PhD Dissertation Example 1

34 other subjects, critical thinking skills and technology” as the essential curricular elements (ACTFL, 1996, p. 32). The curricular elements and the five “C” were woven into “the fabric of language learning” (ACTFL, 1996, p. 32). The standards asserted that without “mastering the cultural contexts”, learners could not “truly master the language” (NSFLEP, 1999, p. 31). The standards also noted that students needed to “learn about everyday life and social institutions, about contemporary and historical issues, about significant works of literature and art, about cultural attitudes and priorities” (p. 34). Students also needed to learn how their own culture was viewed by the people whose language they were studying. The specific cultural content varied from language to language, even within one language. It was impossible for an educator to know and to teach everything about the cultural content, nor for a learner to know and to learn everything about the cultural content. However, the Standards insisted that learners should “have access to the tools and learn the communication strategies needed to identify key cultural traits and concepts, and to select, synthesize, and interpret them in ways that result in sensitive and meaningful interaction” (p. 34). The Standards considered culture to include “the philosophical perspectives, the behavioral practices, and the tangible and intangible products of a society” (p. 47). The perspectives, practices and products were closely intertwined. The goal of cultures was to “interact with cultural competence and understanding” (ACTFL, 2015, p. 1). Relating Cultural Practices to Perspectives: Learners use the language to investigate, explain, and reflect on the relationship between the practices and perspectives of the cultures studied.

35 Relating Cultural Products to Perspectives: Learners use the language to investigate, explain, and reflect on the relationship between the products and perspectives of the cultures studied (ACTFL, 2015, p. 1). The Perspectives The perspectives referred to “meanings, attitudes, values, and ideas” (NSFLEP, 1999, p. 47). Even though the perspectives are intangible, they are emphasized by the two cultural standards. The perspectives are the essential core for understanding practices and products. For instance, dumplings take different shapes, stuffing, and flavors in different cultures, (product). The dumplings from different cultures are made in various ways and are served on different occasions (practice). The dumplings from different cultures convey different meanings in different cultures (perspective). In the northern Chinese culture, 饺子, dumplings, in the shape of ancient Chinese money, must be eaten on Chinese New Year to symbolize having money and fortune in the New Year. The Practices Practices were referred to as the “patterns of behavior accepted by a society and deal with aspects of culture such as rites of passage, the use of forms of discourse, the social pecking order, and the use of space” (NSFLEP, 1999, p. 50). The practices are tangible expressions of the perspectives. For instance, in Chinese table culture, younger people take good care of elder people (practice). Elderly people are seated first at the best spots; younger people eat after elderly people start, pour drinks, refill drinks, light cigarettes for elderly people, and so forth. Respecting elderly people has been highly appreciated as a precious virtue and heritage in Chinese history (perspective). The perspective could be traced back to the Analects of Confucius. Confucius expressed his ideal society was “老者安之” (The aged can live in a

36 comfortable and happy life.), “朋友信之” (Friends can trust each other.) ， “少者怀之” (The young can be cared for and loved.). Therefore, it is not enough to only teach language learners what the people do (practice), but also why people do it (perspectives). In this way, language learners would be able to understand from a deeper and more meaningful level about a certain cultural practice. Starting from the practice, language learners would be able to understand similar practices. The Products Products referred to “books, tools, foods, laws, music, games,” and so forth (NSFLEP, 1999, p. 47). In different cultures, a product may take similar or different forms. However, the form of a product is “justified by the underlying beliefs and values of that culture” (p. 51). For instance, hard beds (product) are common in China. People who are used to sleeping on hard beds complain about sleeping poorly in soft beds. Many hard beds are one piece or several pieces of wooden planks laid flat on top of a bed frame. People put one layer or several layers of blankets on top of the planks (practice). People believe sleeping on hard beds are healthy for bone growth and bone care, but sleeping on soft beds gradually causes bone deformation and various bone problems (perspective). Sometimes, by only looking at a certain cultural product, it is difficult to understand why people would use the product, but when the perspective behind the product is revealed, the cultural product becomes understandable and reasonable. Instructional Strategies in Teaching Intercultural Communication Portfolio The portfolio was a “systematic and selective collection of student work that has been assembled to demonstrate the student’s motivation, academic growth, and level of achievement” (Norton and Wiburg, 1998, p. 237). A web portfolio was a website or an internal school network,

37 created by a student to document his or her readings of the websites in the target language, pictures, audios, and videos (Pearson, 2004). The web portfolio fully took advantage of flexible construction, accommodations of different levels, interests and objectives of language courses (Lee, 1997). Table 2.2. Assessment Criteria for Web Portfolio Letter Criteria Descriptors Grades Superior Outstanding in presentation There is coherence in A+, A, or A- Outstanding in content presentation Outstanding in creativity Sources are well documented Appropriate format Information is well gathered Accurate information shows high level of Validity is ensured by using reading comprehension multiple internet sources (e.g. Several errors but faults or weaknesses personal, government, company are not grave web pages) Web links are accurate Satisfactory Very good, but not as creative Manifests skill in organizing B+, B, or B- Errors in content and format information Several weaknesses in presentation Topic not thoroughly researched Unsatisfactory Information shows lower level of reading Web links contain errors C+, C, or C- comprehension Insufficient sources Errors are more numerous and more serious than superior level Topic not well researched Many weaknesses Insufficient evidence of work Insufficient content done Inadequate length Few resources used Presentation sloppy Web links contain numerous Inaccurate information shows little or no errors comprehension of Internet sites

38 Note. Assessment Criteria for Web Portfolio. Adapted from “The Web Portfolio: A Project to Teach Spanish Reading and Hispanic Cultures”, by L. Pearson, Hispania, 1988, 87 (4) p. 768. Retrieved from: http://0-www.jstor.org.iii-server.ualr.edu/stable/20140908 The assignment would usually take up a semester and could vary in different ways. For example, language educators include basic requirements and grading criteria of the assignment in the syllabi. At the beginning of each semester, instructors explain how to build a web portfolio. After students acquire the skill of building a portfolio, instructors should list basic Internet resources, such as online or book dictionaries and reliable websites, demonstrate the requirements by sample assignments, and explain the grading criteria. If necessary, the educators provide individual consultations on the above skills. During the semester, instructors have students report their progress and confirm that the students are continuing to make progress and going in the right direction. At the end of the semester, the educators arrange for the students to have their web portfolios presented. Educators can hold a discussion of reasonable length with the class or the instructor and other students can express their comments after each student’s presentation. Educators can refer to Pearson’s (2004, p. 768) assessment criteria for a web portfolio in Table 2.2. Lecture Hadley (2001) considered that lecture was the most common strategy that had been practiced by language educators to teach culture. Lecture was effective when instructors paid attention to “keep it brief; enliven it with visuals, realia, and accounts of personal experience; focus on some specific aspect of cultural experience; have students take notes; and use follow-up techniques in which students use the target language actively” (Hadley, 2001, p. 360). “Guided observation of selected patterns in isolation followed by explanation and interpretation of the

39 pattern with the help of a knowledgeable resource person” was one of the recommended approaches for teaching culture by Lafayette and Schulz (1975, p.107). Semantic Mapping Semantic mapping, developed by Johnson and Pearson (1978), was originally used for children to learn vocabulary in their native language (Hadley, 2001). It was a “graphic arrangement of associated word clusters around a key word, idea, or concept” (Hadley, 2001, p. 376). Hadley (2001) suggested the following strategies for building a semantic mapping: (1) write the foreign language word or concept on the blackboard or put it on a transparency; (2) ask class members to think of as many related words as they can; (3) write the words suggested by the class in categorical clusters, arranged around the original word; (4) have students provide category names for the clusters: (5) discuss the words and their relationships on the semantic map that has been created; (6) revise the map, if necessary, after the group has discussed the various meanings and nuances of the vocabulary that has been elicited. (p. 376) Semantic mapping is also widely used for presenting culture and teaching vocabulary in a language classroom. Hadley (2001) recommended that educators ask both American students and native speakers to create a semantic map separately on “any theme, value, institution, abstract concept, cultural event, or culturally conditioned behavior” (p. 376). Then educators asked American students to discuss their maps (Hadley, 2001). In the last step, American students could study the maps created by native speakers and discuss the differences in the connotations (Hadley, 2001). The semantic maps could be around a lesson, or several lessons, a chapter or several chapters, a semester or even several semesters (Hadley, 2001).

40 Hands-on Activities As Benjamin Franklin said “Tell me and I forget. Teach me and I remember. Involve me and I learn”. Gochenour (1977, p. 29) defined experiential education as “to define, understand and produce something”. Compared to traditional education, Lotito (1988) summarized the different emphases in Table 2. 3. A hands-on activity is a type of experimental education. Prince (2004) pointed out that introducing activities into lectures could significantly improve memorizing based on much scientific research. Table 2. 3. The Differences between Experiential Education and Traditional Education Experiential Education Stresses: Traditional Education Stresses: Getting involved and doing. Watching and listening. Learning from classmates and on your own. Expecting teacher to have all the answers. Learner and teacher sharing responsibility for Teacher being responsible for the meaning. learning. Sharing decision making. Decision making by teacher only. Learning how to learn. Learning facts or skills. Identifying problems and solutions Memorizing and acquiring information. Recognizing importance of learners’ Minimizing learner’s experience and experience and knowledge. knowledge. Guiding and assisting in learning on one’s own. Telling, prescribing and ordering. Understanding learners’ motivation for what needs to be learned. Reinforcing others’ ideas of what needs to be Applying practical, immediate approaches. learned. Building repertoires of information for future reference.

