Final English SOE

State of the Invironment 51 Picture: Angooran Zinc Mine that region is more or less sufficient (Figure 5- 9), at the lower levels of the ground (at depths of 50-100 Cm) there is very little of this element 2 • State and Impact available (Figure 5-10). 2 • 1 Chemical Properties Iran’s land has been under the monoculture 2 • 1 • 3 Available Potassium (planting only one type of crop) system of The availability of potassium in the region is cultivating wheat. This means that some specific ingredients of the soil, even from deep down, have very much like that of phosphorus. been repeatedly extracted and used by the plants’ roots over the course of many consecutive years, 2 • 1 • 4 Soil Organic Carbon causing the soil to become weak and lacking in Figure 5-12 shows the quality control of soil terms of those ingredients. Although accurate organic carbon. information is not available, sporadic surveys show that continuous use of monoculture causes 2 • 2 Physical Properties an imbalance in the nutritious capacity of the land. One such survey was conducted in Marvdasht, Fars 2 • 2 • 1 Soil Specific Gravity Province, where wheat is the predominant crop and One of the physical properties of the soil is its is grown abundantly. 1,700 visual observances and specific gravity which varies very sensitively under 6,000 laboratory experiments were statistically the influence of such factors as land, water and analysed. (See: Figure 5-8) The dispersion and land-use management. The physiognomic specific change pattern and, the dynamic, dependent- gravity of the soil is understood in different ways. managerial properties of the soil, including N, P, Soils with a high specific gravity have a resistance K, OC (organic carbon) and BD (physiognomic against roots that need to penetrate deep into the specific gravity of land) that indicate the quality of soil to obtain water and nutriments. the soil, were also studied. Impact of Some of the Pressure Factors •Agricultural Activities: These cause the coverage of domestic plants to break up or even 2 • 1 • 1 Soil Nitrogen be removed totally. They also remove the organic Figure 5-8 demonstrates that nitrogen is greatly matter and nutritious substances from the soil. insufficient in almost all the cases that were studied. They increase soil acidity and cause erosion. Nitrogen is also very scantily dispersed throughout •Urban Development: This permanently the region. destroys natural habitats and causes hydro- climatological changes in the area. It interferes 2 • 1 • 2 Available Phosphorus Although the level of phosphorus in the soil in with the biological activities of the soil and leads to an increase in waste materials. Figure 5-7: Number of fires and areas of rangeland burnt, 1997-2004 Figure 5-8: Quality control of soil Nitrogen Source: Statistical Centre of Iran, 2002 Source: Ministry of Agricultural Jihad, 2005 Figure 5-9: Quality control of soil phosphorus Figure 5-10: Phosphorus at different soil depths Source: Ministry of Agricultural Jihad, 2005 Source: Ministry of Agricultural Jihad, 2005

52 5 The Earth •Forest Degradation: This reduces the 2 • 2 • 3 Plaster Soils vegetation cover and, causes surface waters to Lands containing plaster in their soil cover run off the land and be wasted. It also causes about 25 million hectares and are mostly in the soil erosion and destroys or substantially changes central plateau, Khuzestan and the coastal plains habitats. of the South. Salt flats, salt domes and dunes •Fires: These result in a break down of the are regarded as the various types of terrain that forest habitats and to changes in the age structure contain plaster sediments of different origins, of the forests. Among the other consequences of along with the plaster maranha that cover 58 catastrophic fires are: a substantial reduction in hectares of the country’s lands (Figure 5-15). the population of micro-organisms, a deterioration in land quality, a reduction in the soil permeability, 2 • 3 Water and Wind Erosion increase in susceptibility to erosion and wastage Soil maps of Iran show that there are 40 million of a great deal of carbon. hectares of arable land of high or medium quality. •Over-grazing: This increases water as well as wind erosion and leads to a consequent loss At present, only 20 million hectares of this arable of nutritious substances from the soil as well as land are under cultivation. This means there remains great future potential for agricultural changing the density and the make-up of the development. species of vegetation cover. As a result, it makes Most of the country’s soils are affected by the way for weeds to grow. •Pesticides: These cause a wide range of impacts of wind and water that destroy billions types of pollution, an imbalance in ecosystems of tons of soil each year. Iran has the highest soil erosion rate of South Asian countries. More than and a concentration of poisonous substances that 14 million hectares of land are affected by water threaten the environment with water and land erosion and 6.5 million hectares by the wind, pollution. causing a great deal of damage to the country. 2 • 2 • 2 Soil Salinity According to FAO, erosion moves as much as 3- There are many evapo-transpiration zones 4 billion tons of soil in Iran each year. Although the and salt domes in Iran. It is unfortunate that source of this comment has not been published inappropriate methods of using and managing and domestic estimates show the annual level of those zones and domes have threatened many erosion to be 1.5 billion tons. However, this is still hectares of land with salinity. Most of the saline five times greater than international standards land is found in the South (the Central Desert) and is definitely a cause for concern. and the West as well as in swamps with too much saline water. Figure 5-11: Quality control of available potassium Figure 5-12: Quality control of soil organic carbon Source: Ministry of Agricultural Jihad, 2005 Source: Ministry of Agricultural Jihad, 2005 Figure 5-13: Quality control of the physiognomic Figure 5-14: Dispersion of saline soils in Iran specific gravity of soil Source: Ministry of Agricultural Jihad, 2005 Source: Ministry of Agricultural Jihad, 2005

State of the Invironment 53 3 Responses •Thorough study of the challenges of land management in mega-cities 3 • 1 Governmental Organizations and Ministries (with the collaboration of the University of Essen, Germany). This section sets out the environmental •Soil pollution maps in urban areas, with the performance of various government organizations layers and elements and Ministries. separately identified. 3 • 1 • 1 Ministry of Agricultural Jihad •Organizing a data bank for arable and urban The following are some of the plans and projects land. carried out by the Ministry of Agricultural Jihad as •Setting up an Environmental Management well as the Forests and Rangelands Organization: System for urban and •Plans for the improvement, rehabilitation and arable land. development of horticulture. •Project on retaining soil humidity in steeply The Earth | sloping orchards. •Expand of evaluation systems from the point •Tooba (lit. ‘cleaner’) Project. of view of quality, usability, health and •Project for de-desertification and dune sensitivity etc. stabilization. •Survey of the movement of heavy metals and •Integrated management projects. organic pollutants and their behaviour in the •Green-house cultivation development. soil and underground water. •Water catchment-aquifer projects. •Survey of the land as an origin, source or •Livestock-rangeland balancing projects. receptor of pollutants. •National Plan for the improvement of •Adoption of Regulations for Forest rangelands. Preservation. 3 • 1 • 2 DoE 3 • 2 International Environmental •Membership of the Committee for Monitoring Cooperation the Use of Herbicides. •Carbon Sequestration Project •Membership of the Committee for Monitoring The Carbon Sequestration Project is carried the Use of Livestock Toxins. out through investment from the UN’s Global •Management of livestock grazing in Protected Environment Facility (GEF) and the Convention for Areas. Desert Reduction in Southern Khorassan. Follow- •Soil preservation through management of ups to the project include: hazardous industrial waste. ●More than two million hectares of forests •Preventing land pollution through monitoring have been established in deserts through industrial activities; planting trees by hand and the conservation Figure 5-15: Dispersion of the plaster soils in Iran Source: Ministry of Agricultural Jihad, 2005

54 5 The Earth of land resources in residential areas, arable lands etc. ●Development of the biological productivity of arid regions and establishing ecological balance. ●The preservation of biodiversity. •Membership of the World Union for Combating Desertification (UCD). •Membership in the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN). •Membership of the Interstate Project for Monitoring Desertification and Preserving Dry and Semi-Dry Regions Natural Resources in Southwest Asia. •Membership in the UN Convention on Desertification (Paris, 1994). •Water and Land Management Project (Hableh Rood). •Establishment of a National Committee for Desertification. •Opening a DPO office in Tehran. •Membership of INCCPR. •Providing the necessary background and follow-up to the process of Iran’s ratification of the POPs and PIC Conventions (through DoE). 3 • 3 Training Activities In textbooks at various educational levels, solutions to the problems of desert and arid regions are discussed. College courses for technical diplomas and university degree courses for BSc. and MSc. are designed within that framework and students are recruited in this way. Sustainable indicators are being defined in all sub-divisions of the agricultural sector. Holding training courses at different levels to establish and spread the culture of environmental conservation and sustainable agriculture. Publication of books about land issues for REFERENCES children and young adults. 1. DoE, 2004. Government’s Environmental Performance in 2004. 2. Energy Planning Office, Energy Balance Sheet, 2004. 3. Management and Planning Organization, 2006.Weekly News Analysis, Third Development Plan Achievements. 4. Ministry of Agricultural Jihad, Water and Land Studies Institute, 2005. Iran’s Soils. 5. Ministry of Agricultural Jihad, Agriculture Research, Training and Promotion Organization, 2001. 6. Moameni, A., 2003. An Appraisal of Land Resources of Iran: a Contribution to a Project. 7. Municipalities Organization of Iran, Solid Waste Landfill and Recycling Management. 8. Siadat et al., 1990. Potassium Content of Soils in Iran Status andTrends. 9. Statistical Centre of Iran, Statistical Yearbook, 2002. 10. Sustainable Development Committee (DoE), 2004. SoE Report of Iran.

State of the Invironment 55



57 State of the Invironment 6 Inland Water Inland Water evenly distributed throughout the country. Water Quantity 1 • Pressures 1 • 2 Water Shortages •Water consumption for various uses was 74.5 billion cubic meters in 1989. With an annual 1 • 1 Uneven Distribution of Water average growth rate of 1.4 billion cubic meters, it Resources There are six main catchments areas in the increased to 88.6 billion cubic metres in 1999, of country and one of their problems is uneven which 93.7% was used for agriculture and 6.3% distribution. The central catchments areas and for industry as well as drinking water. the Persian Gulf as well as the Hamoon area face •The per capita use of water was estimated to be a shortage of rainfall, while the Caspian Sea and 1,405 cubic metres in 1995. Picture 6-1 shows Orumiyeh Lake generally enjoy a healthy situation that the Jazmoorian catchment area, with an as far as rainfall is concerned. The Comprehensive annual per capita use of 5,280 cubic metres and National Water Studies Plan shows that: the Persian Gulf coastal catchment area, with an •56% of precipitation falls on 30% of the land and annual per capita use of 426 cubic metres, are the only 44% falls on 70% of the land. maximum and the minimum users of water in the •The level of rain varies between 50 mm in the country, respectively. Loot Desert and 1,800 mm in the southwest of •According to available statistics, more than 43% the Caspian coastline and the Zagros Heights of the total population of the country lived on the which indicates that water resources are not central plateau in 1995, while about 23 % lived in Figure 6-1: Water discharge from underground water tables Picture 6-1: Map of water consumption in different catchment areas, 1995 1990-1991 and 2001-2002 Source: Statistical Centre for Iran, 2004

58 6 Inland Water the Persian Gulf and Sea of Oman coastal areas. 1 • 5Urban and Rural Water Consumption The per capita water use in all these areas has •The average annual growth rate of the urban been lower than world standards (of 1,000 cubic population was 4.05% between 1982 and 1995. metres) which verifies the fact that there is a This increase in urban popula tion led to a 5.5% shortage of water. average annual growth rate in the consumption of drinking water over the same period. •The per capita use of water in urban areas was 1 • 3 Overuse of Underground Water Sources 221 litres per day in 1984 and increased to 250 •The high population concentration in the central litres by 2005. plateau and the scant rainfalls in that region •The average annual growth rate of the rural not only cause water shortages but also affect population was been 0.94% between 1982 and underground water sources as well. The 1995; the average annual growth rate in rural evaporation rate is also very high, being the water use was 4.33%; highest of all six catchment areas. •The per capita use of water in Iran of 250 litres per •53% of total water consumption came from day is twice that of the amount used in Europe. underground sources. Residents of Tehran alone consume 300 litres of •During the last 30 years, the water intake to water per day, while the National Committee for aquifers has been about 50.5 billion cubic the Establishment of a Water-use Pattern has set metres while the volume of the water discharged the average daily use of water at 150 litres. from those aquifers has been 54.3 billion cubic metres, this means that 3.8 billion cubic metres more water has been discharged than entered 2 • State and Impact the aquifers. The drought in the recent years has caused even more water to be discharged from 2 • 1 Rainfall The total volume of precipitation was 424.53 underground water tables, raising this Figure 6- billion cubic metres from September 2004 to to 6 billion cubic metres. (See: Figure 6-1) March 2005. (see: Figures 2 and 3) 1 • 4 Agriculture, Industry and Mining •The average annual growth rate of water use in 2 • 1 Surface Water The quantity of surface water in all six areas in agricul ture was 2.3% over the course of the 10 2005 was 63 billion cubic metres compared with years from 1984 to 1994. an average, over the long term of 56 billion cubic •More than half of the water used in agriculture metres. This shows a 12% increase overall and a was from underground sources. 29% increase compared with the previous year •The average annual growth rate of water use in (49 billion cubic metres). (Figures 4 and 5) large industrial workshops (with more than 10 employees) has been 10.7% over the course of the 10 years from 1984 to 1994. 2 • 1 Dams •The average annual growth rate of water use Table 6-1 provides the relevant figures for all the in mining has been 11.9% over the course of the major dams in the six catchment areas. 10 years from 1984 to 1994. Figure 6-2: Comparison of the levels of rainfall in the Figure 6-3: Comparison of the levels of rainfall in the present present and previous years and previous years Source: Water Resources Management Organization, 2005 Source: Water Resources Management Organization, 2005

