NOBELIUM WINTER 2019

WINTER 2019 Winter 2019 Edition 1

Contents 4 The Feasibility of Jurassic Park by Keren Luo 6 Inception by Justin Power 7 Gravity by Griffin Callaghan 8 Synesthesi-wha? by Sidnie Kulik 9 Clean Meats by Finn Crawford 10 Injectable Band-Aid by Jennifer Do-Dai 12 Three Dimensional X-Ray by Sammy Guerrero 13 Inflammation is the New Cholesterol by Harrison Theriault 16 The Twin Paradox, The Theory of Relativity, and Our Lives by Anna Perez 18 The Ethics of AI by Anushka Harve 20 More Food, Less Taste by Gabby Rayev 22 The Psychology of Procrastination by Vivian Li 24 Quantifying Quantum Computing by Ami Nwaoha 26 Ultrasonic Levitation by Shawn Wu

Staff Letter from the Editor Editor in Chief / Lev Sandler Dear Readers, Co-Heads of Layout / Lindsey Qian and Clara Thank you so much for taking the time to read through this issue of the magazine. Nobelium is only Guzman made possible by months of hard work, writing, editing, Content Manager / Julia Lyne layout designing, and much more. Besides thanking our Staff Advisor / Lindsey Tonge dedicated and hardworking staff, we must also recognize Copy Editors / Willie Griffin and Liam Smith the tireless support and patience of our faculty advisor, Biology Editors / Sarah Mansour and Emily St. Ms. Tonge. Nobelium is also incredibly grateful for the Nobles STEM departments’ unwavering belief in the John club’s future. Chemistry Editor / Nick Bern This issue of Nobelium investigates the feasibility Computer Science Editors / Keren Luo and of many renowned science fiction movies. Sci-Fi is an immensely popular genre among many demographics, Ami Nwaoha but people often do not stop to think, “Wait a minute. Is Physics Editor / Isabel Kelly any of this possible?” In this volume, Griffin Callaghan, Psychology Editor / Michaela Sylvia Keren Luo, and Justin Power explore the practicality and Writers / Griffin Callaghan, Finn Crawford, validity of the science behind the movies Gravity, Jurrasic Jennifer Do-Dai, Sammy Guerrero, Anushka Park, and Inception. We hope you will take advantage of Harve, Sidnie Kulik, Vivian Li, Keren Luo, Ami the opportunity to delve into some of Sci-Fi’s greatest Nwaoha, Anna Perez, Justin Power, Gabby hits, and examine their scientific foundations. Rayev, Harrison Theriault, and Shawn Wu Layout Designers / Matt Cullinane, Jennifer Enjoy, Do-Dai, Nattalie Gualdron, Charlie Guerra, Lev Sandler Sammy Guerrero, Clara Guzman, Sidnie Kulik, Co-Founder Vivian Li, Meghan Pauly, Anna Perez, Lindsey Qian, and Claire Shapiro

By Keren Luo The Feasibility of Juraspsaicrk Jurassic Park is one of the most iconic Hollywood movies. In Steven Spielberg’s massive blockbuster, a rich man named John Hammond invests billions of dollars in cloning dinosaurs from DNA found in mosquito remains preserved in amber in order to create the eponymous Jurassic Park. He invites paleontologists Alan Grant and Ellie Sattler and mathematician Ian Malcolm to test and review the park. While Hammond assures everyone that the park is safe, dozens of ferocious predators break free and go on the hunt. But could the scenario depicted in Jurassic Park ever come true? In short, no—for better or worse, Jurassic Park be fragmented or decomposed after the T-Rex died, can never come true in real life. According to Steve and without every single base pair of the DNA being Brusatte, a paleontologist who consulted for the preserved, it becomes worthless. Moreover, the movie, the idea of recreating dinosaurs from their fragmented DNA would be impossible to organize, and DNA is problematic. “In order to clone a dinosaur you scientists would not be able to decipher the correct would need the whole genome,” he points out, “and order of the DNA to create a “real” dinosaur. Finally, nobody’s ever even found a little bit of dinosaur DNA. DNA does not last very long; it has a half-life of about So we’re talking about something that’s pretty difficult, 521 years (Gannon). Half-life is the time required for if not impossible” (Halton). DNA is a code, except the radioactivity of a specified isotope to fall to half its instead of being 1s and 0s (base-2) like computer code, original value; thus, after even a couple of thousand it is comprised of four base pairs (Adenine, Guanine, years, there is no genetic material present in DNA Cytosine, Thymine). Organisms exist because their strands. DNA has a specific length, orientation, and order. These features are the determining factors helping to Some may ask, couldn’t we extrapolate whatever distinguish between different organisms. However, pieces of DNA were not recoverable? This question when DNA leaves living cells, it begins to decompose is intuitively sound, but birds are the closest living and break apart. The genetic code of a T-Rex would relatives to dinosaurs, and, phenotypically, they are not very similar. Both genetic and epigenetic, or in other 4 Nobelium Magazine

words, nongenetic, differences abound. With over 65 million years of divergence, a few dozen mutations per generation would leave dinosaur DNA essentially unrecognizable, rendering it impossible to plug DNA into the gaps. Currently, there seems to be some promise for extracting DNA from fossils that have been covered in certain iron sediments which have replaced proteins and protected the DNA. However, this is new information that has come to light in just the last year or so, and scientists as yet are unsure what it will yield (Martin). Even if scientists were able to find DNA usable for cloning dinosaurs, they would face the major issue of putting the dinosaurs into a suitable ecosystem (Lamb). Scientists wouldn’t be able to find the prey or plants on which dinosaurs fed for necessary proteins and vitamins, for example, nor could they readjust oxygen levels to suit dinosaur metabolism. These are just two of the many difficulties a cloning project would face even if they were successful. So, even if scientists were able to clone dinosaurs from the DNA strands, they wouldn’t be able to sustain them environmentally (Ross). While the film Jurassic Park could not come true in real life, it has sparked the development of ancient DNA research and many further discoveries about dinosaurs. A visual effects specialist on the film, Phil Tippett, says that he has “completely different ideas of what [dinosaurs] should be like now. If [they] were making a different dinosaur movie that didn’t have to be Jurassic Park, [he] would do things totally differently…. [A] lot of this stuff that they’ve discovered about feathers is pretty significant” (Halton). Thus, while Jurassic Park itself may never come to life, the scenarios it envisions continue to inspire the minds of artists and scientists alike, and its potential outcomes continue to proliferate. Winter 2019 Edition 5

