Health and Physical Education Book 8_2077 Editioin

Approved by the Government of Nepal, Ministry of Education Curriculum Development Centre (CDC), Sanothimi, Bhaktapur, Nepal. HEALTH AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION 8Grade Authors Ram Kumar Rai Matrika Pd. Lamsal

Published by TU Road, Kuleshwor, Kathmandu, Nepal. Phone: 4672071, 4672073, 5187211 Fax: 00977-1-4672073 E-mail: [email protected] www.readmorenp.com © Copyright: Publisher 2075 BS First Edition : 2075 BS Reprint : 2076 BS Reprint : 2077 BS Readmore welcomes any suggestions regarding the textbook. Layout: Readmore Desktop Illustration: Dev Maharjan Printed in Nepal You can exchange out textbooks from your nearest book distributor if any technical errors are found. Read to help others read! We are pleased to inform that a certain amount from each book is allocated to the Readmore Charity Fund. The fund is provided to deserving and needy students all over Nepal. The charity always welcomes co-operation and support from all well wishers and agencies.

PREFACE First Edition, 2075 BS This text book (Health and Physical Education) has been written according to the curriculum prescribed by the Curriculum Development Center (CDC), The Government of Nepal and covers all the contents of the syllabus. Every possible efforts have been provided to make the subject matter easy, clear and systematic for the grade VIII students. We hope that this book meets the objective set forth by the CDC and fulfills the requirement of the students of Grade 8. There are 15 units altogether in this text book as prescribed by the CDC. This book has been written as far as possible in simple language. We believe that illustration with pictures, figures and diagrams will make the text more readable and adds to its utility. Activities and community works in each lesson will help the students foster their inherent strength. Salient Features of this book: • Every lesson has been supplemented with suitable pictures and illustrations. • Evaluation exercises are presented in various ways such as class room activities, community based activities, project works and exercises including subjective and objective questions, report writing and presentation. • The meaning of difficult words are given at the end of every unit/chapter for the convenience of the students. We wish to express our sincere regards to the Readmore Publishers & Distributors for providing all possible help and support in every step to produce this book. Last but not least, we are highly indebted with the great contribution and support provided by the layout designers Sameer Shakya and Sunil Maharjan for their creative designing without their skillful hands this book would not have been produced in this standard. We also apologize for any error or discrepancy despite the sincere efforts to make this book credible as much as possible. We humbly request all the colleagues, students, subject teachers and well wishers to provide their valuable feedback and suggestions. Authors

Table of Contents HEALTH EDUCATION Page Unit 1 The Human Body 5 - 34 Chapter I The Circulatory System 5 - 12 Chapter II Glandular System 13 - 19 Chapter III Nervous System 20 - 27 Chapter IV Human Reproductive System 28 - 34 Unit 2 Personal Health 35 - 37 Unit 3 Nutrition 38 - 47 Unit 4 Disease 48 - 67 Unit 5 Adolescence, Sexual and Reproductive Health 68 - 87 Unit 6 Drugs, Alcohol and Tobacco 88 - 94 Unit 7 Environmental Health 95 - 102 Unit 8 Safety and First Aid 103 - 112 Unit 9 Family and Community Health 113 - 122 PHYSICAL EDUCATION 123 - 129 130 - 132 Unit 1 Physical Exercise 133- 141 Unit 2 Drill 142 - 156 Unit 3 Physical Training 157 - 178 Unit 4 Yoga 179 - 189 Unit 5 Games Unit 6 Athletics 192 A Set of Model Question

HEALTH EDUCATION Unit The Human Body 1 Chapter - I The Circulatory System Learning Achievement After completing this chapter, students will be able to: M Give introduction to human heart. M Tell the different organs involved in circulatory system. M Tell about blood and its functions. M Explain the different types of blood vessels. M Explain about the pulmonary and systemic circulatory system. The circulatory system is the group of organs that transport blood to and from all parts of the body. The circulatory system is formed by a heart, blood, and blood vessels. The human heart is a four-chambered organ. Of the blood vessels, the aorta carries oxygenated blood away from the heart. The aorta branches into smaller arteries, which in turn branch into the capillaries and reach all parts of the body. The deoxygenated blood from the different parts of the body is collected to the venacava and it drains into the right atrium. A. Heart Superior Aorta vena cava Pulmonary The heart is a muscular organ trunk that pumps blood to different Right Left parts of the body. It is a vital atrium atrium organ of our body. It is about Right Pulmonary the size of a clench fist and lies ventricle veins between the lungs. The muscle Inferior Left called septum separates the right vena cava ventricle and left halves of the heart. There are four chambers in a heart. The upper two chambers are called atriums (i.e. right atrium and left atrium) and the lower two 5