59 State of the Invironment 3 • Impact given that that 93% of the total amount of water •The uneven distribution of water resources causes used in 1989-1999 was allocated to agriculture, unequal access and water shortages in some of is the main factor for emptying the underground the sub-regions, so that the per capita use of water tables. Such a situation naturally affects water in those areas is below the standard water the use of water for industrial or even household shortage threshold. Such a situation has definite uses. impacts on the residents of these catchments. •Although the use of water in other sectors - •Overuse and emptying of the underground such as industry, mining or drinking - showed no water tables in plains designated as prohibited or more than a 6% growth over the same period, it critical in terms of water supply is the also played a role in causing a water shortage in main factor causing the level of the static reserve underground tables. to drop. Recent droughts that persisted until 2005 were also another factor which doubled the 4 • Responses pressure on underground water resources. The •Giving high importance to land use spacing and most important effects of this drop in the level of making water resources and capacity an axis for the underground water tables include: lower water flow in wells, springs and karizes (subterranean future development. chains of wells); having to change the locations •Increasing public as well as the authorities’ of wells and digging them deeper and deeper; knowledge, sensitivity and awareness. negative effects from landslides; decreased •Preventing the overgrowth of population centres. capacity of natural water tables; the deteriorating •Adopting national approaches to water supply quality and developing salinity of drinking water; and sewage disposal in urban and rural areas. restrictions on agricultural, industrial and drinking •Establishing a comprehensive approach to uses; and, finally, the already high costs of energy resource utilization, giving priority to the supply soaring. of healthy drinking water (rather than to water •The growth in the use of water for agriculture, used in agriculture or industry). Figure 6-4: Volume of surface water in the main catchment Figure 6-5: Comparison of the volume accumulation of areas, up to the month reported surface water in the present and the previous years Source: Water Resources Management Organization, 2005 Source: Water Resources Management Organization, 2005 Table 6-1: Statistics on reservoir dams in the country Volume Incoming Outgoing From the beginning From the beginning Number Designed Catchment Areas April 21 March-April of the aquatic year March-April of the aquatic year till of Dams Volume till Marc 21 Marc 21 2005 2004 2005 2004 2005 2004 2005 2004 2005 2004 Caspian Sea 22 4968 2754 2934 1692 1400 26040 22090 1014 782 25600 20088 Persian Gulf 15 18194 14602 10858 9016 5249 113580 111533 8655 3934 110755 108713 Orumiyeh Lake 5 1049 889 886 530 433 7604 6960 417 310 7267 6371 16 3835 2824 2453 890 739 12330 11395 666 519 11648 9860 Hamoon 1 700 643 388 140 . 776 429 . 30 98 93 Serakhs 7 1415 293 23 214 10 381 109 6 2 123 90 Country Total 66 30160 22005 17541 12481 7831 160711 152515 10758 5575 155491 145182 Source: Water Resources Management Organization, 2005

60 6 Inland Water •Long-term planning for both quantitative and 10 workers only 1,547 (14.1%) had some qualitative preservation of drinking water sort of sewage system. 61.34% of the rest resources. discharged their waste into wells and rivers or •Supporting the Iran-Netherlands Cooperation onto agricultural and non-agricultural land. Committee on the Water Sector in its investigation •According to some surveys, the total volume of ways of preventing water shortages and of industri al effluent is about 393 million cubic devastating floods in the Sistan plains and metres. This Figure 6-includes workshops with seeking solutions for water-related questions in and without sewage systems. Many of the smaller Orumiyeh Lake and Isfahan. workshops with no sewage systems discharge •Ministry of Energy’s membership of the Norwegian their wastes directly into the environment Interna tional Water Academy (TIWA). causing much pollution. •Establishing consumption patterns for healthy •Case studies show that industries located on the drinking water based upon the climatic conditions Karoon-Dez catchment areas pour 198 million of each region, and trying to reduce the per cubic metres of effluent, mostly containing capita use of water in the framework of the organic, mineral and hazardous substances, into regulations set out. the environment. •Applying a pricing system to encourage 1 • 2 Agricultural Chemicals appropriate consumption patterns. •Chemical fertilizers and pesticides are among the •Employing advanced technological tools to reduce most significant pollutants of water sources and, water consumption by final users, encouraging consequent ly, of the environment. More than as well as support ing the manufacturers of those 3,408 tons of fertilizers were distributed among tools. farmers in 2004 for use on their land. That Figure •Diversifying methods of water distribution. 6-is 53% larger than that for 1997. •Regional policy-making to develop industries •In 2004 as many as 28,000 tons of pesticides with regard to the quantitative and qualitative were used, showing a 78% growth compared to restrictions on water resources of each region. 1996. •Expanding public education to include improve d consumption patterns among users and 1 • 3 Household Sewage •According to 1995 statistics, the total volume establishing proper water-use practices in future of the household sewage was 3,121.96 million generations (especially children and young cubic metres, out of which 59.5% was discharged adults); below ground and the rest into surface water •Developing public participation in the different sources. aspects of water consumption management. •In those parts of the country where the level •Reducing the number of cases of waste effluent of underground water is high or the ground is in water. permeable, the traditional method of digging •Transforming water and sewage system designs absorbent wells disperses microbial pollutants inside houses and attempting to install individual into the underground water tables. pipelines for each flat in a building complex. •Developing the drinking water network in line 1 • 4 Solid Waste with population growth and the expansion of the •As surveys reveal, as many as 32,000 tons of towns, cities and villages in order to facilitate solid wastes were produced on average every access to sanitary water. day in 2000, 70% of which were perishable. •Implementing the optimum water use project by •42% of 7,917,000 tons of solid waste produced a German company, following the conclusion of by industrial workshops with more than 10 the Iran-Germany Agreement for Mutual Co- workers is buried. The locations in which such operation. waste is being buried are usually inappropriate, increasing the danger of polluting water sources, •Using recycled water for purposes other than especially underground water sources. drinking, especially agricultural, to save energy 2 • State and to preserve the environment. 2 • 1 Rivers Water Quality •Water is an effective solvent and so it contains 1 • Pressures various impurities; water contains 63% Nitrogen, 34% Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide and 3% of 1 • 1 Industrial Pollution other gases. •Industrial effluent is amongst the threats to •Rivers with an electric conductivity of less than the country’s water resources due to a lack of 750 Micro m/cm3 generally originate from the comprehensive planning and a failure to take Alborz and Zagros mountain chains and are of account of environmen tal considerations. sufficiently good quality to be used even for •In 2002, of 10,987 workshops, with more than

61 State of the Invironment drinking. These include the Gorgan, Haraz, 3 • Impact Tajan, Jajrud, Karaj, Karkheh, Karoon, Dez, •Effluent from industrial workshops is one of the Zayandehrud, Harirrud and Kor Rivers. pollutants of the water sources such as wells, •The large tributaries that derive from the main bodies of the rivers and flow into the plains as springs and rivers. Lead and mercury are two rivers themselves have an electric conductivity common, poison ous metals that can very easily of more than 750 and less than 2,000 Micro m/ be transferred into the human body through cm3. The water in such rivers may be drunk with care since its hardness is not usually more than eating produce from land polluted by effluent from 400 milligrams/litre. Amongst these, we may workshops. mention Qarachai River in Saveh, Zayandehrud •Since the level of the underground waters is very River in Isfahan and Karoon River in Ahwaz. high and close to the land’s surface, in some parts •Rivers water with an electrical conductivity of more of the country, microbial pollutants can easily than 2,000 and less than 5,000 micro m/cm3 is penetrate into the water tables and enter the water unsuiTable 6-for drinking, but may be used for cycle then transfers the pollut ants to other water irrigating plants resistant to salty water. sources and, finally, to the human body. •Based upon information obtained from the water •Burying waste materials can also pollute water sources monitoring plan conducted in 1999, tables, if the location is not correctly selected rivers are divided into three groups in terms of and the necessary efficient burial methods are the degree of pollution: (1) moderately polluted, not applied. (2) semi-polluted and (3) highly polluted. Table •Polluted rivers transfer pollution and cause a 6-2 gives the names and locations of these great many diseases to spread. rivers. 4 • Responses 4 • 1 Activities and Studies 2 • 2 Lakes Orumiyeh Lake has the highest (325,000 units) 4 • 1 • 1 Ministry of Energy electrical conductivity and Tashak Lake, in Fars •Iran-Switzerland Co-operation in joint water Province, has the lowest (255 units). manage ment, technology transfer and human resource development, comprehensive planning on environmental issues related 2 • 3 Underground Water Sources Along with the rivers, underground water tables to hydro-electric power stations and dam were also monitored and, accordingly, divided into resistance, based upon the experiences of 3 groups on the basis of the degree of pollution: Switzerland on irrigation network plans, (1) moderately polluted, (2) semi-polluted and water resource management, collecting (3) highly polluted. Table 6-3 gives the names and treating sewage and environmental and locations of some the catchments. management. •Providing support to the Water High Council. •Adopting a Comprehensive Plan for the 2 • 4 Drinking Water Preservation of Water Quality etc. The significance of drinking water to human life is •Establishing a Comprehensive Management without question. One of the basic indicators for System to manage all water cycles on judging water quality in terms of its suitability the basis of the principles of sustainable for human use is its freedom from any microbial development and land zoning in different pollution. water catchment areas of the country. •A public awareness programme to enhance Table 6-2: River water quality classification Table 6-3: Classification of underground water quality 1 3 1 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 3 1 1 3 1 3 1 3 1 3 3 3 3 3 1 3 1 3 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 Source: Ministry of Energy, n.d. Source: Iranian Topography Organization, 2002

62 6 Inland Water preservation of water quality and quantity REFERENCES and ensure the optimal utilization of resources; 1. DoE, 2006. Eight-Year-Performance Report. 2. Iranian Topography Organization, 2002. Iranian 4 • 2 DoE National Atlas of the Environment. 3. Ministry of Energy, JAMAB Consulting Engineering •Adoption of a strategy for the control and Company, 1992 and 2001. Report on the Synthesis of reduction of water pollution and presenting the Water Comprehensive Plan. the respective implementation programme. 4. Ministry of Energy, 2005. 25-Year Performance •Providing the infrastructure for the Report. environmental management of water 5. Ministry of Energy, n.d. Atlas of Water Resources. resources. 6. Ministry of Interior, Office of Reconstruction Planning, •Establishing the authorised load of effluent Centre of Urban Planning Studies, 2000. Statistical Extract waste discharged into the environment. Report on Urban Solid Waste Management. •Developing a comprehensive model for grading hazardous water pollutants. 7. Statistical Centre of Iran, 2001. Results of the Survey •The River Pollution Reduction Plan: choosing on the Environ mental Statistic of the Industrial and 60 out of over 160 major rivers for Mining Activities. implementing this Plan 8. Statistical Centre of Iran, 2002. Results of the Census Picture: Zayandehrud Lake Dam on Industrial Workshops with a Labour-force of Ten or More. 9. Statistical Centre of Iran, 2004. Statistical Yearbook. 10. Water and Sewage Engineering Company of Iran, 2002-2003. Biennial Report on Water Industry Performance. 11. Water Resource Management Organization, 2005. Locations of Iran’s Rivers. 12. Water Resource Management Special Edition, 2006. Figure 6-6: Changing trend in the number and suitability of chlorine-meters for urban running water, 1997-2003 Source: Water and Sewage Engineering Company of Iran, 2002-2003

63 State of the Invironment



7 State of the Invironment 65 Coastal Water Coastal Water reduction in the ‘Big-eyed’ shad catch. THE CASPIAN SEA It is worth mentioning that the sharp decline in the shad catch over recent years, has been due to the appearance 1 • Pressures of Monemiopsis Leidyi (an aggressive fish 1 • 1 Population Growth of the Ctenophora family) in the Caspian Taking into account that three Northern provinces ecosystem. are adjacent to the Caspian Sea, the population factor exerts pressure upon her. The augment in the population of the 3 provinces, to 6.8 millions, 1 • 3 Exotic Migratory Species in 2005, from 5.5 millions, in 1992, meant more In a study conducted in the Caspian Sea in water consumption as well as more pollution, 2000, the emergence of Monemiopsis Leidyi was recognized for the first time. The population especially by the household sewage having been growth of that exotic species of fish was so fast discharged into the environment. that it exceeded 1 Kg per 1 cubic metre of the coastal waters of Iran and the neighbouring 1 • 2 Marine Resource Exploitation Azerbaijan Republic. These fish had been brought  The per capita use of marine products into the Caspian by ships passing through the was 5.2 Kg in 2003, 30% more than Volga Channel into the Caspian Sea. Having no in 1995 (4 Kg). Marine products from natural enemies in the Caspian, they reproduce northern waters comprised 28% of total enormously each year as the weather gets national production. warmer and, enjoying the neo-planktons that are  The northern waters' fishery began to abundant in the seawater, they have no plans to decrease in 2000, mostly due to the leave. Figure 7-1: Pollution dispersed by the various industries on the northern Caspian coastline, 2000 Source: Caspian Environment Programme, 2002

66 7 Coastal Water provinces adjacent to the Caspian coast. Considering that 75% of the water used in a 1 • 4 Pollution Dispersion household returns as sewage discharge, it is (1) Industrial Effluent easy to work out that the northern provinces  According to studies conducted in 2002, produce 292.5 million cubic metres of sewage industrial workshops with more than 10 waste water. workers in the northern provinces of Guilan  The sewage running from residential areas (52 workshops), Mazanderan (34) and is usually polluted with different types of Golestan (21) produced 15,747 million cubic detergents, oil and fat. Detergents decrease metres of sewage. About 74.7% of the the oxygen dissolved in water and they often workshops had sewage refinery systems and contain enough phosphate readily to pollute 29.9% discharged their sewage into rivers. water resources.  According to the research statistics, industries located on the Caspian Sea coastline discharged 28,200 tons of BOD, 600 tons of (4) Tourist and Recreational Centres nitrates, 210 tons of phosphorus and 12,500 Tourist and recreational centres are usually very close to the Caspian Sea coastline and the easiest tons of fat oil into the Sea. (Figure 7-1) way to get rid of the huge amounts of sewage produced in such centres is to discharge it into (2) Agricultural Run-off the sea. Rivers like the Ashar, Ramsar, Salman, About 241,000 tons of chemical fertilizers, Chaloos and Noshahr are in a critical condition in especially ammonium compounds and ammonium terms of pollution phosphate are used on the southern coasts of the Caspian Sea. The agricultural run-off is 2 • Impacts discharged into the rivers, carrying with it some of the fertilizers that pollute the water. Table 7-1 2 • 1 Physical Factors reveals the names of the rivers and the types and  Salinity: Although the salinity of the percentages of the discharged materials in the water in the Caspian Sea differs at Caspian Sea. different latitudes, the average is 13.05 parts per 1,000, making it salty. (3) Household Sewage  Water temperature also changes  In 2002, about 395 million cubic metres of drinking water was supplied for use in considerably with the latitude. In the urban and rural households in the northern winter, the water temperature also fluctuates between 0 and 0.5 degree Table 7-1: Phosphates and Nitrates discharged into the Caspian Sea from rivers Water Phosphate Nitrate Total River volume Weight Weight (ton) % (m ) (tons) % (tons) % 3 Ghareh 101 11.11 3.63 27.27 1.37 38.38 1.68 sou Tajan 207.40 18.66 6.09 62.22 3.13 80.88 3.53 Babol rud 425 25.50 8.33 95.75 4.93 123.25 5.39 Chaloos 372 40.92 13.37 130.20 6.56 171.12 7.48 Nashtarud 30.7 2.76 0.90 7.36 0.37 10.12 0.44 Sefidrud 4000 200 65.35 1640 82.70 1840 80.42 Astara 101 7.07 2.31 17.17 0.86 24.24 10.06 Toal 5237.10 306.02 100 228.92 100 2288 100 Source: DoE, 2003a Figure 7-2: Contribution of rivers, household sewage and industrial effluent in polluting the Caspian Sea by discharging oil, BOD, phosphorus and nitrogen Source: Caspian Environment Programme, 2002