By Justin Power One of the best movies ever made, in my opinion, is This is one of the first ideas of Inception: that we can Inception. Inception is not only a thriller, but a cerebral share dreams. It would appear that our brains are set up to do movie that questions the reality of our thoughts, emotions, just that. The study further said that “despite the completely perceptions, and ultimately, our entire world. One of the free viewing of dynamical, complex scenes, individual brains most interesting theories I have heard about Inception is by ‘tick together’ in synchronized spatiotemporal patterns Devin Faraci. He says, “I believe that Inception is a dream when exposed to the same visual environment” (Hasson). to the point where even the dream-sharing stuff is a dream. To translate that into English, our brains react in the same Dom Cobb isn’t an extractor. He can’t go into other people’s way when exposed to the same stimuli. Suddenly the idea of dreams. He isn’t on the run from the Cobol Corporation. At multiple people dreaming the same thing doesn’t seem too one point he tells himself this, through the voice of Mal, who far-fetched. Indeed, “when we fall asleep, the brain undergoes is a projection of his own subconscious. She asks him how a similar pattern of global activity, as the prefrontal cortex real he thinks his world is, where he’s being chased across goes quiet and the visual cortex becomes even more active the globe by faceless corporate goons” (Lehrer). When I read than usual” (Hasson). This finding means that we are seeing this I was struck by the question Mal asks Dom, “How real is things in our sleep without being fully able to understand this world?” (Lehrer) Could our brains trick us into thinking them. This is why as crazy as our dreams may seem, they we are living a completely real life, while in reality, someone feel like they’re real while we are in them. This process of is actually hijacking our dreams? the brain is described as “our cortex entertaining us with surreal cinema, filling our strange nighttime narratives with In short: yes. According to a scientific study, the whatever spare details happen to be lying around” (Hasson). Intersubject Synchronization of Cortical Activity During To put the science in layman’s terms, the study proved that Natural Vision, carried out by Uri Hasson and Rafael Malach it is very possible for one’s brain to be tricked into thinking at Hebrew University, there is neurological evidence that something strange or absurd was perfectly normal, because shows that our brains could be tricked into thinking that the groundwork for our brains denying all logic is already something completey fake was real. In the study, “subjects happening when we dream. were shown a vintage Clint Eastwood movie (“The Good, The Bad and the Ugly”) and Hasson and Malach watched what When I first watched Inception, I was struck by the happened to the cortex in a scanner. The scientists found question the final scene leaves hanging in everyone’s mind. that when adults were watching the film their brains showed Was this real? Is this possible? In my mind, the biggest a peculiar pattern of activity, which was virtually universal” question of all is not whether the drugs worked as described, (Hasson). What this means is that when adult human brains or the timing lined up just right, but if, from a neurological are given the same stimuli, our brains react the same way. If perspective, this was possible. Could our brains really be someone had enough knowledge of what stimuli causes what tricked into thinking an absurd dream world was real? And responses in the brain, they could trigger the “visual cortex, then the next question occurred to me: if it is possible for our fusiform gyrus, areas related to the processing of touch (they brains to be so utterly lost in a dream world that they have were activated during scenes involving physical contact) and no concept of logic, no way to differentiate real from fake, so on.” This means that our brains, when receiving certain how can we be sure we all aren’t living in a dream world right signals, could all be seeing the same thing. This evidence now? How can we be absolutely certain, when our brains can suggests that a world where people could “share dreams” or be so easily manipulated, that our world is real? at least be subjected to the same ones might be possible. 6 Nobelium Magazine

GRAVITY ByGriffinCallaghan Gravity, released in 2013, stars Sandra Bullock, that they can grab onto the station. While they fail in landing George Clooney, and inaccurate science. It tells the story of at the station, Stone’s foot gets tangled in a cord and she is a first-time space engineer named Dr. Ryan Stone (Bullock) able to grasp a strap on Kowalski’s space suit. Kowalski’s and a veteran astronaut on his last mission named Matt velocity slows and the two appear to stop moving, but the Kowalski (Clooney) when, during a space walk, their space cord connecting Stone to the ISS begins to break. If this shuttle is destroyed and they are left alone in space with no event had occurred on Earth, with the force of gravity acting mode of transport. on the cord, there would be no scientific problem with this scene (Siegel). However, due to the lack of external forces While this film features dazzling visual effects, the and the fact that Kowalski slows to a stop, there should be story behind these effects does not hold up scientifically. no pressure on the cord, and Stone should be able to pull First, the science behind the accident that causes the entire Kowalski towards her with little difficulty (O’Callaghan). plot of the film occurs when a Russian communications satellite collides with the shuttle that had transported the The next scientific inaccuracy comes when Kowalski pair to the telescope they are working on (O’Callaghan). detaches himself from the strap that Stone is holding onto. This telescope is based on the Hubble telescope. While these Because he slowed to a stop, he should not continue to fall events seem like a possible outcome, the only problem is that away from Stone, but once again, the writers of the film communications satellites and power telescopes in orbit have appear to believe that the laws of gravity apply in open space, hundreds of miles between them; communications satellites which they do not (Siegel). are taken deep into orbit while telescopes simply need to be out of the atmosphere in order to have unobstructed Finally, there are many more inaccurate, if not sight (Tiwari). The distance between these satellites would particularly relevant, scenes in the film. For example, in one prevent any collision from happening in reality. scene, Stone cries in zero gravity, and instead of her tears sticking to her face as tears actually do in space, they roll off The next liberty taken by the writers of the film is of her face and float away (Tiwari). As in other scenes, the when Stone and Kowalski decide that the only way to save scientific verity is sacrificed in favor of a visually interesting themselves is to travel the approximately 84 miles through shot. The last wrong cinematic decision occurs early and open space to the International Space Station (ISS) using often in the film; the debris from the satellite crash orbits the a space jetpack. To traverse that distance with precision is planet from east to west, when in reality, waste products in incredibly difficult, and is made even more difficult when space orbit west to east because of the rotation of the planet factoring in the fact that jetpack travel is also not particularly (Weir). common (Di Justo). While NASA did in fact use a jetpack during missions in the 1980s, it was discontinued because of While many of the scenes in Gravity are scientifically a lack of safety and precision, both of which do not present a inaccurate, many of these changes to fact were made in order problem for Stone and Kowalski as they are able to operate to create a more visually compelling film. The changes are the jetpack easily (O’Callaghan). also evident of Hollywood’s strong desire to sell tickets, even to the detriment of fact-based storytelling and scientific Then, once the two astronauts reach the ISS, they integrity. The average viewer, however, is unlikely to notice discover that it has been abandoned by its crew in an these inaccuracies, so the film does not deserve too much attempt to avoid the same debris that had destroyed Stone disrespect. and Kowalski’s shuttle. As the two approach the ISS, their speed is too great so they are forced to reach out and hope Winter 2019 Edition 7

