Nobelium Volume 6 Final Print

102 No beliumMAGAZINE WINTER 2020

Meet the Team Letter to the Editor Editor-in-Chief Dear Readers, Keren Luo Thank you so much for taking the time to Content Manager read through this issue of Nobelium. Every publi- Sidnie Kulik cation of Nobelium is the result of months of hard work and arduous writing, revising, and layout ed- Chairs of Layout iting. In addition to our hardworking subject edi- Nattalie Gualdron and Charlie Guerra tors and layout staff, we would also like to thank our faculty advisor Ms. Tonge. Without her tire- Copy editors less support and patience, we could not have the Claire shapiro and Shawn wu Nobelium today. We are also grateful for Nobles STEM department for their endless assistance. Editors of Biology The Nobelium Magazine began four years Jennifer Do-Dai and Sammy Guerrero ago with a small group of students who were pas- sionate about science and interested in making Editors of Chemistry science engaging for the Nobles community. I was Anya Cheng and Finn Crawford lucky enough to be a member of this group and witness Nobelium grow over the past three years. I Editor of Physics would like to thank Lev Sandler and Julia Lyne for Harrison Theriault creating a solid foundation for me to lead Nobeli- um this year. Editors of Computer Science This issue of Nobelium features the science Hannah Epstein and Anushka Harve behind mental health. Mental health includes our psychological, emotional and social well-being, Editors of Psychology and it is important to increase awareness around Griffin Callaghan and Gabby Rayev mental health problems. In this volume, Harrison Theriault, Katie Cheung, and Olivia Cheung ex- Staff Writers plore whether or not trillions of gut microbes con- trol our mental health, the effect of pets as well as Katie Cheung Julia O’Donnell the effects of nature on mental health. We hope Olivia Cheung Sophie Lowry you enjoy reading this issue of Nobelium. Ethan Maconochie Arnav Harve Catie Asnis Danielle Frankel Sincerely, Keren Luo Justin Qin Albert Qi Editor-in-Chief Jeffrey Lin Maddie Wee Drew Temel Haley Alpaugh Will Grimes Om Paithankar Roisin O’carroll Leela DuBois Layout Staff Kat Poole Caroline Fai Jordan Lysko Alex Bao Eleni Kiney Kait Schuster Allie Yi 1

Contents Features 3 The Microbiome: Are Trillions of Gut Microbes Controlling our Mental Health? | Harrison Theriault the positive effects of pets on mental health | Katie Cheung The science behind nature improving mental health | Olivia Cheung BIOLOGY 6 gene therapy’s ability to cure genetic Diseases | Justin Qin Honeybees are Dying Off | Griffin Callaghan How can DNa be applied as a storage device? | Julia O’Donnell The Science Behind the Impossible Burger | Arnav Harve Designer Babies | Danielle Frankel Ebola Virus | Maddie Wee EEE Outbreak | Jennifer Do-Dai Organ Printing | Om Paithankar The Woman who Couldn’t Feel Pain | Leela Dubois CHEMISTRY 17 Carbon Machines | Roisin O’carroll the earth’s lungs | Haley Alpaugh PHYSICS 19 How old is the universe? | Anya Cheng White hole wonders | Sidnie Kulik COMPUTER 21 Humanity of Artificial intelligence | Will Grimes SCIENCE Robots in the Workforce | Jeffrey Lin the future of medicine: surgical robots | Catie Asnis Computer vs. Brain | Ethan Maconochie PSYCHOLOGY 26 Envy-free Cake Cutting | Albert Qi Psychosomatic Illnesses | Drew Temel Brain activity in sleep | Sophia Lowry Bibliography 29 Compiled by shawn wu 2

The Microbiome: are trillions of gut microbes controlling our mental health? Written by Harrison Theriault edited by keren luo “Evidence suggests that the gut and its resident mi- normal gut microbiomes are either dominated by unhealthy croorganisms significantly influence mental health, as well as bacteria or when healthy bacteria are not present. Such sig- cognition,” says Christopher Lowry, Ph.D., an associate pro- nals being sent through the central nervous system trigger fessor of integrative physiology at the University of Colorado a variety of mental changes including mood disorders (The Boulder. Modern technology is beginning to unlock the con- Brain-Gut Connection). When the composition of the mi- nection between the brain and the intestinal tract, also called crobiomes in the gut change, more serious brain disorders, the microbiome-gut-brain axis, while answering a number of such as Alzheimer’s disease and related memory loss from questions that have confounded the medical world for years. conditions such as dementia can manifest. Recently, at the For example, when someone is prescribed an antidepressant University of Wisconsin’s Alzheimer’s Disease Research Cen- such as an SSRI, or a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor, it ter, Barbara Bendlin, Ph.D., and Frederico Rey, Ph.D. found is generally thought to affect the brain’s serotonin paths. Yet, that Alzheimer’s disease has a unique community of gut mi- 90 percent of serotonin receptors are not located in the brain croorganisms. Specifically, people with Alzheimer’s disease but rather in the gut. The question becomes, is the medica- had lower levels of Bifidobacterium, an important inhabitant tion affecting the brain or the gut? Once affecting the gut, is of the healthy human gut (Vogt et al., 2018). Furthermore, it the gut that has a major influence on the brain? (Naidoo, patients suffering from Alzheimer’s were shown to have a less 2018). diverse microbiome with distinct compositional differences A mental health focused, worldwide collaboration compared with the healthy gut (Vogt et al., 2017). Other dis- among scientists, is studying the bacteria in the intestines orders such as depression reveal a gut profile of microbiota to determine if mental illness originates in the gut or any- that is also less diverse and less rich than those of healthy where else outside of the brain. Interestingly, there is a grow- individuals (Greenberg, 2018). ing consensus that a number of mental health disorders that What is clear, according to Stanford University afflict humans are more than a problem of the individual’s School of Medicine, is that the trillions of microbes in the brain. Scientists at Tong University of Medicine in China, af- gut control much more in the body than previously thought. ter evaluating 21 different studies, reported in the Journal of These microbes are turning out thousands of new proteins, General Psychiatry that the regulation of the balance of the which are so small that they have gone unnoticed until now gut’s intestinal bacterial populations is significantly involved (Yang et al., 2019). These proteins fold into unique shapes in reducing anxiety and a variety of other mental health dis- that have control over key biological functions in the human orders (Yang, Wei, Ju, & Chen, 2019). body. These bacterial proteins are then transcribed into RNA Looking closely at the ecosystem of microbes in the and sent off to the ribosomes for translation, or the creation gut, researchers have found that certain species of gut bacte- of proteins (Yang et al., 2019). The gut bacteria appear to be ria are missing in people with depression. According to mi- controlling many of the physiological processes that influ- crobiologist Jeroen Raes, reporting in Nature Microbiology, ence a number of the body’s physiological functions. depressed people have lower levels of the bacteria Coprococ- The manner in which we look at and treat mental ill- cus and Dialister, normally found in healthy guts, when com- nesses ranging from mood disorders to major psychotic dis- pared to those without depression(Valles-Colomer, et al., turbances is now undergoing a major paradigm shift because 2019). Bacteria in the gut microbiome are found to influence of this new discovery. This cutting-edge research into mental brain activity by producing compounds that directly affect health issues affected by bacteria has revealed startling reve- and mimic a number of neurotransmitters in certain neu- lations as to the origins of mental health issues that afflict one ral pathways. For example, the bacteria Serratia can secrete in four Americans. Given the new information that perhaps dopamines, a neurotransmitter involved in mood disorders. the origins of mental illness lie outside the brain, mental ill- Other microbiotas (gut bacteria) secrete other neurotrans- ness is no longer being considered only a chemical imbal- mitters; for example, Lactobacillus can secrete acetylcholine, ance that originates in the brain. This major news is turning which is important in the regulation of memory, learning, the psychiatric world upside down, as most therapies to date and mood (Liu & Zhiu, 2018). have focused on only treating the brain and influencing the Accordingly, studies completed at John Hopkins brain’s inner-connections. University have recently shown that the gut-brain axis is a communication highway with interactions between the brain and the intestinal tract. Further research is unraveling evidence that the gut-brain signals are disrupted when the 3

The Positive Effects of Pets on Mental Health By: Katie Cheung Edited By : Sidnie Kulik Mental health is defined as “our cognitive, be- Furthermore, pets reduce stress and anxiety, havioral, and emotional wellbeing” (Medical News To- which helps the owner’s health by lowering their blood day). There are many positive effects that are associated pressures. In a study, it was found that petting a dog for with owning a service animal or domesticated pet, such 15 minutes reduces blood pressure by 10% (University as providing the owner a sense of purpose, social be- of Missouri-Columbia). Takefumi Kikusui, an animal longing, relief from stress, and an increase in physical behaviorist at Azabu University in Sagamihara, Japan, activity. found that pets can increase people’s levels of oxyto- One reason that pet ownership is positive is cin, a hormone that reduces anxiety and lowers blood that pets making the owners feel needed and giving pressure, by 300% (American Association for the Ad- them a sense of purpose. Feeling wanted or needed is vancement of Science). A 2016 survey concluded that essential to one’s well-being according to an experi- 62% of millennials have experienced mental health im- ment conducted at the University of Manchester. This provements from having pets (Human Animal Bond experiment consisted of 54 participants who had been Research Institute). Improvements in mental health are diagnosed with severe mental illnesses such as depres- determined by observable changes in biological chem- sion, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, or post-traumatic icals and proteins in the brain. For example, owning a stress disorder. These participants were surveyed about pet has shown an increase in levels of dopamine and how their pets helped them manage their daily lives, and serotonin (Helpguide). These two neurotransmitters are each of them gave meaningful answers. A participant responsible for one’s mood, appetite, body temperature, who struggled from severe depression commented, “When I was so depressed, I was kind of sui- and muscle movement. Pets also play a crucial role cidal. The thing that made me stop, was in the brain’s reward and pleasure system re- wondering what the rabbits would do. sponses. Likewise, numerous experiments That was the first thing I thought of … have demonstrated reduced levels of the I can’t leave because the rabbits need stress hormone cortisol during physi- me” (Newport Academy). In this cal interactions with animals. Corti- case, owning pet rabbits essentially sol helps regulate blood sugar levels saved this person’s life. These rabbits and metabolism, reduces inflamma- made the owner realize that he was tion, and assists with memory (Hor- needed because the rabbits relied on mone Health Network). him. Knowing that people or animals One last benefit of owning a dog can count on the owner strengthens their is an increase in physical activity. Dai- mental health and sense of self-worth. ly exercise, whether walking or running, In addition, owning a pet strengthens re- leads to an increase in endorphins, a chem- lationships between the owner and other people. Pets provide common conversation topics such as a favor- ical in the body. When a person exercises, their ite groomer or the best cat sitter. Also, when people are pituitary gland in their brain releases endorphins that walking their dog, there is a high chance that you will travel through the nervous system. These endorphins encounter another dog owner, which is a great opportu- interact with receptors in the brain that cause the body nity to talk to new people. These conversations help es- to perceive pain or create a positive feeling in the body. tablish community and sustain social connections. The Thus, through increased exercise with a dog, endor- benefits of social interaction include better self-esteem, phins will lead to improved mood and overall mental stronger emotional regulation skills, and more empa- health (WebMD). thy and trust. These qualities can improve one’s mental In conclusion, scientific evidence regarding health and social bonds. feeling needed, strengthened social bonds, reduction of stress, and increase in physical activity supports the claim that pets can improve one’s mental health. 4