State of the Invironment 67 Celsius in the northern sections, and 2 • 3 Water Quality between 10 and 11 degrees Celsius in the Hydro-carbons southern sections.  Petroleum hydro-carbons: Oil and  Evaporation: Surveys show that in other hydro-Carbons create slicks on the the Caspian Sea the surface water water surface that prevent the oxygen evaporation rate fluctuates between 700 from permeating naturally into the water. and 1,400 mm throughout the year. The Moreover, such substances poison aquatic minimum evaporation occurs in the middle creatures, block sunrays from entering the section of the sea and the maximum in water and, consequently, interfere with the northern section near Baku. It is to be the photosynthesis of aquatic plants. pointed out that a sharp increase in the  Poly-loop Aromatic Hydro-Carbons evaporation rate of the Caspian occurred (PAH): The maximum and the minimum in 1930s when an anti-cyclone weather concentrations of these PAHs in the system prevailed in most parts of the southern coastal waters of the Caspian (then) Soviet Union. This phenomenon are 954 and 72 nanograms/gram. caused about 740 cubic Km of the water This is while the National Oceanic to evaporate, lowering the water level of and Atmospheric Administration the sea by 1.96 meters. (NOAA) minimum requirement for this  Winds and Waves: The Caspian is concentration is 2,000 nanograms/gram regarded as a stormy sea since it is windy and, thus, the Caspian coasts have not and turbulent most of the time. In the yet exceeded authorized limits. southern Caspian Sea the dominant winds 2 • 4 Heavy Metals in the western sea are from the North and In the coastal waters of the Caspian Sea on Northeast, and in the east part from the North and Northwest. In winter, the sea is the Iranian side, 23 different types of heavy usually stormy and it is turbulent for 170 metals have been sampled. Measurements show that the rivers which flow into the Caspian are days a year, on and off; highly polluted with heavy metals, mostly due to  Tides: There are few vertical movements geological factors. However, in the Sefidrud where in the water-level of the Caspian because it is cut off from the open sea. The extent various industries are located in the vicinity of the of fluctuation at low and high tides does river’s catchment area, pollution may also be a natural consequence of those industries. not exceed a few centimetres in each tide- • Carbon Tri-oxide (CO3): Under the cycle.  Water Currents: Wind power is the main Caspian Sea Environment Programme, cause of water currents. The maximum the participating Caspian coastal States speed of the currents has been reported managed to take 105 samples from the Water Phosphate Nitrate surface waters in different parts of the Total River volume Weight Weight (ton) % to be 20-40 m/Sec. coastal waters and had them analyzed; (m ) (tons) % (tons) % 26 of these samples were from Iranian 3 Ghareh 101 11.11 3.63 27.27 1.37 38.38 1.68 2 • 2 Coastal Rivers coastal waters. The results showed that sou It is necessary to know the chemical compounds there were fewer CO3 compounds in Iran’s Tajan 207.40 18.66 6.09 62.22 3.13 80.88 3.53 of the waters of the rivers that flow into the and Azerbaijan’s coastal waters than in Caspian Sea, considering the fact that most of the the northern section of the Caspian Sea. Babol rud 425 25.50 8.33 95.75 4.93 123.25 5.39 larger rivers in the three northern provinces end However, the deeper the water, the more Chaloos 372 40.92 13.37 130.20 6.56 171.12 7.48 up in the Caspian. CO3 compounds were found. Nashtarud 30.7 2.76 0.90 7.36 0.37 10.12 0.44  Concentration of Chlorine Pesticides: • Local Ecosystems: Enjoying a high Sefidrud 4000 200 65.35 1640 82.70 1840 80.42 Experiments carried out in the deltas of level of biodiversity, the Caspian Sea the 22 rivers on the southern edge of the is acknowledged to be one of the most Astara 101 7.07 2.31 17.17 0.86 24.24 10.06 Caspian Sea show that the concentration valuable ecosystems in the world. It Toal 5237.10 306.02 100 228.92 100 2288 100 of chlorine pesticides is high. DDT in the boasts various wetlands and a diverse Qarasu River, MOC in the Sorkhrud, and number of flora and fauna. HC, HCH and ALD are prevalent in the • Wetlands and Coastal Gulfs: The Astara River. However, it should be noted Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of that, despite the pollution they cause, International Importance (1972) gives the they have not yet exceeded authorized exact definition of a wetland. Anzali and levels. Gomishan are two of the most important  Concentration of Phosphates and wetland areas in Iran. Nitrates: Results from 19 sampling • Gorgan Gulf: This Gulf is located in the stations in three northern provinces southeast of the Caspian Sea and covers demonstrate that the authorized level of an area of 40,000 ha. It connects to the pesticides has not been exceeded in any Caspian Sea via the Firth of Ashooradeh. of the stations. The Gorgan Gulf bed is swampy in its eastern, western and southern parts, containing aeolian, littoral and sea deposits. As many as 34 indigenous or exotic species of fish, from 11 families and

68 7 Coastal Water 28 genera, have so far been identified in with ten or more workers were operative in the the Gulf. The depth of the Gulf varies from different provinces: 1 m in the West to 5 m in the southeast.  Khuzestan: 214 workshops; • Species Diversity: Being on the  Bushehr: 38 migratory route of millions of migratory workshops; birds, the Caspian Sea is a safe shelter  Hormozgan: 71 workshops; for them as well as for many other  Baluchestan: 100 workshops. rare species. Moreover, rivers such as Among these, 33 workshops in Khuzestan, the Sefidrud, Tajan and Gorgan, are seven in Bushehr, 8 in Hormozgan and two in appropriate places for many fish to lay Baluchestan had industrial sewage systems; their eggs and reproduce. (See: Table 7- however, only 14 workshops in Khuzestan, none in 2) Bushehr, 7 in Hormozgan and one in Baluchestan had sewage systems. Those workshops with no sewage systems simply discharged their effluent waste into wells, rivers and agricultural/non- PERSIAN GULF and SEA of OMAN agricultural land. Workshops in Khuzestan produced the maximum 1 • Pressures amount of polluted effluent. More than 36% of 1 • 1 Population Growth these workshops discharged their sewage into Based on a census conducted in 1996, the rivers, mostly the Karoon and Dez Rivers that are neighbouring provinces of the Persian Gulf and two of the most significant rivers of the region. Sea of Oman - Khuzestan, Bushehr, Hormozgan and Sistan va Bluchestan - comprised a population (2) Household Sewage of 7,287 million corresponding to 12% of the total The fresh water used in the southern coastal population of the country. Five years earlier, in provinces, both in urban and rural areas, was 1991, the population in those provinces was 6.25 1 billion cubic meters, in 2002, which was 20% million and this shows an average annual growth more than the water-consumption in 1995. rate of more than 3%. It goes without saying that Taking into account that 75% of the water used a larger population means higher consumption of in households is discharged as effluent and, the coastal water resources. considering that southern provinces used 940 million cubic meters of water, in 2000, the waste water thus discharged was 705 million cubic 1 • 2 Water Resources Despite the fact that Persian Gulf and Sea of meters; including about 151.7 million cubic meters that entered into Karoon and Dez rivers. Oman are rich with many varieties of marine resources, fishing and aquaculture had little Ahwaz and Khorramshahr, two of the larger cities attraction for the regional countries, simply of the province, produced the largest amount because they preferred to rely on their lucrative, of the pollutants. Diagram 3 shows the total easy oil incomes. However, Iran and Oman have percentages and the types of the pollutants discharged into Karoon and Dez rivers. chosen to take a different view from the attitude common to the other countries in the region. Iran alone produces 50% of the total fish products of (3) Dredged Substances the Persian Gulf and Sea of Oman. According to Statistics show that about 10% of the substances the information available, the maximum catch dredged become polluted through contact with other sources such as urban and industrial sewage in the southern waters comprises the large fish that live close to the water’s surface as well the and the effluent running off the land. Such benthic fish. substances may gradually release their pollutants into the surrounding habitats. 1 • 3 Pollution (4) Crude Oil Leakage (1) Industrial Effluent Hundreds of oil tankers pass through the Persian In 2002, the following numbers of workshops Gulf on a daily basis. Such traffic obviously Table 7-2: General specifications of species diversity in the Caspian Sea Number of Species Comment Species Phytoplanctons 450 Zoo-planctons 315 Phytabentoz 87 29 green and red algae, 13 brown algae Zoo-Bentoz 380 of 13 different fauna classes Fish 133 of 17 families 70% 0f which are: cobitidea Mammal 1 Phoca Caspica Birds 466 including 120 nests, 68 wintering, 278 Migratory Invertebrates 1394 Comprising 77.1% of the fauna of the Caspian e 2 Source: Caspian Sea Environment Programme, 2002 Figure 7-3: Total percentages of pollutants discharged into the Karoon and Dez Rivers Source: DoE, 2003a

State of the Invironment 69 disperses a high level of oil pollution in the region. Islands and, subsequently, a great many The Strait of Hormoz provides passage for as benthic fish died in the following months. many as 25,000 oil tankers every year, resulting in an equivalent of 2 million barrels of crude oil to leak into the water. 2 • State 2 • 1 Physical Factors (5) Major Accidents and other Incidents  Water Salinity: In the Persian Gulf and Iran boasts various oil and gas fields in her Sea of Oman, water salinity decreases as the coastal territory in which oil exploration and water runs from South to North. It also varies extraction activities are being carried out. The in the winter as fresh water running from the amount of oil extracted from off-shore oilfields Arvandrud River changes its course and, as varies between 200 barrels per day, in the atmospheric events occur, especially that of Nowrooz oil-field, to 115,000 barrels per day evaporation in the Northwest of the sea, and in the Salman field. This operation definitely increase the salinity. The surface Gulf Stream has an impact on the environment! Among the currents coming from the Strait of Hormoz into other factors affecting coastal water quality are the Persian Gulf have a salinity level of 37 per accidents that cause oil spills from tankers. Such 1,000 parts in the summer, and 39 per 1,000 accidents also occur when war breaks out or an parts in the winter. explosion takes place in an oilfield. The following  Tides: The tidal range (the vertical interval are just a few such examples. between high and low tides) in the Persian Gulf  In the Imposed War of Iraq against Iran, and Sea of Oman varies by more than 1 m. The as many as 335 oil tankers and 145 midday tide is the most common type in the ordinary ships were attacked, and some of region. The tidal range varies between 1 and 21 these incidents caused significant marine m in Bahrain and between 3 and 4 m in Lengeh pollution. The missile attack against Well and Dubai harbours. No. 2 of the Nowrooz Oilfield in 1983  Winds: Continental weather conditions caused great damage to the installation are prevalent in the region. Northern winds in and resulted in for 2,000 barrels of crude summer and winter are basically strong and blow oil flowing into the Persian Gulf every day with their maximum strength from late October over a period of 16 months. to the next March, creating storm conditions. The  In 1991, during the nine-month Iraq- wind pattern in the Sea of Oman is influenced by Kuwait war, 700 oil-wells were set on cyclones coming from the Arabian Sea. On the fire, four tankers were capsized and sunk southern coasts of the Persian Gulf, westerly sea and oil was dispersed throughout the breezes blow in parallel with the coasts, leading sea. Oil from Kuwait's terminals was also any oil spills towards the southern coasts. released into the Persian Gulf. Thus, the  Water Currents: The water level in the greatest environmental catastrophe of the Persian Gulf is lower than that of the Sea of Oman last decade occurred. According to the causing the water to run into the Persian Gulf official statistics published by the Kuwaiti through the Strait of Hormoz. authorities, 9 million barrels of crude oil  Temperature: In the RAPMI marine area spilled into the Persian Gulf. Moreover, (please refer to: SoE for Iran, 2004) the the fire on the oil-wells burnt 6 million temperature varies between 12 and 35 degrees barrels of oil daily and 100 million cubic centigrade as the season moves from winter metres of gas and smoke were scattered towards summer. The temperature variation in the in the air and sky over the coast. That western parts is more than 20 degrees centigrade pollution incurred heavy damage not only and, in the Strait of Hormoz, more than 11 to the marine environment of the Persian degrees. Gulf and the coastal land but also to the  Evaporation: The evaporation in the region neighbouring firths and wetlands, such as was estimated in 1992 to be 172 cm. Shadegan. The soil quality deteriorated as well. 2 • 2 Qualitative Factors  Explosions in Iran's, the United Arab  Petro-hydrocarbons: Samples taken from Emirate's and Saudi Arabia's oil-wells seven sampling stations in the Arvandrud River are another factor impacting on the delta and the northeastern Persian Gulf in 1994-5 environment of the Persian Gulf. Two showed the total mean of petro-hydrocarbons to major explosions that occurred in Al- be 7.8 microgram/litre, in soluble form, and 6.4 Ahmadi (Kuwait) and in Bahrain Bridge microgram/litre, in suspension. (Saudi Arabia) in 1993 and 1998,  Heavy Metals: The concentrations of copper, respectively, caused about 9,000 tons of nickel, zinc, magnesium and cadmium found in the oil to enter into the sea. sediments ata depth of less than 1 cm and 1-10  In 1994, a Russian commercial ship cm were measured in 1997. The concentrations of carrying chemical substances sank in the nickel and cadmium, at both depths, were greater waters of the Persian Gulf. Large numbers than the NOAA Guidelines but that of copper and of sardines were reported dead in the zinc were lower than the Guidelines require. coastal waters of Iran, off Lavan and Kish  Coastal Ecosystems: The Persian Gulf has

