that Dai found his most make the drug much more effective (phys.org). He promising discoveries. believes that this could be an extremely promising tool for combination therapy. When studying the analogs, Dai found that he had created two special compounds: Compound 29 However, Compound 29 is only one of two 30 Nobelium Magazine • Spring 2019

By Anya Ch eng major discoveries from the Baishan Fir. Dai and his generally less effective. Compound 30 actually forms team discovered another synthetic analog compound, a covalent bond with the SHP2 protein—a covalent this time called Compound 30. Unlike Compound bond is a strong intramolecular bond in which two 29, however, Dai found that Compound 30 could compounds share electrons (Zacharias). The cova- fight against tumors directly by targeting a protein lent bond changes the structure of the mutated SHP2 called SHP2. protein and disables it, therefore stopping its un- controlled proliferation. This allows Compound 30 In the current pharmaceutical industry, to directly and effectively attack SHP2 in aggressive targeting the SHP2 protein is a new and promising tumors like lung and pancreatic cancers. technique for treating several types of cancer. SHP2 is a type of protein-tyrosine phosphatase, which plays None of these discoveries would have been a crucial role in many cell processes like apoptosis, possible without the Baishan Fir. Dai, however, is differentiation, and proliferation. When the SHP2 not the first to create a miracle medicine inspired by protein is mutated, it carries out uncontrolled pro- nature. Aspirin was derived from a molecule found in liferation, which results in quickly growing tumors a willow tree, and anti-cancer drugs have been de- (Chen). These proteins are critical to the survival and veloped from periwinkle flowers (Wong). More and growth of many tumors, like those of lung and pan- more, scientists are turning to nature for the cures for creatic cancers, and researchers have found that in- human diseases, but unfortunately, that very nature hibiting them may slow or stop the growth of tumors. is rapidly deteriorating. The Baishan fir is a perfect However, there are already many drugs that treat and example. With only three of these trees left in the disable the SHP2 protein. So, what makes Compound world, Dai managed to find two promising medicines 30 different? for one of the most relentless human illnesses, and undoubtedly, there are many more cures hiding in Dai says the answer lies in how the drugs our rainforests and our woods. We must try to pro- attack the SHP2 compound – more specifically, the tect and save nature, because it just might protect and bonds it uses to attach to the protein. Pre-existing save us. drugs that inhibit SHP2 form weak, intermolecular bonds with the compound, meaning the attack is 31

By Anna Perez Do you ever wake up and wonder why you had are unaware of. Lastly, below the unconscious is the “id,” which contains the instincts of a person (McLeod). such a strange dream the night before? Do you ever wake up knowing you had a weird dream, and wonder what Freud also describes two ideas complementary to caused it? In order to better understand dreams and sleep id: the ego and superego. The ego refers to one’s reality, patterns, we must first delve into the five stages of sleep. while the superego refers to their morality (McLeod). One of Freud’s classic examples of the notion of fulfilling The first four stages are simply referred to as stag- an unattainable goal in a dream pertained to one of his es 1 through 4. In stage 1, muscle activity slows down and own patients. In his book, Theoretical Approaches in slight twitching can occur. In stage 2, breathing and heart Psychology, psychologist and scientist Matt Jarvis writes, rate become less rapid and body temperature decreases. “Freud dreamed that he met [his patient] Irma at a party In stage 3, deep sleep sets in. Next, in stage 4, the body and examined her. He then saw a chemical formula for enters an even deeper sleep. Breathing is even and slow, a drug that another doctor had given Irma flash before and there is very limited muscle activity and function in his eyes and realized that her condition was caused by a the body. Stage 5 is where dreams occur, and where the dirty syringe used by the other doctor. Freud’s guilt was brain is perhaps the widest