The Science Behind Nature By: Olivia Cheung Improving Mental Health Edited By: Keren Luo With the start of school, extracurricular activi- nature causes the brain to focus its attention outward, ties, and homework, stress is an inevitable characteristic which also occurs “during wakeful rest periods like day- of life for students. Dealing with stress and maintaining dreaming” (Sour mood). In contrast, when listening to good mental health is important as stress has a negative artificial sounds, the brain focuses its attention inwards, impact on the brain and body. It is common knowledge which also “occurs during states of anxiety, post-trau- that spending time outdoors and being physically active matic stress disorder, and depression” (Sour mood). are beneficial for one’s physical health, but it is less well- Similarly, sunlight triggers the release of the hormone known how nature itself can positively affect mental serotonin in the brain, which boosts one’s mood and health. improves calmness (Nall). Serotonin levels drop with A breath of fresh air or the sounds of wildlife less sun exposure, causing seasonal depression during not only make a person feel good but also positively af- times of the year with shorter days (Nall). fect the prefrontal cortex of the brain. The role of the A study in Japan examined the effects of nature prefrontal cortex is to process information obtained on people through 420 subjects in 35 different forests. by the five senses and use that information to develop memory, perception, and When compared to a control group that was help the body’s functional opera- studied in an urban environment, sci- tions (Siddiqui). When a person entists found a 12.4% decrease in is stressed, the prefrontal cortex cortisol levels (Miyazaki). Corti- becomes active and undergoes sol is a hormone that is released rumination, the repetition of under stress and contributes to negative thoughts and emo- the body’s “fight or flight re- tions. Rumination is a known sponse”. This study also found risk factor for depression and a 7.0% decrease in sympa- other mental illnesses (Brat- thetic nervous system activ- man). However, studies have ity, a 1.4% decrease in blood shown that spending time out- pressure, and a 5.8% decrease doors decreases levels of rumi- in heart rate in subjects who nation (Bratman). In a study con- spent time outdoors (Miyazaki). ducted at Stanford University, it was The parasympathetic nervous sys- concluded that, “participants who went tem functions in a manner opposite on a 90-min walk through a natural environment reported lower levels of rumination and showed re- to that of the sympathetic nervous system, duced neural activity in an area of the brain linked to and causes the body to relax instead of tensing up. risk for mental illness compared with those who walked In this same study, the parasympathetic nerve activity through an urban environment” (Bratman). In addi- increased by 55.0%, pointing to a significant decrease in tion, the prefrontal cortex is normally connected to stress levels with exposure to the outdoors (Miyazaki). other parts of the brain such as the perigenual anterior So, the next time that someone is feeling over- cingulate cortex and amygdala. Mental illness disorders whelmed and stressed, they should take a moment to such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and anxiety are go outside and soak in the sunlight. By understanding caused by the failure of the prefrontal cortex to regulate the biology behind how the body deals with stress, it is these two parts of the brain (Bratman). easier to understand how stress can be relieved. Birds chirping, the sun shining, and cool air all have positive effects on mental health. Listening to 5

Gene Therapy’s Ability to Cure Genetic Diseases By Justin Qin In order to do gene therapy, a vector, or carrier, Edited by Sammy Guerrero must be used to deliver the DNA. Viruses are the most common vectors because they are able to insert DNA in Genetic diseases occur when there is a mutation a cell. These viruses are engineered so that they do not or defect in an individual’s DNA; in many cases, they cause disease, but instead carry the new gene to be in- can have severe effects on a person’s lifestyle. When tegrated into the body (How does gene therapy work?). DNA is altered, the body is given the wrong informa- However, since gene therapy is relatively new, there are tion on how to function, and people may have trouble still some challenges in delivering certain genes into synthesizing the necessary molecules to survive. How- the body, and scientists are working on perfecting the ever, scientists have recently explored the use of gene technique to safely cure diseases. Currently, a company therapy, a method that directly inserts a new, func- known as Homology is investigating gene therapy as a tional piece of DNA into human cells, essentially re- potential cure for PKU, and is making huge progress. placing the defective gene with a functional one. Once Homology has shown data of decreased Phe levels in a new gene has been inserted, the cells should theo- mouse models. Their method involves a specific type retically begin to produce the necessary molecules the of virus to deliver a functional copy of the PAH gene body needs (and currently lack), curing the patient. Al- to liver cells in the mouse. From there, the liver cells though gene therapy is still a relatively new approach should theoretically produce the necessary enzyme to and scientists are still working on its exact mechanism, break down phenylalanine. Homology expects to have it has huge potential to treat genetic diseases and cure conclusive data on human trials by the end of the year. patients permanently (“What Is Gene Therapy?”). Should everything be successful, they could potentially One specific disease scientists are trying to cure find a cure for PKU (“Homology Medicines Announc- with gene therapy is Phenylketonuria, or PKU. PKU es”). is a genetic disease whereby a mutation in the DNA, Gene therapy has huge potential to fight against specifically in the PAH gene, renders patients unable many genetic diseases, so companies such as Homology to break down a molecule called phenylalanine (Phe). are working on perfecting this new method to hopefully Phenylalanine is essential to the body because it is used cure as many diseases as possible. Because gene ther- to synthesize crucial proteins, adrenaline molecules, apy focuses on correcting the genetic mutation, it can and dopamine (a molecule associated with feelings of allow the body to produce its own necessary proteins pleasure). The mutation hinders the body from pro- with one treatment. With the rise of gene therapy and ducing phenylalanine hydroxylase, which is an enzyme advancements in technology, gene therapy shows great that breaks down phenylalanine so that levels do not potential to change the lives of countless people and get too high. High Phe levels can build up in the blood- cure many genetic diseases. stream, resulting in brain impairment and intellectual disability, as neurons are particularly sensitive to high 6 Phe levels. The only current method of treatment is a strict diet, limiting the amount of protein to control Phe levels. Yet since protein is essential for consumption, diets with low protein intake are not always healthy. However, scientists have been experimenting with ways to address the genetic side of PKU, and gene ther- apy is showing great potential (“Phenylketonuria”).

Honeybees are Dying Off By Griffin Callaghan Edited by Sammy Guerrero Honeybees are one of the most important mem- pact honeybees’ habitats and hives, which can limit their bers of the Earth’s ecosystem. Their role in pollination reproduction. is vital as the random pollination of crops is much less The largest enemies of the bees, though, are Varroa effective than pollination using bees. The economic im- destructor mites. These mites’ impact on bees is twofold. pact, too, that honeybees have in their role as pollinators The first way in which the bees are impacted by the mites cannot be overlooked. Bees represent $20 billion in value is through the changing of their RNA. The mites make the toward U.S. crops (Davis). This impact cannot be replaced bees more susceptible to genetic viruses. One such virus by another pollinator, so it has become increasingly im- is the deformed wing virus which causes bees to develop portant to protect the bees. physical deformities. Despite the importance of protecting honeybees, The largest effect, however, that the mites have on this past winter marked the largest drop-off in the bee honeybees is more direct. Varroa destructor mites suck population that has been measured in the last 13 years. The out the reserve fat of the honeybees. This use of the bees’ U.S. as a whole has demonstrated a clear lack of focus and fat hurts the bees because they feed on their reserve fat intensity on this issue, despite the growing cause for con- during winter. A lack of excess fat during winter, when cern. The overall percent drop in the bee population this food availability decreases, results in more winter deaths. winter was 37.7% of the colonies surveyed (Milius). This Next, the bees’ secondary use of fats is in their immuni- number is higher than any single year total loss of bees and ty against pesticides, which also thus becomes weakened highlights a continuation of the downward trend in the when the mites take their fat. The lack of fats to detoxify the chemicals used to kill harmful insects results in the bee popula- bees also being killed by the pesticides that have previ- tion over the ously not hurt them. These impacts can kill or exhaust an past few de- entire hive (Milius). cades. The problems brought forth by the Varroa mites Additionally, mostly surround the aforementioned commercial treat- while drop- ment of the bees. When bees are used on the same plants offs can be repeatedly, pollinating reduces the efficacy of their im- expected mune systems, which then allows the mites to enter the during the bees in the first place. The mites are also very difficult to winter months as colder temperatures and reduced polli- separate from the bees because they have evolved to be- nating means certain percentages of bee populations will come less affected by the pesticides and essential oils used die annually, the “acceptable,” or expected, amount of bees against them, while bees are further weakened by these that may die has been surpassed greatly every year by the harmful treatments that are thought to help them (Mili- actual number of bee deaths (Neilson). This statistic im- us). plies that this issue, while at its worst in recent winters, has The scientific and economic world intersect in been present for the last decade. the realm of honeybee survival. The greater focus of each The causes of this recent bee drop-off are more sector on the honeybees should hopefully drum up some complicated than just one specific problem. One reason support for the bees. The honeybees must be protected be- for the steep change is the over-use of agricultural bees. cause of their importance in commercial agriculture, as Companies that send their bees for commercial pollinat- well as their role in pollinating many other plant species. ing at farms are causing their own bees to die due to a lack These threats against their health are threats against the of diversity in their diets (Davis). Another issue facing the U.S.’s food supply and economy. Its citizens cannot sit by bees is the larger number of forest fires and floods that as the bee population continues to dwindle. occurred in the last year. These natural disasters can im- 7