70 7 Coastal Water major habitats with many and various marine living (Ctenophora) has provided a lethal threat for resources. The following are just a few of them: the Big-eyed shads that provide part of human (a) Soft sea-beds with marine grasses are protein needs. The massive reduction in shad suiTable 7-habitats for resident or passing marine production directly affects the food chain and, creatures. The density of such creatures is low in consequently, leads to changes in the ecosystem. Kuwait coastal waters but it is high in the Gulf of  Effluent from factory sewage outlets carry Bahrain. It is worth mentioning that more than various pollutants and heavy metals that end 600 species of marine fauna have been identified up in the rivers and coastal areas. Chemical amongst the sea-grasses of the Persian Gulf. Coral fertilizers give off phosphates and nitrates that Reefs, also known as Sea Gems because of their are carried by agriculture run-offs into water high biodiversity, colour and beauty and algal sources causing hazardous pollutions. This water communities in brown, red and green are found in provides the habitat for flora and fauna and any abundance (170 species) in the southern coastal changes to the chemistry of the water changes waters of Iran. Mangrove Trees, with the scientific their living conditions. Such changes may lead to name of Avicenna Marina and named after the the extinction of many invaluable species. world- renowned Iranian scientist Abu Ali Sina  Over-fishing has caused the marine living (Avicenna) the founder of Iran-Flora, and one resources to decrease heavily in the southern other type of mangrove, locally called the Chandal waters of the Persian Gulf and Sea of Oman, Tree are amongst the spectacular scenery of the endangering the future sustainable development Persian Gulf region. of the region.  Amongst the very hazardous pollution in Tidal Mud Nappes: Nappes have played a the southern coastal waters that directly affects major role in the initial formation of the marine the environment and degrades the ecosystem environments of the Persian Gulf and the Sea of is the pollution originating from oil-spills and oil Oman. extraction run-offs.  While discussing the State, we noted that (b) Biological Resources: The region has diverse wars and fires that broke out in the region caused biological resources including fish, crustaceans, the greatest environmental catastrophes, killing marine mammals, reptiles and birds. fish and other marine creatures in massive numbers and in a very short time-span. The continual leakage of oil from tankers is a daily 3 • Impacts  Population growth in the southern provinces event, polluting the waters and placing all the together with the lack of efficient sewage systems marine living resources under threat. in both urban and rural areas, allows pollution to take over the rivers and then transfer to the coastal areas. Rivers are polluted with human as 4 • Responses well as animal feces originating from sewage from 4 • 1 DoE – National and Provincial Projects residential and recreational centres. Such polluted  Microbiological Studies in the Persian Gulf waters can infect fish and the humans who eat - as part of a project to study petroleum and non- the fish. Even those swimming in such waters are petroleum pollution and to identify and count the at risk.  In Caspian waters, it should be noted that number of bacteria as an index of faecal pollution.  Implementing international projects (such as the growth of the aggressive Monemiopsis Leidyi “Reducing Trans-boundary Damage in the Aras- Table 7-3: Iran Mangrove forest locations and extent Environmental Province Region Area Management Bushehr Malehganze 0.22 Protected Area Bushehr Dare Harbor 0.01 Bushehr Naiband Gulf 3.75 Hormozgan Khamir Harbor 20.02 Protected, Hormozgan Qeshm 72.04 Biosphere Reserve , International Wetland Hormozgan Tiab 1.30 International Wetland Hormozgan Sirik 4.8 International Wetland Hormozgan Jask Town 0.02 Hormozgan Jask Firths 2.58 Baluchestan Guater Bay 2 International Wetland Source: Not available

State of the Invironment 71 Cura Catchment Area”), with DoE acting as the  Scientific and technical cooperation between National Implementing Body. DoE and the Fisheries Organization, especially  Implementing an international project for the over the marine environment of the Caspian Sea, ecosystem management of Sistan. Persian Gulf and Sea of Oman.  Monitoring marine biomes in the Persian Gulf,  Scientific and technical cooperation between Sea of Oman and Caspian Sea. DoE and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, especially  Conducting oceanographical, physical, over the legal affecting the Caspian Sea, Persian chemical and biological studies in the territorial Gulf and Sea of Oman, as well as the international waters of Iran to identify and address the Protocols, Conventions, projects and funds for the pollution sources. marine environment.  Adopting the requisite rules, standards and  Scientific and technical cooperation between regulations to control and combat environmental DoE and the National Commission for UNESCO pollution originating from tanker traffic, loading and the Oceanography National Commission in and unloading cargo and unexpected incidents. Tehran.  Organizing two Pollution Monitoring and Joint  Cooperation with VEP-ROWA, based in Coastal Management Regional Centres within the Bahrain. DoE and one Marine Emergency Regional Centre  Ramsar Convention on the Wetlands within the Harbours and Shipping Organization of (especially waterfowl and seabird habitats). Iran; also supplying administrative equipment and  Cooperation with UNEP (1992). electronic facilities.  Iran-USSR Agreement on Commerce and  Patrolling the Caspian Sea to assess Shipping (1940). environmental pollution. It was conducted by the  Protocol on the Implementation of Iran Centre for Pollution Monitoring in 2000 and Environmental Conservation in the Caspian Region the job continued throughout 2001 and 2002. (1994).  Assessment of the Environmental Monitoring Situation in Iran and the Region to adopt the 4 • 3 International Projects Caspian Regional Monitoring Programme. Caspian Sea  Assessment of the conditions of laboratories located in Iran and in the region for participating  Determining the pollution load of the major in the Regional Monitoring Programme. permanent rivers on the southern coastal areas of  Preparing a Report on the state of coastal the Caspian Sea.  Determining the bio-accumulation of zones in Iran. pollutants in the marine living resources of the  Preparing a Report on the state of marine accidents in Iran. southern Caspian Sea.  Determining the pollution load of the major  Surveying the biological characteristics and permanent rivers. accumulation of pollutants in Phoca Caspica of the southern coastal areas of the Caspian Sea.  Designating Sensitive Zones and National  Surveying the biological state and food chain Parks in the Persian Gulf and Sea of Oman. of the Monemiopsis Leidyi in the southern Caspian  Identifying and specifying the conservation range of marine mammals in the Persian Gulf and Sea.  Establishing Ecologically Sensitive Zones and Sea of Oman. National Parks in the southern coastal areas of the  Dynamic survey of the coastal currents in the Caspian Sea. Persian Gulf.  Monitoring the environmental condition and  Surveying the ecology of (polycell) algae in the Persian Gulf and Sea of Oman. pollutants of the coastal waters of the southern  Survey of the structure of the areas in which Caspian Sea.  Monitoring radioactive pollutants in the mangroves grow in Jask and Govater on the Environmental coasts of Oman. coastal Sediments of the southern Caspian Sea. Province Region Area  Paying special attention to the preservation Management  Establishing a database and document centre Bushehr Malehganze 0.22 Protected Area as well as a website for the marine environment. and management of wetlands, initiated by Mr. Smart an International Expert, (assisted by  Surveying and monitoring the ‘Red Killer’ Bushehr Dare Harbor 0.01 local experts) in 1999. Establishing coordinated and fish casualties in the Persian Gulf and Sea of Bushehr Naiband Gulf 3.75 Oman. management for the proper, sustainable  Translation and publication of the Persian Gulf exploitation as well as conservation of the Hormozgan Khamir Harbor 20.02 biodiversity of wetlands in Iran, the project Environment Report. Protected,  Survey of the hydrography and sediment pursued the following goals: Hormozgan Qeshm 72.04 Biosphere Reserve , pollution of the seabed of Chahbahar Bay. i. Determining the legal status of Protected Areas International Wetland and their boundaries; ii. Implementing an Integrated Environmental Hormozgan Tiab 1.30 International Wetland 4 • 2 International Environmental Managerial Project for the Sustainable Hormozgan Sirik 4.8 International Wetland Cooperation and Activities Development of Wetlands with the coordinated Hormozgan Jask Town 0.02  Scientific and technical cooperation participation of local people and NGOs; between the DoE and the Iranian Atomic iii. Raising public awareness of the project's Hormozgan Jask Firths 2.58 Energy Organization, especially over the marine goals, of reasonable exploitation of the wetland Baluchestan Guater Bay 2 International Wetland environment of the Caspian Sea, Persian Gulf and resources and of preservation of the wetlands' Sea of Oman. biodiversity;

72 7 Coastal Water iv. Establishing cooperation, at the national as hydrocarbons in the sediments and sea-weed well as provincial level and between Ministries for biomes in the Persian Gulf and Sea of Oman, the management of wetlands; before and after the Iraq-Kuwait War;  The Project for the Conservation and v. Choosing methods for rehabilitating damaged Management of the Anzali Wetland was concluded mangrove forests; between the Division for the Natural Environment vi. Assessing of the level of accumulation of and Biodiversity (DoE) and, a group from the remains of petrochemicals in Iran’s coastal waters Japanese Institution for International Cooperation of the Persian Gulf and studying methods of in March, 2002. This project pursued the following clearing up and cleaning them; goals:  Determining the quantitative and qualitative i. Preserving the wetland’s biodiversity by changes of the marine environment of the Iranian reducing pressures from the local community; sections of the Persian Gulf after the War; ii. Determining the factors degrading the  Assessing the damage incurred to Iran’s wetland; marine environment. iii. Identifying the correct actions for preventing degradation; 4 • 4 Establishing Coastal Reserves iv. Designing an experimental plan for wetland Along the coasts of the countries of Persian Gulf conservation; region, as many as eight parks and reserves as v. Developing an Integrated Management Programme to preserve the wetland's catchment well as 56 other places have been recommended area; to for designation as Protected Areas. The protected mangrove zone of Iran is registered vi. Developing local governmental organizations' with UNESCO, under the MAB programme and capacity to implement the Management four international wetland sites are regulated by Programme. the Ramsar Convention. 4 • 3 Persian Gulf and Sea of Oman 4 • 5 Environmental Performance of other Iran’s project to claim compensation for damage Organizations caused to the marine environment of the Persian Gulf as a result of the Iraq-Kuwait War (1991) 4 • 5 • 1 Ministry of Energy includes the following six sub-projects (For further  Follow-up of a Joint Project with the Caspian information, see: Iranian DoE Efforts in the coastal States on studying industrial pollution. International Arena):  Efforts to strengthen regional cooperation for i. Monitoring changes in the population of the improvement of the condition of the Caspian wetland birds and estimating the costs of ecosystem. remedying damage caused by the War;  Implementing the management of a sanitary ii. Studying the faunal environment layers and industrial sewage system. of the Persian Gulf and Sea of Oman, both  Developing pre-refinery and initial refinery those layers polluted and those not polluted by units. petrochemicals;  Developing well-equipped waste-water iii. Assessment of the present ecological state of laboratories. Iran’s coral reefs and studying the possibility of  Implementing the Plan on the quantitative reconstructing the damaged parts in the Persian and qualitative evaluation of sanitary and Gulf and Sea of Oman; industrial sewage systems and solid waste and iv. The situation of heavy metals and petro- ways of reducing it.  Focusing attention on safe, fresh drinking Table 7-– 4: Specifications of the Reserved Areas and International Wetlands of Iran Coasts Name of the Wetland Province Area (Hectares) Miankaleh Archipelago Golestan 100'000 Anzali Wetland Guilan 15'000 Shadegan Wetland Khoozestan 400'000 Kiashahr Wetland Guilan 500 Amirkelayeh Lake Guilan 1'230 Alagol, Almagol, Ajigol Golestan 1'400 Khooran Strait Hormozgan 100'000 Rudshoor, Rudshirin Delta Hormozgan 11'800 Rudekaz va Hara Delta Hormozgan 15'000 Guter va Hooryahoor Bay Sistan va Baluchestan 382'430 Source: Not available

State of the Invironment 73 water through building 79 water treatment plants Yearbook. in urban areas. 9. Statistical Centre of Iran, 2000. Impacts of  Equipping water and sewage companies with Industrial and mining Activities on the Biological laboratory units capable of providing services Environment from a Statistical Viewpoint. related to bacteriology, chemistry, biology and 10. Statistical Centre of Iran, 2002. Statistical testing the contents of sewage. Yearbook. 11. Statistical Centre of Iran, 2003. Statistical Yearbook. 4 • 5 • 2 Iranian Harbours and Shipping Organization Achievements with regard to the protection of the marine environment of the Caspian Sea:  In 1998, the Iranian Harbours and Shipping Organization joined the International Convention on Preparation and Cooperation for Combating Marine Petroleum Pollutants (OPRC, 1990). To meet its obligations arising from the Convention, to increase the administrative capability of its staff and up-grade its equipment to combat pollutions, the Organization is undertaking two pollution-combating national manoeuvres: one in the northern and the other in the southern harbours of the country. To preserve the marine environment of the Caspian Sea, it has coordinated with the Caspian Environment Protection Programme and an emergency centre has been established under the auspices of the Organization to manage, coordinate and take the necessary actions.  Another action taken by the Organization in this regard was to join the International Convention on Preventing Marine Pollution (MARPOL) in 2002. Taking into consideration the present sensitivity of the subject of marine pollution, the Organization has also taken the following actions:  Establishing Control Centres to monitor and prevent non-standard ships from entering northern harbours;  Equipping the northern harbours (of Noshahr, Anzali and Amirabad) with pollution-combating facilities;  Training personnel expert in the marine environment. REFERENCES 1. DoE, Office of the Marine Environment, 2003a. Proceedings of the Seminar on the Consideration of the Biological Environment of the Caspian Sea (Evaluation of National and Regional Programmes), Gorgan, 17-29 October 2003. Name of the Wetland Province Area (Hectares) 2. DoE, Marine Environment Office, 2003b. State Miankaleh Archipelago Golestan 100'000 of the Marine Environment in the Persian Gulf Anzali Wetland Guilan 15'000 (RAMPI Marine Area). 3. DoE, 2003c. Results of Government Activities Shadegan Wetland Khoozestan 400'000 related to Biology. Kiashahr Wetland Guilan 500 4. Caspian Environment Programme, 2002. Trans- Amirkelayeh Lake Guilan 1'230 boundary Diagnostic Analysis for the Caspian Sea, Alagol, Almagol, Ajigol Golestan 1'400 vol.2. Baku, Azerbaijan. 5. National Cartography Organization, 2001. Khooran Strait Hormozgan 100'000 National Atlas of Iran – the Environment. Rudshoor, Rudshirin Delta Hormozgan 11'800 6. Sustainable Development Committee, 1999. Rudekaz va Hara Delta Hormozgan 15'000 State of the Environment of Iran. 7. Sustainable Development Committee, 2000. Guter va Hooryahoor Bay Sistan va Baluchestan 382'430 State of the Environment of Iran. 8. Statistical Centre of Iran, 1993. Statistical