Synesthesi-wha? By Sidnie Kulik Award-winning author, Wendy action potential is brought to the brain. Mass, depicts life with synesthesia in Afterward, the brain sends a response her book, A Mango-Shaped Space. to the stimulus. The response could Nationally, the novel has received a lot of lead to a movement, thought, feeling or praise, but many readers still do not fully different action. In synesthetes, neurons understand what the condition is. in one sensory system crossover with neurons in a different sensory system. It Synesthesia is the product of one is also believed that synesthesia affects sense being stimulated by another. In the limbic system in the brain, which simpler terms, it is a blending of one’s produces behavioral and emotional senses. There are two main types of responses. synesthesia that can occur. One form processes data using several senses Synesthesia is an idiopathic simultaneously, while the other fuses the condition, meaning that the cause of the synesthete’s perceptual modes. One of condition is not known. Some scientists the most common types of synesthesia hypothesize that all children are born is grapheme-color synesthesia. In this with interconnected neurons. These form of synesthesia, the individual sees scientists believe that synesthetes do uncolored numbers or letters in color. not lose the neuron connections when For example, the letter A may appear they mature, as typically occurs (Booth). green or the number 8 may seem blue. Others believe that the inheritance of Another example of this condition is synesthesia is caused by genetics (Booth). sound-to-color synesthesia. This form Globally, women are at least six times triggers a colored shape in response more likely to present the condition than to a sound. For instance, the sound of men, which supports the notion that the an alarm could produce a red circle in condition is a sex-linked trait (Booth). the corner of a synesthete’s vision. A Scientists do know that seizures, brain final and rare form of synesthesia is and spinal cord damage, neuron lexical-gustatory synesthesia, which degeneration, and the consumption of corresponds a taste to a word (Discover drugs can induce synesthesia. Your Synesthesia). There are many other forms of this condition that can involve The amount of people that have any of the human senses. synesthesia is unknown since many are not aware that they have the condition. In the human brain, there are Estimates for the number of people around 100 billion neurons which who present synesthesia range from 1 communicate together to allow the in 200 to 1 in 100,000 (Phillips). In the body to function. Different neurons US, women are three times as likely to serve varying functions, but all help present this condition, and in the UK pass signals around the body. Sensory they are eight times as likely (Phillips). It neurons receive signals at their has also been reported that left-handed dendrites, which are located at the end of people are more likely to present this the neuron. Through an action potential, condition than right-handed people a signal is passed down the axon, or the (Phillips). Lastly, some well-known body of the neuron. Then the potential synesthetes include Billy Joel, Pharrell reaches the axon terminal, located at Williams, Charli XCX, and Vincent Van the other end of the cell. Following this, Gogh (Elise). the signal passes across a synapse, a gap between neurons, to the next neuron. Synesthesia comes in many forms This process occurs in the peripheral and holds numerous possibilities. It nervous system, the part of the nervous is also a condition that is not visibly system outside of the brain and spinal diagnosable. So, who knows? Maybe cord. This process repeats until the with some research, you may discover that you, too, are a synesthete. 8 Nobelium Magazine

Clean Meat: The Future of Food? By Finn Crawford Picture a world where meat products are cheap, steak, resembling what is found on dinner plates today. readily available, and produced without killing any Despite the various shortcomings of growing animals. Startups such as JUST, Memphis Meats, and Finless Foods have recently been working to make meat in a lab, the potential benefits of Clean Meat this dream a reality by creating what they call “Clean are enormous. By rendering extensive livestock Meat”. Just to be clear, Clean Meats are not imitation operations nearly obsolete, lab-grown meats could meats, products made from plant protein and intended revolutionize the food industry. In 2016 alone, it was for the vegan/vegetarian market. Instead, Clean Meat found that Americans consumed 25 billion pounds of is real animal tissue grown in labs, rather than within beef, sourced from over 50 million individual cows the animals’ bodies themselves. (White & Brunker). This figure is especially daunting considering that raising a single cow requires nearly Clean Meat, otherwise known as cultured 100,000 gallons of water per year (White & Brunker). meat, is created by first extracting a tiny amount of Furthermore, cows were estimated to be responsible muscle tissue from a living animal, then isolating the for 15% of global greenhouse gas emissions by releasing progenitor cells, which are essentially stem cells specific methane into the atmosphere through flatulence to the muscular system. Next, these progenitor cells (White & Brunker). Living conditions in many large- are placed in a growth medium, a liquid containing an scale livestock operations are also extremely cruel; assortment of nutrients and enzymes with controlled forced breeding, growth hormones, and cramped temperatures, pH and oxygen levels. The purpose of living spaces are typical in today’s large-scale meat this is to mimic the environment that these cells would production. On the whole, the world would drastically encounter within a living animal, thereby spurring benefit if the food industry were to transition from natural growth. Within the controlled environment the massive resource consumption, destruction of of the growth medium, these muscle cells multiply the environment, and inhumane conditions that exponentially, forming cell strands composed of characterize modern industrialized farms, to the lab- around 1.5 million cells (Schaefer). These strands are based approach that circumvents all of these factors. ultimately layered together, along with independently synthesized fat cells to create something that resembles While we may be very far from widespread meat. production of delicious, tender steaks from just a few muscle cells, the endeavor to synthesize these proteins This process, however, is by no means perfect. is definitely a step in the right direction. There is still For one, it is extremely inefficient and expensive. In hope for this seemingly far-off enterprise; the Clean order to create just one 3 ounce patty, over 10,000 cell Meat startup, JUST, plans on taking an undisclosed strands are required (Egan). The immense amount of product to market next year (Birdsall). It will, by no time and money it takes to synthesize so many strands means, be an immediate culinary revolution; the is reflected in its high price point. A ‘Clean’ hamburger process is imperfect and still not completely cost- sold in 2013 cost $330,000, meaning widespread effective. Nevertheless, world-changing inventions production of lab-grown meats, for now, is a long don’t develop overnight, so while we may have to wait shot (Linford). Additionally, while the process is very for Clean Meat to become commonplace, agricultural successful in recreating ground meats such as chicken inefficiency and ecological destruction could make fingers, sausages, and burgers, scientists are still far Clean Meat an inevitable part of our future. from being able to grow full-muscle meats, such as Winter 2019 Edition 9

Injectable Band-aid By Jennifer Do-Dai 10 Nobelium Magazine

“Hemorrhage is a leading cause of death in it is identifiable by an “X” so that surgeons are able to battlefield wounds” (Science Direct). In the battlefield, easily remove it later. it was found that “the victim’s chance of survival may hinge on a first responder’s ability to minimize the loss of RevMedX has created two XSTAT devices: blood within the first 10 minutes” (Nguyen). However, the XSTAT 30 and the XSTAT 12. The XSTAT 12 is a tourniquet, a device usually wrapped around a limb smaller than the XSTAT 30 which allows it to access to limit blood flow, or applying manual pressure, is not narrower areas of the body, especially the junctional always possible. Sometimes, hemorrhages in high blood areas, that the XSTAT 30 cannot access. The XSTAT flow areas, such as the groin, or in wounds that are too 30 was originally approved for only military use in deep cannot be stopped with a tourniquet or manual April 2014. In December of 2015, the XSTAT 30 was pressure. Even worse, the pressure applied to stop the also approved for use by civilians. In August 2018, bleeding could cause new injuries or worsen existing the XSTAT 12 was also approved for use by the FDA ones. A way to stop blood loss quickly and effectively and both devices were approved to be used to treat needed to be found, so the US Military commissioned a gunshot and stab wounds in the arms and legs instead project to create a “sprayable liquid foam that hardens of just for junctional and shoulder wounds. on contact to help control instances of massive arterial bleeding, often caused by a bullet wound or stabbing”; Another group of scientists at Texas A&M in other words, an injectable Band-Aid (Nguyen). created a “multifunctional nanocomposite hydrogel that can be used as an injectable hemostat and an A company called RevMed created a syringe efficient vehicle for therapeutic delivery to facilitate called XSTAT that could quickly stop bleeding. tissue regeneration” (Science Direct). This hydrogel According to the RevMedX website, “XSTAT is a was also engineered for the purpose of battlefield hemostatic device for the control of severe, life- wounds. It is composed of kappa-carrageenan, a threatening bleeding from junctional wounds in the polysaccharide that is found in seaweed, and synthetic groin or axilla and bleeding from narrow entrance nanosilicates, which are clay-based nanoparticles. extremity wounds in the arms or legs not amenable Because of the ratio of kappa-carrageenan to synthetic to tourniquet application in adults and adolescents” nanosilicates, the hydrogel is strong. The nanosilicates (RevMedX). XSTAT solves the problem of tourniquets make the hydrogel highly porous. Medicines can or manual pressure not being able to stop bleeding and be injected and delivered through the porous also can be applied quickly. “interconnected network” (ScienceDirect) and reach RevMedX originally started from the idea the wound. Additionally, the nanosilicates allow for that the US Military had: “a sprayable liquid foam” protein adsorption, which is when proteins adhere to a (RevMedX). However, RevMedX found that the foam biomaterial or another surface on the hydrogel. Protein they created was not strong enough to hold against the adsorption “changes the properties of the surface and force of blood and stop the bleeding effectively. After can induce structural alterations on the adsorbed/ research, it was found that cellulose, a plant-based desorbed proteins” (ScienceDirect). In the hydrogel, polymer, was strong, absorbant, and could resist the protein adsorption results in an increase of platelets, force of the blood. According to the vice president of a component of blood that helps with clotting and RevMedX, John Steinbaugh, “the big advantage with also increases clotting speed which will help stop the our version is that [cellulose] can expand to 15 times bleeding. When injected, this hydrogel would “enter its original size. So there’s no need to apply pressure as the wound itself and conform to its shape, plugging it’s already applied on the inside as it expands” (John up blood flow” (Letzer). Texas A&M published their Steinbaugh). Now that scientists had a material to stop research about this nanoengineered hydrogel in the the bleeding, they needed to devise a way to apply it journal Acta Biomaterialia. So far, the hydrogel has quickly. Along with RevMedX, students at Harvey been tested in cow blood, and research reports that Mudd College created a celluose-based material cow blood will “clot in less than 6 minutes, rather than covered with chitosan, a sugar found in shellfish that the usual 8” (Letzer). While its efficacy in humans has is also an antimicrobial clotting agent. This means yet to be tested, this injectable Band-Aid will hopefully that chitosan helps clot blood and stop the growth of, be open for use in the coming years. RevMedX and or even kill microorganisms that can cause infection. Texas A&M are just two of many groups looking to This spongy material would absorb the blood and change the future of medicine. expand. As the material expands it becomes one mass that is able to stop bleeding; the chitosan would help quicken the clotting of blood. Another advantage of the material is that when viewed in an x-ray by surgeons, Winter 2019 Edition 11