How can DNA be applied as a storage device? Written By Julia O’Donnell Edited by Jennifer Do-Dai Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) stores genetic ogies, which will track many events non-intrusively information and serves as the blueprint for function over time” (Scientists Replay Movie Encoded in DNA). within organisms. DNA is a sequence made up of nucle- Shipman’s idea is to modify DNA to act as a video re- otides, which consists of a five-carbon sugar called de- corder of sorts and then place the DNA within bacteria oxyribose, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. to gather information regarding how and why people There are four nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), cytosine get sick to hopefully provide future remedies. However, (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T). DNA sequences are scientist Ewan Birney, the director of the European Bio- copied by messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA), which informatics Institute, states that this is “the other side of then provides the instructions for protein synthesis. science fiction,” and an unrealistic goal in modern times The order of the nitrogenous bases in DNA is crucial (Kolata). Nonetheless, another application of DNA as for protein synthesis because every three nitrogenous a storage device is as a replacement for the hard drives bases, called a codon, in a sequence of DNA corre- and compact discs that currently store our photos, vid- sponds to a different amino acid, and a chain of amino eos, texts, etc. Dr. Leonard Adleman, a mathematician acids makes proteins. Therefore, DNA provides the spe- from the University of Southern California, explains cific code for synthesizing a protein, and this process of that “organisms have been storing information in DNA storage can be manipulated to encode a wide array of for billions of years, and it is still readable” whereas compounds. other methods of storage expire in a number of years Recently, DNA’s ability to code and store has making DNA more sustainable (Kolata). Scientists have been applied to videos, works of literature, and images. demonstrated that DNA can store photos, videos, and First, in 2017, a team of scientists led by Seth Shipman, literature, so the applications of DNA as a storage device a neuroscientist at Harvard Medical School, encoded are virtually limitless. a video in DNA (Scientists Replay Movie Encoded in DNA). The video they encoded was a film from 1878 of a horse galloping. In the same way that amino acids correspond to a specific sequence of nitrogenous bases, the scientists assigned pixels of specific black-and-white shades to a series of nitrogenous bases. Afterwards, Shipman’s team inserted the genome into a living cell of bacteria, and the film remained intact as the bacteria reproduced allowing the scientists to extract the film from the DNA at any time. Similarly, scientists encoded all of Shakespeare’s sonnets and images into DNA using the same principles (Kolata). The recent question has become how to apply DNA’s ability to store information in a beneficial manner. Shipman states that he hopes DNA will become a “biological memory system that’s much smaller and more versatile than today’s technol- 8

The Science Behind By Arnav Harve The Impossible Burger Edited by Sammy Guerrero The hamburger has taken the world by storm, burger, and match it with vegan ingredients (Raphael). populating hundreds of restaurants from upscale eat- There are, of course, benefits and drawbacks eries to fast foods, and it is one of the most popular to these plant-based burgers. A study done on Be- new foods to hit the market. It is the plant-based burg- yond Meat, which was commissioned by the compa- er, and companies like Beyond Meat and Impossible ny, demonstrated that the process of creating a Beyond Foods have touted it as the future of sustainable food Burger generates ninety percent less greenhouse gases (Impossible Foods) and protein (Beyond Meat). It is than a beef burger and takes nearly half as much ener- a well-known fact that livestock farming contributes gy to produce (Heller, Keoleian). The process is quicker immensely to the climate change crisis and other envi- than creating a beef burger and will ease the conscience ronmental problems; nearly fifteen percent of all green- of anyone who worries about animal cruelty. Howev- house gases are produced from cattle, and over 11,000 er, plant-based burgers are not the perfect solution. For gallons of water are required to sustain them (FAO). To one, they are not necessarily healthier for you than a solve this problem, scientists have been hard at work meat burger, especially in fast food restaurants; Burger creating a meat alternative that actually tastes like meat King’s Impossible Whopper is made up of 660 calories, and can therefore appeal to meat-eaters instead of just 40 grams of fat, and 58 grams of carbs, basically the vegetarians and vegans. same nutritional value as a regular Whopper (Walan- Scientists at Impossible Foods believe that the sky). Plant-based burgers that imitate meat are also essence of meat at its core can be boiled down to a heavily processed, which means that many ingredients chemical compound called heme. A variant of heme like soy can lose key nutrients while being processed called soy leghemoglobin is found naturally in soy (Lucas). roots, and Impossible Foods has utilized this to give its In the midst of the plant-based burger fad, burgers a distinctive meat taste and its signature ability other startups are developing new ways to create fake to “bleed” (Troitino). However, because the process of meat. Another emerging industry is lab-grown meat, in obtaining such a large amount of soy roots to generate which cells are collected from an animal like a chicken enough heme is near inconceivable, Impossible Foods and grown in a mixture of nutrients to create the mus- has inserted the genes that code the soy heme protein cle and tissue of, for example, a chicken breast (Haspel). into yeast, which, due to its fast growth rate, will pro- However, this method is very expensive; faux tuna, as duce heme at a staggering speed. Scientists can then re- an example, can cost upwards of nine thousand dollars move the heme from the yeast and use it in their burgers a pound. (Frankl-Duval) Time will tell if meat alterna- (Simon). tives like the Impossible Burger will become as ubiqui- Beyond Meat, on the other hand, creates its tous as normal meat, but this fascinating area of food burgers in a different way; instead of using genetical science is certainly important in a day and age where ly altered soy and yeast, they use pea protein to give meat-burgers are becoming increasingly inefficient to their burger its signature meaty taste. Furthermore, produce. the burger is completely non-GMO (Capritto). Both companies also utilize a process called gas chromatog- A soy leghemoglobin molecule raphy-mass spectrometry. In this process, a machine is used to separate and identify the different components of a substance. Beyond Meat, in particular, uses a device called an electronic nose that mimics the olfactory re- ceptors of the nose to detect the aroma of a beef burger. Through both of these processes, the companies can an- alyze the odor, texture, and components of a typical beef 9

Designer Babies Written by Danielle Frankel Edited by Jennifer Do-Dai Gattaca, a movie released in 1997 starring Uma their opinions on genetic engineering. They summarized Thurman and Ethan Hawke, tells the story of a boy who their findings with this statement: “In general, Americans is at a disadvantage because his traits were not genetically approve of using reproductive genetic tests to prevent selected before being conceived. His destiny is essentially fatal childhood disease, but do not approve of using the pre-determined for him as one of the only people in his town same tests to identify or select for traits like intelligence or who was not born “perfect.” When audiences first saw the strength” (Hercher 2018). Unfortunately, a grey zone in the film, nobody ever imagined that this could be a reality one ethics remains. Conditions such as dwarfism, blindness, or day. Now, a little bit more than 20 years later, parents are deafness are not necessarily fatal illnesses; however, they still closer than ever to being able to select their best traits to be heavily impact these patients’ lives. Whether or not parents passed to their kids. should be able to genetically avoid traits like these remains Already, parents using in-vitro fertilization (IVF) an ethical dilemma. There are other ethical questions, such can test their embryos for genetic-diseases still in a petri as whether parents are allowed to dictate their child’s future dish. IVF is a process that many couples use in order to help without their consent, how this will influence the way a child with fertility problems or to prevent genetic mutations. In feels about their parents and vice versa, and inequalities such the procedure, mature eggs are retrieved from the ovaries as only the privileged having the opportunity to design their and then are fertilized by sperm in a lab. Once fertilized the children to possess higher intelligence or attractiveness, egg is then transferred to the uterus. Geneticists are now able which could lead to a genetic aristocracy not dissimilar to to use a technology called pre-implantation genetic testing the society portrayed in Gattaca. to select embryos that did not inherit known mutations Some scientists are attempting to genetically alter (Hercher 2018). Does this count as designing a baby? While early-stage human beings despite the global general ethics many future parents would not associate this system with the agreements. In November of 2018, a Chinese scientist by term “designing” because of its negative ethical connotations, the name of He-Jiankui announced that he had created the does it not still seem to fit into the definition of designing world’s first genetically modified babies, twin girls. Before a baby? Oxford Dictionary has defined a designer baby as, implanting the embryos in the mother’s womb, he modified “a baby whose genetic makeup has been selected in order their DNA to make them resistant to infection with HIV. to eradicate a particular defect or to ensure that a particular At the Second International Summit on Human Genome gene is present” (Oxford Dictionary). If parents using Editing in Hong Kong, he claimed that he recruited several preimplantation genetic testing are not selecting traits such as couples in which the man had HIV, then used IVF to having blonde hair, being a top athlete, receiving the highest create human embryos resistant to the virus causing AIDS SAT scores, or being very social, are they still designing their (Regalado 2019). He used CRISPR-Cas9 to disable CCR5 babies? There has already been a gene discovered called , a gene that creates the protein HIV needs to enter cells. a Glutamate Ionotropic Receptor NMDA, which is said to CRISPR, which stands for “clustered regularly-interspaced be correlated to memory. Researchers hypothesized that short palindromic repeats,” is a technique that is consistently “enhanced signal detection by NMDA receptors should paired with the enzyme “Cas-9” to modify DNA (Saey 2017). enhance learning and memory” (Tang 1999). When scientists He-Jiankui did not officially publish his experiment, but modified this gene in mice, it significantly improved their scientists in the field wholeheartedly believe that he did what memory, but it also increased their pain sensitivity, which is he said he did because of the available technology (Kolata, not a desirable trait (Simmons 2008). Theoretically, at some Wee, Belluck 2018). point in the future, parents could select for NMDA and their In the words of Dr. Alexander Marson, a gene editing children would have a better memory than the average baby. expert at the University of California in San Francisco, “It’s The question is, where does one draw the line scary” (Kolata, Wee, Belluck 2018). With the CRISPR-Cas9 between preventing disease and picking traits? The Johns technology readily available, who knows how soon it will be Hopkins Genetics and Public Policy Center conducted a before the norm is for parents to design their children. survey from 2002-2004 where they asked 6,000 people about 10

Ebola: The Disease that has Claimed Thousands Most of us have heard of the infamous disease Written By Maddie Wee Ebola, which gained attention from the explosive 2013 Edited by Jennifer Do-Dai outbreak in West Africa and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Liptak). But what really is this virus that of Ebola worsen. The initial symptoms include fever, has killed over 10,000 people and what does it hold for headaches, and fatigue, and the later symptoms include our future (Liptak)? vomiting, diarrhea, bleeding, and eventually death Ebola comes from the extended virus fami- (Chan). ly of Filoviridae and is one of the deadliest diseases in The first human case of Ebola can be traced the world, killing approximately 90% of those affected back to 1976 where outbreaks occurred in Sudan and (Tam). Ebola is categorized as a “hemorrhagic fever vi- the Democratic Republic of Congo (Rettner). The most rus,” meaning it can cause fluid to leak from the blood recent outbreak took place from 2013-2015 in West Af- vessels and it can also cause blood pressure to drop dan- rica. The Democratic Republic of the Congo has contin- gerously low (Tam). ued to have Ebola outbreaks since the 1970s (Liptak). The Ebola virus has a string-like structure that In a study conducted in 2005, researchers sam- allows it to cover area more quickly and thus, can attack pled bats, birds and other small animals in Gabon and more cells. Being a virus, Ebola contains “attachment the Republic of the Congo. The virus was only found proteins,” or glycoproteins, which bond to cells at re- within three species of fruit bats, two of which were ceptor sites. Since the virus has a massive number of also found in Guinea, the spawning point of the recent glycoproteins, this allows it to more easily attach to a 2013 Ebola outbreak. Researchers drew the conclusion host cell’s outer membrane. When the glycoproteins are that these bats were the source of the virus’s outbreak attached to the host cell, the receptor site of the virus (Rettner). is exposed. This receptor site then drives into the cyto- Out of the known 3,198 cases of Ebola, there plasm of the host cell after penetrating its membrane. have been 995 survivors (Ebola outbreak in Democrat- Once the host cell has been invaded, the Ebola virus can ic Republic of Congo: October Crisis Update). Survival begin to multiply (Tam). depends on two factors: a person’s immune system and The reason that Ebola is so contagious is because how much exposure they had to the virus. However, re- it spreads via direct contact with any bodily fluids from search is still being done to create treatments for Eb- an infected person or exposure to an infected animal or ola. The drug ZMapp has currently been the standard item (Chan). Another reason why Ebola is so highly ef- treatment for Ebola outbreaks. It was created by collect- fective is because it first penetrates white blood cells that ing the antibodies that Ebola infected mice produced control the body’s ability to get rid of foreign substanc- in response to the virus. The antibodies were then fur- es. After this, the virus infects almost every other cell ther engineered to resemble those of a human so the type. Since the white blood cells were initially attacked, immune reaction would not be triggered. Researchers the body cannot form a response to the Ebola. Healthy assessed the antibodies for the ones that would attach cells are eventually overwhelmed and burst, leading to to the same proteins that Ebola uses to infiltrate cells, inflammation and the release of new Ebola viruses. The thus preventing it from spreading (Molenti). All in all, new viruses float through the bloodstream and attack the understanding of Ebola has grown and continues to other cells. Ebola can also cause bleeding when the vi- grow steadily, paving the way for more effective medi- rus latches onto and weakens blood cells, causing fluids cine, and even a vaccine, in the future. to escape from the blood vessels (Tam). As the illness progresses, the flu-like symptoms 11