41 Note. The Differences Between Experiential Education And Traditional Education. Adapted from “Learning Culture through Local Resources: A Hispanic Model in Singerman”, by B. Lotito, Toward a New Integration of Language and Culture, 1988, p. 146. The hands-on activities are a means to enrich communication in a lecture setting and they reach out to more learning styles. The hands-on activities included active learning, collaborative learning, cooperative learning, and discovery learning (Prince & Felder, 2006). Active learning was generally defined as any instructional method that motivated learners in the learning process (Prince, 2004). Collaborative learning was the learning style which students actively “constructed, discovered, and transformed” knowledge in groups (Johnson, Johnson, & Smith, 1991, p. 1). Prince and Felder (2006) stated that “collaboration enhances academic achievement, student attitudes, and student retention” and “cooperation is more effective than competition for promoting a range of positive learning outcomes” (p. 223). Discovery learning was an inquiry-based approach in which students are given a question to answer, a problem to solve, or a set of observations to explain, and then work in a largely self-directed manner to complete their assigned tasks and draw appropriate inferences from the outcomes. (Prince & Felder, 2006, p. 123) Field Trips Field trips were experiential education that focuses on “learning by doing” and “becoming aware of the meaning of a particular experience through their reflection on it” (Lotito, 1988, p. 146). There were three types of field trips for foreign language instructors to make use of local resources. The first type was trips on a single cultural event (Lotito, 1988), for example, holiday celebrations, competitions, concerts, art displays, etc. The second type is trips on daily life patterns of a target community (Lotito, 1988), for example, Chinese churches,

42 Chinese nursing homes, Chinese traditional medicine clinics, etc. The third type is trips for using the target language to complete tasks, for example, ordering drinks and food in a Chinese restaurant, buying groceries in an Asian Market, etc. Lotito (1988) provided a complete reference of a field trip, A Visit to the Barrio. In the references, the pre-visit activity is helpful for students to understand the purpose of the trip and plan their trip and post-visit activity is useful for students to organize their observations and thoughts. Ethnographic Interview The ethnographic interview was a technique to “explore and understand cultural similarities and differences in any context” (Stuart and Nocon, 1996, p.437) in the classroom or out of the classroom. Usually student interviewers were required to be prepared on the background knowledge of culture and ethnography and to be trained in understanding their own cultural conditioning, studying the samples, and practicing ethnographic techniques before they conducted their interviews (Stuart and Nocon, 1996). Once they were trained, students would choose a target language speaker and interview the speaker in target language on a task or tasks in a safe and comfortable setting. Educators could design the assignment for students to interview the target language speakers once or several times and to emphasize that students should speak the target language as much as they could (Stuart and Nocon, 1996). After the interviews, educators could arrange for students to submit a written or oral report in the target language on “what they learned about the person they interviewed; what they learned about the interviewee’s culture; what they learned about their own culture; what they learned about their own interaction style” (Stuart and Nocon, 1996, p.438).

43 Culture Capsule A culture capsule, developed by Darrel Taylor, a foreign language instructor, and John Sirebsebm, an anthropologist, “is a short description, usually one or two paragraphs in length, of one minimal difference between an American and a target-culture custom, accompanied by illustrative photos, slides, or realia” (Hadley, 2001, p. 371). Culture capsules can be designed for small or large classes by instructors or students (Hadley, 2001). To write a culture capsule, Lett (1977) suggested the following eight steps: 1. Select a topic of cultural contrast, coordinating it with topics being treated in the textbook. 2. List differences and similarities between target-culture and home-culture customs in relation to this point of contrast. 3. Define student learning objectives. 4. Organize and outline specific content. 5. Write the capsule in language that will be comprehensible to the students who will use it (i.e., at an appropriate level of proficiency). 6. Check the accuracy of the content and language of the capsule with a native speaker and/or other colleagues. 7. Rewrite as necessary. 8. Prepare or collect appropriate multimedia aids (visuals, slides, clippings, realia, etc.) (as cited in Hadley, 2001, p. 374) Hadley (2001) suggested that educators may prepare a capsule recorded or an instructor or a student can read the capsule aloud in class. The capsule could be used as a class reading or

44 speaking activity or a piece of reading homework (Hadley, 2001). Lett (1977) suggested the follow-up activities such as performing or writing role-plays based on the capsule, writing new capsules, research, or report on closely related topics, and so forth. Culture Cluster, a Culture Assimilator, and a Culture Mini-drama A culture cluster, designed initially by Meade and Morain (1973), was composed of “three illustrated culture capsules that develop related topics plus one 30-minute simulation that integrates the information in the capsules and dramatizes it through a skit or situational role- play” (Hadley, 2001). A culture assimilator, developed by social psychologists, was first considered as a systematic after-class technique that would assist new comers to become familiar with a new culture (Seelye, 1993; Fielder, Mitchell, and Triandis, 1971; Hadley, 2001). A culture assimilator may include 75 to 100 important episodes that happened between an American and a foreigner (Hadley, 2001). Each episode represented some conflict or misinterpretation between American culture and the target culture (Hadley, 2001). Lett (1977) further explained the three main parts of culture assimilators. First and foremost, a certain miscommunication between an American and a member of the target culture was presented in the form of a dialogue or narrative. Second, four possible explanations of the conflict were presented. Third, the right explanation was revealed with feedback after students made their decisions. The other three incorrect explanations were designed to reveal false stereotypic perceptions. A culture mini-drama consisted of three to five episodes of cultural conflicts or misinterpretations (Seelye, 1993). Led by instructors, students discussed the source of conflicts or miscommunications (Hadley, 2001). The technique would not result in detecting an accurate

45 cause of the problems, but it would help students to experience how people jumped to conclusions due to their biases and stereotypes (Seelye, 1993). Word association Word association is a strategy for language learners to study vocabulary. With the help of slide presentations of a cultural product in the target culture, educators can give a clue word of a theme in textbooks and inspire students to list as many related vocabulary words as possible (Hadley, 2001). Educators can also utilize slide presentations or videos to present a cultural practice and encourage students to come up with maximum relevant vocabulary. Educators can explain how the vocabulary was culturally bound and how vocabulary could not be simply translated from one language to another (Hadley, 2001). Spinelli and Siskin (1992) suggested that educators should pay attention to the following in teaching vocabulary: (1) within culturally authentic semantic groupings; (2) in ways that allow students to see differences between the native and target culture; (3) through the use of visuals where native-culture/target-culture referents differ; and (4) in ways that will reinforce appropriate conventional target-culture behavior. (p. 313) Collages Strategy Collages strategy was that each student chose a word that was interesting to him or her and collected images of that word from magazine and newspaper clippings, from his own photography (Seelye, 1993), or from the internet. Jorstad (1981) described a seven-step process that helps students understand a part of the target culture on the basis of research skills. They are deciding an aspect of the target culture, making a statement about the aspect, searching multiple

46 sources of the information, questioning, and comparing the sources by examining, describing, analyzing, and reporting the findings, modifying the statement and continuing searching for more information, examining a related aspect of the home culture using the same process, describing similarities and differences by comparing the refined statements about the home and the target culture. Jorstad (1993) emphasized that when students were conducting the activities, they should practice the target language as much as they could, for example, in discussion, in searching for the sources, making statements, hypotheses, and comparisons. Artifact Study Artifact study was a strategy designed for students to recognize the cultural meaning of certain strange objects from a target culture (Galloway, 1985). Students could give descriptions of the objects and make hypotheses about the objects (Hadley, 2001). If accessible, educators could bring in the artifact; if not, educators could bring in the pictures of the objects (Hadley, 2001). After objects were displayed, students could discuss the following questions in groups (Galloway, 1985): 1. What are the physical qualities of the object? Give as complete a description as possible. 2. How was it made, by hand or by machine? 3. What is its purpose? 4. Is it supposed to be decorative? 5. What role does it play in the culture? What is its social meaning, if any? (Does it have associations with status, wealth, power, prestige?) 6. What facts can be determined about the culture from this object?

47 7. If this object were yours, what would you do with it? After group discussion, the groups could report their answers and educators could compare the answers, and give explanations for the questions (Hadley, 2001). Students would be able to compare their answers with instructors’ explanations and find out the potential biases and stereotypes (Hadley, 2001). The Assessment of Intercultural Competence The assessment of intercultural competence has always been a difficult task because of the difficulty of measuring attitudes and understandings. Schulz (2007) proposed five fundamental learning objectives to meet needs of foreign language classrooms for non-emersion situation restricted to developing intercultural awareness and understanding. 1. Students develop and demonstrate awareness that geographic, historical, economic, social/religious, and political factors can have an impact on cultural perspectives, products, and practices, including language use and styles of communication. 2. Students develop and demonstrate awareness that situational variables (e.g., context and role expectations, including power differentials, and social variables such as age, gender, social class, religion, ethnicity, and place of residence) shape communicative interaction (verbal, nonverbal, and paralinguistic) and behavior in important ways. 3. Students recognize stereotypes or generalizations about the home and target cultures and evaluate them in terms of the amount of substantiating evidence. 4. Students develop and demonstrate awareness that each language and culture has culture-conditioned images and culture-specific connotations of some words, phrases, proverbs, idiomatic formulations, gestures, etc.