Three Dimensional X-Ray by Sammy Guerrero Imagine this common scenario: you are playing your favorite sport, you take a hard fall, and you immediately feel a pain in your wrist. You go to the doctor, and the doctor recommends X-rays to determine if you have a fractured wrist. While it may require an operation to fix, the process of diagnosing your issue was quick and simple, largely due to the X-rays that were taken of your wrist. They provide a clear picture of the bones and joints you cannot see, helping the doctor create an effective, personalized treatment. But what if X-rays could get even better? In 1895, Professor Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen first discovered X-rays using a cathode ray tube (History of Radiography). However, lack of corresponding technology made them largely unavailable until 1913. As the years went on, researchers, scientists, and doctors alike have worked to make X-rays more accurate, less harmful to the body, and easier to interpret. In July of 2018, research reached a new peak; Professors Phil Butler and Anthony Butler from Canterbury and Otago Universities developed not only the first color X-ray, but the first 3D color X-rays. The two researchers used a group of read- out chips called Medpix3, developed by CERN technologies, to track the specific wavelength of rays as they passed through different materials (Baumgaertner). The data compiled by the chip was run through a variety of different programs to create images of bones, muscles, fat, and even blood. “In all of these studies, promising early results suggest that when spectral imaging is routinely used in clinics it will enable more accurate diagnosis and personalization of treatment,” reiterates Anthony Butler (Muller). While the technology is certainly still in a developmental phase, its potential is extremely high. A small trial has recently been conducted using the new x-rays to spot cancer and detect bone and joint injuries (Muller). In addition, new clinical trials are being hosted for rheumatology and orthopedic patients as a way to diagnose patients with further precision. Despite these advancements, however, a big question still remains: when can this technology be used regularly? The truth is that there is no estimate in place yet. It will likely be years before it can be used in hospitals and doctor’s offices because the rays themselves need to be improved so as to be as accurate as possible (Daley). Recall, Professor Conrad discovered X-rays in 1895, but they weren’t used commonly until about 1913, nearly 2 decades later. While this is certainly a unique and interesting development, similar discoveries have also taken place recently. For example, the Halo X-ray system, which works in a similar manner, is designed to provide higher security machine accuracy. While current security detection scanners use standard X-rays to detect hazardous substances, they often confuse benign substances with those that are harmful (Daley). However, Halo X-rays are unique because they provide a way for security machines to distinguish between similar substances, allowing for more efficient and safer security. While it may be some time before we see this new technology in everyday life, it is interesting to see how far the world has come when developing these techniques. From Professor Conrad in 1895 to the development of the new highly attuned technology that is leaps and bounds ahead of its time, society has made improvements to further develop x-rays, and thus, medicine. It will be interesting to watch how this technology is used and to see if it will still be relevant in a few years. Sometimes, new ideas such as these are either ineffective or are outdated by the time they are commonplace. While this concept is promising, there is certainly still a lot of work that has to be done in order for this new idea to become a reality for the masses.

INFLAMMATION IS THE NEW CHOLESTEROL by Harrison Theriault Heart disease is the leading cause of death in the attack victims concluded that in many cases arteries world. Scientists are now making significant progress were not severely narrowed by cholesterol-filled towards finding a cure for this devastating condition. plaque as previously thought. Instead, inflammation The number of deaths related to cardiovascular diseases was found to be the underlying culprit, contributing continues to rise worldwide (“Atherosclerosis,” n.d.; to the development of a slightly different plaque “Deaths from cardiovascular disease increase globally (“Atherosclerosis,”; Krumholz, 2017). This type of while mortality rates decrease,” 2015). New research plaque contained many different cell types, such as investigating heart disease has identified a potential, monocytes and macrophages, as well as calcium and non-cholesterol related cause: inflammation. This cholesterol that contributed to blood clotting and possibility has begun to answer many of the questions obstruction of arteries (Rix, 2016). These findings that have puzzled heart scientists over the past century beg the question: what makes arteries prone to (Bove, 2018). clogging? Researchers have long thought that the primary Plaque forms when fat droplets are absorbed cause of heart attacks was the buildup of fatty plaque by an artery, from the release of proteins called inside arteries caused by foods with excess cholesterol: cytokines that initiate inflammation (Raymaakers, eggs, butter, etc. (UHN Staff, 2017). This build-up 2018). These cytokines, proteins that regulate other prevented rich blood from perfusing the heart and cells and are intercellular communicators, contribute clogged other arteries. When the heart lacked oxygen, to the stickiness of the arterial wall and ultimately tissue death would occur, followed by a heart attack. attract other cells such as platelets and monocytes Interestingly, after studying hundreds of thousands to form early clots (Stefanadis, Antoniou, Tsiachris, of these blockages, researchers concluded that only & Pietri, 2017). Monocytes, a type of white blood about 3 out of 10 heart attacks happen in this manner cell, comprise approximately 10 percent of white (“Debating the Role of Inflammation in Cardiovascular blood cells in the human body and normally gobble Disease,” 2017). This led researchers to rethink up bacteria, viruses, debris, and any cells that have the standard framework concerning heart disease. been infected. When there is inflammation, these Before, low-density lipoprotein was thought to lead monocytes migrate to the site of inflammation. The to a buildup of “bad” cholesterol in the cardiovascular monocytes squeeze into the artery wall and morph system, particularly within the arteries, which would into macrophages, also called foam cells. Foam cells, eventually cause clogging. In addition, high-density under the regulation of specific cytokines, lipoproteins, which carry cholesterol back to the liver to be processed, were regarded as “good” cholesterol (Bodkin, 2016). However, France, along with other countries, demonstrated confusing demographic trends. The general population consumed diets laden with heavy cheeses and fats, resulting in high blood cholesterol levels but relatively few people with heart disease. Puzzled, scientists began looking elsewhere for answers and built new hypotheses in order to explain why people with normal cholesterol levels experienced heart attacks (Cabot, 2018). Scientists examining heart Winter 2019 Edition 13