EEE Outbreak By Jennifer Do-Dai This year, the United States is experiencing the Edited by sammy Guerrero “worst outbreak of eastern equine encephalitis since U.S. health officials began monitoring the mosquito-borne dis- ciation). Many patients with encephalitis will die within ease 15 years ago” (Bates). The United States Center for two to ten days. Most of those who survive will suffer from Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has reported 31 “disabling and progressive mental and physical sequelae, cases of eastern equine encephalitis, including 9 deaths, which can range from minimal brain dysfunction to se- this year. This equates to over 30% of the total cases of vere intellectual impairment, personality disorders, sei- eastern equine encephalitis recorded since 2009 (Bates). zures, paralysis, and cranial nerve dysfunction” (Center Commonly called Triple E or EEE, eastern equine for Disease Control and Prevention). Sequelae are condi- encephalitis is an arbovirus, meaning that it is spread tions resulting from a previous disease or injury; in this through specific insects. EEE is spread through infected case, EEE. Unfortunately, there is no cure or vaccine for mosquitos, which receive the virus from birds and pass on EEE right now. Current medications only treat the symp- the virus to mammals such as horses and humans. While toms, not the disease itself. Boston Children’s Hospital it is unknown what exactly is causing this year’s spike in currently states that anticonvulsants are used to treat sei- EEE cases, researchers believe that conditions were just zures, a respirator for breathing problems, pain relievers right this year for mosquito growth. Warm temperatures for body aches, sedatives for irritability, and corticoste- are prime for mosquito breeding, while the cold tempera- roids for brain swelling (Boston Children’s Hospital). tures kill mosquitoes. Increased rainfall allows for increas- The reason why little research has been conducted es in the mosquito population since still water is essential for EEE is that, compared to other diseases, EEE is rare. for the laying of mosquito eggs, and more rain increases Dan H. Barouch, the director of the Center for Virology standing water. These conditions have occured a number and Vaccine Research at Beth Israel Deaconess Medical of times in the past year. According to Catherine Brown, a Center said, “The technology exists. It just hasn’t been state epidemiologist and public health veterinarian at the made yet” (Barouch). William B. Klimstra of the Center Massachusetts Department of Public Health, “After sever- for Vaccine Research at the University of Pittsburgh has al years of drought in Massachusetts, we had a lot of rain tested new treatments in mice and hopes to test them in last fall. We had a lot of rain this spring. As well as early primates soon (Freyer). Besides, pharmaceutical compa- warm temperatures, and that set us up with very large and nies probably would not want to make an EEE vaccine due unusually large mosquito populations” (Brown). Brown to the high cost and low demand. Furthermore, the only believes that this outbreak will end with the coming of the way researchers could conclusively test the effectiveness first frost because the cold temperatures will kill all mos- of vaccine would be “by deliberately exposing [nonhuman quitos, including those carrying Triple E. However, Brown primates] to the virus” (Freyer). This calls into question also believes what “is likely to happen is that this is the be- the ethics behind testing on nonhuman primates: can the ginning of our next outbreak cycle -- so we will continue suffering and death of nonhuman primates be justified by to see activity for probably the next two years” (Brown). the eventual benefit of humans? Some scientists believe EEE typically displays symptoms in humans 4 to that testing on nonhuman primates is vital for progress 10 days after receiving a mosquito bite. Some people who towards medical breakthroughs due to the similarities be- receive the virus do not develop any illness. Others will tween humans and nonhuman primates; however, others display symptoms such as high fever, headaches, vomiting, believe that because “these animals are very person-like a stiff neck, muscle aches, and a lack of energy (National and, in many relevant respects, comparable in their cog- Environmental Health Association). Patients with those nitive and social capacities to young children” testing on symptoms normally recover within two weeks. Howev- nonhuman primates must end and alternative means of er, patients may develop a more severe effect of EEE, en- testing should be found (DeGrazia). cephalitis. Encephalitis is the inflammation, or swelling, With no vaccine on the market in the foreseeable of the brain, and encephalitic infections can lead to “fever, future, prevention of EEE is essential. Be sure to avoid irritability, drowsiness, seizures, disorientation, vomiting, spending time outdoors after dusk and before dawn, and anorexia, diarrhea, convulsions, and coma” in addition to use mosquito repellent with DEET. “intellectual impairment, paralysis, seizures, and person- ality dysfunction” (National Environmental Health Asso- 12

ORGAN PRINTING Writtten By: Om Paithankar Edited By: Sammy Guerrero Think the 3D printing of organs is the stuff of the dis- healthy organ donors. The most commonly donated or- tant future? Well, think again. gan as a whole, by living donors, is the kidney. Other Since the invention of the first 3D printer in organs, if needed in their entirety for transplantation, 1983, 3D printing technology has taken great strides. are harvested from deceased donors who still possess Scientists are now wondering in what ways 3D printing viable organs. In the U.S., over 100,000 people continue can change the world on a large scale. The printing of to be on organ transplant waiting lists. human organs, or ‘organ bioprinting,’ has captured the Even if a patient receives a donated organ trans- attention of scientists as an industry that would be a ga- plant, they can continue to experience difficulties due to mechanger in the rapidly growing world of 3D printing the potential for rejection of transplanted organs, as the as well as in the world of organ transplantation. organ transplant would be seen by the immune system The technology and concept of organ bioprint- as a foreign object and would be attacked, causing severe ing was patented by Dr. Thomas Boland of Clemson damage to the organ and the patient. Almost all patients University in 2004 (Alongi). Organ bioprinting is the who receive an organ transplant must take immunosup- process of constructing artificial organs using a 3D pression drugs following the transplantation, and many printer, with the intent of human clinical transplanta- need to be on a lifelong regimen of those drugs to help tion, which could save millions. prevent the rejection of the received organ (Healthline). Immunosuppressants, or ‘antirejection’ drugs, reduce Organ transplantation and the role of organ bioprinting the strength of the immune system through a variety Today, millions of people around the world suf- of mechanisms. Nearly all of these mechanisms pre- fer from organ dysfunction, either complete or partial, vent the activation of white blood cells and other cells due to medical conditions at birth, accidents, or diseas- involved in the immune system by preventing the se- es acquired later in life (UNOS). The only way these pa- cretion of biochemicals such as cytokines, that signal tients can lead a close-to-normal life is through organ for the cells to be activated (NCBI). These drugs can transplantation, the process by which healthy organs pose life-threatening risks to patients as they can cause replace the missing or dysfunctional organs. AIDS-like symptoms due to the suppression of the im- Organ transplantation becomes even more ur- mune system. This means that the patient could easily gent when crucial organs such as the kidneys, liver, fall sick and die from infectious diseases that healthy heart, lungs, or important bone structures are incapa- immune systems could fight because their immune sys- ble of functioning normally and need to be replaced as tem has been weakened by the immunosuppressant and quickly as possible. In these cases, if the patient does does not have the strength to fight common infectious not receive a healthy organ, it will likely result in the diseases. death of the patient or will force them onto a lifelong In the light of these issues associated with today’s regimen of medications that help keep patients alive de- organ transplantation, it is easy to imagine the huge im- spite the lack of a functional organ. Nearly all of these pact 3D organ printing technology can have. Since the medications require that the patient be bed-ridden technology can be used to create organs on demand and until they receive the organs of need. To be eligible to on a large scale, it will have the ability to tilt the balance receive organs for transplantation, the patient needs to of supply vs. demand in favor of the patient. Reducing be registered on the national organ transplant waiting the excruciatingly long wait-period for people on the list. In the U.S., one of the most medically developed transplant wait-list, some of whom could face death if countries in the world, the waiting period can be 3-5 the organ does not become available in time, could be years (UNOS). The wait is likely longer in many oth- a gamechanger, benefiting millions of patients around er geographical areas due to a lack of medical facilities, the globe. Additionally, since the 3D organ bioprinting surgical equipment, and healthy organ donors. technology involves constructing the required organs Currently, organs for human use come from using the patient’s cells, it is more than likely that it 13