8 Biodiversity State of the Invironment 75 Biodiversity without due consideration. 1 • Pressures i. Lack of consideration towards environmental 2 • State and biodiversity values as well as inappropriate 2 • 1 Flora resource management. Iran’s flora are many and various thanks to ii. Population growth and extension of human the vast size of the country and the fact that it activities especially in ecologically-sensitive enjoys climatologically and ecologically diverse regions. conditions. It is estimated that there is a total iii. Changing land use and encroaching on forest of 8,000 species of Spermatophytes in Iran areas. belonging to 150 families. These can be divided iv. Overuse of chemical pesticides, fertilizers and into three groups: Angiosperae (covered seed), similar substances. Gymnospermae (uncovered seed) and Ferns. In v. Overexploitation of floral and faunal resources. total, there are 167 families and 1,200 genera vi. Water and land pollution due to various in the three Euro-Siberian, Irano-Turanian and agricultural and industrial activities. Saharo-Sindian vegetation regions. 1,727 species vii. Weakness and ineffectiveness of rules and (almost 22%) as well as 20 genera of the flora in regulations. Iran are unique i.e. only present in Iran. viii. Introduction of exotic species. ix. Illegal trade in animal and plant seeds. 2 • 1 • 1 Distribution of Floral Species in x. Poaching. Iran’s Vegetation Zones xi. Abundant availability of illicit arms (more than The Irano-Turanian phyto-geographical region, 500,000). with 1,452 indigenous species, nearly 85% of all xii. Using genetically modified (GM) species, indigenous Iranian species, dominates Iranian Figure 8-1: Distribution of indigenous flora in various phyto-geographical regions Source: Jalili and Jamzad, 1999

76 8 Biodiversity flora. Of the total 1,727 species, 1,452 (84%) are and 14 in the Irano-Turanian region, 12.5% in the in the Irano-Turanian region, 115 (6.7%) in the Euro-Siberian and, 1.14% in the Saharo-Sindian. Euro-Siberian region and 52 species (3%) in the Azerbaijan, Khorassan, Tehran, Fars and, Saharo-Sindian region and 108 species (6.3%) Mazanderan Provinces, respectively, provide scattered over a number of regions (multi-regional a home to 120, 114, 78, 74 and 44 species, indigenous) (Diagram 1). the highest number of species in the country. With respect to the average number of Chaharmahal va Bakhtiyari, Golestan, Tehran and indigenous species per unit area (million hectares), Lorestan Provinces have the highest number of there is an average of 10.46 over the whole country species per unit area (million hectares) with 28, Table 8-1: Phyto-geographical regions of the monotypic genera and their risk assessment Source: Jalili and Jamzad, 1999

State of the Invironment 77 25, 18 and 14 species, respectively. About 20% of Iran’s flora are annual. This Figure Genera with high number of indigenous species 8-is 13% for the world’s flora as a whole and so, within the Iranian flora are: Astragalus, Cousinia, in comparison, the Iranian flora is rich in annuals. Nepeta, Onosma, Acantholimon and Dionysia. Despite this, only 6.7% of Iran’s indigenous plant Astragalus is probably the largest genus of species are annuals; a fact also true for trees, flowering plants in the world and in Iran too. All shrubs and sub-shrubs. indigenous species of this giant genus, with only 2 • 1 • 2 Floral Species at Risk of Extinction a few exceptions, occur in the Irano-Turanian Rare species and monotypic genera are amongst region. those plants in danger of extinction. Such factors Table 8-2: Total number of indigenous and other species of taxa in Iran and assessment of their risk based on IUCN classification Source: Jalili and Jamzad, 1999

78 8 Biodiversity as naturally occurring events and overexploitation species, artiodactyla with eight species, rabbits of nature lead to extinction. Species in greatest with two species and perissodactyla and sea cows danger include Boraginaceae and Campanulaceae, with one species each. In total, 111 species out as well as those shown in Table 8-2 which is of 164 mammals (68%) are insectivores, bats or based upon the ICUN classification. As this Table rodents which, because they are nocturnal or live 8-illustrates, out of the total number of the flora in secret dens, are rarely seen. indigenous to Iran, about 1016 (60%) belong to The Orders four the families of Papilioneceae (pulses) with 394 • Insectivores species, Compositae (chicory) with 393 species, This order comprises three families and 15 Labiatae (mint) with 129 species and Umbellifrae species. The families are: hedgehogs with four with 100 species. species, insectivores with nine species and talpidae (moles) with two species. 2 • 2 Fauna • Bats Iran’s vertebrate fauna may be grouped into This order comprises seven families and 40 five classes: mammals, birds, reptiles, fish and species. All bats in Iran are harmless, useful and amphibians. These five classes include 167 families worth preservation. The families are: Peteropodidae of which as many as 1,059 separate species have (fruit eaters), Rhinopomatidae (mouse- so far been identified. Of the latter figure, 164 tailed), Domelike, Rhinolophidae (horseshoe), species are mammals, 517 birds, 200 reptiles, 174 Hipposideridae, Vespertilionidae (standard-tailed) fishes and 20 amphibians (Table 8-3). and Molossidae. • Carnivores This order comprises seven families with 30 2 • 2 • 1 Mammals species. The following seven families have so Mammals worldwide comprise three groups - oviparous, marsupial and copulatory. All Iranian far been identified in Iran: Felidae (catlike) with six species, Canidae (doglike) with 10 species, mammals belong to the third group. Iran’s Herpestidae with two species, Mustelidae with eight mammals have been identified as belonging to species, Hyaenidae with one species, Phocidae nine orders, with 33 families and 164 species. with one species and Ursidae with two species. The orders include rodents with 57 species, bats The Phoca Caspica is the only marine mammal with 40 species, carnivores with 30 species, insectivores with 15 species, whales with 10 in the Caspian Sea that reproduces on the icy Table 8-3: Diversity of the Vertebrate Fauna in Iran Source: Firooz, 2000

State of the Invironment 79 northern waters of the Caspian and feeds on fish water-logged land on the Persian Gulf and Sea of and molluscs.Biodiversity | Oman. • Whales (Balaenopteridae) 2 • 2 • 2 Birds Whales are the largest mammals in the world There are as many as 517 species of birds in and also inhabit the Persian Gulf and Sea of Oman. Iran and these have been classified in 19 families, This animal has lungs so it needs to come up to the 79 orders and 22 genera. This number birds is surface to breath. Fishing or hunting for whales equivalent to 5.62% of the total number of birds was so cruelly and excessively carried out in the living in the whole Middle East. Being one of the past that it may take a century before the number significant migration spots of the world for many of whales reaches the point of enabling them to animals, Iran’s birds mostly (68% or 340 species) avoid extinction. consist of migrants. Out of the total of 517 species, •Perissodactyla about 63% (323 species) reproduce in Iran; one This is an order of non-ruminant ungulate hundred of these species are indigenous. mammals, usually with an odd number of toes In a recent census conducted on aquatic birds, or hooves, and includes only one wild species in three new species as follows were observed and Iran, the zebra, which is from the same group as reported for the first time. the donkey and horse. Zebras need large plains i) Indian River Tern and wide steppes with hills and dunes as well as Two marine swallows with the nomenclature enough vegetation to feed on. To evade threats, Sterna Aurantia, belonging to the Sternidae family zebra may run hundreds of kilometres far from its of Charadriiformes were observed over Eemer natural habitat to take refuge in semi-arid deserts Wetland, near Gonbad city in Golestan Province, where it can adapt well to the environmental on 29 January 2005. The natural flight migratory conditions. limits of the bird are from East Pakistan to South It is unfortunate that the number of zebras has decreased very sharply over the three last India and East Nepal to Northwest China (Yunnan) as well as the Mekong Delta, never having been decades. Few zebras still live in reserved regions seen before even in the Middle East. and protected sanctuaries. This fascinating animal is at risk of extinction if serious attempts are not ii) Sabine’s Gull made to protect it. One small gull with the nomenclature Laridae, •Artiodactyla Charadriiformes, was seen on the shores of the This is an order of non-ruminant ungulate Caspian Sea, 20 Km west of Sari, on the same mammals, usually with an even number of toes date mentioned above. or hooves, and comprises three families with eight iii) Mountain Chiffchaff species. Wild Boar (Sus Scrofa), deer and ox are Four warblers with the nomenclature common artiodactyla. We should be concerned Phylloscopus Singianus and belonging to Sylviidea, about the security of some of these species and Passeriformes were seen on Jagin River’s banks, stronger conservation policies need to be applied. 50 Km East of Jaask in Hormozgan Province, on 22 •Rodents January 2005. Internationally, many ornithologists More than one third of Iran’s mammals are believe that there are two sub-species of this bird rodents with six families and 57 species. The - P.S. Lorenzii and P. S. Brevirostis - in the world. families of rodents comprise Sciuridae (squirrels), Lorenzii have laid eggs in northeastern Turkey and Gliridae, Muridae (mice), Bipeds, Hystricidae and there are also reports of their wintering in Iraq. Capromyidae. Some rodents, such as black or This bird was once seen in Colibar region during brown mice, are host to fleas that carry the typhus the mating season; however, there are no records and plague viruses and can be very dangerous. of the presence of the birds wintering in Iran. Some ‘dog-like’ and ‘cat-like’ wild animals, owls Verification of the presence of this sub-species in and snakes play an important role in keeping the Iran is to be verified by DNA testing. number of the pestilent rodents down. Many rodents 2 • 2 • 3 Reptiles are harmless or even useful animals. Hamsters Reptiles are scattered throughout many and bipeds, by hiding seeds underground to store different locations in Iran. Amongst these, the them, are a major factor in planting vegetation in central plateau, Alborz Mountains, Kapeh Dagh, forests. Zagros area, Sistan va Baluchestan region, •Leporidae (rabbits) Makran coastline, the surroundings of Orumiyeh The rabbits of Iran comprise two families: Lake, Moqan steppes, Turkaman Sahara, Caspian common rabbits and Ochotonidae; each has only coastline and Khuzestan plain are the most one species. common. •Trichechidae (sea cows): Iran’s reptiles are classified into four orders, Sea cows, comprising only one species, are two sub-orders, 23 families and, 200 species. aquatic mammals that live in low-lying coastal and Testudines comprise four families, seven genera

80 8 Biodiversity and 10 species. Three types of marine turtle - olive commercial produce of the southern regions. turtle, green turtle and hawks-billed turtle - have Iran’s echinoderms have several classifications chosen salt water for their habitat. Five turtle containing about 500 species. species are at risk. •Butterflies Crocodiles have been reported to have only one There are eight families with 402 species of family and one species, namely the short-snouted diurnal-flight butterflies in Iran. marsh crocodile. Crocodiles have been recognized 2 • 4 Vertebrates at Risk in Iran as a vulnerable species. The International Union for Conservation of The Sauvia sub-order in Iran comprises eight Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) publishes a families, 34 genera and 112 species. Few species yearly Red Book in which the world’s endangered or of this sub-order have specific Persian names; at risk species are classified in accordance with the they are commonly known under the vernacular degree of the risk or danger they face. According name of lizard. to the Red Book for 2004, species are classified Amphisbaenia of Iran comprise two families, as: CR= critically at risk, EN= endangered, VU= two genera and one species. vulnerable, LR= low risk or DD= deficient data. Typloidae of Iran includes 8 families, 30 genera Table 8-4 shows the state of the several Iranian and, 76 species. species in terms of risk or danger (IUCN Red 2 • 2 • 4 Amphibians Book). Amphibians cannot be compared with other fauna in terms of their number and variety. In total, there are only three orders and 35 families 3 • Impacts of them in the world. In Iran, there are six families • The depletion of food sources for wildlife (tailless such as frogs and toads or tailed such as and destruction of flora. salamanders) with eight genera and 22 species. The • An imbalance in ecosystems and a reduction population of amphibians has sharply decreased in the variety of existing genes and species over the recent years in Iran. In some places, there in the country’s ecosystems. are no more any toads or frogs at all. Amphibians • A reduction in species of flora and fauna, are very vulnerable creatures; pollutants and toxic as well as putting them at risk or even substances as well as cosmic rays are among the sometimes in danger of extinction. factors that threaten their existence. 4 • Responses 2 • 2 • 5 Fish 4 • 1 DoE’s Activities on the National Level Freshwater fishes (Osteoglossiformes) comprise i. At present, comprehensive management plans 13 orders and 25 families, covering 66 genera with are being prepared for 51 districts (31% of the total 151 species living in localised waters. They mostly number) that, in total, cover 5.83 million hectares belong to Ciprinidae, two families of Gobiidae (50% of the total area) of the four regions under and, stream Clupeidae. Iran’s fish fauna mostly the auspices of the DoE. consists of Ciprinidae with 31 genera and 74 ii. Providing topographic maps for the four regions species, Gobiidae with 12 genera and 24 species under the auspices of the DoE. and stream Clupeidae with three genera and 20 iii. Preparing a regional dispersion atlas. species living in waters throughout the country. iv. Providing up-to-date data for the Geographic Expert opinion is that the sturgeon is about to be Information System (GIS). extinct in the Caspian Sea due to excessive taking. v. Setting-up a GIS database for the four regions Iran, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan and Russia have . temporarily banned the fishing of Sturgeons. vi. Enhancement of the level of the regions; 2 • 3 Invertebrates vii. Comprehensive programme for the protection Little comprehensive work has been done of the northern forests and the protected forest concerning many branches of invertebrates in Iran. regions; The classification tree for invertebrates includes viii. Collecting data on the Protected Biosphere sphagnums, Anthozoa (corals), sea anemones, Areas to be presented to the Committee for worms, molluscs, echinoderms and arthropods. In Humans and the Biosphere; Iran, two groups - echinoderms and butterflies - ix. Identification and selection of the criteria and have been more extensively surveyed. indices necessary for evaluating the tests for •Echinoderms judging the environmental sustainability of forest- These are one of the significant groups of ecosystems; invertebrates living in the Persian Gulf and Sea x. Survey of the level of changes in the northern forests; of Oman and they boast the largest population xi. Survey on the country’s wetlands; of invertebrates. Sea bob (prawn or shrimp with xii. Quantification of wetlands’ environmental the nomenclature Pencidae) is an important values;