awake. This stage of the sleep thus relieved” (Jarvis). In this case, Freud felt guilty that cycle is known as the REM, or rapid eye movement, stage his patient didn’t seem to be getting better, and she later (Bernstein). appeared in a dream of his (McLeod). This led Freud to come up with his theory about fulfilling a wish or com- The rapid eye movement stage typically accounts forting one’s ego through a dream, which is still a widely for 25% of the time we are asleep (What is REM Sleep?). considered theory today. During REM sleep, the brain sends chemical signals to the spine to shut down various body functions, such as Although Freud and his theories are accepted large muscular movements, in order to prevent injury by many as true, some choose to adhere to scientist Carl during sleep (What is REM Sleep?). While very little is Jung’s theories regarding the nature of dreams. Jung be- known about how the plots or storylines of dreams are lieved dreams to be a direct expression of what the mind created, there are various theories as to what could be is thinking, unlike Freud, who suggested that dreams causing the different dreams (National Sleep Founda- “by nature, disguised their meaning” (Bernstein). Ryan tion). Hurd, a modern dream educator, writes that “the basic idea behind Jungian dream theory is that dreams reveal One theory, attributed to neurologist and psycho- more than they conceal. They are a natural expression of analyst Sigmund Freud, is that the mind creates dreams our imagination… and surprisingly enough, Jung did not during this phase to fulfill some kind of wish in real life believe that dreams need to be interpreted for them to that may not come true otherwise (Bernstein). Freud perform their function. Instead, he suggested that dreams compared human consciousness to an iceberg, where the are doing the work of integrating our conscious and thoughts and mental activity that we know about make unconscious lives; he called this the process of individu- up only the visible tip of the iceberg. In this metaphor, ation” (Hurd). Unlike Freud, Jung believed that dreams the subconscious, i.e. memories and knowledge that have were straightforward and that they were trying to weave been stored away, lie just beneath the surface. The un- conscious, on the other hand, houses our desires that we 32 Nobelium Magazine • Spring 2019

Dreams our consciousness with the unconsciousness of our char- A second theory that recently came to light is acters. He theorized that dreams are a mixture of the con- the Threat Simulation Theory. Antti Revonsuo, a Finnish scious and unconscious mind, and, in accordance with psychologist, put forth this theory in which the “fight-or- this belief, that dreams gave exactly the intended message flight” response is stimulated (Bernstein). This response because of their source being one’s own mind. This the- begins in the hypothalamus, and travels through the rest ory would suggest that unknown situations or behaviors of the brain and nervous system, triggering a response in dreams are a result of the unconscious mingling with to the stress one is under in a given situation (Harvard). the conscious. Although Freud’s theories are more well Katja Valli, an accredited researcher, says that “dream known, both theories are acknowledged in today’s society consciousness is essentially an ancient biological defense and can be used to put reasoning behind the dreams one mechanism, evolutionarily selected for its capacity to has. repeatedly simulate threatening events. Threat simulation during dreaming rehearses the cognitive mechanisms While these dream theories are interesting to de- required for efficient threat perception and threat avoid- bate and contemplate, modern scientists have been using ance, leading to increased probability of reproductive the concept of the REM stage of sleep to come up with success during human evolution” (Valli). The Threat new theories about brain function during sleep. One of Simulation Theory is different from the idea of random these theories is the Activation-Synthesis Theory, a the- stimuli causing arbitrary dreams; in fact, Revonsuo dis- ory introduced by two professors at Harvard University, agrees with this theory. He says that the “brain is much Allan Hobson and Robert McCarley (Bernstein). The two too complex and organized to have such random