will dramatically reduce the problem of organ rejection cells. These cells include endothelial cells, smooth mus- as well as the need for immunosuppressants after the cle cells, stem cells, as well as other specific cells that vary transplantation. from organ to organ. Smooth muscle cells are found in What is 3D printing? the walls of hollow organs and are under involuntary During the process of 3D printing, a desired control, unlike skeletal muscle cells that are under vol- shape is constructed with computer-aided design, using untary control. Stem cells are cells that can turn into dif- polymers as building materials (3DInsider). There are ferent types of cells depending on the stimulation that many methods of 3D printing being used today (3DIn- they receive. By delivering the correct stimulation, sci- sider). The method that most organ printers use works entists can turn stem cells into almost any human cell. in the same manner as a typical inkjet printer, which Endothelial cells line the inside of vascular structures. deposits ink on paper in the right places to create the When bioprinting an organ, each of the necessary cell desired pattern. This method of 3D printing operates types are taken from the patient. These cells are kept in on the same idea of an inkjet printer but deposits labs under controlled nutritional, temperature, humid- material at the correct places in an open 3D space rather than on paper. The ity, and pH conditions, to allow them to divide 3D printer deposits the polymers and grow in the right manner. Once the in a stepwise manner, building researchers have enough of each cell layers on top of each other to type, they can then use them re- translate a predetermined sulting in the construction of design into a 3D structure the desired organ. (MakerBot). The cells are then put From toy truck to the into the 3D printer, which human heart assembles them by plac- Most of us have ing them in the cor- seen how 3D printing rect spots to make the technology has allowed functional organ tissue. people to make simple in- The cells form a grid- animate objects such as toys like structure, forming a and decorations. However, scaffolding that holds the printing organs is an entirely dif- whole tissue together. A ferent challenge, with many nuances significant challenge in scaf- and intricacies coming into the picture since folding is keeping the cells alive these printed organs will go into the human body and by supplying enough water to the therefore, need to meet certain criteria. Fortunately, the tissue while also making the scaffold- new developments made in the 3D printing world have and will likely allow us to print much-needed organs. ing strong enough to maintain its structure. Two aspects that are critical in making printed organs However, many researches have devised solutions to suitable for transplantation are the strength of the or- that problem. A popular one is using biocompatible gan’s tissue and the ability to print capillary structures. polymers, called ‘bioinks,’ (pronounced bio-inks) in ad- Can someone pass the tissues, please? dition to the patient’s cells (Wyss Institute). The bioinks The building of the larger tissues that make up are gel-like polymers further laden with the cells of the the body or the solid structure of an organ also presents patient, which are deposited by the bioprinter, helping some challenges. However, these challenges appear to the organ hold itself together. This method of scaffold- be more manageable with the use of the correct tech- ing was originally developed at the Wyss Institute at niques. Scientists have figured out methods of printing Harvard (Wyss Institute). Unfortunately, scientists are in which they can make sure that the organ tissue can not sure whether certain bioinks may negatively affect physically maintain its shape. the cells and result in their death, and whether normal The building blocks of the tissue are the organ’s cellular processes could interfere with the gel-scaffold- ing. Building the capillary One of the major challenges of organ bioprint- 14

ing was being able to artificially create capillaries (the ative that this balance be maintained not only during smallest level of blood vessels) and other structures the process of printing the tissues but also after the or- that are critical to the organs. Without capillary struc- gan has been printed. It is also of utmost importance tures, an organ can not function. “Microvasculature is for the cells to remain sterile (free of bacteria) as they the fundamental architectural unit that supports ad- are to be transplanted into a patient and can not harm vanced multicellular life and it, therefore, represents a them. Keeping the cells alive and viable during print- crucial target for bottom-up human tissue engineering ing is a big challenge as it particularly relates to finding and regenerative medicine,” said Jordan Miller, assistant the right bioinks that cause minimum damage to the professor of bioengineering at Rice University (Rice cells. Hence it is important that the bioinks, the envi- University). As advancements in the precision of 3D ronment in which the building process takes place, and printers have been made, it has been deemed possible the nozzle/needle that deposits the cells, all meet the for these microscopic blood vessels to be printed. right criteria to ensure the viability and sterility of the A recent paper published by Jordan Miller and cells. Lastly, as impressive as the promise of bioprint- Baylor College of Medicine biophysicist Mary Dickin- ing sounds, it is an expensive endeavor at present. It is son showed that by using a combination of endothelial inevitable though, that, like any technology, as more cells (cells that line the interior of blood vessels) and developments continue to be made in this field, it will stem cells found in the tissue of embryos and in cer- become a less expensive and mainstream technology in tain adult tissues, they could potentially start the pro- the world of implantable medicals. cess of tubulogenesis (the formation of blood vessels The best is yet to come that interconnect distinct organs to each other) while Significant work remains in this field, as some also forming tiny blood vessels within the organ (Rice challenges and obstacles continue to stand in the way of University). In humans, these blood vessels are formed getting the technology from the lab bench into humans. in the early developmental stages of the embryo. As However, we are a great deal closer than we were just a these blood vessels transport blood from one structure decade ago to figuring out what we can do to turn the to another, they deliver nutrients, hormones, gases, vi- dream of organ bioprinting into reality. As highlight- tal fluids, and remove waste products like carbon diox- ed in a recent issue of the MRS Bulletin, “the era of 3D ide. Capillaries are invisible to the naked eye, so the 3D printing is here.” (MRSBulletin Aug. 2017). It is indeed printer that makes these must be capable of the utmost here, and it is here to stay, and over time, become a re- precision. With the new developments in 3D printing, ality that will change our world forever, saving the lives tiny and complex capillaries can be printed. Besides the and the well-being of millions. delivery of nutrients, oxygen, and more, these tubes or conduits also define the fundamental function of the organ under consideration. Thankfully, 3D printers have developed into more precise and complex machines that can print microscopic structures like cap- illaries in extreme detail, allowing the printing of organs. This new method of creating the previously unprintable capillaries will allow bioprinting to fur- ther advance. Not as easy as it sounds One of the greatest challenges in bioprinting is making sure that the cells stay alive throughout the various stages in the long process. The cells must maintain a steady internal bal- ance of many factors like pressure, tem- perature, and oxygen levels. It is imper- 15

The Woman who Couldn’t Feel Pain Written By: Leela DuBois Edited By: Jennifer Do-Dai Have you ever felt pain from a cut or a burn? gene, but not all of it. 71-year-old Jo Cameron hasn’t. In fact, she’s never felt Looking further into her family’s medical histo- any pain or anxiety in her whole life. Even during child- ry scientists discovered that her mom and daughter did birth, which is known to be one of the most painful not share this gene mutation. They both reacted nor- experiences, she never felt any pain and said: “I could mally to pain. However, her deceased father had nev- feel that my body was changing, but it didn’t hurt me” er reported feeling pain either and had never asked for (Murphy). In addition, six years ago Cameron needed painkillers at a hospital. This led to the conclusion that to get her hip replaced, but she never felt any pain from he also had the deletion in his FAAH-OUT gene and it. She only realized that something was wrong when that Cameron inherited it from him. Unfortunately, sci- it was physically impossible for her to walk anymore entists will not be able to know for sure because he has because of the hip. She has also gotten many cuts and passed away. In addition, Cameron’s son feels less pain burns throughout her life because they don’t hurt her. than most people do, but still feels some pain. This is She usually doesn’t realize that she has burned herself because his FAAF-OUT gene has part of the deletion until she smells the burning or sees the burn. It is the but not all of it (Habib). same thing with cuts. She usually needs someone to This research about Cameron’s missing gene point out the cut for her before she realizes something may lead to some dramatic changes in medicine in the has gone wrong (Diamond). future. Currently, people who experience chronic pain For the majority of her life, Cameron did not realize that she was different from take opioids to help relieve the pain, but opioids are other people. It was only re- addictive, so there is a lot of con- cently that she discovered troversy surrounding who there was something can take them and how unusual about her. much people can take. After a hand oper- This breakthrough ation, the doctor into the discovery was confused as to of the gene than why Cameron was prevents Cameron not experiencing any from feeling pain pain. She kept insisting could eventually lead that she felt totally fine and to gene therapy as an al- didn’t need the pain killers. This ternative to opioids. In the led to doctors to look into her medical histo- future, doctors might be able to re- ry and realize that never once in her life had she needed painkillers (Murphy). This lead doctors to further in- place the regular FAAF-OUT gene in patients vestigate what was going on and eventually arrive at the suffering from chronic pain and replace it with the mu- conclusion that Jo Cameron had a gene mutation that tated gene that Cameron has in her body. This would affected how she felt pain. Eventually, in a study pub- result in patients not being able to feel pain and would lished in the British Journal of Anaesthesia, Dr. James be a useful alternative to opioids (Diamond). Cox discovered that there was a difference in Cameron’s FAAH-OUT gene. Everyone carries this gene in their 16 body, but in Cameron’s, there was a microdeletion on the front of the gene that resulted in her not feeling pain (Habib). This means that the part of Cameron’s FAAH- OUT gene that is responsible for sensing and transmit- ting pain to the brain is missing. She has some of the

Carbon Machines by Roisin O’Carroll edited by Anya Cheng Recently, the media has been full of reports on slowed down. a myriad of environmental issues our planet faces today. Carbon dioxide capture plants, like the one described Greenhouse gas emissions are one of the main causes of above, are a type of negative emission technology (NET). these environmental challenges. Greenhouse gases, such as NETs reduce annual carbon dioxide emissions by hundreds carbon dioxide (CO2), contribute to global warming. Glob- of tons. The Climeworks plant removes 900 tons of carbon al warming is a phenomenon in which gases and pollutants dioxide from the air every year. Climeworks hopes to open trap radiation and heat from the sun in the atmosphere, additional plants in an attempt to capture 1% of the world’s causing an increase in global temperatures and changes in annual carbon dioxide emissions, or about 400,000 kilotons weather patterns (MacMillan). Carbon dioxide in the atmo- (Marshall). With increasing amounts of research in this field, sphere also reacts with water through the reaction CO2 (aq) technology is becoming more efficient and hopefully will be + H2O (l) yeilds H+ (aq) + HCO3- (aq), forming a hydrogen able to capture even more carbon dioxide in the future. The ion and a weak acid (Nuffield Foundation and the Royal So- success of this plant indicates that NETs will likely play an ciety of Chemistry). The acid returns to the earth in the form important role in regulating carbon emissions in the future. of acid rain, which erodes the shells of animals, pollutes the However, despite the numerous benefits of NETs, oceans, and kills wildlife (United States Environmental Pro- they cannot be relied on to entirely negate carbon dioxide tection Agency). Overall, the many adverse effects of excess emissions. Since the Climeworks plant can only remove 900 carbon dioxide on the environment make it a serious global tons of carbon dioxide a year, the company estimates that at concern. least 250,000 more plants would need to be built to reduce In order to deal with this environmental threat, carbon dioxide emissions by 1% (Marshall). However, con- scientists across the world have been working on new tech- sidering that annual global carbon dioxide emissions exceed nology to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. In 40 billion tons, almost 500,000 more plants would be needed 2017, the first ever commercial carbon dioxide capture plant to realistically achieve this goal (European Commision, JRC/ was opened in Switzerland by the company Climeworks AG PBL). Additionally, Howard Herzog, a senior research engi- (Marshall). Huge electric fans in the plant push air full of neer at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, estimated carbon dioxide into a chemical solution that binds to carbon that it would cost up to $1,000 to remove 1 ton of carbon dioxide, separating it from other compounds in the air. The dioxide from the air (Marshall). Therefore, in order to re- liquid is then heated to a temperature above 100 degrees cel- move 400,000 kilotons of carbon dioxide, it could cost up sius to separate the carbon dioxide from the chemical solu- to 400 billion dollars. The practical and financial challenges tion (Seeker). The heat energy is absorbed by electrons in of carbon dioxide removal technology mean that it can not the carbon dioxide molecules. The electrons become excited, realistically solve the climate crisis alone. making the bonds between the carbon dioxide and the chem- Overall, NETs cannot be relied on to be the sole solu- ical unstable. Eventually, they become so unstable that they tion to high carbon dioxide emissions. In order to manage break, separating into pure carbon dioxide and the chemical carbon dioxide emissions, scientists, politicians, investors, solution. The carbon dioxide is collected and sent through and global citizens must work together to find a solution that pipelines for agriculture and other industries. The chemical is realistic and affordable. The development of such a solu- solution is now free to bond with more carbon dioxide, and tion is crucial in order to ensure the health of our planet for the process starts again (Climeworks). By removing carbon future generations. from the atmosphere, the impact of global warming can be 17