State of the Invironment 81 xiii. Construction of the National Museum of the were: Natural History;  Increasing public awareness and xiv. Conducting studies on some viral, bacterial understanding on biodiversity and the role and parasitical infections of Iran’s migratory birds; of public participation; xv. Setting-up and making operational a database  Setting-up Biodiversity Information and of migratory aquatic birds; Research Systems; xvi. Study of the bio-reserves of Lar Lake and its  Sustainable exploitation of biodiversity tributaries; resources; xvii. Limnological and biological study of the Karaj  Establishing systematic management for Reservoir and its tributaries; the preservation of biodiversity. xviii. Study of the habitat and the bio-condition of Iran’s crocodiles; 2) Asian Cheetah and its related xix. Study of the habitat of Chelonidae on the Ecosystems Protection Project coasts and islands of the Persian Gulf and Sea of This beautiful creature has completely ceased to Oman; exist in India and other Asian regions as reports xx. Survey of the pathological damage, microbial show. A limited few (maybe only 50) of them can diseases and parasitical fauna in some wild be located in some small, marginal areas of Iran’s carnivores and herbivores in the country; deserts and in far-off, out-of-reach places that are xxi. Study of the habitat and the bio-condition of hard to access. It is for this reason that, in many Iran’s Great Bustard; new documents and the related literature, the xxii. Study of the habitat and the bio-condition of term ‘Iranian Cheetah’ is used instead of Asian Gazella Subgutturosa; Cheetah. xxiii. Study of the habitat and the bio-condition of DoE was given financial assistance by UNDP and Yellow Deer. the GEF to carry out the project on the protection of the cheetah and to prevent this unique creature from becoming extinct. Their activities officially 4 • 2 South and Central Asia MAB Network (SACAM) started on 10 September 2002 and two regions At a regional meeting of the coordinators of the of the Naiband and Tooran National Parks were designated as Protected Areas, since they are the Man And Biosphere Committees, held in Dehloran, main habitats for the cheetahs. India on 22-25 February, 2001, delegates from eight Asian countries -Iran, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Nepal, India and 3) Preservation of the Biodiversity of the the Maldives- expressed their wish to establish Zagros Mountain Ecosystems closer relationships through setting up the South 4) Expansion of the Wetland Regions and Central Asia Biosphere Reserve Network. The and Flight Networks to Protect the event was followed by the regional meeting of the South and Central Asia Programme for the Siberian Crane and other Aquatic Birds Man and Biosphere (MAB) programme and, thus, The project began in January 2003. UNEP was in the South and Central Asia Man and Biosphere charge of the project and it was coordinated by Network (SACAM) was created. Iran was elected the International Crane Foundation (ICF) and the as the Network’s President for the next two years. Secretariat for the Convention on the Protection of the Migrating Birds. 4 • 3 DoE’s Activities at the International Level 5) Protection of Iran’s Wetlands A significant accomplishment of DoE has been Iran boasts hundreds of large and small wetlands, the extension of its scientific, and academic however, only 81 of them have been recognized relationship with universities and research as significant and only 22 significant enough to centres overseas to share experiences and trade be listed among the Internationally Important technical know-how. In this way, during the last Wetlands of the World as defined by the Ramsar eight years, the roads were paved for a number Convention on Wetlands. A great many of the of joint international projects to be carried out faunal species dependent on Iran’s wetlands have and for access to better training for the staff. been designated by IUCN as important species Moreover, many plans, in the form of bilateral about to become extinct. Such species have been programmes between countries and the United listed as species in need of protection. Nations specialized agencies such as UNEP, UNDP and UNESCO were concluded. Many of these have 6) Protection and Management of Anzali been fruitfully implemented, with the following as Wetland a few examples. The project began in March, 2002. Later, in 12 November 2003, an agreement was concluded 1) Adoption of a National Action between the Japan International Cooperation Strategy to Preserve Biodiversity Agency, the DoE and the Ministry of Agricultural This project agreement was concluded in Tehran Jihad. Goals pursued by the project included: in 1997, with the assistance of UNDP and the GEF,  Identification of factors depleting the and it was put into action in September 1998. The wetland; strategies chosen to achieve the predefined goals

82 8 Biodiversity  Identification of appropriate actions to decrease the depleting factors;  Designing an experimental plan for the wetland’s protection;  Development of an integrated management programme to protect the wetland’s catchment area;  Increasing local governmental organization capacities to better apply the management programme. 7) Iran-Saudi Arabia Cooperation for Wildlife Protection 8) Joint Studies Project for the Protection of Slender-billed Curlews 9) Workshops, Seminars and International Meetings  Sub-Regional Workshop on the Impacts of Urban Water Use on Natural Ecosystems, Shiraz.  Second Meeting of Experts of the South and Central Asian Countries for Man and Biosphere Network.  Consultative Workshop on Decreasing the Impacts of Droughts. REFERENCES 1. DoE, Office of Parliamentary and Legal Affairs, 2004. Collected Environmental Laws and Regulations of Iran. 2. DoE, 2005. Eight-year Performance Report. 3. I. Firooz, 2000. The Wildlife of Iran (Vertebrates). 4. Jalili and Jamzad, 1999. Red Data Book of Iran. 5. M. latifi, 2000. Snakes of Iran. Tehran: DoE. 6. www.irandoe.org, website of the Iranian DoE. . RAMSAR CONVENTION The first ever multilateral environmental conservation Convention was concluded and adopted at Ramsar, in 1971. The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands is regarded as an important agreement for the protection and conservation of the world’s wetlands. Thus, historically Iran is the pioneer country in the conservation of the environment in the world. Since that date, different Conventions have been concluded on conservation issues and Iran has also become a Party to many of them and has been an active member. During the last eight years, DoE has been able to become an active member of some new Conventions and international organizations related to the natural environment and biodiversity, such as the CBD 1992 and ICUN and to present itself as one of the organizations active in protecting the world’s natural heritage.

State of the Invironment 83



9 State of the Invironment 85 Natural Disaster Natual Disaster Events that cause a great deal of damage with Azerbaijan, Alborz and Kapehdagh), Iran is in human and livestock casualties and all kinds of danger of facing large-scale quakes. More than 60 destruction are referred to as natural disasters. seismogenic faults have been identified in Iran, In terms of their origins, natural disasters including at Koohbonan, Bam, Bagheh Feiz and are either geological (such as earthquakes, Damghan. volcanoes, landslides and floods) or ecological 1 • 2 Deforestation (such as drought, desertification, erosion and Degradation of agricultural land and changing deforestation). land use to construction and other purposes are all Iran stands among the ten countries most factors that greatly intensify the impacts of natural prone to unexpected events and natural disasters, disasters as well as inflicting economical losses inflicting upon the country human and financial on the country. Vegetation usually slow down losses as well as environmental damage every water flows and allow permeation, consequently year. Therefore, knowing as much as possible flooding becomes less likely. about and being properly prepared for such events is vital and indispensable for confronting 1 • 3 Low Rainfall and mitigating the impacts of these disasters. It is true that droughts are the result of low In addition to financial and human losses, rainfall and that they usually occur in arid and natural disasters leave a huge amount of semi-arid climates. However, they can also occur debris where they occur, causing pollution and in places where rainfall is common. In other environmental degradation to such an extent that words, there is a difference between a tendency life sometimes becomes impossible in the affected for drought and aridity. Human activities are areas. in accordance with levels of humidity and environmental precipitation; an annual rainfall of 1 • Pressures 200 mm may satisfy nomads but it is catastrophic 1 • 1 Geographical Situation for wheat fields that require a minimum of 500 Iran is located in the mid-section of the mm per year. orogenic, co-seismal belt of the Alp-Himalaya 1 • 4 Water Shortages mountain range that is considered to be one of Iran, being located in the Earth’s arid belt, the most seismically active areas in the world. In faces the problem of water shortages. An ever- general, Iran may be divided into four different increasing population growth and the need for seismic regions: more agricultural and livestock products all require • The ribbon-like folds pushed up by the more and more water while the supply is limited Zagros range. and overuse leads to depletion of the water- • Makran in the Southeast. tables. The per capita water allocation was 4,000- • The central plateau. 5,000 cubic metres in 1950s and has decreased • Alborz Mountains. to a current figure of 2,000 cubic metres. Should With active faultlines in its central regions (of

86 9 Natural Disaster such conditions persist, it might lessen even more 1 • 6 Heavy Rainfall to 1,000 cubic metres by 2022. Due to geographic and topographic conditions and Following the droughts in Iran of 1999-2002, climatic variety, devastating floods cause a great most of the rivers dried out or their water-flow deal of damage almost every year. Depletion of diminished drastically (to 53% in average). vegetation and ignoring the limitations of the Moreover, Iran also faces the problem of the water-courses also intensify such conditions. inappropriate dispersion of precipitation in terms 2 • State both of time and place that further complicates the situation. Hence, the problem of water shortages 2 • 1 Earthquakes or an even worse water crisis is an objective and The Iranian Plateau in terms of its global unfortunate fact that our country faces. Droughts position is located at the crossing point of the of are only one consequence of this critical problem. Arabian (Arabia-Africa) Indian (India-Australia) At present, the average annual rainfall volume and Eurasian (Europe-Asia) tectonic plates. The is 417 billion cubic metres the larger part of meeting of these plates has caused the earth which (300 billion cubic metres) evaporates and crust of the plateau, which is weaker than the thus becomes unusable, leaving only a small part plates, to change shape and become surrounded available for filling underground water-tables and by mountains; such as the Zagros in the West, supplies of running-water above ground. Alborz and Tapehdagh in the North and Northeast, the mountains in the East and Makran in the 1 • 5 Desertification Southeast. According to the international definition, The history of Iran is full of stories of desertification means loss of land in arid, semi- earthquakes of great magnitude that devastated arid and semi-humid regions. In these regions, large areas and inflicted great losses not only in floods and the damage caused by them are the terms of property but also lives of humans and most obvious consequences of desertification. livestock. The Tabriz earthquake in 420 C.E. Arid and extremely arid conditions (less than claimed 50,000 lives and it was repeated in the 150 mm rainfall annually) that dominating huge same year, taking the lives of 40,000 people. It sections of the country account for the vast (34 was not yet finished and recurred in 1573 C.E. with million hectares) area of desert land, including 12 40,000 casualties, in 1721 C.E. with 25,000, in million hectares of dunes. 1780 with 100,000 and finally, again, in 1871 with 100,000 casualties. The last noTable 9-earthquake Table 9-1: Some of the more important earthquakes in Iran, 1961-2005 Casualties Time of Casualties Time of Occurrence Place Occurrence Place July-Aug March-April 1961 Lar City 450 Kerman 1300 1982 Western Sep-Oct 1963 11000 June 1983 Rudbar 40000 Pparts Khorasan Aug-Sep 1969 10000 Feb. 2, 1997 Ardebil 1100 Province South of the March-April 1975 5044 May 10, 1997 Birjand 1613 Country March-April 1979 Isfehan 900 Dec 26, 2004 Bam 25000 Sep-Oct 1985 Tabas 25000 May 29, 2005 Firoozabad 35 Oct-Nov 1980 Northeast 600 March 2005 Zarand 602 May-June 1982 Kerman 1028 Source: Seismological Engineering Research Centre, 2005. Table 9-2: Frequency of Flood-Occurrences and the Damage caused, 1953-2001 Census Number of Houses Roads Livestock Fields Ruined Course Occurrences Damaged Damaged(km) Casualties 1950 192 31962 885 44075 9065 1960 251 35393 1157 45157 13628 1970 432 33932 853 73812 80573 1980 1046 65769 15290 232083 139217 1990 1341 82882 13325 307136 998033 Source: Ministry of Agricultural Jihad, 2005.

State of the Invironment 87 occurred at Zarand, Kerman, on 23 February 2005 2 • 3 Drought claiming 602 lives as well as inflicting a great deal Iran is located on the Earth’s arid desert belt of financial harm. Another earthquake, also in and so, climatologically, it is natural for Iran to 2005 (on 29 May) occurred in a vast area of the be arid and short of water. Despite this, events northern provinces with a magnitude of 6.3 on the that occurred in the course of its geological Richter scale. Its epicentre was in Firoozabad in development provided some parts of Iran with Mazanderan Province and it killed 35 and injured very exceptional types of climates from the point 650 people. One of the most dreadful earthquakes of view of diversity. Still, many vast areas of the in the recent years was the notorious Bam country are faced with water shortages in almost earthquake with a magnitude of 6.7 on the Richter all seasons. Picture 1 illustrates well the process scale that reduced the historical city of Bam down of vegetation change that occurred during the to dust, killing more than 25,000 and injuring droughts of 1999-2001. 50,000 people. During this incident, the historical Besides Khorassan, other provinces that monument of Arg-e Bam, the largest mud-brick experience a large number of droughts include: complex of the world with 2,000 year–old history, Sistan va Baluchestan, Yazd, Fars, West Azerbaijan, was dilapidated. Zanjan, Ardebil, Khuzestan, Hamedan, Golestan and Kerman. Surveys show that the rate of 2 • 2 Flooding occurrence of droughts in Iran is very high; the Surveys show that floods are a widespread highest belongs to Bandarabbas (50%), followed phenomenon in the country. Almost all regions by Zabol (46.7%), Zahedan and Yazd (42%), have suffered great damage from floods I one way Iranshahr (40%) and Kerman (27%). or another. According to statistics, the damage caused by floods in the last 50 years has grown by 250%. 2 • 4 Landslides Among major flooding in recent years, we Being a seismic-prone country with occasional should mention one that occurred in Golestan flooding and torrential rainfalls, another natural Province, Southeast of the Caspian Sea, in 2002. disaster Iran is prone to is landslides, a vent that It covered an area of 5,000 Sq Km and killed more can be predicted. It is usually after an earthquake than 400 people. or flooding that the surrounding lands become unsTable 9-and start to move. In late 2005, a Casualties Time of Casualties Time of Occurrence Place Occurrence Place July-Aug March-April 1961 Lar City 450 Kerman 1300 1982 Western Sep-Oct 1963 11000 June 1983 Rudbar 40000 Pparts Khorasan Aug-Sep 1969 10000 Feb. 2, 1997 Ardebil 1100 Province South of the March-April 1975 5044 May 10, 1997 Birjand 1613 Country March-April 1979 Isfehan 900 Dec 26, 2004 Bam 25000 Sep-Oct 1985 Tabas 25000 May 29, 2005 Firoozabad 35 Oct-Nov 1980 Northeast 600 March 2005 Zarand 602 May-June 1982 Kerman 1028 Census Number of Houses Roads Livestock Fields Ruined Course Occurrences Damaged Damaged(km) Casualties 1950 192 31962 885 44075 9065 1960 251 35393 1157 45157 13628 1970 432 33932 853 73812 80573 1980 1046 65769 15290 232083 139217 Figure 9-1: the intensity of the droughts and the percent of the area of the affected regions, 1961-91 1990 1341 82882 13325 307136 998033 Source: Moradi, 2005.