neu- professors discovered that the brain receives electrical ral firings. Our dreams have the commonality of being signals known as EEG’s during the REM stage. They used able to resemble our waking life so well, [it is] evidence that knowledge and theorized that a dream is the brain of [a] predictable and organized system…” (Crowl). By reacting to this random stimulus, and thus does not have maintaining that this is an evolutionary response that has any sort of deeper meaning (Bernstein). Additionally, the been present in humans and our ancestors for hundreds theory suggests the activity of many different parts of the of thousands of years, Revonsuo suggests that there is brain which stimulate different behaviors while one is nothing random about dreams and that they are merely conscious. This includes the “limbic system, which is in- practice for if you are one day put in danger (Bernstein). volved in emotion, and the brain startle networks,” (Acti- vation-Synthesis Theory), which create a motor response There are many other theories about what the to a stimulus within the brain (Rohleder). The random purpose of dreams are and how they occur. Without the stimulation of these systems can be an explanation for correct technology to come up with one definitive answer peculiar or odd dreams, Hobson believes, since high-lev- for the question of “Why did I dream this?”, it is certain el reasoning portions of the brain, such as the prefrontal that there are hundreds of theories as to why. But despite cortex, are left out of this process during the REM stage, this, the four most widely known -- and widely accept- making it seem as though the irrational dreams are real ed -- contradict each other wildly. Who do you believe? or could happen in real life (Activation-Synthesis Theo- What fits your dream? ry). 33

34 Nobelium Magazine • Spring 2019

Thë Ådvåñtågëß øf Årtïfïçïål Ïñtëllïgëñçë Bÿ Lïåm Ñåwårå ïñ Ëpïdëmïøløgÿ In 1854, a physician named John Snow was on humans can. While Dr. Snow had to travel door to door in order to collect data for his chart, modern outbreak the hunt. He was searching for the source of a cholera ep- data is often reported as individual cases to local doctors. idemic that had ravaged his local London neighborhood, Although this system is more efficient than that used by killing hundreds. At the time, no one knew how cholera Dr. Snow, AI cannot fight epidemics alone. AI would act spread, yet Dr. Snow suspected that raw sewage—found as a powerful data gathering tool that human epidemiol- in drinking water—was the source of cholera. Ready to ogists could use to increase their response times to epi- prove his hypothesis, Dr. Snow dove into searching for demics and other disease outbreaks. AI would allow this the source of the outbreak. He took a map of his London data from individual cases to be collected and analyzed in neighborhood, drew a grid over it, and began to mark real time. Despite the apparent advantages of using AI in down the location of deaths from cholera. After com- processing epidemiological data, AI currently only sees paring his data to a municipal map of water sources, Dr. limited use in the field. Snow realized that the vast majority of deaths were in the vicinity of the Broad Street water pump. After convincing In order to take advantage of the artificial intelli- city officials, the pump was shut and the outbreak sud- gence revolution, Epidemiology must utilize AI to allow denly stopped as soon as it had come. for faster data processing. An interesting example of AI’s potential in Epidemiology comes from a recently made To this day the story of Dr. Snow and the Broad program called FINDER. Developed by Google and Street Pump stands as an excellent example of the im- researchers from the Harvard School of Public Health, portance of Epidemiology. Defined by the World Health FINDER searches for the source of foodborne illness by Organization as “The study of the distribution and searching through open source resources on the internet determinants of health-related states or events (including and geographic data. FINDER is a more efficient tool disease), and the application of this study to the control for tracking disease outbreak sources than conventional of diseases and other health problems,” Epidemiology is sources. When publishing their findings in Nature, the an