chambers are called ventricles (i.e. right ventricle and left Aorta ventricle). The right atrium of Right pulmonary the heart receives deoxygenated artery Left pulmonary artery blood from the body through the superior and inferior venacava Superior Left pulmonary and drains to the right ventricle. vena cava veins The right ventricle pumps the Right pulmonary Left atrium veins Bicuspid Valve Right atrium deoxygenated blood towards the Tricuspid Left ventricle Cardiac layers lungs through the pulmonary Valve Interventricular arteries. On the other hand, septum the left atrium receives the Right ventricle oxygenated blood from the lungs Inferior vena cava Endocardium Myocardium Epicardium through pulmonary veins and drains to the left ventricle. Then, the left ventricle pumps the blood towards the different parts of the body through the aorta. The contraction of the heart muscle produces heartbeat. The time interval between the two consecutive heartbeats is called cardiac cycle. Usually, a healthy person’s cardiac cycle is about 72 times per minute. During the time of vigorous exercise, our heartbeat can go more than 200 times per minute also. B. Blood Vessels Vasa vasorum Nerve Blood vessels are the muscular ducts that help in the circulation of blood throughout Tunica adventitia the entire body. There are three types of blood vessels like arteries, veins and External elastic capillaries. membrane Internal elastic membrane i. Arteries Basement membrane Arteries are the thick walled blood vessels. Structure of Blood Vessel They carry blood away from the heart to the capillaries that permeate all the tissues. All Artery arteries except the pulmonary arteries carry oxygenated blood. Pulmonary arteries carry Arteriole Capillaries blood from heart to the lungs whereas the systematic arteries deliver blood to the rest Blood flow Vein of the parts of the body. Aorta is the largest from heart artery that comes out from the heart. The Venule aorta gets separated into different branches and spread oxygenated blood to the head, Blood flow hands, feet, internal organs and other parts to heart of the body. The arteries are divided into smaller branches called arterioles and the Oxygen Wastes arterioles are again divided into capillaries. To cells Nutrients From cellsCdairobxoidne 6

ii. Veins Brain Carotid artery The blood vessels which transport blood towards the heart are called veins. All veins except the Kidney pulmonary vein carry deoxygenated blood from Abdominal the tissues via capillaries to the venacava, which is aorta divided into the superior and inferior venacava. The smallest veins are called venules. There are valves inside the veins that prevent from backward flow of blood. The deoxygenated blood is carried into the right atrium through the venacava whereas the four pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium. iii. Capillaries Leg artery Leg vein Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels, which are formed by the further division of the arterioles. The walls and tissues of the capillaries are very thin and permeable. The exchange of nutrients and oxygen usually occurs in the capillaries. The interchange of substance between the blood and the tissues take place only through the capillary wall. Arteries and Veins C. Blood Blood is a constantly circulating fluid providing the body with nutrition, oxygen, and waste removal. Blood is living tissue made up of liquid and particles solid. It is a mixture of two components: cells and plasma. The liquid part called plasma is formed by water, salts and protein. The plasma makes up about half of the content of blood. The solid part of blood contains red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets. The adult human body contains approximately 5 liters of blood. Functions of Blood ^ Blood transports nutrients to the tissues of all the organs. ^ It transports oxygen to tissues and carry waste products away from the body. ^ It maintains a constant body temperature. ^ Every cell in the body gets nutrients from blood. ^ It also carries waste products away from the body. i. Plasma Blood plasma is the pale yellow liquid component of blood. It contains proteins which help blood to clot, transport substances through the blood and perform 7

other functions. Blood plasma contains water Plasma (55%) up to (95%) and dissolved proteins like serum White blood cells albumins, globulins, and fibrinogen up to 6 to 8 and platelets (<1%) percent. The red blood corpuscles float on the Red blood cells (45%) plasma. The substances like nutrients, hormones, clotting factors and proteins called albumin and globulin are dissolved in plasma. ii. Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes) Red blood cells are also called erythrocytes. The mature human red blood cells are small, round and appear dumbbell-shaped. They lack cell nucleus. Red blood cells contain haemoglobin which transport oxygen and is responsible for the red colour of the cells. They take up oxygen in the lungs and release it into tissues. There are about 5,000,000 RBCs per ml blood. The red blood cells make up about (45%) of our total blood volume. Approximately, 2.4 million new red blood cells are produced per second in adult people. iii. White Blood Cells (Leukocytes) Eosinophil Basophil The white blood cells are the important factor Monocyte of immune system. White blood cells are also called leukocytes. They are produced in the bone Lymphocytes Neutrophil marrow and lymphocytes. They are bigger in size and irregular in shape. They contain nucleus. Types of Leukocytes They are transparent and colourless. There are about 5,000 to 10,000 WBCs per ml blood. These Activated platelets cells help fight infections by attacking bacteria, viruses, and germs that invade the body. There are five major types of white blood cells. They are called Neutrophils, Eosinophils, Basophiles, Lymphocytes and Monocytes. iv. Platelets Platelets are also called Thrombocytes. They are produced in the bone marrow. They are shaped like plates. Platelets are colourless and have no nucleus. A normal platelet count ranges from 150,000 to 450,000 per ml blood. The main function of platelets is to stop bleeding by clumping and clotting blood vessel at the time of injuries. 8

D. Circulatory System The circulatory system can be considered as composed of two parts: the systemic circulation, which serves the body as a whole except for the lungs, and the pulmonary circulation, which carries blood to and from the lungs. i. Pulmonary Circulation System The pulmonary circulation carries blood to and from the lungs. In the heart, deoxygenated blood flows to the right atrium through the superior venacava and the inferior venacava. The blood drains from the right atrium into the right ventricle through the tricuspid valve. The right ventricle contracts to force blood into the lungs through the pulmonary arteries. When the right ventricle contract, the tricuspid valve closes off the opening between the ventricle and the atrium so that blood does not flow back into the atrium. After that, the right ventricle forces the blood into the pulmonary arteries through the pulmonary semi-lunar valve that prevents blood from returning into the right ventricle. Eventually, the blood reaches the lungs. In the lungs, oxygen is picked up, carbon dioxide is eliminated and the oxygenated blood returns to the heart via the pulmonary veins. Then, the pulmonary circulation completes its circuit. Capillary bed of lungs where gas exchange occurs Pulmonary arteries Pulmonary circuit Pulmonary veins Systemic circuit Vena cavae Aorta and branches Right atrium Left atrium Right ventricle Left ventricle Systemic veins Systemic arteries Index Capillary bed of all body tissues where Oxygen poor, gas exchange occurs CO2- rich blood Oxygen rich, CO2- poor blood 9