88 9 Natural Disaster landslide almost buried a village in Khorramabad. 3 • 1 • 2 International Research Centre 2 • 5 Heavy Snowfall •Co-operation with national universities, Although not common, heavy snowfalls hit the research institutes, academic societies and country every so often. 2005 was an exceptional organizations. year in terms of snowfall: it snowed heavily in •Co-operation with overseas universities and many parts of the country and, for example, it research institutes. snowed for 40 hours continuously in Guilan •Co-operation with international Agencies. Province and the snow depth reached 2 metres •Participation in international scientific causing a great deal of difficulty and damage. gatherings. In the same year, heavy snowfalls in the capital •Joint research projects undertaken by the city Tehran, unprecedented in the last 49 years, International Seismology Engineering and caused as many as 850 car accidents. Research Center and various universities and research institutes in France, Russia, UK, Japan, Armenia, Norway and Italy. 3 • 1 • 3 Ministry of Agricultural Jihad 3 • Responses •Plan for the prevention and control of floods, 3 • 1 Organizational Activities and 2003. Achievements •Studies on 48,540 hectares of land to identify 3 • 1 • 1 DoE flood-prone areas, 1999-2002. • National Seminar on Air Pollution with •Preparation of a database for floods. its emphasis on air pollution caused by •Plan for drought facilities for 22,297 hectares natural disasters and how to confront them, of land by the Water Catchment Deputy, September 2004. 2003. •Membership of the National Committee for •Plan for droughts (reconstruction) in 52,332 the Reduction of the Impacts of the Natural hectares of land by the Water Catchment Disasters (1995-2004) and in a workshop Deputy, 2003. held by the National Group for Assistance •Rangeland rehabilitation and drought and Rescue in 2004. •A project on surveying and researching air combating (national) plan, 2000. pollution caused by leaking gas networks in 3 • 1 • 4 Other Achievements large cities at the time of natural disasters; •Adoption of the Comprehensive Plan for •A project on surveying and researching the Assistance and Rescue, 2004; quantitative and qualitative impacts of the •Ratification by Iran of the United Nations air pollution caused by natural disasters Convention on Combating Desertification and anthropogenic as well as natural (UNCCD). phenomena. •Membership of the Desertification Union •A project on surveying and researching (DU). prediction of air pollution and weather •Establishment of the DPO Office in Tehran. inversions. 3 • 2 International Projects •Project on complementary studies on seismic Picture 9-1: The process of change in vegetation cover, 1999- 2001

State of the Invironment 89 areas of Tehran. •Identifying seismic springs in the Caspian REFERENCES Sea. •Designing a Geographic Information System to 1. DoE, Legal and Parliamentary Affairs Office, 2001. Environmental Laws and Regulations Code Book. predict the impacts of severe earthquakes. •Predicting, assessing and identifying the 2. Forests, Rangelands and Water Catchment Organization of Iran, 2005. Seasonal Publication on Forests and earthquake-resistance of buildings and other Rangelands. facilities. •Assessment of the vulnerability of Tehran’s 3. Geology Organization Web Site. 4. Iran Remote Sensing Center, 2005. water network. 5. Jahangir, M. 2005. Urban and Municipality Laws and •Assessment of the vulnerability of Tehran’s Regulations, Didar Publications. gas network; 6. Ministry of Agricultural Jihad, 2002. Agricultural •First Iran-Japan Specialist Workshop on recent Statistics Periodical. earthquakes in both countries. 7. Ministry of Agricultural Jihad, Water Catchment Deputy, •Assessment of the vulnerability of historic 2005. monuments and old buildings; 8. Moradi, E., 2005. Survey of the Location and Patterns •Iran-Italy Specialist Workshop on strengthening of Drought Dispersion, Location of Iran’s Rivers. historic buildings. 9. Permanent Committee for Reviewing By-Laws on • Joint Iran-Armenia Studies on seismic regions Quake-Proof Construction Design, Construction and in both countries. Accommodation Research Centre, 2000. •Public education and public awareness-raising 10. Seismological Research Centre, 2005. as well as transfer of successful experience 11. Seismological Engineering Research Centre, 2005. from Iran to Armenia. 12. Sustainable Development Committee, 2000. Iran SoE Report. 13. Water Resources Management Organization of Iran, State of Iran’s Rivers, 2005. Natural Disasters in 2005 828 people lost their lives in 518 unpredicTable 9-car accidents. 396 earthquakes claimed many lives, although only 612 people died in Zarand as the result of an earthquake with a magnitude of 6.4 on the Richter scale. 40 cases of flooding in the current year alone have claimed 75 lives in various parts of the country, such as Sistan va Baluchestan and Southern Khorassan. Another 82 unpredicted occurrences - such as storms, hail, sleet, snow, fire and drowning - also claimed lives and caused damage. Fires mostly struck forests and rangelands. Drought dominated the country for seven consecutive years, mostly in the southern and southeastern provinces, especially in Sistan va Baluchestan, Khorassan and Kerman. Sudden cold that hits fruit gardens caused much damage in the horticulture sector. Snowfalls in 2005 were unprecedented compared with the last 30 years. The total budget allocated to provide compensation for unexpected events in 2005 was 5,000 billion Rials.



10 State of the Invironment 91 Human Habitat Human Habitat 1 • Pressures and 2003 1 • 1 Population 1 • 1 • 3 Age Mean and Dependency One of the most important factors putting According to the census conducted in 1997, about pressure on the environment is population. 39.5% of the total population of the country Depending on how the population is distributed belonged to the group below 15 years old the between urban and rural areas, what changes country’s mean age was 19.4, showing that the it experiences and its level of density in various country has a relatively young population. The regions, its effects and impacts differ. index for dependency relation showing the number 1 • 1 • 1 Distribution of unemployed (age range 0-14 years old and 65 According to the last census in 1997, Iran’s years old and above) in every 100 people was population was 60 million of which 61.3% were 78.1. This indicates that there has been relative living in urban areas. Iran’s population has balance and sustainability in Iran’s population age multiplied by a factor of six since 1957, showing pyramid over the last few years. an average annual growth rate of 4.66. It is worth 1 • 1 • 4 Density mentioning that the rural share of the population Population density was 36.8 per Sq Km in 1997 has decreased by 29.6% from 68.3% in 1957, to and increased to 41.35 in 2002. The maximum 38.7% in 1997 (Statistical Centre of Iran, 1994, density, of 539 per Sq Km, belongs to Tehran 1997 and 2003). province and the minimum, of 5 per Sq Km, to 1 • 1 • 2 Estimate Semnan. Iran’s population was estimated at 67.5 million in 1 • 2 Transportation 2005 (Statistical Centre of Iran, 2005). The transportation sector is one the main Figure 10-1: Changes in the average annual population growth, 1957-1997 Source: Statistical Centre of Iran, 1994, 1997

92 10 Human Habitat factors putting pressure on the environment and 1 • 2 • 2 Vehicle Age human habitats in many different ways. The average age of public transport vehicles 1 • 2 • 1 Distances Covered was 18.2 years by the end of 2004; 26% of the According to the most recent statistics of 2004, transportation fleet was 16-20 years old. In cargo road vehicles transported 225 million people, transport, the average age was 21.6 years and including both public and private journeys. For 41% of the fleet was 26 years old. public journeys, buses were the most commonly- 1 • 2 • 3 Fuel Type used vehicle while, for private journeys, personal Petrol is the most common type of fuel, used cars were mainly used. Every public journey by 88.9% of cars in 1995, and by 96.6% in 2003. comprised 17 passengers in average, while every Recently, there has been an attempt to substitute private one comprised four passengers. In 2004, a petrol and diesel fuel by CNG which is now being total number of 13,430,000 journeys were made used by as many as 13,216 buses in Tehran, in 2005 and an average distance of 221 Km was covered (National Municipalities Organization, 2005). in each one. 1 • 2 • 4 Means of Transport In road transport, personal cars are the Table 10-1: Passenger Movement, 1998-2004. Type of Journey 1998 1999 2000 2001 20021 2003 2004 Inter- 6985 7468 7690 7869 7886 78899 8782 Provincial 130350 134826 137244 138963 13653 132139 134622 Inter- 4319 4023 4219 4610 4796 4916 5147 Provincial 88584 77593 79932 85825 84481 75578 89943 11304 11491 11909 12479 12682 12815 13430 o 218934 212419 217176 224788 221044 217718 224564 Source: Statistical Centre of Iran, 2005 Figure 10-2: Age of the road transport fleet, 2000- Figure 10-3: Amount and per capita production of urban waste, 2004 1999 Source: Organization of Transport and Terminals, 2004 Source: Ministry of the Interior, 2000 Figure 10-4: Per capita and daily production of hospital waste, 2000 Source: Ministry of the Interior, 2000 Picture 1: The process of change in vegetation cover, 1999-2001

State of the Invironment 93 dominant means of travel, although a great 1 • 5 Waste number of journeys are also made by bus. In 2003, 1 • 5 • 1 Solid Wastes personal cars were used by 29.4% of passengers • Urban Waste while 51.8% of passengers used buses (National Based on the surveys conducted in 2000, every Municipalities Organization, 2005). day 32,000 tons of solid waste material is being produced all over the country. 1 • 3 Energy Resource Use • Hospital Waste The per capita use of various types of energy The waste material produced by the hospitals was the equivalent of 9.49 barrels of crude oil in is hazardous because it carries various kinds of 1995, rising to 10.82 barrels in 2004. microbes and viruses. The per capita production 1 • 4 Water Consumption of hospital waste is 10.4 Kg. Please refer to Chapter 7 for further • Industrial Waste information. Please refer to Figure 10-5. • Sewage There is not much accurate information available Table 10-2: Awareness percentage of Tehran’s citizens of environmental issues Type of Journey 1998 1999 2000 2001 20021 2003 2004 No. of the Inter- 6985 7468 7690 7869 7886 78899 8782 c Main Priority e P respondents P Provincial 130350 134826 137244 138963 13653 132139 134622 h Air-Pollution (72) Water-Pollution (25) 120 Inter- 4319 4023 4219 4610 4796 4916 5147 n Air-Pollution (57) Water-Pollution (22) 121 Provincial 88584 77593 79932 85825 84481 75578 89943 n Air-Pollution (34) Water-Pollution (17) 64 11304 11491 11909 12479 12682 12815 13430 o u Air-Pollution (65) Water-Pollution (24) 120 218934 212419 217176 224788 221044 217718 224564 e Air-Pollution (82) Water-Pollution (30) 120 e Air-Pollution (65) Water-Pollution (26) 120 o Air-Pollution (82) Solid Wastes (26) 120 c Air-Pollution (52) Water-Pollution (22) 120 t Air-Pollution (65) Water-Pollution (29) 122 e Air-Pollution (54) Water-Pollution (34) 129 r Air-Pollution (79) Water-Pollution (22) 120 o Air-Pollution (60 ) Water-Pollution (22) 1276 Source: Hosseinzadeh, 2006 Figure 10-5: Solid waste produced by industrial workshops with ten or more employees Source: Statistical Centre of Iran, 2001-2002

94 10 Human Habitat about household sewage; however, it is estimated that the maximum sound level in various districts that 75% of the water used by households turns of Tehran was 85 Decibels. into sewage (Central Bank of Iran, n.d.). • Hazardous Waste 2 • 3 Light Pollution In 2003, about 10 million tons of hazardous Lights originating from artificial, non-standard waste were produced in the country (DoE, 2004). sources and at inappropriate places and times 1 • 5 • 2 Approach towards Environmental cause light pollution, a phenomenon whose Problems devastating impacts go far beyond expectations, The ways in which people choose to look at though the subject has just recently been brought environmental problems and their collective to the world’s attention. In two regions of Iran - in approach towards this crucial subject, have Tehran and the southwest of the country where an unavoidable effect upon the environmental oil and gas industry covers the better part - light priorities of governments and national planners. pollution is abundant. Early in 2006, a questionnaire was distributed 2 • 4 Green Spaces amongst 1.276 craftsmen coming from 11 As surveys conducted in 2002 reveal, Isfahan different occupations in Tehran Province, asking and Khorassan Provinces had the maximum per them what they considered to be the two most capita share of urban green space while Tehran urgent environmental problems confronting Iran. had the minimum (Central Bank of Iran, n.d.). Table 10-2 gives the results. 2 • 5 Urban Housing 2 • 5 • 1 Management 2 • State and Impact As towns expand into cities and cities into mega- 2 • 1 Air, Water and Land Quality cities, legal as well as illegal methods of changing Considering the concentration of population in land-use from agricultural to construction and cities and towns and the different activities people other urban forms of use continue to reduce the carry out, the environmental situation is heading area of the agricultural land to only 10% of the towards a critical point. People’s sensitivity towards total area of the country. The price of land in urban such issues depends upon their level of awareness areas is soaring, making it even more difficult and how tangible the issues are. to resist urban expansion and to implement a sustainable urban management policy (Ministry of 2 • 2 Noise Pollution Housing, 2006). Experience reveals that sounds exceeding 60 Decibels are harmful for humans, and sounds 2 • 5 • 1 Illegal Settlements exceeding 120 Decibels damage their hearing. Illegal housing, a source of slum creation, is Surveys conducted by Tehran University in 1995- a way life in contemporary urbanism that, more 97 showed that the average sound intensity in often than not, grows independently and without the areas in which the studies took place was the necessary permits on cities’ margins. This more than 75 Decibels (Sustainable Development strange phenomenon renders human residential Committee, 2000). Studies undertaken by the Air areas severely unstable. At present, at least one Quality Control Company in 2004, also revealed eighth of the total urban population lives in such Table 10-3: Main Sources of Sound Pollution and their Average Intensity in Tehran Average Source Place Intensity (db) Next to the Airplane 73-78 Airport Local Commercial 79 Activities 60-75 Residential Highway Traffic 67-78 Place City Heavy Traffic 67-78 City Traffic 65-77 Concentration Residential Place 50-55 Urban Construction 66-70 Activities Heavy Traffic 80 Figure 10-7: Transformation of the housing pattern in Tehran’s urban areas Source: Topographical Organization of Iran, 2004 Source: Ministry of Housing, 2006