The Earth’s Lungs By: Haley Alpaugh Edited By: Anya Cheng The Earth’s rainforest contains 1.4 billion acres of sorb. In fact, it is estimated that each forest on Earth absorbs dense forest and covers 40% of the South American conti- around 30% of greenhouse gas emissions from humans (In- nent (Express). As vast as it is, the Amazon has an impact far side Climate News). But after this event, it is somewhat un- beyond its physical footprint. This forest alone produces 20% known all the long term effects it will have on the world. of the Earth’s oxygen. This major forest fire over the summer further fuels Over the summer, the Amazon rain forest gained worldwide the climate change problem. To put it simply, the combustion attention as it experienced one of the most massive natural of all that wood releases a lot of carbon dioxide into the atmo- disasters in recent years. The expansive wood burned at an sphere. Additionally, there are now fewer trees after the fire, unprecedented rate for weeks before it was finally contained, meaning there is less carbon dioxide being absorbed, as well and even now, the long term effects of the tragedy still linger. as less oxygen being produced through photosynthesis. This Not only were the fires possibly caused by climate change, creates an abundance of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere but they will also make climate change worse due to combus- because of the fire itself. It is estimated that wildfires have tion processes and deforestation. emitted 8 billion tons of carbon dioxide every single year for Many people think that natural disasters are “natu- the past twenty years (Inside Climate News). In 2017, there ral” and involve little to no human involvement. But in fact, were 32.5 billion tons of carbon dioxide released from wild- 84% of wildfires and natural disasters are caused by human fires alone (Inside Climate News). activity and are easily preventable. The chemistry behind Carbon dioxide, a heat-trapping gas, makes up the combustion of this natural disaster helps to explain the 9-26% of the greenhouse effect (Inside Climate News). The devastation that it had not only in South America but in the greenhouse effect is when greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, world as a whole. nitrous oxide, and methane) trap the Sun’s heat in the atmo- Fires in the Amazon rainforest occur frequently, but sphere surrounding the Earth. This means that it is incredi- this summer’s fire was especially concerning because of how bly harmful to the environment and threatens the world’s fu- fast it spread. It is believed that this forest fire was started ture. Thus, the carbon dioxide released by forest fires doesn’t intentionally and illegally because of deforestation for rais- only affect the climate on a local level but also affects climate ing cattle. Once fires start in a dry season, like this one, they globally. quickly catch on to all of the dry vegetation and crops and Having an excess amount of carbon dioxide creates spreads. Throughout most of history, the Amazon created a never-ending cycle, putting the climate in a worse position a natural boundary to wildfires because of all of the mois- than before. Because of the increase of dry summers and in- ture in the area. But because of human activity and recent consistent temperatures and precipitation levels, conditions droughts due to climate change, the rainforest has become are right for even more forest fires. The worse the fires are, the much more flammable than usual. And it will only get more more carbon dioxide ends up back in the atmosphere, further flammable because the primary source of water vapor is re- extending the problem. Overall, climate change increases the leased through tree leaves. As more trees fall die (burned, risk of all natural disasters, not just fires, and those disasters part of deforestation, or not getting enough nutrients), there frequently make climate change worse in turn. is less water being released, which leads the Amazon further into a drought (Mongabay News). The rainforest was one of 18 the leading natural systems that slowed down climate change because of how many human emissions that the trees ab-

How Old is the Universe? Written By: Anya Cheng Editted By: Harrison Theriault For much of human history, astronomers un- different estimates. Most recently, researchers at NASA derstood the universe to be static. As they pondered have found a value of 74, while European researchers in the complexities of the universe, it was always under 2013 valued the constant at 67. It is important to note, the assumption that it was unchangeable. However, in however, that the estimate from the Max Planck institute the early 20th century, Edwin Hubble discovered one is much higher than either of these previous estimates. of the most perplexing yet fascinating properties of the The vast uncertainty surrounding this constant is due universe: the universe is not static, and in fact, it is con- to the nature of astronomy. Inh Jee, a researcher at the stantly expanding. Max Planck Institute, said “We have large uncertainty Hubble made this discovery in 1929 at the for how the stars are moving in the galaxy.” It is hard Mount Wilson observatory. By carefully monitoring for physicists to decide which value is the most correct, the motion and behavior of several galaxies, he found simply due to the nature of uncertainty that exists while that all galaxies appeared to be traveling away from the studying the universe. Earth at high speeds. He also noticed that the farther The age and the rate of expansion of the uni- away they were, the faster they moved. This observation verse have important implications for astrophysicists: If implicated the idea of an expanding universe. Through the rate of expansion is increasing, this could imply that this observation, Hubble derived a number that is now dark energy could be contributing to the acceleration. known as the Hubble constant. This constant indicates If the rate of expansion is found to start decreasing, it the rate at which the universe has been expanding since could implicate the presence of dark matter, or some- the Big Bang. John Huchra, professor of astronomy at thing else in the universe that would cause the expan- Harvard, has called Hubble’s discovery “arguably the sion to slow down. most important cosmological discovery ever made.” Undoubtedly, scientists will continue to wres- However, almost 100 years after Hubble’s tle with these questions for many years to come. Some groundbreaking discovery, physicists are far from un- physicists have even suggested the existence of a com- derstanding this phenomenon. Recently, there has been pletely new type of physics, yet to be discovered, that significant debate over both the rate of the universe’s would help us understand the expansion and age of the expansion and the age of the universe, which are in- universe. This is a problem that begs to be solved, and trinsically related. To calculate the age of the universe, one that physicists will attempt to understand for years physicists have traditionally used the Hubble constant to come. (or the rate of expansion). Unfortunately, new research presents several possible values for the Hubble constant, making scientists even more uncertain about the age of our universe. Until recently, the commonly accepted age for the universe has been 13.8 billion years. This calculation was made using a Hubble constant of 70. However, new measurements from NASA indicate that the universe is expanding at a rate 9% faster than previously thought. With this new information, researchers at the Max Planck Institute in Germany value the Hubble constant at 82.4. This would mean that the universe is actually just under 12 billion years old – almost 2 billion years younger than is traditionally accepted! These two Hubble constant values are not the only two that have ever been calculated. Ever since Hub- ble’s discovery, the true value of the Hubble constant has been debated, and physicists have calculated many 19

white hole By Sidnie Kulik wonders Most people have heard of a black hole: a phe- There is an ongoing debate amongst scientists nomenon that occurs when a star dies inside of a su- on whether or not white holes really exist. A physicist pernova. A supernova an immense explosion at the named Carlo Rovelli believes that black holes turn into end of a star’s life. Black holes are inescapable regions white holes after they die. He claims that black holes of space and time. Using black holes, mathematics, and cannot disappear because they are made of individual Einstein’s theory of relative velocity, astrophysicists have space and time quantities called quanta. He believes that thought of a new cousin to the mysterious black hole: once the black hole gets small enough it can come back white holes. to life and form a white hole. On the other hand, other It is not confirmed that white holes exist in re- scientists, like Stephen Hawking, assert that black holes ality, however, this astronomical abnormality is still an would evaporate before turning to white holes. Black interesting topic to explore. In terms of mathematics, a holes evaporate their mass by emitting radiation when white hole is the opposite of a black hole. A black hole they are alive. Hawking believes that the holes lose more is an area that has inward-flowing space and time with a mass than they gain during their lifetimes and therefore circular boundary called an event horizon. The thought would disappear before becoming white holes. of time and space moving may be hard to imagine and Like Hawking, most scientists believe that understand. Essentially, the hole occurs when gravity is white holes do not currently exist in our universe. Yet, strong enough that light and matter are unable to es- scientists believe that white holes may have created our cape. Everything goes into the hole and nothing comes universe. According to the department of physics and out. A black hole is connected to a white hole as the astronomy at the University of Waterloo, the Big Bang matter entering into a black hole would exit a white hole may have been a result of a black hole that died and then in another part of the universe. A white hole is an area produced a white hole. There are ongoing debates and with outward-flowing space and time. Nothing can en- studies about white holes, so continue to follow this ter a white hole. Everything in a white hole must be spat curious event in the cosmos. out and ejected. 20

The Humanity of Artificial Intelligence By Will Grimes Edited by Hannah Epstein What is Artificial Intelligence (AI)? Does this be far greater than that of humans (Kurzweil). technology already exist? How long will it take for these But what does that mean for mankind? If they’re machines to become our robotic overlords? These are smarter than us, how can we stay relevant in our own the questions most people ask after watching Termina- society? The idea that science fiction authors such as tor 1 and 2 or since they first heard of AI. The idea of Isaac Asimov came up with to keep humanity on top Artificial Intelligence has existed for many years and was that we put regulations on robots, in order to make can be a source of fear in popular culture. However, them subservient to humans. This, however, raises two these fears are founded on a lack of understanding of main questions: first of all, if these robots will even- the concept as a whole. tually become smarter than us, who’s to say that they Even today, AI surrounds us without us think- won’t evolve past said restrictions? After all, that is the ing about it. Apps from Uber to Instagram to Netflix all nature of intelligence - growing and evolving to break use AI to feed you content. (innoplexus.com) Best of out of limitations. Also, if these robots become as smart all, none of them have risen up and taken control of the or smarter than us, why shouldn’t they have the same planet. However, these kinds of AI have been designed rights as us? If they’re sentient, why shouldn’t they have to serve a specific purpose, whether it is feeding you the same protections as humans? This calls into question content or otherwise. What people are worried about is what sentience itself is. One of the definitions offered by the type designed to mimic human intelligence. Merriam Webster is simply one word: “AWARE”. (Mer- While the idea of machines becoming sentient riam Webster) But this isn’t very helpful. Is it a trait that seems far-fetched, this may be closer than we think. only humans can have? What role does free will play in There are programs that can almost pass for humans. determining if something is sentient or not? In fact, in an event hosted by the University of Read- This topic is one under much scrutiny by many ing, a computer passed their version of the Turing test, futurists, including Kurzweil, and it is fairly controver- which is the test to determine whether or not a program sial. As our technology advances, perhaps there will be is discernible from a human. (reading.ac.uk) While oth- more clarity to the currently ambiguous situation, but ers refute the validity of this test, it still shows a clear that is yet to come. For now, we’ll just have to speculate. leap in the capability of computer programs in simulat- ing human behavior. The technology is progressing so much that in his 2006 book The Singularity is Near, Ray Kurzweil claims that someday, machine intelligence will 21