such as interleukin-10, begin to soak up fat droplets while process when different types of proinflammatory clumping together to form a plaque with a thin covering cytokines come to the damaged site. In response, (“Macrophages,” 2010). This plaque has a large, soft, lipid- tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) acts rich, necrotic core that is thin and vulnerable to rupture. defensively, while other cytokines promote A rupture ultimately leads to a heart attack. A heart attack healing, such as transforming growth factor beta occurs when plaque is released into the bloodstream, called (TGF-beta) and interleukin-10 (IL-10), which have thombi, and obstructs arteries. Obstruction of blood supply been identified as being anti-inflammatory. Such destroys tissue around the artery leading to the death of knowledge is invaluable to heart health research, heart muscle. as it provides a measurable medium of heart health within the body. When cytokines are measured in While studying inflammation in the heart, researchers those with unhealthy habits, the results are now noticed a prevalence of blood markers specific to quantifiable and helpful to researchers (Libby, inflammation, such as C-reactive protein, in the bloodstream Ridker, & Hannsson, 2009). Scientists are now of patients with known heart diseases. CRP, as it is called, able to specifically measure these biomarkers in a measures inflammation in the body and is now being looked person’s plasma to determine if their health factors at as a predictor of a person’s risk of heart attack. Multiple are pro or anti-inflammatory. studies have concluded that the higher the C-reactive protein levels in the blood, the greater the risk of a heart When scientists measure the inflammatory attack (Griffin, & Michos, 2016). response from major cardiovascular risk factors such as cigarette smoking, hypertension, and Many are heralding these new studies regarding the diets rich in trans-fats, they find the release inflammatory cascade as being one of the most significant of proinflammatory cytokines, which in turn accomplishments in the last 30 years of medical research cause macrophages to produce plaque and (“Vulnerable Plaque,” n.d.). It suggests that the inflammatory arterial damage, leading to heart disease. cascade initiates and propagates the inflammatory response This inflammatory cascade, from cytokines to by creating a system of cells and proteins that communicate macrophage production, is essential to helping and cooperate with each other in a complex fashion using scientists learn how to manipulate each step in chemical signals. The system of cytokines, which are the production of inflammation to positively affect regulators on cells, such as interleukin-1 from macrophages, health. With the identification of the inflammatory stimulate a host of other cells, such as T-cells, to initiate cascade in the formation of heart disease, many inflammation. Approximately 14 different cytokines make of the individual cytokines can be positively or up the cascade and have been identified as interacting to negatively changed by modifying an individual’s produce plaque in the arteries. Inflammation normally health habits or positively manipulated by lasts for days and creates increased blood flow, redness, physicians with pharmacological drugs. swelling, heat, and pain at the site while simultaneously creating new cells and collagen to heal the damage. At times For example, medications are now being the inflammation process fails, and the condition becomes developed to treat heart disease with the new chronic, lasting for a longer period and generates destructive research in mind. At the annual meeting for the reactions that damage cells. This chronic inflammation European Society of Cardiology, Harvard’s Paul occurs, for example, during heart attacks when the body’s Ridker, MD, presented how he applied this new inflammatory response in the heart’s arteries manifests research in a clinical setting. Ultimately, he found over a long period of time leading to plaque formation and conclusive evidence that inflammation plays a eventual rupture of the plaque (Rix, 2016). major role in heart disease, finally explaining why half of all heart attacks happen in people with Cytokine production accelerates during this chronic normal cholesterol. 14 Nobelium Magazine

Dr. Ridker also published his groundbreaking radicals (byproducts of oxygen metabolism Canakinumab Anti-inflammatory Thrombosis Outcomes which damage living cells and tissues), lower Study (CANTOS) in the New England Journal of Medicine cytokine production, and block the activity of (Brigham Women’s Hospital, 2017). In the study, 10,061 proinflammatory signaling systems. people were recruited who had had a heart attack previously and showed elevated levels of CRP. The research group was This new research offers firm evidence administered varying doses of an anti-inflammatory drug of the role of inflammation on heart health called canakinumab (sold under the brand name Ilaris). The and is answering many of the oldest questions study found that those who took 150 mg of canakinumab regarding cardiovascular events (Shrivastava, every three months had 37 percent less inflammation and 15 2015). Interestingly, abnormal cholesterol percent fewer cardiovascular events, such as heart attacks, levels in the absence of inflammation rarely when compared with the placebo group. cause heart attacks, while normal cholesterol levels in the face of rampant inflammation Other groups are looking at factors outside of often cause heart attacks. Unfortunately, most medication to identify if there are positive or negative people are still adhering to older theories effects on the cytokine cascade effect with the eventual goal and are diligently taking their cholesterol of successfully halting the inflammatory process. Excessive medications while following research that calorie intake has been shown to be proinflammatory, and is quickly becoming outdated. The future consuming fewer calories decreases CRP levels (Koenig of cardiovascular disease is seeing the et al., 1999). Similarly, highly refined carbohydrate diets produced a high glycemic value which stimulates dawn of a new era. Only time will tell if the proinflammatory IL-6 and CRP. Bad fats introduced to implementation clinically of this exciting new the diet, such as trans fatty acids, have been observed to research over the next few years, will finally alter red blood cell membranes and plasma biomarkers of knock heart disease off its top spot as the inflammation including IL-1, IL-6, and TNF-alpha (Cabot, number one killer in America. & Jasinska, 2018). Saturated fats have been shown to play a significant role in the inflammatory process by stimulating macrophage production and secretion of proinflammatory cytokines. Studies have found anti-inflammatory nutrients and factors such as omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in fatty fish and fish oil supplements have the opposite effect, producing beneficial changes. Consuming 3 ounces of fatty fish such as salmon or herring five times a week for eight weeks significantly lowered proinflammatory cytokines TNF-alpha and IL-6. Weight loss of ten percent of total body weight significantly reduced plasma levels of proinflammatory macrophages and cytokines IL-6, 15 and 18. Other strong anti-inflammatory factors identified to date include polyphenols, which are found in fruits, vegetables, chocolate, coffee, olive oil, and tea (Ridker, n.d.). With the new focus on inflammation and its cascade of measurable biomarkers, scientists are finding many previously unknown factors influencing heart health (Franz, 2014). Other studies are providing collaborative evidence of the role that dietary change can play in one’s health. For example, the Mediterranean Diet, with its focus on vegetables, fruits, nuts, a moderate amount of red wine, and liberal use of olive oil has been scientifically shown to reduce plasma levels of proinflammatory biomarkers, including endothelial adhesion molecules, CRP, TNF-alpha, and NF- kB (“Evidence Supporting the Anti-Inflammatory Diet,” n.d.). Fruits and vegetables are rich in polyphenols, and scientists are now able to better understand the reason why these compounds promote health: they have powerful anti- inflammatory attributes that prevent the production of free Winter 2019 Edition 15