ii. Systemic Circulation System In the systemic circulation, oxygenated blood from the lungs returns to the left atrium of the heart via two pairs of pulmonary veins (a pair from each lung). When the left atrium relaxes, the oxygenated blood drains into the left ventricle through the left atrioventricular valve. This valve is also called as the bicuspid valve since it has two flaps in its structure. As the left ventricle contracts, it forces the blood under great pressure into the Aorta. Afterwards, the blood is pumped into the Aorta via the aortic semi-lunar valve. The aorta branches into many other arteries and the arteries again branch into arterioles to supply oxygen- rich blood to all the parts of the body. Different Steps in the Circulatory Process ^ Deoxygenated blood enters into the right atrium ^ The blood passes into the right ventricle through the tricuspid valve ^ The right ventricle pumps out blood to the lungs through the pulmonary arteries ^ Oxygenated blood enters into the left atrium via pulmonary veins ^ The blood passes into the left ventricle through the bicuspid valve ^ The left ventricle pumps out blood to the body parts through the aorta Superior and Right Tricuspid Right Pulmonary Pulmonary Pulmonary inferior vena cava atrium valve ventricle semilunar trunk arteries Body tissues valves Lung tissue (systemic (pulmonary circulation) Different Steps in the Circulatory Process circulation) Aorta Aortic Left Bicuspid Left Pulmonary semilunar ventricle valve atrium veins valves [Activity] Draw a well labelled diagram of a heart in a chart paper and discuss about the structure and function of heart with the help of the diagram in your class. Word Meaning Atrioventricular : connecting or involving the atria and the ventricles of the heart Cardiac cycle : the complete cycle of events in the heart from the beginning of one heart beat to the beginning of the next; Clench : closed Clumping : to gather into or form lumps or thick groupings of Fibrinogen : a protein in the blood plasma that is essential for the coagulation of blood Globulin : globulins occurring in blood serum and containing most of the antibodies of the blood Permeate : to pass into or to penetrate through the pores Serum albumin : the principal protein of blood plasma, important in osmotic regulation of the blood 10

Recap S The group of organs that transport blood to and from all parts of the body is called circulatory system .It is made up of a heart, blood, and blood vessels. S The heart is a muscular organ that pumps blood to different parts of the body. It is about the size of a clench fist and lies between the lungs. S The muscle called septum separates the right and left halves of the heart. There are four chambers in the heart. The upper two chambers are called atriums (i.e. right atrium and left atrium) and the lower two chambers are called ventricles (i.e. right ventricle and left ventricle). S All arteries except the pulmonary arteries carry oxygenated blood. S Pulmonary arteries carry blood from heart to the lungs whereas the systematic arteries deliver blood to the rest of the parts of the body. S The blood vessels that transport the blood towards the heart are called veins. All veins except the pulmonary vein carry deoxygenated blood from the tissues via capillaries to the venacava. S The deoxygenated blood is carried into the right atrium through venacava whereas the four pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium. S Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels, which are formed by the further division of the arterioles. The walls and tissues of the capillaries are very thin and permeable. S The exchange of nutrients and oxygen between the blood and the tissues take place only through the capillary wall. S Blood is living tissue made up of liquid and solid particles. It is a mixture of two components like cells and plasma. S Blood plasma is the pale yellow liquid component of blood. The substances like nutrients, hormones, clotting factors and proteins called albumin and globulin are dissolved in plasma. S Red blood cells are also called erythrocytes. There are about 5,000,000 RBCs per ml blood. The red blood cells make up about (45%) of our total blood volume. Approximately, 2.4 million new red blood cells are produced per second in human adults. S The white blood cells are the important factor of immune system. They are produced in the bone marrow and lymphocytes. S There are about 5,000 to 10,000 WBCs per ml blood. These cells help fight infections by attacking bacteria, viruses, and germs that invade the body. S Platelets are produced in the bone marrow. The main function of platelets is to stop bleeding by clumping and clotting blood vessel at the time of injuries. S The pulmonary circulation carries the blood to and from the lungs. 11

EXERCISE A. Answer the following questions. 1. What is circulatory system? 2. What is a heart? Mention one function of the heart. 3. Explain the functions of arteries. 4. Mention any two functions of blood. 5. Mention the types of leukocytes. 6. Write the difference between platelets and red blood corpuscles (RBC). 7. List down the steps of circulatory process. 8. Mention the functions of RBC. B. Choose correct option from the bracket. 1. There are...................chambers in the heart. (one/two/three/four) 2. The walls and tissues of the capillaries are very thin and............................ (porous/terminable/perishable/permeable) 3. Red blood cells contain.................................(dopamine/telanin/melanin/ hemoglobin) 4. The deoxygenated blood flows to the right atrium through......................... (aorta/venacava/ venule/auricle) are situated in orbital cavities. 5. The left ventricle pumps out blood to the body parts through the .................... (pulmonary vein/superior venacava/pulmonary artery/aorta) C. Write short notes on: a. Capillaries b. Plasma c. Pulmonary Circulation System Community Work Visit a health post or a sub-health post and learn how to check/measure blood pressure with stethoscope under the guidance of a nurse or other health workers. 12