48 5. Students develop and demonstrate an awareness of some types of causes (linguistic and nonlinguistic) for cultural misunderstanding between members of different cultures. (p. 17) Bowers (1992) noted that intercultural education should emphasize individual variation within each culture, instead of strengthening stereotypes across an entire culture. An intercultural syllabus should aim to “develop learner’s awareness of the ongoing features of culture, to provide them with exploratory skills, and to familiarize learners with information sources for future exploration” (Liu, 2012, p 34). Many assessment inventories are available for measuring and assessing intercultural competence. In 2006, Alvino and Fantini summarized 86 assessment tools of ICC. For example, the Cross-Cultural Adaptability Inventory (CCAI) was first designed by Kelly and Meyers in 1987. It was a self-scoring assessment system for learners to evaluate their current level of intercultural adaptability in the areas of Emotional Resilience, Flexibility, Perceptual Acuity and Personal Autonomy (Kelly & Meyers, 1992). The instrument had been administered in various contexts, such as study abroad, and medical students training (Sinicrope, et al., 2007). The Behavioral Assessment Scale for Intercultural Competence (BASIC) was developed by Koester and Olebe (1988) based on Ruben’s (1976) model. Ruben’s (1976) model was composed of seven components: display of respect, interaction posture, orientation to knowledge, empathy, self-oriented role behavior, interaction management, and tolerance for ambiguity. Koester and Olebe (1988) changed the model to an eight-item scale and modified the rating descriptions to be used by observers without training. The validity of the tool was then examined by a test of scale. The results exhibited confidence that the tool could be used reliably by amateur, non-native English speakers to assess the communication of another person (Koester & Olebe, 1988).

49 Schenker (2012) concluded that even though many assessment tools were developed, not many of them were free of charge and most of them were self-assessment forms. Some tools are free of charge. Bogardus (1925) developed the Social Distance Scale measuring an indication of peoples’ reactions to different nationalities or ethnicities. The nationality or ethnicity was listed in the test and participants were asked to check whether they would accept a person from the nationality or ethnicity in various aspects (Seelye, 1993). Grice (1934) developed an approach to measuring attitudes toward a certain cultural group. The approach presented participants with over forty statements in the original version. Osgood and Suci (1955) developed the “semantic differential” approach, which judged a culture group by four scale ratings. Seelye (1993) illustrated the approach measuring “annual changes in the self- esteem of bilingual program students in the primary grades” (p. 213). The items were presented in the form of two oral languages. Seelye (1993) recommended a format of brief written questionnaires for elementary school bilingual children, which was one question per page, big size letters in both English and the participants’ home language, two faces representing mostly agree and mostly disagree. YOGA (Your Objective, Guidelines, and Assessment), developed by Fantini, was a self-assessment guide, designed to help people evaluate their ICC at various phases (Fantini, 2000). The self-assessment guide examined awareness, attitude, skills, knowledge and language proficiency of the educational traveler, sojourner, professional, and intercultural or multicultural specialist levels (Fantini, 2000). The scores ranged from 0 = no competence to 5 = high competences (Fantini, 2000). Cross-Cultural Adaptability Inventory In May of 1989, the Cross-Cultural Adaptability Inventory (CCAI) was presented at the Society for Intercultural Education Training and Research conference in Boston, based on a

50 meta-analysis by Colleen Kelley of 653 studies. The Cross-Cultural Adaptability Inventory includes the CCAI Self-Assessment, the CCAI Action-Planning Guide, and the CCAI Manual (Kelly & Meyers, 1992). The Cross-Cultural Adaptability Inventory was a self-assessment questionnaire with 50-items with six levels of Likert type answers ranging from “Definitely True,” “True,” “Tends to Be True,” “Tends to Be Not True”, “Not True and Definitely Not True” (Kelly & Meyers, 1995). The CCAI, the training instrument, can be used alone and can be used as a part of a training project to reach the goals of “developing self-understanding in the area of cross-cultural adaptability and as a take-off point for future awareness and skill training” (p. 2). The CCAI can also be used as a “team-building” instrument for working groups with diverse cultures or as “a counseling tool for people in the process of cross-cultural adjustment” (p. 2). The CCAI was developed to “provide information to an individual about his or her potential for cross-cultural effectiveness” (p. 2), and included the Emotional Resilience Scale, the Flexibility/Openness Scale, the Perceptual Acuity Scale and the Personal Autonomy Scale. Emotional Resilience Scale When a person is in an unfamiliar cultural environment or deals with people from a different cultural background, it is natural to feel confused, scared, lonely or even frustrated. A person with high emotional resilience would be able to handle the negative feelings in a positive way and to come up with a constructive solution (Kelly & Meyers, 1992). Emotionally resilient people would enjoy having new experiences, trying new food, making new friends from various cultures (Kelly & Meyers, 1992). They tended to be humorous, adventurous, and confident (Kelly & Meyers, 1992). The Emotional Resilience Scale was the largest scale in CCAI. It focuses on “aspects of the cross-cultural experience that may produce negative and unpleasant feelings” (p. 14). The score measured the degree of a person rebounding from these negative and

51 unpleasant feelings and taking constructive actions (Kelly & Meyers, 1992). The score indicated “the extent to which a person can regulate his or her emotion-s, maintain emotional equilibrium in a new or changing environment, and deal with the setbacks and difficult feelings that are a normal part of the cross-cultural experience” (p. 14). Emotional Resilience Saarni (1999) defined emotional resilience as a person’s ability to manage his or her emotion, especially regarding the intensity, duration, and expression of the emotion. Landy (2002) regarded emotional resilience as the process of dealing with internal feelings and external behaviors. Ellis (1998) noted that the ability of a person to regulate his or her emotions and the degree of emotional irritation depended on the way the person perceived, interpreted, and evaluated a stress factor. In other words, the same stress factor may not bother one person, may upset a second person, may make a third person irritated, and may kill a fourth person. Ellis, Gordon, Neeman, and Palmer (1998) asserted that a person had to replace his or her irrational beliefs with rational beliefs and to interpret stress factors with rational thoughts so that the person could be able to self-relieve, manage future stressors, and develop his or her emotional resilience. Ellis (1998) recommended that to successfully cope with stress factors in life, a person needed to reevaluate his or her own belief system and stress factors with the understanding that the main cause of emotional distress was his or her irrational beliefs not the stress factors. The irrational beliefs such as anxiety, depression, anger, and guilt, were suggested to be replaced by rational belief, such as blame, concern, remorse, temporary sadness (Ellis, et. al, 1998). The prize of thinking in a flexible and constructive manner was building healthy and positive emotions and behaviors that aided a person in achieving his or her goal (Ellis, et. al, 1998).

52 Emotional Balance Emotional balance was the way a person maintained his or her “emotional stream in social interaction” (Gatta, 2000, p. 29). Emotional balance reflected a person’s “sense of normality and wellbeing” however he or she may take emotions for granted and not be aware of his or her feelings (Gatta, 2000, p. 29). When a person encountered with obstacles and disturbances, the person would be inclined to undertake “emotional off-balance” (Gatta, 2000, p. 29). If this unconscious emotional off-balance remained unresolved, it would become conscious in the form of “attention, reflection and action” (Gatta, 2000, p. 29). Dewey (1922) argued that when expectations and routines failed to flow smoothly in a person’s life, the person might become impulsive and desperate. However, the person would not be completely defeated; the situation provided the person with the operational intelligence. Operational intelligence was when a person acknowledged the problem, attempted to solve the problem, adjusted to new expectations and routines (Dewey, 1922). Mead’s (1934) theory of social self was composed of “I” and “Me”. “I” represented actions and social practices and “Me” represented the reflective part of the person. Building on Mead’s (1934) theory, Gatta (2000, p. 36) put forth that an emotional response from a pre- reflective feeling was “Raw I”, which was displayed as physical, emotional and cognitive responses in emotionally off-balance situations. To deal with the emotional unbalance, “Me” reflected on the person’s emotional status and guided the person by a set of “culturally formulated compilations of social practices” (p. 37). Based on the “Me” reflection, the “I” would alter or change to new behaviors or actions, or keep the previous behaviors or actions (Gatta, 2000).