THE TWIN PARADOX, THE THEORY OF RELATIVITY, and our lives by anna perez Of all the paradoxes which countless equation, E is the energy of an object, m is the mass scientists have devoted their lives to over the years, of that same object and c is the speed of light. The Einstein’s Twin Paradox is by far one of the most equation implies that the energy and mass have complex and fascinating. So, what exactly is it? The a direct relationship, which would mean that the idea behind this is that if you had a twin and your more mass an object has, the more energy it will twin traveled into space for a certain amount of time possess (Howell). The closer to the speed of light approaching the speed of light, when they returned you are traveling, the more energy and mass you to Earth, you would have aged significantly more will have, and the slower time will seem to go. The than your twin had. While confusing and difficult reason why no object or substance besides light to think about, Einstein’s Theory of Special can ever reach the speed of light is that photons, Relativity explains the reason why one twin will or particles of light, have a mass of virtually age more rapidly than the other. This theory states zero. Due to the direct relationship of mass and that to someone in a moving object, time appears energy, photons’ lack of mass indicates the energy to pass more slowly than to a stationary observer of required to reach the speed of light is almost zero, the moving object. An example that Einstein used thus making speed limitless (Howell). In the twin to explain this was a person waiting for a train at paradox, one twin is flown into space at nearly the the train station. To them, time was passing more speed of light. Because of this, time (according to quickly than to a passenger on a train passing by Einstein’s Theory of Special Relativity) is moving the station (Howell). Simply put, the faster you are almost infinitely slower for the twin in space than moving, the slower time will go for you compared it is for the twin on Earth. to a stationary observer. There were many experiments conducted The equation derived from this theory is one throughout the twentieth century to work to prove that most people are familiar with: E = mc2. In this the Theory of Special Relativity. Richard E. Keating 16 Nobelium Magazine

and Joseph C. Hafele conducted an experiment in in order to be accurate because the satellites are which certain cesium-beam atomic clocks were moving exponentially faster than the location of sent around the world twice eastward and then the device. Jesse Emspak of Live Science explains: were sent around the world twice westward. “Since each satellite is 12,600 miles … above Earth Between trips, the increase in time on the clocks and moves at about 6,000 miles per hour …, there’s was recorded and compared to the amount of time a relativistic time dilation that tacks on about 4 which would be displayed had the clocks returned. microseconds each day. Add the effects of gravity When the clocks returned, they displayed different and the figure goes up to about 7 microseconds” times, proving the Theory of Relativity. The reasons (Empsak). Those seven microseconds (seven this proved the Theory of Special Relativity was thousand nanoseconds) would cause up to a because depending on where in the atmosphere five-mile error in the GPS unit if relativity wasn’t you are, or what part of the world you are flying accounted for. (Empsak) There are countless other over, the gravitational pull will be different. When examples of relativity affecting our daily lives, the pull is different, the timing will be off and the from old television sets to the light we see itself. less gravitational force means the slower time wBilly AnnaUPpeornezre|flEecdtiiotnedonbythIseabcoeml pKleexliltyy of go (Radeska). Einstein’s Twin Paradox and Theory of Special So how exactly did this insight advance our Relativity, it becomes apparent that these knowledge of science, and how is this relevant to discoveries were extremely important and our day to day lives? Take, for instance, the GPS advanced the technology of our time. Next time in your car. A GPS (Global Positioning System) you turn on the GPS, you’ll know that relativity is unit must take into account relativity keeping you on track! Winter 2019 Edition 17

The By Anushka Harve Ethics of AI Artificial intelligence (AI) has computer machines/systems can experiment; they’re here to stay. recently become an explosive field, achieve goals and solve problems Car companies like Nissan, ride- driving cutting-edge innovations in (Stanford). It’s important to hailing services such as Uber, and all sorts of industries. But what is note that there is a big difference innovative companies like Google AI? between human-level intelligence have all created their own versions and human intelligence: the goal in of the “autonomous car.” Although There are differing opinions on developing or using AI is not often to these companies see many positives what AI is, and it all depends on who make computers think like humans, to self-driving cars, such as ways you ask. The Stanford Computer but to achieve a level of computer “to eliminate road deaths caused Science department states that intelligence that functions at the by human error, reduce traffic, and it’s “the science and engineering same level as humans. Additionally, free up time spent commuting,” of making intelligent machines, AI is very closely intertwined with recent failures have challenged the especially intelligent computer machine learning, but don’t get implementation of such benefits programs.” The most ambiguous them confused! Machine learning (Rayej). This March, a Tesla car word there, “intelligence,” can is a specific subset of AI, which in “autopilot” mode sped up and mean “the computational part of actually “trains the machine how to crashed into a concrete barrier the ability to achieve goals in the learn” (SAS). For example, Gmail on the highway, killing the driver world” (Stanford). Essentially, it’s uses machine learning algorithms (Levin). That same month, a the wiring and decision process to classify spam, and filter it out self-driving Uber hit and killed a behind actions. Along with the idea (Narula). Overall, some main goals jaywalking pedestrian (Reuters). of creating intelligent machines, AI of AI are to help computer systems These tragic events have sparked a can also strive to “[simulate] human “[learn] from experience,” “[adjust] lot of conversation about how safe intelligence” (Stanford). to new inputs,” and “perform self-driving cars are and how safe human-like tasks” (SAS). they could be in the future. But first, However, the AI software how do self-driving cars even work? company SAS Institute believes It seems that as AI develops that AI is the “science of training at a faster rate, the more ethical Self-driving cars have internal machines to perform human tasks,” dilemmas arise. One recent AI maps built into their system to directly connecting technology to innovation that has caused a lot help not only with navigation but human-like functions. The general of controversy is self-driving cars. also “obstacle avoidance.” The car consensus on AI is that it “[aims] Self-driving cars aren’t just an can map not only a surrounding at human-level intelligence” so that 18 Nobelium Magazine

body’s current state of motion, but trolley problem, addresses a similar we think and feel. Self-driving cars its predicted change in motion- this situation (Himmelreich). The are unique in that the engineers includes objects, such as buildings, trolley problem sets up the following have a startling amount of power in that are at rest, and people. The scenario: your train is headed matters such as safety and will be car also makes some assumptions towards a track where you’ll kill responsible for creating a product about the surrounding bodies five people; however, if you pull the that can learn and adapt based based on their movement that will lever to switch the track, you’ll only on values “programmed” in. An help the vehicle make “intelligent kill one person. On one hand, killing important aspect of the discussion decisions.” For example, “if a two- fewer people is generally viewed as has to do with legislature, and how wheeled object is traveling at 40 ideal, so it could be best to switch the law can manage that startling mph versus 10 mph, it is most likely the tracks. However, the problem amount of power in all fields. For a motorcycle and not a bicycle and can get more complicated— what if example, in medicine, “AIs... are will get categorized as such by the the five people were adults, and the billed as “decision aids,” meaning vehicle.” The car can then decide to one person was a baby? they are intended (at least in legal wait behind the motorcycle, rather terms) to complement, not replace, than pass the potential “bicyclist” While the trolley problem is a a specialist’s opinion” (Hart). This (Rayej). bit extreme for decisions that self- means the blame is still on the driving cars would have to make in human using the machine, usually Discussing the ethics of self- everyday life, autonomous cars will the doctor. The future of AI is driving cars begins with the have to make similar split-second growing, so it’s only natural that most basic conflict: what is decisions constantly—valuing one ethical and legal discussions are more important, the lives of the option over another. The way we increasing as well. passengers or the lives of others, like as a society approach these ethical pedestrians or bicyclists? A “famous questions will say a lot about philosophical brain teaser,” the humanity, what we value, and how Winter 2019 Edition 19