State of the Invironment 95 areas, expected to increase to one fourth of the vehicles obtaining number plates during 1997- total. 2003. The total number of the vehicles was nearly 2 million in 2004, showing a 75% growth over 2 • 5 • 2 Effect of Natural Disasters 2003, most of them motorcycles (six times more Iran is amongst the ten countries most than 2003) (Statistical Centre of Iran, 1997 and vulnerable to unexpected events and natural 2003). In Tehran more than 555 million passen- disasters. According to the latest census conducted gers have been transported by the underground in 1997, rural residential areas comprise 36% of system from the initial operation of this means of the total number, of which only 29% have been transport up to September 2005. built with durable materials. There are about 12 222,068 cars or at least 22,207 buses would million residential units all over the country out of have been needed to do the same job! About 466 which only 7,200,000 show any level of resistance million litres of petrol was saved in this way. to earthquakes. 2 • 6 • 4 Public Health and Sanitation 2 • 5 • 3 Housing Density Life expectancy, a natural result among others According to the information available, there of health and sanitation, was 67 years for men were 1.6 million residential units in the country and 69.8 years for women in 1997. This shows a in 1997 (Management and Planning Organization, 16.2% and 21.5% growth, respectively, compared n.d.). This Figure 10-shows 14.3% growth to 1977 (Management and Planning Organization, compared with 1987. The concentration index also n.d.). According to latest estimates, the increase shows a 1.17% reduction over the same period. in life expectancy to 71.7 years has mainly been due to improvements in sanitation and a reduction in infant and maternal mortality rates. 2 • 6 Public Service Accessibility 3 • Responses 2 • 6 • 1 Safe Drinking Water and Sanitation As mentioned before, 97.8% of Iran’s population 3 • 1 DoE Policies and Strategies enjoyed safe drinking water and 24% had access Preventing Water and Land Resource to the sewage network by the end of 2005. 3 • 1 • 1 Degradation and Pollution 2 • 6 • 2 Urban Waste Recycling i. Adoption of the Waste Management Law, 2005. Recycling is an important means for disposing of ii. Management of hazardous wastes: here, urban waste materials. In 2000, 20 municipalities the Basel Convention and the Rotterdam (PIC) as well as the private sector in 41 cities undertook Convention are applicable to Iran and the projects to build composting facilities. Thirty- Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPS) Convention six such projects are in the study phase, four in was also signed by DoE as Iran’s representative. the investment phase and four more, in Tehran, iii. Co-operation with the Ministry of the Interior Mashhad, Isfahan and Tabriz, in the construction and the municipalities in different provinces for phase (Ministry of the Interior, 2000). implementing composting projects. 2 • 6 • 3 Transportation Network iv. Preparation and follow-up of the Waste Statistics reveal that there was an average Management Programme in three northern annual growth rate of 31% in the number of the provinces. Table 10-4: Selected indices in the housing sector, 2000-2001 Indicator n 0 2001 1.14 Household r . Density per H n 1.13 House Rural . Average Number 2.1 of Flats per r e . Building r e 4 7 Ratio of Durable Buildings u e 2 3 o e 6 69 Source: Management and Planning Organization, n.d.

96 10 Human Habitat v. Industrial Water Wastes: co-operation in rivers. drafting Articles 104(c) and 134 of the Third Five- vii. Identifying the country’s most important rivers year Development Plan Law and related by-laws (200 rivers) and determining their authorized concerning fines for polluting and degrading the pollution load. environment. viii. Determining priorities for the country’s most vi. Environmental management of water resources, important rivers. to co-ordinate and guide qualitative studies aimed ix. Adopting final programmes for 72 rivers in 26 at preventing water pollution. provinces. vii. Imposing a one percent tax on polluting x. Gaining approval of the Planning and industries. Development Council for the final programmes for 3 • 1 • 1 Water Quality Management 31 rivers in 12 provinces. Projects Pending xi. Establishing the Karoon River Quality i. Adoption of the Water Pollution Control Conservation Committee. Strategy. xii. Establishing the Zayandehrood River Quality ii. Providing the infrastructure for the environmental Conservation Committee. management of water resources. 3 • 1 • 1 Standards iii. Determining the authorized pollution load of The following actions were taken to control the waste water discharged into the environment. environmental pressures imposed upon human iv. Comprehensive technical model for evaluating habitats. the level of hazard of pollution sources. i. Preparation of standards for noise pollution in v. Proposing to the Government to end subsidies the open air. on fertilizers and herbicides. ii. Proposal of noise pollution standards. vi. Reducing pollution in the country’s major iii. Proposal of standards for organic compost TEHRAN DEPARTMENT of the ENVIRONMENT Tehran Department of the Environment began operating in March 2005 and it has been able to achieve most of its environmentally-oriented goals in this short time. These include the following. Monitoring 6,471 industrial service units . Identifying 2,113 unauthorized industrial units polluting the environment. Identifying and monitoring all the hospitals in Tehran. When the monitoring first started, less than 20% of the hospitals had sewage systems, now more than 70% do. Monitoring all hotels in Tehran. Taking more than 400 samples from effluent discharged by industrial units and service providers. They determined that 95 units were observing the standards while 312 units produced pollutants. As a result of follow-ups by the Tehran DoE, 314 sewage treatment units were established and 153 units that were already equipped with treatment facilities improved their conditions. The money disbursed for environmental improvement actions totalled 47,083 million Rials. Fines collected from polluting units totalled 72,413 million Rials. ROTTERDAM CONVENTION The Rotterdam Convention, also known as the Prior Informed Consent (PIC) Convention, was signed by 61 countries in Rotterdam, the Netherlands, in 1998. Its main objective is to limit the trade and consumption of potentially dangerous chemical substances, such as pesticides, and to share the responsibilities and related activities amongst the States Parties to minimize the danger of and protect the environment against such compounds. So far, 31 chemical substances have been listed as hazardous. The Parties undertake not to export such chemicals to each other’s countries unless the prior consent of the importing country has been obtained. Iran’s Cabinet of Ministers ratified the Convention in 2003 and it was then approved by Parliament. DoE co-operates with the PIC Secretariat and takes part in the specialized workshops convened by the Secretariat.

State of the Invironment 97 quality. rangelands and combating desertification. iv. Adoption of forest management standards. •Implementation of integrated agricultural 3 • 1 • 4 Monitoring and Evaluation management plans to reduce herbicides Monitoring and evaluating different types consumption. of pollution is one of the major tasks the DoE •Plans for using biological methods of assumes. Many significant activities have been combating pests. carried out in this respect in Tehran and other •Implementation of Water Catchment and provinces. The following window names just a few Aquifer Plans in some parts of the country. of these. •Reduction of subsidies on pesticides and herbicides. 3 • 2 Other Organizations •Other achievements as described in the Changes and improvements in the policies section on “Land”. adopted by the authorities responsible for national development originate from actions undertaken by 3 • 2 • 2 Ministry of the Interior DoE. So far, three reports have been published on •Founding Composting Organizations in the the Government’s environmental performance. provinces. •Research projects on a comprehensive 3 • 2 • 1 Ministry of Agricultural Jihad recycling plan and the disposal of solid waste •Obtaining ISO-1400 International Standards, materials, jointly with Tehran University’s based upon the reports presented by Faculty of the Environment in 1998. environmental management supervisors. •Implementing and supporting the Composting • Cultivation of 200,000 hectares of shrubs and Bio-compost Plans in 12 cities. and bushes. •Implementing and supporting the ‘Vermin- •Implementation of Forest Protection Plans, Compost’ Plan. establishing a balance between livestock and ENVIRONMENTAL OFFENCES The harmful impacts of human economic and industrial activities upon the environment are self-evident. This matter is crucial enough to call for comprehensive laws to regulate the paradox that people cannot live without indulging in consumerism but that such activities damage the environment and must be kept strictly at the minimum possible level. To establish a state of preventive equilibrium, strong legislation is indispensable. Therefore, Articles 104(c) and 134 of the law of the Third Plan for Economic, Social and Cultural Development of the Islamic Republic of Iran require all industrial and manufacturing units to treat environmental issues in the same manner as they deal with economic matters and incorporate conservation costs into the running expenses of their businesses. Some of the outcomes are as follows. ▪ 3,500 polluting units were fined during the period from 2001 to May 2006. ▪ Fines levied on polluting units and the fines actually paid by them, during the same period, amounted, respectively, to 383 billion and 12 billion Rials. ▪ Polluting units (800 units) took the following actions to control/prevent pollution. ▪ Pollution was costed at 15 billion Rials in 2005 and 10 billion Rials in 2006. ▪ A Letter of Understanding was concluded with the Bank of Austria to provide for essential loans. ▪ 340 treatment facilities were built. ▪ 100 recycling units were constructed. ▪ 200 air pollution control projects were implemented. ▪ 184 other environmental projects were also carried out. The cost of remedying pollution caused by polluting units was 1,400 billion Rials while the fines paid by them only amounted to 14 billion. Bank financial facilities were allocated to prevent and remedy pollution. BASEL CONVENTION The Convention on the Control of the Trans-boundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes was signed by 35 countries in Basel, Switzerland, in 1989 and entered into force in May 1992. The main objectives of the Convention are: ▪ Reducing the trans-boundary movement of hazardous waste; ▪ Minimizing the production of hazardous waste. ▪ Preventing its transport to countries where proper disposal facilities are not available. Iran signed the Convention in 1993 and the Islamic Consultative Assembly of Iran ratified it in 1994. However, the active participation of Iran in the Convention’s activities did not start until 1998. Since then, Iran’s capabilities and potentials, especially in terms of laboratory know-how, have been declared to the Convention’s Secretariat.

98 10 Human Habitat •Implementing the Plan for separating and •Establishing facilities for collecting waste from recycling waste materials in the original ships at harbours and oil-terminals. place of production (curbside treatment) •Project for assessing the economic, (five cities). social and environmental impacts of the •Implementation of the Plan on the Sanitary building, maintaining and utilizing railway Disposal of Waste Materials in 61 cities. infrastructures. Recycling Plans for Mashhad, Shiraz, Babol, •Implementing programmes on preventing Ahwaz and Rasht. marine petroleum pollution. •Training City and Rural Council members on •Environmental assessment of all roads waste management, jointly with the DoE. qualifying for assessment. •Co-operation with the Transport Authority to •Making agreements with related Authorities deal with cars causing air pollution. to implement environmental policies and 3 • 2 • 3 Ministry of Roads and Transport regulations in all Development Plans. •Constructing a ring-road for the Bandar Anzali A WINDOW ON WASTE An increase in waste production, on the one hand, and the lack of an integrated and systematic strategy essential for the management of such materials, on the other, have inflicted severe damage on the environment. To address this situation, the Waste Management Bill was proposed jointly by DoE and the Ministry of the Interior, with cooperation from other ministries, to the Cabinet. Cabinet approved the Bill in 2003 and handed it over to Parliament for final adoption. The Bill therefore became law in 2005 and was passed on to DoE to be enforced. The Waste Management Law in its 23 articles defines wastes (solid, gas and liquid) and stipulates how they are to be treated and what responsibilities and tasks other Ministries and organizations should undertake in this regard. Fines to be imposed on those who fail to comply with the Law are also specified. Revenue thus received shall be used to promote an environmental culture, prevent pollution and protect the environment. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (EIA) The objective of EIA is to study and predict the impacts of large-scale industrial, manufacturing and developmental activities prior to carrying out any action so that the likely adverse environmental consequences may be prevented or limited. The Office of Environmental Assessment, a section of the DoE, proposed the model for assessment to the National Committee for Sustainable Development in 1998. Their proposal was then approved by the Conservation High Council. The following actions have been taken in relation to this activity. 350 reports on the environmental impact assessment of Development Plans have been made in the last eight years. The number of large-scale development plans that qualify for EIA has increased from seven in 1998 to 24 in 2006. 19 EIA instruction manuals have been prepared.

State of the Invironment 99 Wetland. producing materials. •Constructing a through-road for Orumiyeh •Identification and recycling of valuable National Park. materials from processed and un-processed •Constructing a through-road for Golestan wastes. National Park. •Polymer waste recycling. 3 • 2 • 4 Ministry of Petroleum •Implementing water recycling plans, with the •Establishment of an Environmental water used in agriculture. Management System and obtaining an ISO- •Implementing Plans for optimizing 1401 Certificate for all oil refineries and consumption. petro-chemical complexes. •Development of natural gas technologies for •Improvement of existing processes for use in transportation and industry. minimizing waste production and preserving •Monitoring pipelines to prevent oil leakages. natural resources through recycling energy- •Implementing the Project on Collecting Gaseous By-products. STRATEGIC ENVIRONMENAL ASSESSMENT (SEA) In 2005, a project for the adoption of a national system for EIA was completed jointly by DoE and UNDP. In the same year, the parties agreed to further their co-operation beyond the adoption of a national system for EIA and to attempt to adopt a national system for Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA). Finally, in January 2004, the document for a new project - The Sustainable Development Strategy: Providing Capacity for Strategic Environmental Assessment - was signed by both DoE and UNDP. This 18-month long project was designed to achieve the following objectives: ▪ Training a group of experts, from different national organizations and institutions and transforming them into the central specialized kernel to provide the necessary technical and legal framework. ▪ Adoption of a legal-administrative framework to guarantee the implementation of the SEA. ▪ Provision of technical instructions to be utilized by SEA practitioners. ▪ Public information dissemination on EIA, along with the collection and transfer of information. Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) shares its principles and roots with Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), and their only difference lies in the fact that EIA usually takes place at project level while SEA goes beyond that level to cover more general strategic decision-making.