53 Gatta (2000) argued that to rebalance emotions, everyone was different “in degrees of specificity and vagueness” (p. 39). Generally, Gatta (2000) drew four categories of emotional rebalancing techniques from low degree of directness to high degree of directness, “passive interpretive, passive action, active interpretive and active action” (p. 41). Passive interpretive was represented as escapism, such as drinking, eating, and shopping more than usual; passive action was shown as falling back on routine, following official social practices, doing nothing, releasing his or her body spontaneously; active interpretive was conducted by self-reflection and emotional reinterpretation; active action was carried out by withdrawing, overplaying, violating, complaining, or sabotaging social practices (Gatta, 2000). Positive Attitude Per Thurstone’s (1928) definition of attitude was “the sum total of a man’s inclinations and feelings, prejudice or bias, preconceived notions, ideas, fears, threats, and convictions about any specific topic” (p. 531). Gawronski and Bodenhausen (2006) defined attitude as “the psychological tendency to evaluate a given entity with some degree of favor or disfavor” (p. 693). Positive attitude toward another culture was the favorable beliefs, feelings, and behaviors toward another culture (Runkawatt, 2013). The positive attitude came from positive feelings and led to positive beliefs and behaviors (Runkawatt, 2013). The Flexibility/Openness Scale When people get in touch with people from different cultural backgrounds, they meet different ways of thinking and behaving. Open, flexible people present tolerance and non- judgment, and they are inclined to think creatively (Kelly & Meyers, 1992). They enjoy talking, interacting, learning about the people who think differently or behave differently from various

54 cultures (Kelly & Meyers, 1992). They do not feel uncomfortable around those who are different or stay in unfamiliar surroundings (Kelly & Meyers, 1992). The Flexibility/Open Scale focused on “the extent to which a person enjoys the different ways of thinking and behaving that are typically encountered in the cross-cultural experience” (p. 16). Cognitive Flexibility Scott (1962) defined cognitive flexibility as “the readiness for which the person’s concept system changes selectively in response to appropriate environmental stimuli” (p. 1). Spiro and Jehng (1990) pointed out that cognitive flexibility was a “function of both the way knowledge was represented and the processes that operated on those mental representations” (p. 165). According to Martin and Rubin (1995), being confident and having self-efficacy was necessary to be cognitively flexible. Lau (2012) conceptualized cognitive flexibility from two dimensions, an objectively measured, neuropsychological dimension and a subjective dimension. The neuropsychological dimension focused on the process of mental flexibility and set-shifting (Lau, 2012). The dimension allowed an individual to perceive the environment, to respond accordingly, to change directions, to anticipate goals, to consider consequences, and to respond by integrating the use of all these processes (Lau, 2012). The dimension also allowed an individual to learn from mistakes, plan alternative strategies, divide attention, and process information to meet situational demands (Anderson, 2002). The subjective dimension focused on self-efficacy (Lau, 2012). Plalet and Kosic (2006) argued that the dimension was the subjective perception of the self as can make decisions, initiating actions, and practicing control over both self and environment. Individuals who perceived themselves as cognitively flexible, had the general resourcefulness

55 and had the willingness to try new ways of communicating, to encounter unfamiliar situations, and to adapt behaviors to meet contextual needs (Martin & Rubin, 1995). Interpersonal Competence The definition of interpersonal competence varied from interaction context, cultural norms, and developmental period (Schneider, 1992). Different disciplines emphasized different perspectives in defining and operating interpersonal competence (Merrell & Gimpel, 1998). Psychological definitions put emphasis on how reinforcement and punishment of social behaviors affected individual well-being (Libet & Lewinsohn, 1973). Gresham (1981) defined interpersonal competence as “individual behaviors that maximize the probability of reinforcement and decrease the likelihood of punishment…whereby social outcomes of individual behavior were a vital part of psychological well-being” (p. 12). Sociological definitions focused on the connection between individual behavior and group norms (MacGuire & Priestley, 1981). Schneider et al (1988) described interpersonal competence as “the nexus between the individual and the environment; the tools used to initiate and sustain group relations as deemed appropriate by society or subculture within a particular society” (p. 48). Educational definitions stressed an individual’s ability to fulfill role requirements in the classroom or with his or her peers (Merrrell & Gimpel, 1998). Sattler (1988) defined interpersonal competence as “an individual’s observed behavior during a social interaction characterized by the ability to sustain social roles” (p. 112). Across interpersonal competence definitions, Merrell and Gimpel (1998) summarized three major themes: peer-acceptance, behavioral-skill, and social validity. Paulk (2008) explained that peer-acceptance focused on how popular or well-liked an individual was among peers. According to Merrell & Gimpel’s (1998) definition for behavioral-skill, it was the

56 antecedents and consequences of social behaviors and the degree to which certain behaviors are rewarded or punished by an individual social group. Liber and Lewinsohn (1973) noted that competent behaviors brought social reward to the maximum and social punishment to the minimum. Furman and Wittenberg (1988) argued that social validity definition was the combination of both peer-acceptance and behavioral-skill. Gresham (1981) defined social validity as the social skills and behaviors associated with positive social judgment by an individual’s peers and healthy relationships with others. Third Culture Perspective Useem (1993) defined the third culture in terms of the third culture students or the third culture kids as children who accompanied their parents and left their home country for a foreign country, combined the two cultural experiences, and then created a new life style, the third culture. Pollock and Van Reken (2001) summarized the third culture kid as: A person has spent a significant part of his or her developmental years outside the parents’ culture. The third-culture kid builds relationships to all of the cultures, while not having full ownership in any. Although elements from each culture are assimilated into the third-culture kid’s life experience, the sense of belonging is in relationship to others of similar background. (p. 19) Some common characteristics of the third culture students were “cross-cultural impact on the development of the child”, “high mobility”, “noticeable differences from peers”, “expected repatriation”, “privileged lifestyle”, and “system identity” (p.28). In language learning and teaching, Kramsch (1993) described that the third culture perspective, the third space or the third perspective as the learners’ perception of others’ culture, which might be stereotypical and inaccurate. The third space or the third perspective was a

57 personal place, which was different and changing for every language learner (Kramsch, 1993). Looking at teaching culture in a foreign language classroom, Kramsch (1993) recommended that the language educators “establish a sphere of interculturality”, “teach culture as an interpersonal process” (p. 205), “teach culture as a difference”, and “cross disciplinary boundaries” (p. 206). Gudykunst, Wiseman, and Hammer (1978) argued that the third culture perspective was the major influence of cross-cultural attitude. Kramsch (1993) suggested that language instructors should encourage every learner to develop his or her own third perspective since the heart of understanding intercultural competence was the intersection between a learner’s own culture and the target culture. “Open-mindedness and the ability to suspend judgment” were two components of the third culture perspective (Moore, 2009, p.18). The Perceptual Acuity Scale People sometimes have difficulty in communicating with people from different cultures because of verbal and nonverbal language, values, beliefs, customs, tradition, and so forth (Kelly & Meyers, 1992). Perceptually acute people could notice verbal and nonverbal behavior, the context of communication, and interpersonal relations (Kelly & Meyers, 1992). They were sensitive to the others’ feelings and to the effect they caused on others (Kelly & Meyers, 1992). They were usually empathic and effective communicators (Kelly & Meyers, 1992). The Perceptual Acuity Scale assessed “the extent to which a person paid attention to and accurately perceived various aspects of the environment” (Kelly & Meyers, 1992, p. 17). This applied “particularly to the verbal and nonverbal cues communicated by people who were different from oneself” (Kelly & Meyers, 1992, p. 17).

58 Verbal Cues and Nonverbal Communication Colbert (2007) described the nature of communication as shared meaning, in which the sender encoded a message, and the receiver decoded the message. Communication was a social process built on mutual awareness of the other, involving the use of verbal and nonverbal cues to convey or pass the meaning of the message (Colbert, 2007). Apple (1979) defined verbal cues as the words and sentences of a message including the forms of spoken and written communication. Yost (1980) referred to verbal communication as “digital language” (p. 24), which was symbolic and the display of words. Yost (1980) also referred to nonverbal communication as “analogic language” (p. 24), which was composed of cues such as facial expression, gestures, vocal qualifiers, and so forth. Mehrabian (1972) argued that the difference between the explicit code and implicit code was the degree of subtlety. Mehrabian (1972) called verbal communication explicit code, which had clear rules of syntax and usage, collections of words, and so on; and nonverbal communication was called implicit code, which were any human behavior or action other than words, such as postures, positions, and various movements of the body or parts of the body. Galloway (1971) described nonverbal behavior such as face, eyes, or gesture, were “silent cues changes or continuity in the quality and direction of any personal relationship” (p. 311). These cues were “the primary means of expressing attitudes of intimacy, aloofness, concern, or indifference” (p. 311). Victoria (1971) stated that, in the psychological sense, “nonverbal behaviors permitted instantaneous perception of meaning within the context of interpersonal relations and often provide the most lingering retention of the event” (p. 300). Birdwhistell (1970) found that in an ordinary conversation between two human beings, the verbal language carried less than 35 percent of the social meaning of a situation and

59 nonverbal language carried the rest. Beall (2004) also considered that the total communication may be composed of as much as two thirds or more nonverbal behavior. Nonverbal communication had also been demonstrated that it was a more valid indicator of a sender’s message than verbal communication (Ard, 1969; Ekman & Friesen, 1969; Murphy, 1970). Some researchers believed that nonverbal behavior provided clarification for most of verbal communication (Ellis & Fisher, 1994; Harrigan et al., 2005). Some researchers even argued that when verbal cues contradicted nonverbal cues, receivers would believe the nonverbal cues (Mehrabian & Wiener, 1967; Stein, 1975). Eckman and Friesen (1992) developed 5 types of body movements that functioned communicatively: emblems, illustrators, affect displays, regulators, and adaptors. Based on Eckman and Friesen (1992), emblems were the obviously symbolic and intentional movements, such as hand gestures of hello, goodbye, stop, roll down a window. Nonverbal cues do not always convey the same meaning in different cultures. Illustrators were intentional and auxiliary movements accompanied by words to help the receiver understand the message such as hand motions of turning left or turning right when giving a direction (Eckman and Friesen, 1992). Affect display referred to emotion, facial emotion (Eckman and Friesen, 1992). However, affect display could be intentional or unintentional and could express symbolic or symptomatic activity (Eckman and Friesen, 1992). Regulators were the movements of regulating interactions such as taking turns in a task by turning an entire body, tilting the head, making a hand gesture to stop talking (Eckman and Friesen, 1992). Adaptors were the movements of communicating needs or messages adapted from physical need such as yawning when getting bored (Eckman and Friesen, 1992).