LMeosresFToaosdt, e by gabby rayev 20 Nobelium Magazine

Have you ever listened to a song so many times that by the third hour of hitting the replay button the song is dull and boring? Or have you done something that was incredibly exciting the first time, but is now bland and repetitive? Though these scenarios are harmless, food can have the same effect on people, leading someone to gain weight and worsen their obesity. Numerous studies have found that obese people have fewer taste buds than people of a healthy weight, but why that exactly happens has been a mystery to scientists. In a recent study published in March 2018, able to support this claim by peeling the epithelium, scientists, through testing on lab mice, found a direct the outer layer of the tongue, collecting individual taste connection between the type of food that mice eat buds, extracting the mRNA from the cells, and then and the number of taste buds they have. The study comparing the mRNA of both groups, finding that the was a huge breakthrough in understanding obesity, mRNA in obese mice was damaged by the inflammation a condition that has escalated into an American (Fan). pandemic, and understanding why those affected lose taste buds. At Cornell University, Dr. Andrew Kaufman Later in the study, Kaufman used genetically and Dr. Robin Dando found that lab mice who were engineered mice that could not produce cytokine, and fed a high-fat diet and subsequently became obese he found that even when the mice became obese, they lost a significant amount of taste buds over a period of did not lose taste buds. This is a huge step forward for time compared to lab mice that were fed a regular diet. the scientific community’s efforts in fighting obesity. The study states, “compared with siblings that were The loss of taste buds was often cited as a catalyst for fed normal mouse chow, mice given high-fat meals further weight gain as when a person lacks taste buds, lost about 25 percent of their taste buds over eight their brain is unable to completely register the amount weeks,” signifying slower taste bud cell regeneration of food one is eating (Kaufman). This keeps the person (Cunningham). The researchers also found that the hungry and leads them to continue to eat, aggravating obese mice had higher levels of cytokine, a protein that their obesity. Finding a way to stop the production regulates inflammatory response in their taste buds. of cytokines in humans would possibly achieve the Thus, as the inflammatory response is intensified by similar result of stopping the loss of taste buds and increased levels of cytokine in obese mice, Kaufman then perhaps slow weight gain. proposed that these unnatural immune responses in taste buds interfered with mitosis, not allowing taste Kaufman’s study is a critical first step in combating buds to regrow and proliferate as “one of the major obesity in humans, giving the community an idea of problems that obesity causes is inflammation of tissues, why taste buds deteriorate in obese patients, and how which can lead to DNA damage” (Fan). Kaufman was to combat the damage done to the DNA of the taste bud cells through genetic engineering. Though his research is very far from being applicable to humans, it is central to pushing forward the scientific community’s understanding of obesity and what causes it. Winter 2019 Edition 21

The PBsyyVicviahnoLilogy of Procrastination Zara sits there, furiously trying to finish all of resignation and frustration will be gone by tomorrow. her work on a Sunday night. She has a history paper due These procrastinators are similar to what Psychology Tuesday, an English essay due Wednesday, chemistry Today classifies as “thrill seekers” (Psychology Today). and math tests tomorrow, and she’s barely started her “Thrill-seeking” procrastinators convince themselves Nobelium article draft that was due, well, yesterday. As that they perform better under pressure and stress. the clock ticks past midnight, the stress begins to build They purposefully wait until the last minute to achieve up, and Zara wails the eternal question, “Why didn’t I a kind of euphoric rush of adrenaline that will drive start this earlier?” them to finish their work. We’ve all been Zara. We’ve all put off an People who are perfectionists also tend to be assignment to the last minute, thinking it would be procrastinators. Psychology Today calls this group alright, that we would be able to pull it all together the the “avoiders” (Psychology Today). “Avoiders” feel night before. Even though we have the chance to start overwhelmed when they are assigned a task. As an assignment earlier, we don’t. We instead succumb perfectionists, they set extremely high expectations to the external pulls of social media, Netflix, or for themselves. However, they predict that the path “20-minute” naps (which inevitably turn into 3-hour to achieving perfection will be laborious and feel naps), putting off our tasks until the night before, with discouraged before they even begin working. Avoiders the deadline looming over us like a pervasive stress expect that they will fail to meet their goals, and thus cloud. the process to finish their work becomes mentally challenging and even futile. As psychologist Adam Price Why do we do this? Why is it that so many put it, “perfectionists who procrastinate set unrealistic people find themselves in situations like Zara’s where expectations and then avoid work to rid themselves they procrastinate until the last minute and end up of the anxiety it causes” (Price). Perfectionist overwhelming and overstressing themselves? procrastinators put off work to evade the misery they believe it will bring, until they cannot any longer. Alexander Rozental, a behavioral psychologist, suggests that procrastinators often suffer from Other times, procrastinators suffer from “impulsivity,” as in a lack of self control and a warped low self-esteem and shame and fall into what Price sense of reality and self-perception (Time). Often times, calls the “victim mentality” (Price). People with the impulsive procrastinators believe that they will be victim mentality embark upon their tasks with the better equipped to deal with a task at a later time, which belief that they must achieve a certain standard and justifies putting it off until the last minute. They believe feel discouraged because of it. Unlike perfectionists, that they “don’t feel like” doing work at the present their perspective is that other people, often teachers moment and hope that their spontaneous feelings of 22 Nobelium Magazine

or parents, have set this unfair expectation on them, Price suggests the “five-minute plan”. Work on and they are a victim of unjust authority. Instead of one task for just five, concentrated minutes, and then studying for that difficult chemistry test or beginning switch to another task if you want. Price states that, to write that 5-page paper, these students put off their by the end of the five minutes, chances are that you work, partly out of anger against those who have thrust will want to keep working on their task, achieving a it upon them, and partly out of hopelessness to finish “natural flow” that Ballard says is important for being it all. The issue with the victim mentality is that these productive. This strategy is useful for avoiders, thrill- procrastinators will spend much of their time blaming seeking types, and decisional procrastinators. the “system” (the teacher, the class, etc.) and will not come to recognize the actual reason behind their Another popular and effective technique to struggles. help improve time management is the Pomodoro System, which was designed by author and software Furthermore, some people feel overwhelmed developer Francesco Cirillo in the late 1980s as a by the responsibility of making decisions and having college student (The Muse). The premise is to divide control over their schedules and outcomes. These are your workday into 25-minute periods each separated the “decisional procrastinators,” those who choose by 5-minute breaks in between. After four of these not to make a decision at all until deadlines, teachers, periods, called “pomodoros”, take longer breaks of 15- parents, or other outside factors ultimately make it 20 minutes. The purpose of having these “pomodoros” for them (Psychology Today). For these individuals, is to push you to do as much as you can on one task waiting relieves the responsibility of making a decision. for that 25-minute period. Having a long, unplanned It is easier to simply let others make their decisions for block of time often gives procrastinators a false sense them. As leading psychologist Joseph Ferrari explains, of security and tempts them into putting off their work, “They let others decide for them, so there is no blame and these “pomodoros” combat that issue by only for failure attributed to them” (American Psychological giving the person 25 minutes to complete a given task. Association). Ferrari suggests that, beyond school, The Pomodoro System provides an effective method of these procrastinators will often struggle with decision- time management for any procrastinator, regardless making in any and all areas of life. of the reason behind their struggles. It is also easy to use; there are an abundance of apps out there that So, how can we combat procrastination? There are designed specifically to help a person employ the are a variety of strategies to combat procrastination. Pomodoro System, such as Flora or Be Focused, which David Ballard, head of the American Psychological are both free and accessible (Lifewire). Association, recommends breaking up a large task into many smaller ones. Set multiple deadlines spread out While procrastination can often seem along the length of the project and reward yourself insurmountable, there are a multitude of strategies and along the way (Time). For those who are impulsive, ways one can overcome the issue. Don’t procrastinate breaking up work compels them to meet a deadline for figuring out how to overcome procrastination. The each smaller task and prevents them from letting their sooner you confront the reasons why you procrastinate, work pile up. For perfectionists and self-doubters, you can begin to understand how you can defeat the focusing on small, manageable tasks is much easier obstacles procrastination makes in your life. than worrying about the overarching goal. Winter 2019 Edition 23