Robots in the workforce By Jeffrey Lin Edited by Hannah Epstein “With regard to robots, in the early days of robots one in Florence, New York, the conveyor belt helps transport people said, ‘Oh, let’s build a robot’ and what’s the first bins with particular items around the warehouse where they thought? You make a robot look like a human and do human are stacked by “Robot Palletizers,” another name for robotic things. That’s so 1950s. We are so past that” (Tyson). Robots arms, on specific pallets for humans to check and transport have evolved throughout the years to become a tool that for shipping. The “beetle-like” robots in many other fulfill- many people don’t even realize they are using on a daily ba- ment centers help transport products around the vast areas sis. When you think of a robot you might think of Wall-E or of the warehouses so humans don’t have to. The packaging the Terminator but in actuality, robots help humans in their robots can package-specific items, but most items are still jobs and lives in many different shapes and forms. Robots packaged by hand. are essentially a tool that can carry out complex functions Amazon has also been testing ways to deliver prod- through programs from a computer. From robots working ucts to customer’s front doors. They have been testing drones in car manufacturing factories to Amazon using them to run and even a robot that brings the package to your doorstep. parts of the shipping process, robots are a part of the work- Amazon’s drone shipping system, “Amazon Prime Air,” force and improve our everyday lives. completed its very first shipment on December 7, 2016, in Robots are most significantly used in the car man- Cambridge, England (amazon.com). These drones can car- ufacturing industry. Approximately 50% of robots in the ry items up to 5 pounds and are fully autonomous. The ex- workforce are in car manufacturing (Hinkley). These robots pected shipping time for “Amazon Prime Air” is under 30 usually only have one arm and are controlled by a computer. minutes and Amazon’s number one priority for this shipping Robots in car manufacturing usually do jobs that could po- method is safety (amazon.com). Amazon does not have a set tentially cause injury or harm to humans. Such jobs are mo- date when they will release “Prime Air” but rather will re- notonous like painting, welding, installing large objects, etc. lease it when they feel they have enough support to safely Robots, unlike humans, don’t need to be paid or given sick do so (amazon.com). Amazon Scout, an autonomous six- days, which is a huge upside for companies. While robots wheeled light blue robot that delivers packages to your front are extremely efficient in what they do, the need for human door, is currently being tested in Snohomish County, Wash- control and assurance of safety is also a priority. An example ington (Scott). Scout will follow an autonomous route but of a job that must be done by a human is an engineer that will be accompanied by an Amazon employee to ensure safe- oversees the process throughout and makes sure nothing ty and avoidance of pedestrians, pets, and whatever else is goes wrong. Also, certain areas of the car are hard for robotic on the sidewalk (Scott). However, there are some doubts that arms to reach and install components with precision, so hu- could arise from this process, such as the inability to deliver man intervention may be necessary (Hinckley). packages when there is no sidewalk and the potential danger Amazon, one of the largest companies in the world, to civilians if there is no Amazon employee overseeing the employs “more than 125,000 people across the United States” robot. Overall, Amazon continues to push efficiency through in their warehouses, and have continually added robots to autonomous transportation to cut costs and reduce time. help with the workload (Wingfield). In 2012, Amazon pur- Robots play a large role in the workforce as ways in chased Kiva, a robot manufacturer, renamed the company which companies can create a more efficient business. Ro- “Amazon Robotics” and has been sending out these robots to bots in factories and warehouses do many jobs that workers their warehouses ever since (Rusli). Through the efficiency of would rather not do themselves, such as transporting heavy these robots, many people across the United States enjoy “two cargo across the building or lifting large objects. As robots day” or even “one-day” shipping, but how does the process gradually incorporate themselves into the lives of many, it really work? In the warehouses, which Amazon calls “fulfill- is best to see them as a tool to be used rather than an object ment centers,” there are conveyor belts, small “beetle-like ro- taking jobs. In a society as busy as today’s, the addition of bots,” packaging robots, and robots that resemble the robotic robots betters our everyday lives. arms in car factories. In some fulfillment centers, such as the 22

The Future of Medicine: Surgical Robots By Catie Asnis Edited by Anushka Harve Would you trust a robot to be your doctor, bet- success of the New York procedure, the case required ter yet, your surgeon? Recent technological advances the involvement of over 80 people and cost millions of have led to the invention of a completely new concept: dollars, much more than an average cholecystectomy robotic surgical devices. Although still in the very early would cost (Barrera). stages of development, these technological instruments For these reasons and more, people in the field of and their potential have already driven many conversa- medicine have been forced to consider the various cons tions in the field of medicine. of bringing the infinite potential of technology into the In 2000, the FDA cleared the first robotic surgi- operating room. For one, it is expensive. Robots are not cal device, known as the da Vinci Surgical System, to be only costly to build, but also to maintain. Millions of used in hospitals across the globe (Carfagno). This de- dollars have already been poured into the research pro- vice is not completely independent, however, as it does cess, and with the ever changing field of medicine, it is require the assistance of a surgeon to occupy some of its undoubtedly difficult for engineers to keep up. In addi- hand controls. The da Vinci Surgical System is designed tion, although the newly designed robots have certainly for various minimally invasive surgeries, from mitral been optimized for precision, they have failed to be effi- valve repairments to thoracoscopic surgeries. Since its cient. Many surgeries performed by robotic devices take emergence 19 years ago, over 775,000 patients have longer than those performed by the hands of a trained benefited from the da Vinci and its high degree of pre- surgeon (Barrera). Another serious concern regarding cision. However, this device is still very reliant upon the the use of robotic surgical devices is the process of train- supervision and direct assistance from an authorized ing surgeons to change all that they had been taught in surgeon, proving that the use of robotics in medicine is school in order to operate a machine. Not only would still far from complete. this be a lengthy process, but also a very expensive one. Despite the newness of medical robots, doc- Lastly, and perhaps the most significant concern, there tors everywhere have begun to consider their various is the patient perspective. When a patient needs sur- advantages and disadvantages. In terms of pros, sur- gery, they put their trust in a surgeon. What is unclear, gical robots have the potential to create smaller inci- however, is a patient’s willingness to put their faith in a sions that minimize blood loss, while also improving robot. It is this question that will most likely decide the visualization and magnification on a very significant future of this largely-debated medical phenomenon. scale through advancements in precision. Even more Despite the excitement around the potential use revolutionary, however, is the potential for a surgeon to of robots in surgery, this development is still very new. perform a surgery in a different hospital, or even a dif- Only time will tell whether or not it is worth the money ferent country, on his or her patient. In fact, in a recent and resources to invest in this path. One thing is clear, case, a patient in France received a cholecystectomy however: the field of medicine is one of constant change (removal of the gallbladder) from a surgeon situated in and the use of robots in surgery would certainly be quite New York. During this procedure, another surgeon was a revolutionary one. still present in the operating room in the event of a mis- hap with the surgical equipment. The ability to perform long-distance surgery could prove to be very beneficial, especially in emergency cases. However, despite the 23

Computer vs. Brain By Ethan Maconochie Edited by Anushka Harve To compare a brain and a computer, you have to harder and harder to produce smaller transistors for define what their most basic components are. Neurons circuits. in the brain and transistors in a computer both make up When it comes to processing, a computer is far circuits via elaborate connections. Therefore, they both faster, yet a brain is able to do more complicated calcu- have inputs and outputs for sending and receiving sig- lations. A neuron can fire a thousand times a second but nals. A neuron’s input, called its dendrites, can connect operations are more realistically performed much slow- to multiple neurons and receive signals simultaneously er (Luo). Either way, the speed of a brain is dwarfed by from different sources. If the signal exceeds a certain the speed of a computer. A basic computer can perform threshold, the neuron sends an output signal. Neurons over 10 billion basic operations like addition every sec- signal each other by releasing chemicals into the space ond. It can also represent numeric values with a preci- between them, called the synapse. Connections be- sion, of 1 in 4.2 billion (Luo). However, the brain cannot tween neurons are also flexible and can be changed or represent information as precisely as a computer. This is created by repetitive use. because information passed through neurons is depen- Transistors in a computer act like switches, dent on the frequency and timing of electrical signals where their output is either a 1 or a 0. They are limited between neurons rather than a sequence of numbers to a single input and output, so signals flow linearly in a like a computer (Luo). Communication between neu- circuit. Transistors organized in circuits can switch on rons is also subject to biological noise, a phenomenon and off millions of times a second. Since their invention, where chemicals or other external factors slightly alter transistors have been made progressively smaller and reactions, changing the information being relayed. This smaller, in accordance with Moore’s law, which states is most common in the synapse of a neuron, where elec- that computers double in efficiency every 18 months. trical signals are converted into chemicals called neu- Currently transistors are measured in nanometers, rotransmitters which can interfere with others in dense- which are one-billionth of a meter; however, produc- ly packed areas of the brain (Vega). Due to biological tion companies are nearing the limit as it is becoming noise, the precision of a brain is observed to be far less 24

than a computer, but this does not prove detrimental to neurons and mimic their connections. Emily Toomey its function. at MIT, along with her colleagues, has designed a super- However, the brain does have an advantage conducting neuron that acts very similarly to an organ- over the computer as it is capable of large scale parallel ic one. The artificial neuron will, in theory, match the processing. In other words, many neurons can transfer energy efficiency of the brain, using a material called information at the same time as other neurons. For ex- nanowires. What makes the nanowire so similar to ample, light that reaches the retina can be observed by a neuron is that its superconductivity, or its ability to multiple photoreceptor cells. These cells can all com- conduct electricity, breaks down at a certain electrical municate back to the brain simultaneously due to the threshold, very similar to a neuron’s action potential, neurons’ many connections, and a thousand neurons which is the required energy to initiate its firing. The can converge to a single receiving end of another neu- artificial neuron can also trigger or inhibit other neu- ron. Contrastingly, a computer processes serially where rons in a network exactly like a brain, but the nanowires one calculation is followed by another in a sequence. are limited to only a handful of connections to other This sequentiality is why high precision is so important nanowires, while an organic neuron can have thousands to a computer, as small errors can accumulate along the of connections (technologyreview.com). way. Independent precision of neurons is not as import- The technology is still very much in develop- ant in a brain because neurons working in tandem have ment, but Toomey says that the results of their research high combined precision, and errors along the way are could revolutionize the way computers are constructed not crippling to the overall result. When dozens of neu- and could create networks to replicate the brain’s supe- rons process the same information and simultaneously riority in tasks of pattern recognition, learning, vision, output to the same place, outliers can be averaged out. and speaking in real-time. The artificial neural network A neuron’s connections can be strengthened, could also lead to a better understanding of organic weakened, or modified through repetition. Learning brains, which are still not completely understood by sci- has a physical effect on the brain’s wiring and repetition entists (technologyreview.com). In conclusion, study- can make certain neural pathways more efficient. This ing the brain can allow us to further innovate comput- process does not exist in a computer and the structure ers which in turn can teach us more about the brain and of its wiring can not be altered by performing repeat- how to overcome their respective disadvantages. ed operations. Although machine learning is used to teach Artificial Intelligence human tasks like driving by recognizing patterns and relationships, the brain is far superior in flexibility because its physical wiring is mal- leable. Despite advantages in speed and precision, the computer is still worse than the brain when it comes to simple tasks like driving, talking, or other “human” things. Yet the greatest strength of the brain is the relative lack of energy it consumes. The energy required to power supercomputers is enough to power large towns, while the energy needed for the brain to function can be found in a meal. Scientists have started to redesign computers to act more like brains in order to make them more advanced. This innova- tion goes beyond programming and requires building new materials and restructuring the modern-day com- puter. The goal is to make artificial 25