Chapter - II Glandular System Learning Achievement After completing this chapter, students will be able to: M Give introduction to glandular system. M Tell the names of endocrine glands and their functions. M Tell the names of exocrine glands and their functions. M Tell the difference between endocrine glands and exocrine glands. Introduction The glandular system regulates the activities of the body by secreting chemical substances into the blood stream. These chemicals are known as hormones and enzymes. Glands secrete these essential hormones and enzymes. They are essential to regulate the body’s growth, metabolism, sexual development and functioning of the various systems of the body. These glands can be divided into two categories such as endocrine and exocrine glands. The major endocrine glands include the pineal gland, pituitary gland, pancreas, ovaries, testes, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, hypothalamus, and adrenal glands. The exocrine glands include sweat glands, salivary glands and mammary glands. A. Endocrine Glands The glands that secrete Pineal gland Hypothalamus hormones directly into Pituitary gland the circulatory system are Parathyroid gland Thyroid gland considered as endocrine glands. The major endocrine Thymus glands include the pineal gland, pituitary gland, pancreas, ovaries, testes, Kidney Adrenal gland thyroid gland, parathyroid Pancreas gland, hypothalamus, gastrointestinal tract and Ovary (in female) adrenal glands. Endocrine glands secrete their products Testis (in male) directly into the bloodstream. They do not utilize ducts in the transportation of their secretion. They are also known as ductless glands. Effects and response time of endocrine glands take longer time to manifest. Some of the endocrine glands are explained below: 13

i. Hypothalamus Thalamus Pituitary Gland The hypothalamus is located in the lower Hypothalamus central part of the brain. Nerve cells in the hypothalamus control the pituitary Anterior lobe Posterior lobe gland by producing chemicals that either stimulate or suppress hormone secretions from the pituitary. It monitors happenings in the body and then instructs the pituitary gland on what needs to be done. ii. Pituitary Gland The pituitary gland is an endocrine Thalamus gland about the size of a pea and Hypothalamus weighing about 0.5 gm in human. It is Pituitary gland often called the “master gland” since it makes hormones that control several other endocrine glands. It is located at the base of the brain just beneath the hypothalamus. It is divided into two parts: the anterior lobe and the posterior lobe. The anterior lobe regulates the activity of the thyroid, adrenals, and Posterior pituitary Anterior reproductive glands. The posterior lobe pituitary of the pituitary releases anti- diuretic Pituitary gland hormone that helps control the balance of water in the body. It secretes nine types of hormones. The pituitary gland also controls ovulation and the menstrual cycle in women. iii. Pineal Gland Pineal gland Cerebrum The pineal gland is located in the middle Cerebellum Optic part of the brain. It is stimulated by the Spinal cord nerve nerves from the eyes. The pineal gland Pituitary secretes melatonin at night when it gland is dark, thus secretes more in winter when the nights are longer. Melatonin promotes sleep and affects reproductive functions by depressing the activity of the gonads. Additionally, it affects thyroid and adrenal cortex functions. iv. Thyroid Gland Thyroid gland is one of the largest endocrine gland with a weight of approximately 20 gm. It is located at the base of the neck. It is composed of two lobes, one on 14

either sides of the trachea that are connected by a narrow band of thyroid tissues called Isthmus. It is shaped like a butterfly. It produces thyroxin hormones. It also produces calcitonin hormone. Thyroid hormones regulate metabolism, therefore controls the body temperature and weight. The thyroid gland needs iodine in order to produce these Thyroid gland Thyroid hormones. If a person lacks iodine in his/ cartilage her diet for a long period, the thyroid cannot Right lobe Left lobe secrete those hormones. Lack of iodine in the diet for long period causes abnormal enlargement of the thyroid gland, which results into goiter or cretinism in the children. On the other hand, over secretion of thyroid hormones causes metabolic rate unusually higher. This is known as thyrotoxicosis. vi. Thymus Gland Thyroid gland Thymus gland is situated in the lower Trachea part of the neck and just behind the Right lobe Left lobe sternum. It is about 6 cm long. This gland Thymus continuously enlarges from the birth until Gland puberty, after which it gradually shrinks. For instance, its weight is about 10 gm in the childhood, 35-40 gm in the adulthood and about 15 gm in the old age. This gland secretes the hormone called Thymosin. This hormone is essential for the development of white blood cells particularly T-lymphocytes. Lymphocytes secrete antibody and increase immunity power. vii. Adrenal Glands There are two adrenal glands in our body. They are also known as the suprarenal glands. They are located on top of each kidney. The adrenal glands are composed of two distinct regions like an inner region and Adrenal Glands an outer region. The outer region is called cortex and the inner region is called medulla. The cortex produces hormone called cortisol. Similarly, the medulla secretes adrenaline hormone. The adrenaline hormone helps to digest carbohydrates and maintain the glucose level in the blood. The over secretion of these hormones may Kidneys cause hypertension, diabetes mellitus, weak immune system, premature sexual 15

maturation, etc. On the other hand, under secretion causes low blood pressure, weight loss, nausea, loss of appetite, skin pigmentation, weakness, etc. viii. Pancreas Common bile duct The pancreas is an elongated Small Intestine Body of pancreas Pancreatic duct glandular organ located between the duodenum just below the stomach. It is about 15 cm long weighing around 85-100 gm. The head of the pancreas Tail of pancreas lies near the duodenum, and its body and tail extend towards the spleen. The pancreas is both an endocrine Head of pancreas gland and an exocrine gland. So, it is also known as the mixed gland. As an exocrine gland, it secretes digestive enzymes into the small intestine which break down fats, carbohydrates, proteins and acids. As an endocrine gland, it secretes insulin and glucagon hormones into the blood stream. Insulin plays an important role to balance sugar level in the blood. If a person’s body does not make enough insulin, the blood sugar rises then the person suffers from diabetes mellitus. ix. Male Gonads (Testes) The testes are the male gonads. They are about 4 cm long and 2 cm wide. They are of oval shape and whitish in colour. Inside the testis, there are about 200 - 300 cone shaped sections called lobules. In each lobule, there are thin coiled up tiny muscular tubes called seminiferous tubules which produce spermatozoa. The leydig cells of the male gonad secrete male sex hormone called testosterone hormone. x. Female Gonads (Ovaries) The ovaries are the female gonads. They are oval in shape; about 4 cm long and 2 cm wide. After the onset of puberty, ovaries secrete female sex hormones called Oestrogen and Progesterone which help to perform primary and secondary sexual characteristics. They also play key role for ovulation and menstruation cycle. xi. Parathyroid Glands PARATHYROID GLANDS Parathyroid glands is the group of four small pea sized glands. They are situated in the posterior part of the Thyroid gland. These glands secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH) that control the distribution of calcium and phosphorus in the body. Over secretion of this hormone may cause kidney stones and Osteoporosis. On the other hand, less secreation of PTH causes muscle cramps, tetany (involuntary muscle contraction) and other several problems. 16