important field for the preservation of public health. developers of the FINDER program found that the pro- Communities rely on epidemiologists to better under- gram is 3.1 times more likely to identify unsafe restau- stand epidemics and disease outbreaks so that they may rants when compared to conventional sources such as react to and stop them effectively. Despite their impor- food inspections. tance, the World Health Organization currently states that world governments are not investing enough in As the global health system continues to work to epidemic prevention, leaving communities vulnerable. stop outbreaks and understand their nature in an era of underfunding and a lack of preparation, artificial intelli- Today, disease outbreak sources are still tracked gence may be able to alleviate an overburdened system. by investigating individual cases. These cases are investi- Artificial intelligence will be able to complete investiga- gated in the same manner as those of Dr. Snow. Swarms tions of outbreaks faster and more efficiently than possi- of epidemiologists conduct interviews, try to find pat- ble with humans because they are able to search through terns, run tests, and look at civil infrastructure in order enormous quantities of data. As the international health to discover common threads between the individual system continues to move into the 21st century, it will be cases of an outbreak and its source. With artificial intelli- equipped with a powerful tool that will allow it to combat gence and machine learning, this laborious process may infectious disease outbreaks before they become globally soon become more efficient. Machine learning allows for threatening pandemics. the processing of vast quantities of data faster than any 35

BIBLIOGRAPHY global-warming/acid-rain/The Chemistry of Air Poll ution. (n.d.). Retrieved February 16, 2019, from Scottish Hela Cells Environmental Protection Agency website: https://www. sepa.org.uk/media/120465/mtc_chem_of_air_pollution. Zielinski, S. (2010, January 22). CRACKING THE CODE OF Effects of Acid Rain. (n.d.). Retrieved February 18, 2019, from THE HUMAN GENOME Henrietta Lacks’ ‘Immor https://www.epa.gov/acidrain/effects-acid-rain#health tal’ Cells. Retrieved February 26, 2019, from https:// FOMIN. (2016, October 13). How much carbon is in the www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/henriett Ocean? Retrieved February 18, 2019, from https://ww. a-lacks-immortal-cells-6421299/ fomin.org/en-us/Home/News/article-details/Art MID/18973/ArticleID/12394/How-much-carbon-is-in- ‘Immortal’ Cells Of Henrietta Lacks Live On In Labs. (2010, De the-Ocean.aspx cember 13). Retrieved February 26, 2019, from https:// Health and Environmental Effects of Ozone Layer Depletion. www.npr.org/2010/12/13/132030076/Henrietta-lacks- (2018, September 24). Retrieved February 18, 2019, from immortal-cells-live-on-in-labs https://www.epa.gov/ozone-layer-protection/ TED-Ed. (2016, February 8). The immortal cells of Henrietta Cannabhiesalth-and-environmental-effects-ozone-layer-depletion Lacks - Robin Bulleri [Video file].Retrieved from https:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=22lGbAVWhroSkloot, R. Instituto de Medicina Molecular. (2018, August 13). How can nabis and cannabis-based drugs harm the brain. Science Bad Blo(no.dd.). The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks. In R. Daily. Retrieved February 28, 2019 from www.science daily.com/releases/2018/08/180813104221.htm A Clean Energy Resource. (n.d.). Retrieved March 3, 2019, from Duke Energy website: https://www.duke-energy.com/ Larner College of Medicine at the University of Vermont. (2019, energy-education/how-energy-works/nuclear-power January 14). Teen brain volume changes with small amount of cannabis use, study finds. ScienceDaily. Re Alpha particles. (n.d.). Retrieved March 3, 2019, from Australian trieved February 28, 2019 from www.sciencedaily.com/ Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency website: releases/2019/01/190114130855.htm https://www.arpansa.gov.au/understanding-radiation/ what-is-radiation/ionising-radiation/alpha-particles Center for BrainHealth. (2016, February 10). Starting age of marijuana use may have long-term effects on brain de Atkins, H. (2018, August 9). How many people died in the Hiro velopment. ScienceDaily. Retrieved February 28, 2019 