60 Empathy Many researchers concluded that empathy was crucially important for interpersonal communication competence and effective intercultural functioning (Wiemann & Backlund, 1980; Broome, 1991; Gudykunst, 1991; Ruben, 1976). Bennett (1979) conceptualized that empathy was “the imaginative, intellectual and emotional participation in another person’s experience” (p. 418). Tamam (1993) defined empathy as the influence from the various qualities of other people. Tamam (1993) also asserted that empathy, which was a social or interpersonal skill, was usually associated with the attempt to consider and understand the feelings and needs of other people in communication and implied respect and a considerate attitude for others. Researchers widely agreed that individuals differed in empathic ability. Some people could arouse interest in others and have a reasonable sense of other people’s feelings and needs; some people could not even understand other people superficially (Tamam, 1993). In an intercultural setting, Bennett (1979) pointed out that empathy was essential for the understanding of cultural differences. Tamam (1993) echoed that empathy enhanced an individual’s understanding of other people and the ability to predict about others. Both Ruben (1976) and Gudykunst (1991) suggested that empathy was an important element for developing and maintaining positive human interactions and relationships. They further explained that empathy could facilitate and enhance an individual’s ability to reduce uncertainty, which was necessary for adapting to a new environment. Tamam (1993) suggested that people with high empathic ability tended to succeed in managing the ambiguity in an intercultural environment. In addition, empathic ability could help decrease miscommunication and misunderstanding to a minimum (Tamam, 1993) and increase the understanding to a maximum (Gudykunst & Hammer, 1984). The ability to interact with other people effectively was supported by understanding

61 others (Redmond, 1989). Therefore, empathic ability also stimulated the appropriate behaviors to a situation or in intercultural encounters (Tamam, 1993). Brislin (1981) contended that empathy enhanced intercultural interaction in two ways: first, it helped an individual understand how he or she was being perceived; second, it helped an individual to judge the information of other people to carry out appropriate and effective communication. The Personal Autonomy Scale When individuals were in new culture or surroundings, they did not get the same or similar interactions or reinforcement they are used to (Kelly & Meyers, 1992). People who were dependent on cues for their sense of identity may feel lost or defensive so that they would attempt to maintain their identity (Kelly & Meyers, 1992). Personally, autonomous people had a strong sense of identity but this did not mean these people ignore or disrespect other cultures (Kelly & Meyers, 1992). People with high personal autonomy felt that they had control of their environment, the ability to set their goals, make their decisions, and use their personal power in non-manipulative ways (Kelly & Meyers, 1992). The Personal Autonomy Scale measured “the extent to which an individual has evolved a personal system of values and beliefs that he or she feels confident enough about to act on in unfamiliar settings” (p. 19). Additionally, it examined “the extent to which an individual respected other and their value systems” and “how pressured a person felt to change in a cross-cultural environment” (p. 19). Personal Value System Human value is a general term defined differently within various fields of research. For example, in anthropology, human value was a conception which influences the choices from available modes, means, and ends of action (Kluckhohn, 1951). In sociology, human value was a conception, which was practiced as a criteria or justification for performance and behavior

62 (Williams, 1967). In psychology, value was a lasting belief that a certain mode or state of existence was preferred to other modes or states of existence (Rokeach, 1973). Powell (1977) included two essential elements of value systems across different fields of knowledge: first, a frame of reference guided individuals to make evaluations; second, alternative behaviors caused individuals to select the preferred action. Hassan (2002) further explained that human behavior was a display of values and values could predict humans’ behavior. Bandura (1986) generally described that personal values were ideas that existed in all circumstances. Williams (1970) viewed personal values as self-awareness which consciously influenced an individual’s decisions and behaviors. Feather (1988) stressed that personal values were the core of personality that influenced an individual’s behaviors and characteristics, such as attitude, evaluation, judgments, decisions, commitment, and satisfaction. Sikula (1971) defined a value system as a set of individual values that existed on a scale or hierarchy that demonstrated the degree of relative importance. Hassan (2002) explained that individuals may have the same values, but individuals may place the values into different priorities or degrees of importance. Hassan (2002) posited that a value system was more permanent and stable than attitude in nature and was closer to ideology or philosophy than attitudes. Sense of Identity Chickering and Reisser (1993) identified seven vectors that students needed to develop their identity: developing competence, managing emotions, moving through autonomy toward interdependence; developing mature interpersonal relationships; establishing identity; developing purpose, and developing integrity. They proposed that as students moved through the vectors which might not be a straight line, they increased their ability to deal with new relationships, assumptions, routines, and roles in life (Chickering & Reisser, 1993).

63 In the vector of developing competence, Chickering and Reisser (1993) compared the competence to a three-tined fork and the three tines were intellectual competence, physical and manual skills, and interpersonal competence. Intellectual competence was “the acquisition of knowledge and skills related to particular subject matter, the development of cultural and aesthetic sophistication, and the increased skills in areas such as critical thinking and reasoning ability” (Evans, Forney, &Guido-Brito, 1998, p. 38). Physical skills were obtained from “athletic, recreational, manual, artistic and wellness activities” (Evans, Forney, &Guido-Brito, 1998). Interpersonal competence involved “skills in communication, leadership, and working effectively with other” (Evans, Forney, &Guido-Brito, 1998, p. 38). Managing emotions included that students were able to recognize and accept emotions, express and control them properly, and act reasonably (Evans, Forney, &Guido-Brito, 1998). As Chickering & Reisser (1997) explained that although almost every college students went through negative emotions such as anger, anxiety, fear, depression, tension, he or she was unlikely to eliminate them. The challenge for college students was to learn self-control or self-regulation so that awareness and integration will sufficiently support each other (Chickering & Reisser, 1997). Moving through autonomy toward interdependence was defined at first as “emotional and instructional independence, and later recognition and acceptance of interdependence” (Chickering & Reisser, 1997, 47). Emotional independence meant “freedom from continual and pressing needs for assurance, affection, or approval from others” (Chickering & Reisser, 1993, p. 117). Instrumental independence included “the ability to organize activities and to solve problems in a self-directed way and the ability to be mobile” (Chickering & Reisser, 1997, p. 47). Students gradually “recognize and accept the importance of interdependence, an awareness of their interconnectedness with others” (Evans, Forney, &Guido-Brito, 1998, p. 39).

64 Developing mature interpersonal relationships included “the ability to accept individuals for who they are, to respect differences, and to appreciate commonalities” (Chickering & Reisser, 1993, p. 509). This aspect further involved the “development of intercultural and interpersonal tolerance and appreciation of differences, as well as the capacity for healthy and lasting intimate relationships with partners and close friends” (Evans, Forney, &Guido-Brito, 1998, p. 39). “Awareness, breadth of experience, openness, curiosity, and objectivity help students to refine first impressions, reduce bias and ethnocentrism, increase empathy and altruism, and enjoy diversity” (Chickering & Reisser, 1997, p. 48). Establishing identity focused on gender, ethnic background, and sexual orientation. Identity includes comfort with body and appearance, comfort with gender and sexual orientation, a sense of one’s social and cultural heritage, a clear self-concept and comfort with one’s roles and lifestyle, a secure sense of self in light of feedback from significant others, self-acceptance and self-esteem, and personal stability and integration (Evans, Forney, &Guido-Brito, 1998, pp. 39-40). Developing purpose was consisted of developing vocational goals, making commitments to personal interests and activities, establishing interpersonal commitments, making decisions and persisting in the decisions (Evans, Forney, &Guido-Brito, 1998). Vocation could be paid jobs, unpaid jobs, or both. By trying different jobs, students would find what jobs they enjoyed doing and what jobs they achieved a sense of fulfillment (Chickering & Reisser, 1997). Developing integrity consisted of “humanizing values, personalizing values, and developing congruence” (Evans, Forney, &Guido-Brito, 1998, p. 40). They were “sequential but overlapping stages” (Chickering & Reisser, 1993, p. 51). Humanizing values was a switch from a rigid belief in “the absoluteness rules” to a flexible view, “where connections are made

65 between rules and the purposes they are meant to serve” (Chickering & Reisser, 1997, p. 51). Students chose “the guideline to suit themselves and to suit the conditions of their lives” in personalizing values (Chickering & Reisser, 1997, p. 52). Developing congruence was “the achievement of behavior consistent with the personal values”, which was led by personalizing values (Chickering & Reisser, 1997, p. 52). West (1995) considered identity as “the desire for recognition, protection, security, safety, and surety, the quest for visibility, the sense of being acknowledged and the deep desire for association” (Cited in Gallab, 1997, p. 22). Individuals had the desire for protection, for security, for safety, and for certainty (West, 1995). Berger (1996) argued that identity, a social phenomenon, was a dialectic relationship between an individual and his or her world. It was the output of compromising between what the society told him who he was and how he perceived himself (Berger, 1996). Cultural identity often overlaps with ethnic identity, but cultural identity was larger than ethnic identity in concept (Barrios & Egan, 2002). Cultural identity, a lifelong developing process, was multifaceted, fixed, open, flexible and transmissible (House, Stiffman, & Brown, 2006; Arthur & Collins, 2005). Horse (2005) considered that identity development began consciously based on feelings and experiences. Lawrence (2003) argued that sometimes identity was defined as something that a person did; sometimes, identity was defined as what a person was. Cultural identity was a self-concept that developed by combining both awareness of self as part of an identifiable group and corresponding affect towards both one’s own group and other identifiable groups (Arthur & Collins, 2005). The cultural identity development model by Helms and Cook (1999) consisted of six stages. Conformity was where individuals idealized the majority culture while internalizing