B. Exocrine Glands Mammary glands pores The glands that discharge secretions epidermis by means of ducts are called exocrine glands. The exocrine glands include sweat glands, salivary glands, mammary dermis glands, and the glands of digestive Parotid duct system. They depend solely on ducts for Parotid Sweat gland transportation of their secretion. Hence, salivary glands they are also known as duct glands. Effects and response time of exocrine glands take shorter time in comparison to endocrine glands. Difference between Endocrine and Exocrine Glands Endocrine Glands Exocrine Glands Endocrine glands secrete their products Exocrine glands secrete their products directly into the bloodstream. into the ducts. They do not utilize ducts in the They depend solely on ducts for transportation of their secretions transportation of their secretions (hormone). (enzymes). Transportation of the secretion by Transportation of the secretion by the the endocrine system through the exocrine system through the duct is bloodstream is slower. faster. Effects and response time of endocrine Effects and response time of exocrine glands is longer. glands is shorter. Endocrine glands are also called Exocrine glands are also called duct ductless glands. glands. Pineal glands, pituitary gland, ovaries, Salivary glands, sweat glands, mammary testes, etc are the examples of glands are the examples of exocrine endocrine glands. glands. [Activity] Divide your class into two different groups. One group draw the diagrams of exocrine glands and next group draw the diagram of endocrine glads, then explain the differences between exocrine and endocrine in the class under the supervision of your teacher. Word Meaning Leydig cell : a cell in the testes that secretes the hormone testosterone Melatonin : a hormone secreted by the pineal gland which influences the onset of puberty, menstrual cycle, and sleep 17

Recap S The glandular system is essential to regulate the body’s growth, metabolism, sexual development and the functioning of the various systems of the body. S The glands that secrete hormones directly into the circulatory system are considered as endocrine glands. Pineal gland, pituitary gland, pancreas, ovaries, testes, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, hypothalamus, gastrointestinal tract and adrenal glands are the examples of endocrine glands. S Nerve cells in the hypothalamus control the pituitary gland then instruct the pituitary gland on what needs to be done. S The pituitary gland is an endocrine gland about the size of a pea and weighing 0.5 grams in humans. It is often called the “master gland” since it makes hormones that control several other endocrine glands. It is located at the base of the brain just beneath the hypothalamus. S The pineal gland is located in the middle part of the brain and secretes melatonin hormone that promotes sleep and depresses reproductive function. S Thyroid gland is a large endocrine gland which is located at the base of the neck. Lack of iodine in the diet causes goiter in the children. On the other hand, over secretion of thyroid hormone causes metabolic rate unusually higher. S The thymus gland secretes the hormone called thymosin, which is essential for the development of white blood cells particularly T-lymphocytes. S There are two adrenal glands which are located on top of each kidney. They produce the hormones called cortisol and adrenaline which helps to digest carbohydrates and maintain the glucose level in the blood. S Over secretion of cortisol and adrenaline hormones may cause hypertension, diabetes mellitus, depression, weak immune system, premature sexual maturation, etc. On the other hand, under secretion causes low blood pressure, weight loss, nausea, loss of appetite, skin pigmentation, weakness, etc. S The pancreas is structurally an elongated glandular organ located between the duodenum just below the stomach which is also known as the mixed gland. As an exocrine gland, it secretes digestive enzymes into the small intestine which break down fats, carbohydrates, proteins and acids. As an endocrine gland, it secretes insulin, glucagon and somatostatin hormones into the blood stream. S The testes are the male gonads which produce secrete sperms and male sex hormone called testosterone hormone. S The ovaries are the female gonads which produce ova and secrete the female sex hormones called estrogen and progesterone. S Parathyroid glands is situated in the posterior part of the thyroid gland. These glands secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH) that controls the distribution of calcium and phosphorus in the body. S The glands that discharge secretions by means of ducts, which open into an epithelial surface, are called exocrine glands. The glands like sweat glands, salivary glands, mammary glands, etc are the examples of exocrine glands. 18

EXERCISE A. Answer the following questions. 1. What is glandular system? 2. What is endocrine gland? Give two examples. 3. Why is pituitary gland also known as a master gland? 4. Explain briefly about thyroid gland. 5. Give an introduction to female gonad. 6. Write the difference between adrenal gland and pineal gland. 7. Write any two major differences between endocrine and exocrine glands. B. Match the following: A B Pineal gland Testes Thymus gland Top of the kidneys Endocrine gland Spermatozoa Bloodstream Adrenal glands Exocrine gland Melatonin Thymosin C. Write short notes on: a. Exocrine glands b. Female gonad c. Pancreas Community Work Conduct a talk programme in your school about the need, importance and functions of endocrine and exocrine glands for a healthy life inviting health post incharge; representatives of local government and your guardians. 19