By albert qi Edited by hannah epstein Imagine yourself, a young and exuberant eight- are now happy with the piece they have and do not envy year-old, at a birthday party. You’ve just won a game of anyone else’s slice (Klarreich). laser tag and are celebrating with a slice of cake. How- But what about the trimmings? One crucial ever, when you glance over at Matt A. Matics, a wave piece of information makes this problem finite: Carl will of jealousy suddenly washes over you. He received a always value his untrimmed piece more than or equal to slice that seems larger than what you were given! You the trimmed piece plus any amount of trimmings. For would much rather have his piece than your crumbly, example, let’s say Adam picked the trimmed slice. This miserable slice. You believe that the cake was cut unfair- means that Adam can pick a piece of the trimmings ly, and you wanted the cake to be split in an envy-free before Carl, and Carl will not envy Adam. So, Bob cuts manner, such that nobody would envy anybody else’s the trimmings into three pieces he thinks are equal, piece, and everybody would prefer their piece the most. Adam picks, then Carl, and then Bob. Adam is happy How would it possible to perform this envy-free cake because he gets to pick first, Carl is happy because he cutting? How many cuts would it require? picks before Bob and doesn’t care about what Adam Since biblical times, people have known how to gets, and Bob is happy because he cut the trimmings split a cake for two people, or agents, in an envy-free into what he believes are equal sizes. If Adam did not way. In the Bible, Abraham and Lot divide land with pick the trimmed slice, then the role of Adam and Bob a simple method: I cut, you choose. This “divide and are simply swapped (Adam cuts the trimmings, Bob choose” method has one person cut the cake into two chooses first, etc.). As such, with only five cuts, the cake pieces that he or she thinks are of equal size, happy with is split for three people, everybody preferring their piece either one. The other person then gets to choose the the most (Klarreich). piece that he or she fancies. Just like that, these two peo- Researchers have recently made other incredible ple have pieces of cake that they prefer (Klarreich). So, breakthroughs, increasing the number of people how does this problem evolve as the number of people that the cake can be divided amongst. In 2016, Haris increases to 3, 4, or even any number n? Aziz and Simon Mackenzie discovered a technique In the 1960s, both John Selfridge and John Hor- that only required 584 cuts to split a cake into four ton Conway independently discovered a solution for pieces where nobody envied anybody else (Aziz and three agents (revolvy.com). Let’s call the three agents Mackenzie). Later that year, the two found a method of Adam, Bob, and Carl. Carl will start by cutting the cake bounded envy-free cake cutting for n agents, or in other into three pieces that he imagines are of equal size; words, a method of splitting a cake for n people in a he’s happy with any slice. If Adam and Bob favor dif- finite number of steps. The required number of steps, ferent slices, the algorithm is finished. Adam and Bob however, is remarkably high: n^n^n^n^n^n (Aziz and get their picks, and Carl gets the remaining one. How- Mackenzie). Even for just 2 people, the number of steps ever, if Adam and Bob both favor the same slice, Bob required drastically exceeds the number of atoms in the will then trim the piece he thinks is the largest so it is known universe. Regardless, Aziz and Mackenzie still equal to his second-favorite slice; the trimmings are set managed to prove that there is indeed a bound, and aside for now. Here, Bob is happy with the two pieces he now, researchers are trying to lower this number closer believes are the largest, and Carl is happy with the two to n2, the lower bound proved by Procaccia (Klarreich). untrimmed pieces. Now, Adam gets to choose. If Adam As they continue to make progress, only one thing is picks the trimmed piece, then Bob is free to pick any certain: this challenge won’t be a piece of cake. of the two other pieces, leaving Carl with the remain- ing one. If Adam does not pick the trimmed piece, then Bob must take the trimmed piece, ensuring that Carl will have a piece that he is happy with. All three agents 26

PSYCHOSOMATIC ILLNESSES BY DREW TEMEL EDITED BY GABBY RAYEV Do you ever wonder why you sometimes sweat believe that psychological stressors, such as a tough or get headaches when you’re stressed? This could work environment or family situation, can not only be an example of a psychosomatic response to an initiate illness, but also further aggravate pre-existing emotion. Psychosomatic illnesses can be characterized conditions. as a condition in which psychological circumstances and issues harmfully affect the physiological health of Throughout the 1950s and 1960s when the a person and it is often credited to the “inappropriate concept of psychosomatic illness was fairly new and activation” of parts of the nervous system. Just as anger revolutionary, scientists at the Chicago Institute of or other emotions can have a direct effect on one’s Psychoanalysis realized through testing among families blood pressure, many psychological disorders can have with shared genetic features that certain traits leave implications on the health of a person. For instance, if the individual more or less vulnerable to particular a person were to be in a state of chronic anger, it would psychosomatic disorders. Franz Alexander, the adversely influence their blood pressure and possibly chief psychologist for the experiment, hypothesized create other health issues as a direct result of their that individual characteristics create vulnerabilities mental condition altering the dilation of arteries. These for the individual, and, therefore, some people are illnesses are easy to diagnose, but it is extremely difficult more predetermined to exhibit the psychometric to both target the source of the problem and characteristics. This information could change the way then work to correct it. psychosomatic illness are treated by These disorders, allowing doctors to help those more which can theoretically susceptible to the disorders occur in almost any before symptoms are even area of the body, are found. often associated with As more research is done and systems not under a the field develops, person’s voluntary control. The results more information surrounding the of a psychosomatic disorders will come to disorder can range from migraines light. Currently, many studies involving and other headache the relationship symptoms to respiratory problems between psychosomatic symptoms, most such as hyperventilation specifically hypertension, or more serious disorders. While treatment is difficult, and physiological changes of the nerves in the brain have the majority of psychologists received more recognition. This recommend stress relief strategies such as mindfulness for less extreme situations and a will hopefully allow the disorders to be more globally recognized and treated. combination of behavioral therapy and medication for more severe cases. These treatments attempt to aid the body in returning to a more stable state of homeostasis. Furthermore, many scientists and doctors 27

Brain Activity in Sleep By Sophia Lowry | Edited by Griffin Callaghan How do we dream? What is the purpose of second non-REM phase is the light sleep before deep dreaming? What do our dreams mean? These questions sleep. During this stage, the body temperature drops, are still being actively researched. The topic of dreaming eye movement stops completely, and brain wave activ- is one that has plagued neuroscientists for decades, and ity slows down (Brain Basics: Understanding Sleep). A it seems as though when one conclusion is reached, an- person will spend more time transitioning to this phase other sub-question appears. Fortunately, we have come than any other phase. The last phase of non-REM sleep to understand the basic neurological science behind is the sleep that you need to feel refreshed and well-rest- dreaming; we can identify our sleep patterns, or circa- ed and it usually occurs during the first half of the night dian rhythms, and the parts of the brain that function when it is difficult to try and wake someone up. In this while we sleep. stage, heart rate and breathing slow to their lowest levels Surprisingly, while the whole brain is active and the body truly relaxes (Brain Basics: Understanding during sleep, the activity level of different sections of the Sleep). brain depend on which stage of dreaming someone is The second stage of sleep, REM sleep, is much in (Blackmore). They are as follows. Arguably the most less ascertained, and is where most dreaming occurs. important portion of the brain to be active during sleep The first time that a person might cycle into this stage is the hypothalamus, where the preoptic area is located. is about 90 minutes after falling asleep. Breathing be- This area works by sending inhibitory signals to oth- comes faster and more irregular and the eyes move er areas of the brain that keeps one awake, essentially rapidly from side to side behind the eyelids. Eye move- switching off these regions and initiating the process ment during REM sleep is due to the midbrain, which of falling asleep (What Happens In the Brain During controls eye muscles and movement, becoming highly Sleep?). Next, the brainstem is involved in inhibition activated. Also in REM sleep, brain wave activity, heart of other parts of the brain as well by promoting spe- rate and blood pressure levels become similar to those cific neurotransmitters to reduce the activity of arousal during wakefulness, producing the energy needed to centers, ultimately sending signals to relax muscles and dream (Brain Basics: Understanding Sleep). Acting on minimize limb movement so our limbs don’t move while the directions of the brainstem, the arm and leg mus- we sleep. Additionally, within the two hemispheres of cles become paralyzed to prevent lashing out during our brain lives the pineal gland, which serves to receive dreams. Interestingly, two portions of the brain become signals to increase production of melatonin. Melatonin highlighted during REM sleep: the thalamus and the is a hormone responsible for making one drowsy and amygdala. The purpose of the thalamus in sleep is to eventually fall asleep (Brain Basics: Understanding relay information from the senses to the cerebral cortex Sleep). Finally, the basal forebrain promotes sleep and which then interprets and processes information from wakefulness through the release of the neurotransmit- short term memory to long term memory. The thala- ter, adenosine. So, each segment of the brain essentially mus becomes active to send the cortex sights, sounds, works as either an inhibitor or a production center for and images during REM sleep, while in non-REM sleep, sleep stimulating hormones (Brain Basics: Understand- the thalamus is less involved in order to tune out the ex- ing Sleep). ternal world. The amygdala serves to process the emo- There are two types of sleep, non-REM (rapid tions we might feel throughout our dreams. eye movement) sleep and REM sleep and in a single This subconscious portion of our life leaves night a person will cycle through both of these stages much to be explored and questioned. The physical un- several times. Within non-REM sleep, there are three derstanding of sleep has been achieved; however, it is phases. The first non-REM phase is the transition from the science behind why our brain behaves this way that being awake to being asleep and this usually lasts several still eludes scientists. minutes. This is the stage where muscles twitch and the surrounding reality is perceived from very far away. The 28

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“ So remember to look up at the stars and not down at your “ feet. Try to make sense of what you see and hold on to that childlike wonder about what makes the universe exist. Stephen Hawking