66 cultural stereotypes. Dissonance was when individuals acknowledged that the majority culture did not fit them which led to confusion and ambivalence. Immersion occurred when individuals started to idealize their own cultures. Emersion was when individuals identified with their own cultures and enjoyed a sense of cultural pride. Internalization was when individuals interacted actively with both the majority and minority groups; they still maintained a positive sense of self. Integrated awareness was where individuals held their own identity to be valuable, received other cultural influences, and had connections with other minority groups (Arthur & Collins, 2005). Atkinson’s (2004) cultural identity development model was composed of six stages. Conformity was the stage where individuals preferred the majority culture and depreciated their own cultures. Dissonance was the stage where individuals began to value their own cultures and resulted in preference between the majority and minority cultures. Resistance and immersion was the stage where individuals depreciated the majority cultures and appreciated the minority cultures. Introspection was the stage where individuals valued both cultures. Synergistic articulation and awareness was the stage where individuals’ own cultural identity was appreciated and other cultures were valued openly and considerately (Arthur & Collins, 2005). Self-Respect Based on Smith’s (2000) definition of respect, respect had three components: first, cognitive which was the belief that the object was valuable; second, attitudinal which esteemed the object, attaching importance to it because of its perceived value; third, behavioral which treated the object as valuable. To respect persons meant recognizing that they were valuable, protecting and preserving the value, and treating them as valuable (Smith 2000). However, Smith (2000) argued that a person’s outward behavior could not simply explain whether the person respected himself or herself.

67 Dillion (1997) defined self-respect as “a highly intellectualized psychological entity, consisting of a narrowly specified set of beliefs and judgments about or, attitudes toward oneself” (p.226). Smith (2000) claimed that a self-respecting person could recognize his intrinsic value, prize him, and treat him accordingly. A person with self-respect would also care about his interests and judgment, pursue personal interests to achieve his goals, and practice self- judgment to benefit his wellbeing (Smith, 2000). Thus, Smith (2000) argued that if a person failed to respect his interests or his judgment, he would fail to respect himself because he did not have sufficient consideration for his well-being. Philosophers typically divided self-respect into recognition self-respect and evaluative or appraisal self-respect. Brian (2006) concluded that recognition self-respect was “a response to the worth that persons have as human beings” (p. 204). The status of the value was based on membership in the human species or other collectives, such as groups, classes, or social hierarchies (Brian, 2006). The status was expressed in the form of dignity, which was reflected by equality, agency, and individuality (Brian, 2006). Evaluative or appraisal self-respect suggested, “an examination of one’s commitment to being the sort of person one thought one ought to be and of the kind of life that such a person might live” (Dillon, 1997, p. 231). Brian (2006) put forth that recognition self-respect was foreseen by virtue of being a person and evaluative self-respect was foreseen by whether or not the potential actions produced some assumed ideal held by the agent. Summary In Chapter 2, I reviewed the literature in current curricular models of teaching culture in foreign language programs, prevalent instructional strategies in teaching intercultural communication and assessment of intercultural competence. In Chapter 3, I will discuss the

68 conceptual framework, research questions, the research design, the research settings, the sample selection, the instruments, the data collection procedures, the validity and reliability, the data analysis procedures, and the ethical issues for the dissertation.

69 CHAPTER 3 Method Conceptual Framework The literature review in Chapter 2 constructs the conceptual framework as it presents the key components of research and further discussion within the study. The researcher will start from different Chinese curricular models of teaching culture in language programs, then examine different instructional strategies in teaching intercultural communication in Chinese language programs, and finally apply the Cross-Cultural Adaptability Inventory (CCAI) self-assessment. The construct elements for the research are (a) curricular models, (b) instructional strategies and (c) intercultural communicative competence. The chapter will begin with the conceptual framework (Figure 3.1.). Explanation of Variables of the Conceptual Framework Curricular Models The Additive Model The additive model, also called explicit cultural studies was the most widely used model of teaching language and culture together (Chen, 2000). These cultural courses were taught explicitly and added to a language program (Chen, 2008). The major components of the additive model were target language courses and target cultural courses. The target language was a language that a learner was attempting to study (Ellis, 1985). The target culture was the broad concept that covered all aspects of people’s lives, such as patterns of everyday life, the ways of thinking, fine arts, geography, politics, and history (Seelye, 1994).

70 Figure 3.1. Conceptual Framework Expected Model for Intercultural Communicative Competence at the Higher Education Level Curricular Models Instructional Strategies The Additive Model ➢ Portfolio ➢ The target language ➢ Lecture ➢ The target culture ➢ Semantic Mapping ➢ Hands-on Activities CLT Model ➢ Field Trips ➢ Communicative ➢ Ethnographic Interview competence ➢ Culture Capsule ➢ Learner-centeredness ➢ Culture Cluster ➢ Authentic Texts ➢ Context ➢ Culture Assimilator ➢ Culture Mini-drama ICC Model ➢ Word Association ➢ Communicative ➢ Collages Strategy ➢ Artifact Study competence ➢ ➢ Intercultural Cross-Cultural Adaptability Inventory competence ➢ Intercultural Emotional Resilience ➢ Emotional Resilience Communicative ➢ Emotional Balance ➢ Positive Attitude Competence ➢ Intercultural sensitivity The Flexibility/Openness ➢ Cognitive Flexibility ACTFL Standards ➢ Interpersonal Competence ➢ Perspectives ➢ The Third Culture Perspective ➢ Practices ➢ Products The Perceptual Acuity Scale ➢ Verbal Cues ➢ Nonverbal Cues ➢ Empathy The Personal Autonomy Scale ➢ Personal Value System ➢ Sense of Identity ➢ Self-respect

71 Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) Model The 1970s and 1980s could be landmarked as the era of Communicative Language Teaching (Chen, 2008). Communicative Language Teaching had shifted the goal from language form to content form (Wilkins, 1976) and teaching language from usage to use (Widdowson, 1978). This model suggested, “the teaching of culture and the teaching of language are naturally integrated by focusing on language use in communication” (Chen, 2008, p. 83). The most distinctive features of communication language teaching were “implicitness” of teaching culture and “integration of teaching language and culture” (Chen, 2008, p. 82). The main elements in the model are communicative competence, learner-centeredness, authentic texts, and context. Communicative competence was the ability to use language appropriately in a given social context (Hymes, 1972). Based on Canale and Swain’s (1980) theory, communicative competence includes grammatical competence, social linguistic competence and strategic competence. Grammatical competence was composed of lexicon, morphology, phonology, syntax, and semantics. Sociolinguistic competence referred to appropriately responding in reaction to various social cultural context and social rules. Strategic competence was the skills of handling communication breakdown. Learner-Centeredness emphasized learners’ differences, needs, and autonomy, encouraged learners to play active roles in the learning process, in negotiating meanings, and in expressing their opinions with their classmates and language educators (Pu, 2009). Authentic texts were those “written and oral communications produced by members of a language and culture group for members of the same language and culture group” (Galloway, 1998, p. 133). Authentic materials included “realia, magazine and newspaper articles, poems, literary excerpts, audio recordings, videotapes, satellite broadcasts, radio programs”, and so on (Shrum & Glisan, 2005, p. 74). Context was “the degree to which meaning

72 and situations from the world outside the classroom are present in an instructional approach, method, or classroom activity” (Shrum & Glisan, 2005, p. 41). Communicative activities should provide a natural context for students to use language for communication with others and provide the opportunities to build positive relationships among other learners and between learners and teacher (Littlewood, 1981). Intercultural Communicative Competence (ICC) Model The intercultural communicative competence model was developed to “take both knowledge and behavior into consideration by focusing on meaning in intercultural communication” (Chen, 2008, p. 84). This model possessed two features: one was that foreign language education had merged both explicit cultural studies and communicative language teaching; the other one was that the model stressed intercultural communication skills, which originally aimed to help English learners to communicate efficiently with native English speakers and to avoid misunderstanding each other (Chen, 2008). The model consists of communicative competence, intercultural competence, intercultural communicative competence, and intercultural sensitivity. Communicative competence is defined the same as communicative competence explained in the CLT model. Intercultural competence was “the ability to interact in their own language with people from another country and culture, drawing upon their knowledge about intercultural communication, their attitudes of interest in otherness and their skills in interpreting, relating and discovering, i.e. of overcoming cultural difference and enjoying intercultural contact” (Byram, 1997, p. 70). The intercultural communicative competence was the combination of communicative competence and intercultural competence (Arevalo-Guerrero, 2009). Byram (1997) defined intercultural communicative competence as the ability “to interact with people