Chapter - III Nervous System Learning Achievement After completing this chapter, students will be able to: M Give introduction to nervous system. M Tell the names of different parts of neurons. M Tell the names of different parts of central nervous system and their functions. M Tell the functions of spinal cord. M Explain about peripheral nervous system. Introduction The nervous system is a complex network system of our body through which the whole body works together in an organized manner. Therefore, it is also known as master system. It consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sensory receptors. Structurally, the nervous system is formed by the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS consists of the brain and the spinal cord. The PNS consists mainly nerves, which are enclosed bundles of the long fibers or axons. The nervous system is responsible for sensory perception, mental activities, and stimulating muscle movements. I. Neurons The cells that build up the nervous system is called neuron. It is also known as a “nerve cell”. Neuron is the basic functional unit of nervous system. A Neuron has special structures that allow it to send signals to other cells along the thin fibers called axons. The communication process between the neurons through chemical and electrical synapses is known as neurotransmission. It is also known as synaptic transmission. According to their special function, the neurons are classified as sensory neurons, motor neurons, and interneuron. Different Parts of a Neuron Dendrites Axon Terminal Node of i. Cell body Cell body Ranvier The cell body is the round enlarged part Axon Schwann cell of a neuron that contains the nucleus, mitochondria, and most of the cellular Myelin sheath organelles. It gives rise to small tree-like structures called dendrites but never to more than one axon. Nucleus 20

ii. Dendrites Dendrites are thin structures that arise from the cell body branching multiple times, giving rise to a complex “dendritic tree”. iii. Axon An axon is a special cellular extension that arises from the cell body at a site called axon hillock and travels for a distance as far as one meter in humans or even more in other species. II. Division of the Nervous System Although humans have only one nervous system, it can be subdivided into the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). A. Central Nervous System (CNS) Cerebrum The central nervous system consists of the Midbrain brain and the spinal cord. The CNS acts as the control center of the body. The CNS is Pons Cerebellum the major site for processing information, Medulla initiating responses and integrating mental processes. It is also responsible for higher Spinal cord functions of the nervous system such as language, creativity, expression, emotions, and personality. The different parts of the central nervous system are explained below: a. Brain Brain is the main part of the central nervous system. It is formed by the highly developed mass of billions of neurons. It is the command center for the body’s functions. The average human brain weighs approximately (2%) of the total body weight (about 1,400 gm). It is located inside the cranial cavity where the bones of the skull surround and protect it. The three connective tissues membrane called meninges encloses it. It receives afferent impulses from the peripheral nerve endings and sends efferent impulses to the limbs and the organs. The brain has three main parts. The largest part is called cerebrum, which controls vision, touch and other senses. The cerebellum is another section of the brain that helps in controlling balance and coordination of the body. Another part of the brain is known as the brain stem (i.e. mid brain, medulla oblongata and Pons varolli). The brain stem generates link between the spinal cord and other parts of the brain. i. Cerebrum The cerebrum is the largest part of the human brain. It is associated with higher brain function such as thought and action. It accounts for the largest portion of the total weight of the brain, which is about 1,200 g. It is divided into left and right hemispheres by a deep cleft from middle called longitudinal fissure. It is located on 21

top of the cerebellum and brainstem. Frontal Central sulcus Each hemisphere of the cerebrum lobe Parietal lobe can be further divided into four lobes such as frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe and occipital lobe. Functions of the Cerebrum M Mental activities such as memory, Occipital lobe intelligence, reasoning, thinking, Cerebellum imagination takes place in the Lateral cerebrum. fissure Temporal M It helps to respond to the stimuli lobe of pain, touch, temperature, sight, hearing, taste and smell. M It handles the movement of the voluntary or skeletal muscles. M It initiates and controls the function of involuntary muscles. ii. Cerebellum The cerebellum is the second largest part of the brain. In Latin word, cerebellum means little brain. It lies below the occipital lobe of the cerebrum. It is attached to the brainstem posterior to the pons varolli. This part of the brain is responsible for a number of functions including motor skills such as balance, coordination, and posture as well as eye movement. It relays information between body muscles and areas of the cerebral cortex that are involved in motor control. The cerebellum receives information from the sensory systems, the spinal cord, and other parts of the brain and then regulates motor movements. The cerebellum is responsible for controlling motor functions and muscle coordination. This means that the ability to control how we move, walk, talk and other physical activities will be, regulated by this portion of the brain. Function of the Cerebellum M Regulation of balanced and smooth muscular activity M Ability to judge distance and when to stop M Coordination of voluntary movement M Control of muscle tone M Balance of posture iii. Midbrain The mid brain is a portion of the central nervous system. It lies under the cerebrum and on top of the Pons varolli. It is the smallest region of the brainstem. The midbrain joins the brain and the spinal cord together. It contains ascending and descending nerve fibers, visual reflex center and auditory pathway. It is responsible for the coordination of visual and auditory reflexes. 22