shima and Nagasaki bombings? Retrieved January 31, from www.sciencedaily.com/relea 2019, from historyhit.com website: https://www.histo es/2016/02/160210135334.htm hit.com/how-many-people-died-in-the-hiroshi ma-and-nagasaki-bombings/ Gholipour, B. (2014, August 18). How the Human Brain Gets Its Wrinkles. Retrieved February 28, 2019, from Live Sci Backgrounder on Plutonium. (n.d.). Retrieved March 3, 2019, ence website: https://www.livescience.com/47421-hu from United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission man-brain-wrinkles.html website: https://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collec Center for BrainHealth. (2016, February 10). Starting age of Manhattitoanns/fPacrto-sjheecetts/plutonium.html marijuana use may have long-term effects on brain de velopment. ScienceDaily. Retrieved February 28, 2019 Brandt, A. (1978). Racism and Research: The Case of the Tus kegee Syphilis Study. The Hastings Center Report, 8(6), Starshfirpom www.sciencedaily.com/ Bats 21-29. doi:10.2307/3561468 Seidel, J. (2019, January 11). Steampunk solution to space travel. Retrieved from https://www.news.com.au/technology/ Cappucci, M. (2019, January 25). The ‘polar vortex’ is in the fore science/space/steam-powered-space-probes-may- cast. Again. Here’s what it means. Retrieved from https:// be-refuelling-themselves-on-asteroids/ www.washingtonpost.com/weather/2019/01/25/po news-story/96541fbd55ae821cf242bcaaa90e899b lar-vorte x-is-forecast-again-heres-what-it-means/ Specktor, B. (2019, January 14). Scientists Are Legit Building a Chrobak, U. (2019, January 11). The polar vortex split apart. Steam-Powered Spaceship, And It Sounds Awesome. Here’s what to expect. Retrieved from https:// Retrieved from https://www.livescience.com/64487- www.popsci.com/polar-vortex-fractured Neurodsetegaemn-peorwaetrievde-sDpaisceesahispe.html Grossman, D. (2019, January 16). What is a polar vortex? The frigid weather pattern explained. Retrieved from https:// About Marburg hemorrhagic fever. (2014, December 3). Re www.popularmechanics.com/science/environment/ trieved February 23, 2019, from Centers for a9897/polar-vo rtex-science/ Disease Control and Prevention website: https://www. cdc.gov/vhf/marburg/about.html Pydynowski, K. (n.d.). Midwestern US braces for coldest weather in years as polar vortex invades in final days of January. Barnes, M. (2014, August 5). My own infection is proof that Retrieved from https://www.accuweather.com/en/weath someone can easily carry Ebola into the U.S. Retrieved February 23, 2019, from https://www.washingtonpost. Air Polelru-nteiwons/midwestern-northeastern-us-to-face-more-bru com/posteverything/wp/2014/08/05/my-own-infection- Acid Rain Facts. (2009, October 9). Retrieved February 18, 2019, Deadly Marburg virus found in Sierra Leone bats. (2018, Decem from https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/ ber 21). Retrieved February 23, 2019, from Centers for 36 Nobelium Magazine • Spring 2019

Disease Control and Prevention website: https://www. tal-cold-as-polar-vortex-plunges-south-to-end-janu ary/70007245 Star ancddcC.groyv/smteadlias/releases/2018/p1220-marburg-found-in Coffee University of Warwick. (2019, January 9). Thousands of stars turning into crystals. Retrieved rom Science Sagon, C. (2013, December 13). Coffee for Health - Positive and Daily website: https://www.sciencedaily.com/releas Negative Effects of Caffeine. Retrieved February 21, es/2019/01/190109142631. 2019, from https://www.aarp.org/health/healthy-living/ info-10-2013/coffee-for-health.html Gaia Reveals How Sun-like Stars Turn After Their Demise. (2019, January 9). Retrieved from European Space Agency Tree Proteins website: http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Space_Sci ence/Gaia/Gaia_reveals_how_Sun-like_stars_turn_sol Davis, D. C. (2018). Total Synthesis, Biological Evaluation, and id_after_their_demise Target Identification of Rare Abies Sesquiterpenoids. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 140(50), Kundaliya, D. (2019, January 11). White dwarf stars observed 17465-17473. https://doi.org/10.1021/jacs.8b07652 slowly crystallizing and turning into solid spheres. Retrieved from V3 website https://www.v3.co.uk/v3-uk/ Etoposide (Eposin, Etopophos, Vepesid). (2015, April 27). Re news/3069190/white-dwarf-stars-observed-slowly-crys trieved from Cancer Research UK website: https://www. cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/cancer-in-general/ Huntingtatlloisnin’gs-aDnids-etuarsneing-into-solid-spheres treatment/cancer-drugs/drugs/etoposide Hu, C. (2018, February 12). Huntington’s Disease Reveals a New Researchers race against extinction to uncover tree’s cancer-fight Weapon to Fight Cancer. Retrieved January 20, 2019, ing properties. (2019, January 17). Retrieved from Phys. from Discover Magazine website: http://blogs.discover org website: https://phys.org/news/2019-01-extinction- magazine.com/d-brief/2018/02/12/huntingtons-dis ease-cancer/#.XHl5xlNKjOQ Dreams Huntington disease. (n.d.). Retrieved January 20, 2019, from U.S. Activation-Synthesis Theory. (n.d.). Retrieved February 18, 2019, National Library of Medicine website: https://ghr.nlm. from https://www.macalester.edu/projects/ubnrp/web nih.gov/condition/huntington-disease# site_rem_sleep/dreamActivationSynthesis.html. Huntington’s Disease. (n.d.). Retrieved January 20, 2019, from Bernstein, R. (2016, September 23). The Psychology of Dreams: Alzheimer’s Association website: https://www.alz.org/ Inside the Dream Mind. Retrieved February 18, 2019, alzheimers-dementia/what-is-dementia/types-of-demen from https://online.brescia.edu/psychology-news/psy tia/huntington-s-disease chology-of-dreams/. Wireless Charger Crowl, L., Higinbotham, E., Minnick, D., & Owens, V. (n.d.). The History of Dream Analysis. Retrieved February 18, University of Tokyo. (2019, January 8). Power cut: Engineers cre 2019, from http://dreams.umwblogs.org/post-freud ate a wireless charger you can easily cut to shape. Scence ian-interpretations-2/a-scientific-battle/antti-revonsuo/. Daily. Retrieved March 7, 2019 from www.sciencedaily. com/releases/2019/01/190108095117.htm Hurd, R. (n.d.). The Dream Theories of Carl Jung. Retrieved February 18, 2019, from http://dreamstudies. Valera, S. (2019, January 9). Engineers Create a Wireless Charger org/2009/11/25/carl-jung-dream-interpretation/. You Can Cut to Shape. Retrieved March 7, 2019, from geek.com website: https://www.geek.com/tech/engi McLeod, S. (2018). What are the most interesting ideas of Sig neers-create-a-wireless-charger-you-can-cut- mund Freud? Retrieved February 18, 2019, from https:// www.simplypsychology.org/Sigmund-Freud.html. DeLaOsa, J. (2019, January 9). A Wireless Charger You Can Cut into Different Shapes. Retrieved March 7, 2019, from artificial intelligence ECN website: https://www.ecnmag.com/news/2019/01/ Who.int. (2019). WHO | Epidemiology. [online] Available at: Polar Vwoirretleessx-charger-you-can-cut-different-shapes/ https://www.who.int/topics/epidemiology/en/ [Accessed 12 March 2019].Pandemic risk: How large are the ex Cappucci, M. (2019, January 25). The ‘polar vortex’ is in the fore pected losses? (2018, January 31). Retrieved from https:// cast. Again. Here’s what it means. Retrieved from https:// www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/96/2/17-199588/en/ www.washingtonpost.com/weather/2019/01/25/pol ar-vorte x-is-forecast-again-heres-what-it-means/ Sadilek, A., Caty, S., DiPrete, L., Mansour, R., Schenk, T., Bergtholdt, M., . . . Gabrilovich, E. (2018, November 06). Chrobak, U. (2019, January 11). The polar vortex split apart. Machine-learned epidemiology: Real-time detection of Here’s what to expect. Retrieved from https:// foodborne illness at scale. Retrieved from https://www. www.popsci.com/polar-vortex-fractured nature.com/articles/s41746-018-0045-1 Grossman, D. (2019, January 16). What is a polar vortex? The Flouris, A. D., & Duffy, J. (n.d.). Applications of Artificial Intelli frigid weather pattern explained. Retrieved from https:// gence Systems in the Analysis of Epidemiological Data. www.popularmechanics.com/science/environment/ Retrieved from https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/ a9897/polar-vo rtex-science/ s10654-006-0005-yFrerichs, R. R. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.ph.ucla.edu/epi/snow/snowcricketarticle. Pydynowski, K. (n.d.). Midwestern US braces for coldest weather in years as polar vortex invades in final days of January. 37 Retrieved from https://www.accuweather.com/en/weath er-news/midwestern-northeastern-us-to-face-more-bru





“The most incomprehensible thing about the world is that it is at all comprehensible.” Albert Einstein 38 Nobelium Magazine • Spring 2019