73 from another country and culture in a foreign language” (p. 71). Neuliep (2009) referred intercultural communication competence as “the degree to which you effectively adapt your verbal and nonverbal messages to the appropriate cultural context” (p. 393). Intercultural sensitivity was “the construction of reality as increasingly capable of accommodating cultural difference that constitutes development” (Bennett, 1993, p. 24). American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL) National Culture Standards The five standards, also called the 5 Cs, represented communication, cultures, connections, comparisons, and communities in language learning. The five “C” concentrated on developing interpretive, presentational, and interpersonal communicative skills in communication, exploring the products, practices, and perspectives in various cultures, building connections between foreign languages and other content areas, comparing the target language and cultures to one’s own, encouraging learning a language beyond the classroom setting to local communities (NSFLEP, 1999). The Standards displayed a picture of “what students should know and be able to do with another language” in foreign language curriculum (ACTFL, 1996, p. 32). The standards of culture teaching were composed of products, practices, and perspectives. The perspectives referred to “meanings, attitudes, values, and ideas (NSFLEP, 1999, p. 47)”. The practices referred to “patterns of behavior accepted by a society and dealing with aspects of culture such as rites of passage, the use of forms of discourse, the social pecking order, and the use of space” (NSFLEP, 1999, p. 50). Products referred to “books, tools, foods, laws, music, games”, and so forth (NSFLEP, 1999, p. 47). The perspectives, the practices and the products were closely intertwined. The goal of cultures was to “interact with cultural

74 competence and understanding” (ACTFL, 2015, p. 1). The explanations of the constructs and their operational definitions for the independent variables of the curricular models are presented in Table 3.1. Instructional Strategies In this section, prevalent cultural instructional strategies will be listed in the research. The portfolio was a “systematic and selective collection of student work that has been assembled to demonstrate the student’s motivation, academic growth, and level of achievement” (Norton and Wiburg, 1998, p. 237). A web portfolio was a website or an internal school network, created by a student to document his or her readings of the websites in target language, pictures, audios and videos (Pearson, 2004). The web portfolio took advantage of flexible construction, accommodations of different levels, interests, and objectives of language courses (Lee, 1997). Lecture was effective when instructors paid attention to “keep it brief; enliven it with visuals, realia, and accounts of personal experience; focus on some specific aspect of cultural experience; have students take notes; and use follow-up techniques in which students use the target language actively” (Hadley, 2001, p. 360). Hadley (2001) considered that lecture was the most common strategy that had been practiced by language instructors to teach culture. “Guided observation of selected patterns in isolation followed by explanation and interpretation of the pattern with the help of a knowledgeable resource person” was one of the recommended approaches for teaching culture by Lafayette and Schulz (1975, p.107). Semantic Mapping, developed by Johnson and Pearson (1978), was originally used for children to learn vocabulary in their native language (Hadley, 2001). It was a “graphic arrangement of associated word clusters around a key word, idea, or concept” (Hadley, 2001, p. 376).

75 Table 3.1. Explanations of the Constructs and Operational Definitions for the Independent Variables of Curricular Models in the Conceptual Framework Conceptual Variables Operational Definitions Dimension The Target Language The Target Culture The language that a learner was attempting to study The Additive Communicative (Ellis, 1985) Model Competence A broad concept that covered all aspects of people’s life, Communicative Learner-Centeredness such as patterns of everyday life, the ways of thinking, Language fine arts, geography, politics, and history (Seelye, 1994). Teaching (CLT) Authentic Texts Model Context The ability to use language appropriately in a given social context (Hymes, 1972) and includes grammatical, sociolinguistic, and strategic competence (Canale & Swain, 1980). Emphasizing learners’ differences, needs, and autonomy, encouraging learners to play active roles in the learning process, negotiating meanings, and expressing their opinions with their classmates and language educators (Pu, 2009) “Written and oral communications produced by members of a language and culture group for members of the same language and culture group” (Galloway, 1998, p. 133). “The degree to which meaning and situations from the world outside the classroom are present in an instructional approach, method, or classroom activity” (Shrum & Glisan, 2005, p. 41). Intercultural Communicative The ability to use language appropriately in a given Communicative Competence social context (Hymes, 1972) and includes (ICC) Model Intercultural grammatical, sociolinguistic, and strategic competence Competence (Canale & Swain, 1980). “The ability to interact in their own language with people The American Intercultural Council on the Communicative from another country and culture, drawing upon their Teaching of Competence knowledge about intercultural communication, their Foreign attitudes of interest in otherness and their skills in Languages Intercultural (ACTFL) Sensitivity interpreting, relating and discovering, i.e. of overcoming cultural difference and enjoying intercultural contact” Perspectives (Byram, 1997, p. 70). Practices The ability “to interact with people from another country and culture in a foreign language” (Byram, 1997, p. 71). “The construction of reality as increasingly capable of accommodating cultural difference that constitutes development (Bennett, 1993, p. 24).” “Meanings, attitudes, values, and ideas (NSFLEP, 1999, p. 47)”. “Patterns of behavior accepted by a society and deal with aspects of culture such as rites of passage, the use of forms of discourse, the social pecking order, and the use of space” (NSFLEP, 1999, p. 50).

76 Culture Standard Products “Books, tools, foods, laws, music, games”, and so forth (NSFLEP, 1999, p. 47). Hands-on activities occur when learners define understand and produce something (Gochenour, 1977) in classroom settings. Field trips were experiential education that focuses on “learning by doing” and “becoming aware of the meaning of a particular experience through their reflection on it” (Lotito, 1988, p. 146). Lotito (1988) categorized three types of field trips for foreign language instructors to make use of local resources. The first type was trips to a single cultural event (Lotito, 1988), for example, holiday celebrations, competitions, concerts, art displays, etc. The second type is trips to observe daily life patterns of a target community, for example, Chinese churches, Chinese nursing home, Chinese traditional medicine clinic, etc. The third type is trips to use the target language to complete tasks, for example, ordering drinks and food in a Chinese restaurant, buying groceries in an Asian Market, etc (Lotito, 1988). The ethnographic interview technique was a great way to “explore and understand cultural similarities and differences in any context” (Stuart and Nocon, 1996, p.437) in the classroom or out of the classroom. A culture capsule, developed by Darrel Taylor, a foreign language instructor, and John Sirebsebm, an anthropologist, “is a short description, usually one or two paragraphs in length, of one minimal difference between an American and a target-culture custom, accompanied by illustrative photos, slides, or realia” (Hadley, 2001, p. 371). Culture capsules can be designed for small or large classes by instructors or students (Hadley, 2001). A culture cluster, designed initially by Meade and Morain (1973), was composed of “three illustrated culture capsules that develop related topics plus one 30-minute simulation that integrates the information in the capsules and dramatizes it through a skit or situational role-play” (Hadley, 2001). A culture assimilator, developed by social psychologists, was first considered as a systematic after-class

77 technique that would assist new comers to become familiar with a new culture (Seelye, 1993; Hadley, 2001). A culture assimilator may include 75 to 100 important episodes that happened between an American and a foreigner (Hadley, 2001). Each episode represented some conflict or misinterpretation between American culture and the target culture (Hadley, 2001). A culture mini-drama consisted of three to five episodes of cultural conflicts or misinterpretations (Seelye, 1993). Led by instructors, students discussed the source of conflicts or miscommunications (Hadley, 2001). The technique would not result in detecting an accurate cause of the problems, but it would help students to experience how people jumped to conclusions due to their biases and stereotypes (Seelye, 1993). Word association is a helpful strategy for language learners to study vocabulary. With the help of slide presentations of a cultural product in the target culture, language educators can give a clue word of a theme in textbooks and inspire students to list as many related vocabulary words as possible (Hadley, 2001). Language educators can explain how the vocabulary is culturally bound and how vocabulary cannot be simply translated from one language to another (Hadley, 2001). Collages strategy was that each student chose a word that was interesting to him/her and collected images of that word from magazine and newspaper clippings, from his own photography (Seelye, 1993), or from the internet. Artifact study was a strategy designed for students to recognize the cultural meaning of certain strange objects from a target culture (Galloway, 1985). Students could give descriptions of the objects and make hypotheses about the objects (Hadley, 2001). If accessible, instructors could bring in the artifact; if not, instructors could bring in the pictures of the objects (Hadley, 2001). The explanations of the constructs and operational definitions for the independent variables of instructional strategies are presented in Table 3.2.