Functions of Midbrain M The main function of the midbrain is to relay the impulses back and forth between the brain and the other organs. M The midbrain is associated with vision, hearing, motor control, sleep cycle, alertness and regulation of body temperature. M It is responsible for controlling all of the responses related to sensory information and regulating the body’s actions to those responses. For example ; if the hand experiences a sharp pain, the midbrain tells the brain that the hand needs to pull back. iv. Pons Varolli The Pons varolli is a portion of the brainstem, which is located above the medulla oblongata and below the midbrain; just in front of the cerebellum. It measures about 2.5 cm in length. It works as a bridge between various parts of the nervous system including the cerebellum and cerebrum. The Pons varolli contains nuclei that relay signals from the forebrain to the cerebellum. The nuclei deals primarily with sleep, respiration, swallowing, bladder control, hearing, taste, facial expression and posture. Function of Pons Varolli M It controls the muscles that are responsible for biting, chewing, and swallowing. M It has also been associated with the control of sleep cycle. M It also plays role in secretion of saliva and tear. M It controls the depth and frequency of breath. M It plays sensory roles in taste, touch, pain, etc. M It helps the eyes to look from side to side. M It also controls facial expression. v. Medulla Oblongata The medulla oblongata is the inferior part of the brainstem. It is about 3 cm long. It is a cone-shaped neuron mass and connected to the pons varolli on its superior boarder and to the spinal cord on its inferior boarder. It lies anterior to the cerebellum. This part of the brain is a center for respiration and circulation. Sensory and motor neurons from the forebrain and midbrain travel through the medulla. This section of the brain helps transfer messages to the spinal cord and the thalamus. In which, the main function of the thalamus is to process information to and from the spinal cord and the cerebellum. Function of the Medulla Oblongata M Medulla oblongata transfers messages back and forth between various parts of the brain and the spinal cord. M It regulates the functions of autonomic nervous system including respiration, cardiac function, vasodilatation, and reflexes like vomiting, coughing, sneezing, and swallowing. 23

b. Spinal Cord Cervical C1 Cervical plexus nerves 2 (C1-4) The spinal cord is a long, thin mass of bundled Thoracic 3 Brachial plexus neurons. Like brain, spinal cord is also a part nerves 4 (C5-T1) of our central nervous system. Backbone Lumbar 5 surrounds the spinal cord. Thirty-one pairs of nerves 6 Dura mater spinal nerves connect the spinal cord to the 7 rest of our body. These nerves are part of the 8 Cauda equina peripheral nervous system. T1 2 Lumbar Function of the Spinal Cord 3 plexus M It coordinates alternating movements 4 (L1-4) Lumbo- 5 sacral during walking. 6 plexus 7 M It relays message of pain, movement, 8 temperature, touch, and vibration 9 regarding the skin, joints, muscles, and internal organs. 10 M It connects a large part of the peripheral 11 nervous system to the brain. 12 B. Peripheral nervous system (PNS) L1 The peripheral nervous system is also an 2 important part of nervous system. It consists of the nerves, ganglia and spinal cord. The 3 twelve cranial nerves except the cranial 4 nerve II (i.e. cranial nerve II means the 5 optic nerve, along with the retina) are part of the PNS. These twelve cranial nerve S1 Sacral (L1-S4) axons extend beyond the brain and are S2 plexus therefore considered as part of the PNS. Sacral S3 (L4-S4) nerves Coccygeal S4 nerves S5 Coccygeal Co plexus (S5-Co) Eye Parasympathetic Cranial nerve III Lungs Cranial nerve VI Cranial nerve IX There are two types of cells in the Heart peripheral nervous system like sensory nervous system cells and motor nervous Vagus nerve system cells. These cells carry information to and from the central nervous system. Liver Stomach (Cranial The sensory nervous system cells send Kidney nerve X) information to the CNS from internal organs or from external stimuli whereas motor Spleen nervous system cells carry information from the CNS to organs, muscles and glands. Rectum SSS324 The motor nervous system is again divided Bladder into the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system. Genitalia 24

i. Somatic Nervous System (SNS) The somatic nervous system includes all of the voluntary efferent neurons. The SNS is consciously controlled part of the PNS. It controls skeletal muscle as well as external sensory organs such as the skin. This system is said to be voluntary because the responses can be controlled consciously. Reflex actions of skeletal muscle however are an exception. ii. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) The autonomic nervous system is a division of the PNS that includes all of the involuntary efferent neurons. The autonomic nervous system controls involuntary muscle tissues such as visceral muscle tissue, cardiac muscle tissue, and glandular tissue. This system is also called the involuntary nervous system. The autonomic nervous system can further be divided into the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions: [ Parasympathetic division It works to decrease respiration and heart rate, constricting pupils, increase digestion and permit the elimination of wastes. The parasympathetic division forms the body’s “rest and digest” response when the body is relaxed, resting, or feeding. [ Sympathetic division It increases respiration and heart rate, dilates pupils, releases adrenaline and other stress hormones, and decreases digestion to cope with these situations. It is also involved in the ‘flight or fight’ response to stress, danger, excitement, exercise, emotions, and embarrassment. [Activity] Draw a well labelled diagram of neuron in a chart paper. Mention its functions and show your diagram in the class and discuss in the presence of your subject teacher. Word Meaning Brainstem : the stalk like part of the brain consisting of the medulla oblongata, the midbrain, and the pons Varolii Cranial cavity : the cavity enclosed by the bones of the cranium or skull to protect the brain and spinal cord; dura mater, arachnoid mater and pia mater Efferent impulse : the impulses that pass from brain to muscles or organs Reflex action : the body’s automatic, involuntary response to a stimulus Stimuli : an agent, action, or condition that elicits or accelerates a physiological or psychological activity or response Vasodilatation : widening of blood vessels as a result of relaxation of the muscles in the walls which allows a greater volume of blood to pass through 25