QQuuaanntiftyuinmg Computing by ami nwaoha Although we have made huge leaps in the standard ever since the first computer was technology in the modern age, the way computers created(Marr, B.). Each function your computer work has remained the same since they were performs is all boiled down to specific sequences first invented. Quantum computers look to of 0’s and 1’s that your computer can understand. revolutionize the way information is processed Although traditional computing has been effective and interpreted. at most tasks, because we are entering a new age of “big data” where the info collected and stored has In order to understand why there is such a grown exponentially, modern technology either huge interest in quantum computers, we must can’t handle the sheer amount of data or it would first understand how a traditional computer, take eons in order to process the colossal amounts such as your Macbook or iPhone, works. At its of information. Enter quantum computers! core, traditional computers process information in units called bits. Bits are binary, meaning that Instead of processing information in bits they exist as either one state or the other. Those like traditional computers, quantum computers are the 0’s and 1’s that they use to store, interpret, process information in units called qubits. These and process information, and this has been qubits rely on two core principles of quantum 24 Nobelium Magazine

mechanics: superposition and entanglement. phenomenon cannot be observed. Additionally, in Instead of only existing in a state of 0 or 1 like order for quantum chips to function, they must be traditional bits, each qubit can also exist in a cooled in a chamber to a temperature just above superposition of those two states. The principle absolute zero [-273.15 C / 0 K] (Seeker). All of of superposition allows for qubits to store and these factors make it incredibly expensive to build process exponentially more data because they are and maintain these quantum computers. free from the binary constriction limiting normal bits. The processing capabilities of quantum Even with all these obstacles, major tech computers are further increased by the principle companies such as IBM, Microsoft, and Google of quantum entanglement. Entanglement is still compete against each other to build the where each qubit connects and interacts with the world’s first universal quantum computer. In qubits around it, forming a web. This means the fact, basic quantum computers already exist. IBM computer can adapt depending on the situation developed a 50-qubit computer last year, and this and its processing power is greatly multiplied as March, Google unveiled its 72-qubit computer, more qubits are added. By harnessing these two which is the largest to date. Scientific author quantum principles, quantum computers can Tristan Greene wrote that a 100-qubit computer quickly process exponentially more information would have more processing power than all the than a traditional computer could. supercomputers in the world combined. As of now, quantum computers have limited use and are Although quantum computers could mostly used for scientific research such as creating revolutionize the way we store and process simulations of small molecules. In September information, there are many limitations that 2017, the Beryllium hydride became the biggest restrict further development. The quantum molecule ever modeled by a 3- qubit quantum mechanics behind each computer are complex and computer (Popkin, G). However, when a quantum difficult for most to fully comprehend. Due to the computer that the public can access is created, it laws of quantum mechanics, although it is known would open up doors to solving complex world that each qubit exists in a state of superposition, this problems, designing more advanced artificial intelligence, advancing our understanding of proteomics and genomics, and much more. One controversial aspect of quantum computing is that, with their development, cybersecurity and cryptography would be essentially non-existent. With a quantum computer, one could crack any code or break through any firewall in an instant, which raises concerns about personal and national security (Stubbs, R.). Quantum computers are a new and exciting field of computer science that will revolutionize our understanding of how computers work and bring us into the future of the digital age. Winter 2019 Edition 25

ULTRAS NIC L E V I TAT I O N ByShawnWu Being able to manipulate objects with our hands is have frequencies of around 28,000 Hz, and the limit of one of the most useful skills to humankind. Building houses, human hearing is generally around 20,000 Hz. However, making machines, eating grapes out of the fridge at 3:00 AM, you should still be careful with prolonged exposure to and many other daily tasks depend on us using our hands. the ultrasonic transducers because they can still cause However, using our hands has downsides, such as having damage (Haberkern). to make physical contact with whatever object we want to move. This interaction prevents us from handling dangerous To actually perform the levitation, the object is objects such as strong acids or hot metal. Another limitation placed at rest on a platform under the transducer. When we face is that we can’t see through our hands. Therefore, the transducer is turned on, a standing wave, or a wave holding objects that partially obscure our vision can in turn that oscillates but keeps a constant maximum amplitude, make high risk situations, like performing surgery, especially is formed. This standing wave has nodes, which is where difficult. Another downside is that we can’t effectively hold the amplitude is lowest, and the object levitates to the first liquids in our hands, making it much harder to move precise node. Then, with the space between the object and the amounts of liquids around. However, many of these problems surface below, a reflector is placed in between, raising the can be solved using levitation. Scientists are finding many first node, and the reflector can be moved up and down ways to levitate objects without physically touching them, until the object is in the desired location. After removing such as ultrasonic levitation. the reflector, the object will remain in the nearest node, Ultrasonic levitation, also known as acoustic levitation thus levitating in the air (Haberkern). or just sonic levitation, is the process of using high frequency sound waves to suspend an object in space without physically One of the most interesting applications of this touching the object. It is very precise and is surprisingly technology is the GauntLev, made by Interact Lab and accessible to get (you can buy a kit online for less than $100). Bristol Interaction Group. The GauntLev is a wearable Most ultrasonic levitation devices consist of a transducer, device that utilizes ultrasonic levitation between a which is a device that converts energy frequencies into person’s fingertips. They have many different versions, sound frequencies or vice versa. The most common use of such as tongs that levitate objects in between them, a these transducers is in headphones and microphones, where glove that levitates objects above the palm of your hand, either input sensors convert acoustic waves into electrical and many others (Marzo). signals, or output sensors convert the electrical signals into acoustic waves (www.electronics-tutorials.ws). The Ultrasonic levitation could be a very useful piece of transducer in this case converts electricity to sound waves technology but it is not the only type of levitation. There over 150 decibels (for reference, most human voices are is also optic levitation, which uses ultraviolet light in a 60 decibels, and jet engines can be around 120 decibels). similar way, but it is much more unstable and is also very However, the sound waves produced by the device normally hard to look at, so it would be much harder to implement. Either way, levitation could be very useful in our everyday lives and as an added bonus, levitation looks really cool. 26 Nobelium Magazine

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“Nothing in life is to be feared, it is only to be understood. Now is the time to understand more, so that we may fear less.” - Marie Curie 30 Nobelium Magazine