78 Cross-Cultural Adaptability Inventory The Cross-Cultural Adaptability Inventory was a self-assessment questionnaire with a 50- items questionnaire with six levels of Likert type answers (Kelly & Meyers, 1995). The CCAI could Table 3.2. Explanations of the Constructs and Operational Definitions for the Independent Variables of Instructional Strategies in the Conceptual Framework Construct Variables Operational Definitions Instructional Portfolio “Systematic and selective collection of student work that has been Strategies assembled to demonstrate the student’s motivation, academic growth, and level of achievement” (Norton and Wiburg, 1998, p. Lecture 237). Semantic “Guided observation of selected patterns in isolation followed by Mapping explanation and interpretation of the pattern with the help of a Hands-on knowledgeable resource person” in English and/or Chinese Activities (Lafayette & Schulz, 1975, p. 107) Field Trip “Graphic arrangement of associated word clusters around a key word, Ethnographic idea, or concept” (Hadley, 2001, p. 376) Interview Activities of learners’ defining, understanding and producing Culture something (Gochenour, 1977) in classroom settings. Capsule “Learning by doing” and “becoming aware of the meaning of a Culture particular experience through their reflection on it” (Lotito, 1988, p. Cluster 146). Culture “Exploring and understanding cultural similarities and differences in Assimilator any context” from the perspective of culture and ethnography Culture Mini-Drama (Stuart and Nocon, 1996, p.437) in classroom or out of the Word classroom. Association “A short description, usually one or two paragraphs in length, of one minimal difference between an American and a target-culture custom, accompanied by illustrative photos, slides, or realia” (Hadley, 2001, p. 371). “Three illustrated culture capsules that develop related topics plus one 30-minute simulation that integrates the information in the capsules and dramatizes it through a skit or situational role-play” (Hadley, 2001, p. 375). 75 to 100 important episodes that happened between an American and a foreigner and represented some conflict or misinterpretation between American culture and the target culture (Hadley, 2001). Three to five episodes of cultural conflicts or misinterpretations (Seelye, 1993). Giving a clue word of a theme in textbooks and inspiring students to list as many related vocabulary words as possible with the help of

79 Collages slide presentations of a culture product in the target culture (Hadley, Strategy 2001). Understanding a part of the target culture on the basis of research Artifact Study skills through words chosen by students (Hadley, 2001) Recognizing the cultural meaning of certain strange objects from a target culture (Galloway, 1985), giving descriptions of the objects and making hypotheses about the objects (Hadley, 2001). also be used as a “team-building” instrument for working groups with diverse cultures or as “a counseling tool for people in the process of cross-cultural adjustment” (Kelly & Meyers, 1995, p. 2). The CCAI was developed to “provide information to an individual about his or her potential for cross-cultural effectiveness” (Kelly & Meyers, 1995), composed of the Emotional Resilience Scale, the Flexibility/Openness Scale, the Perceptual Acuity Scale, and the Personal Autonomy Scale. The Emotional Resilience Scale focused on “aspects of the cross-cultural experience that may produce negative and unpleasant feelings” (Kelly & Meyers, 1992, p. 14). The score indicated “the extent to which a person can regulate his or her emotions, maintain emotional equilibrium in a new or changing environment, and deal with the setbacks and difficult feelings that are a normal part of the cross-cultural experience” (Kelly & Meyers, 1992, p. 14). Emotional resilience was a person’s ability to manage his or her emotion, especially with regard to the intensity, duration, and expression of the emotion (Saarni, 1999). Emotional resilience was also the process of dealing with internal feelings and external behaviors (Landy, 2002). Emotional balance was the ways a person maintained his or her “emotional stream in social interaction” (Gatta, 2000, p. 29). Emotional balance reflected a person’s “sense of normality and well being” however, he or she may take emotions for granted and was not aware of his or her feelings (Gatta, 2000, p. 29). Attitude was “the psychological tendency to evaluate a given entity

80 with some degree of favor or disfavor” (Gawrongski & Bodenhausen, 2006, p. 693). Positive attitude toward another culture was the favorable beliefs, feelings, and behaviors toward another culture (Runkawatt, 2013). The Flexibility/Open Scale focused on “the extent to which a person enjoys the different ways of thinking and behaving that are typically encountered in the cross-cultural experience” (Kelly & Meyers, 1992, p. 16). Cognitive flexibility was “the readiness for which the person’s concept system changed selectively in response to appropriate environmental stimuli” (Scott, 1962, p. 1). Cognitive flexibility was a “function of both the way knowledge was represented and the processes that operated on those mental representations” (Spiro & Jehng, 1990, p. 165). The definition of interpersonal competence varied depending on interaction context, cultural norms, and developmental period (Schneider, 1992). Educational definitions stressed an individual’s ability to fulfill role requirements in the classroom or with his or her peers (Merrrell & Gimpel, 1998). Interpersonal competence in educational settings was “an individual’s observed behavior during a social interaction characterized by the ability to sustain social roles” (Sattler, 1988, p. 112). In language learning and teaching, the third culture perspective, the third space or the third perspective was described as the learners’ perception of others’ culture (Kramsch, 1993). The third space or the third perspective was a personal place, which was different and changing for every language learner (Kramsch, 1993). The Perceptual Acuity Scale assessed “the extent to which a person pays attention to and accurately perceives various aspects of the environment” (Kelly & Meyers, 1992, p. 17). This applied “particularly to the verbal and nonverbal cues communicated by people who are different from oneself” (Kelly & Meyers, 1992, p. 17). Verbal cues were the words and sentences of a message including the forms of spoken and written communication (Apple, 1979). Verbal

81 communication was “digital language”, which was symbolic and composed of the display of words (Yost, 1980, p.24). Nonverbal communication was “analogic language” (p. 24), which was comprised of cues such as facial expression, gestures, vocal qualifiers, and so forth (Yost, 1980). Empathy was “the imaginative, intellectual and emotional participation in another person’s experience” (Bennett, 1979, p. 418). Empathy was also considered as the influence from the various qualities of other people (Tamam, 1993). The Personal Autonomy Scale measured “the extent to which an individual has evolved a personal system of values and beliefs that he or she feels confident enough about to act on in unfamiliar settings” (Kelly & Meyers, 1992, p. 19). Moreover, it examined “the extent to which an individual respects others and their value systems” (Kelly & Meyers, 1992, p. 19). Human value was a conception, which was practiced as a criteria or justification for performance and behavior (Williams, 1967). Personal values were self-awareness, which consciously influenced an individual’s decisions and behaviors (Williams, 1970). A value system was a set of individual values, which existed in a scale or hierarchy that demonstrated the degree of relative importance (Sikula, 1971). West (1995) considered identity as “the desire for recognition, protection, security, safety, and surety, the quest for visibility, the sense of being acknowledged and the deep desire for association” (Cited in Gallab, 1997, p.22). Identity, a social phenomenon, was a dialectic relationship between an individual and his or her world (Berger, 1996). It was the output of compromising between what the society told him or her who he was and how he perceived himself (Berger, 1996). Self-respect was “a highly intellectualized psychological entity, consisting of a narrowly specified set of beliefs and judgments about or, attitudes toward oneself” (Dillion, 1997, p.226). Self-respect was composed of three elements: 1) the cognitive element, which was the belief that the object was valuable; 2) the attitudinal element, which

82 esteemed the object, attaching importance to it because of its perceived value; 3) the behavioral element, which treated the object as valuable (Smith, 2000). A person exhibiting self-respect could recognize his intrinsic value, prize himself, and treat himself accordingly (Smith, 2000). The explanations of the constructs and operational definitions for the dependent variables of intercultural communicative competence are presented in Table 3.3. Table 3.3. Explanations of the Constructs and Operational Definitions for the Dependent Variable of Intercultural Communicative Competence in the Conceptual Framework Conceptual Variables Operational Definitions Dimensions Emotional Extent to which a person manages his or her internal Emotional Resilience feelings and external behaviors (Landy, 2002). Resilience Scale Emotional Balance Extent to which a person maintains his or her emotional stream in social interaction in a sense of normality and well being (Gatta, Flexibility/ Positive Attitude 2000, p. 29). Openness Cognitive Favorable beliefs, feelings, and behaviors toward another culture Scale Flexibility (Runkawatt, 2013) Perceptual Extent to which a person’s “concept system changes selectively in Acuity Scale response to appropriate environmental stimuli” (Scott, 1962, p. 1). Interpersonal Extent to which is a person’s “observed behavior during a social Competence interaction characterized by the ability to sustain social roles” (Sattler, 1988, p. 112). Third Culture Perspective Extent to which a person perceives others’ culture (Kramsch, 1993). Verbal Cues Extent to which the communication is symbolic and the display of words in the form of the spoken and written word (Apple, 1979; Non-verbal Yost, 1980). Communication Extent to which the communication is analogic and comprised of Empathy cues such as facial expressions, body language, vocal qualifiers (Yost, 1980). Extent to which a person imaginatively, intellectually and emotionally participates in another person’s experience and is influenced by the various qualities of other people (Bennett, 1979; Tamam, 1993).

83 Personal Personal Value Extent to which a set of individual values exist in a scale or Autonomy System Scale hierarchy that demonstrates the degree of relative importance and Sense of Identity the set consciously influence an individual’s decisions and Self-Respect behaviors (Sikula, 1971; Williams, 1970). Extent to which is a person’s identity include a dialectic relationship with his or her world, including “the desire for recognition, protection, security, safety, and surety, the quest for visibility, the sense of being acknowledged and the deep desire for association” (Berger, 1996; Gallab, 1997, p.22) Extent to which a highly intellectualized psychological entity that consists of a narrowly specified set of beliefs and judgments attitudes toward oneself (Dillion, 1997) composed of the cognitive belief the person is valuable; an attitude which exemplifies esteem for oneself as one of value; and behaviors that show one believes in one’s inherent value (Smith, 2000). Research Design A qualitative research design was selected in this dissertation to explore the influences of different curricular models, instructional strategies on intercultural communicative competence based on Yin (2011)’s five features of a qualitative research. They are as follows “studying the meaning of people’s lives,” “representing the views and perspectives of the people,” “covering the contextual conditions; contributing insights into existing or emerging concepts,” and “striving to use multiple sources of evidence” (pp. 7-8). Two case studies were conducted in the research to discover the differences between the cases through interviews and questionnaires. The goal of multiple case studies is to duplicate results across different cases, by predicting similar results across cases, and comparing different results across cases (Yin, 2003). The research compared the findings from two higher education settings on the influences of different curricular models and instructional strategies on intercultural communicative competence. The study also examined how the perceptions of the instructional faculty and the novice Chinese language learners regarding intercultural communicative competence differ between each of the two programs and predict the