Recap S The nervous system is a complex network system of our body through which the whole body works together in an organized manner. Structurally, the nervous system is formed by the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). It consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sensory receptors. S The cells that build up the nervous system is called neuron. It is also known as a “nerve cell”. Neuron is the basic functional unit of nervous system. According to their special function, the neurons are classified as sensory neurons, motor neurons, and interneuron. S The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and the spinal cord. It is the major site for processing information, initiating responses and integrating mental processes. S Brain is the main part of the central nervous system. The average human brain weighs approximately (2%) of the total body weight (about 1,400 g). It has three main parts. The largest part called cerebrum controls vision, touch, and other senses. The cerebellum of the brain helps in controlling balance and coordination of the body and the brain stem generates link between the spinal cord and other parts of the brain. S The mid brain is a portion of the central nervous system. It is the smallest region of the brainstem and lies under the cerebrum and on top of the Pons varolli. It joins the brain and the spinal cord together. It is also responsible for the coordination of visual and auditory reflexes. S The Pons varolli is a portion of the brainstem, located above the medulla oblongata and below the midbrain. The Pons varolli controls the muscles that are responsible for biting, chewing, and swallowing. It is also responsible in secretion of saliva and tears and facial expression. S The medulla oblongata is the inferior part of the brainstem. It is a cone-shaped neuron mass and connected to the pons varolli on its superior boarder and to the spinal cord on its inferior boarder. It regulates the functions of autonomic nervous system including respiration, cardiac function, vasodilatation, and reflexes like vomiting, coughing, sneezing, and swallowing. S The spinal cord is a long, thin mass of bundled neurons. Our backbone surrounds the spinal cord. It coordinates alternating movements during walking. It also relays message of pain, movement, temperature, touch, and vibration regarding the skin, joints, muscles, and internal organs. S The peripheral nervous system is also an important part of nervous system. It consists of the nerves and ganglia outside of the brain and spinal cord. The twelve cranial nerves except the cranial nerve II are part of the PNS. S The somatic nervous system includes all of the voluntary efferent neurons. The SNS is the only consciously controlled part of the PNS. This system is said to be voluntary because the responses can be controlled consciously. S The autonomic nervous system is a division of the PNS that includes all of the involuntary efferent neurons. The autonomic nervous system controls involuntary muscle tissues such as cardiac muscle tissue, glandular tissue, etc. 26

EXERCISE A. Answer the following questions. 1. What is nervous system? 2. What is neuron? Name different parts of neuron. 3. What is central nervous system? 4. Mention the functions of spinal cord. 5. Give an introduction to somatic nervous system. 6. Write the difference between sympathetic division and parasympathetic division. 7. Explain briefly about cerebrum. 8. Write the functions of mid brain. B. Write True or False. 1. Dendrites are emerged from the cell body. 2. PNS consists of the nerves inside of the brain and spinal cord. 3. Medulla oblongata transfers messages back and forth between brain and spinal cord. 4. Neuron is also known as a nerve cell. 5. Sympathetic division dilates pupils and releases stress hormones. C. Write short notes on: a. Brain b. Pons Varolli c. Autonomic Nervous System d. Medulla oblongata Community Work Invite a physician or health worker in your community and request him/her to educate community people about the structure and functions of different parts of nervous system. 27

Chapter - IV Human Reproductive System Learning Achievement After completing this chapter, students will be able to: M Give introduction to reproductive system. M Tell the female reproductive organs and their functions. M Tell the male reproductive organs and their functions. M Elaborate about menstruation cycle. Introduction All living things reproduce since it is their basic characteristics. Reproduction is the process by which organisms make more organisms like themselves. Single celled living beings produce another cell from the cell division process. In human beings, this process occurs through sexual reproduction. When the sperm fertilizes the ovum, this fertilized egg is called zygote. The zygote goes through a process of becoming an embryo and developing into a fetus. The combination of various organs and tissues, which are related with the process of reproduction is called reproductive system. If the male gamete or sperm, and the female gamete or ovum meets in the female’s reproductive organ called fallopian tube, fertilization occurs. Both the male and female reproductive systems are essential for reproduction. A. Female Reproductive System The female reproductive organs uterus are divided into external and internal organs. However, Fallopian internal organs play the main tube role in reproductive system. They are mentioned below: ovary ovary cervix i. Vaginal Canal The vaginal canal is a muscular vaginal canal tube that extends from the cervix to vulva. It is about 8 cm long. It is formed by fibro-elastic muscular connective tissues. It is the female organ to receive the penis during sexual intercourse and it allows menstrual flow and childbirth. The wall of the vaginal canal consists of smooth muscular layer that allows it increase in size to stretch greatly during childbirth period. 28

ii Uterus The uterus is a pear shaped muscular hollow reproductive organ. It is about 7.5 cm long and 5 cm wide. It is located between the urinary bladder and rectum. It is formed by the fibro-elastic muscular connective tissues. It is the place where the fertilized ovum becomes implanted and develops into a foetus during the pregnancy period. It is divided into three sections like fundus, body, and cervix. The fundus is the top part of the uterus lying above the fallopian tubes. The body is the middle part of uterus. The lower narrow neck is called cervix. The uterine wall is composed of three layers of which; the outermost layer is called perimetrium, the middle layer is known as myometrium and the innermost layer is called endometrium. iii Fallopian Tubes There are two fallopian tubes in the uterus. They are also known as oviducts or uterine tubes. They are extended from either sides of the dome shaped upper part of the uterus. They are about 10 cm long. The end of each fallopian tube has finger like structure called fimbriae. The fallopian tube receives ovum from the ovary and passes to the uterus. Normally, fertilization occurs in the fallopian tube. iv Ovaries The ovaries are the female gonads. Ovary They are oval shaped and are about 4 cm long and 2 cm wide. Secondary follicle Oocyte Primary follicle They are formed by connective Primordial follicle tissues. There is large number of immature ova known as graafian Graafian follicles inside the ovaries. After follicle the onset of puberty, a follicle gets matured in every month. Degenerating corpus luteum (corpus albicans) Then ovulation takes place. In the Corpus luteum process of ovulation, a matured Egg Ovulation Developing ovum comes out from the follicle; corpus luteum travels through fallopian tube and reaches the uterus. This process continues every month until the woman becomes pregnant or she reaches menopause. Ovaries also secrete the female sex hormones called estrogen and progesterone. B. Male Reproductive System i. Testes The testes are the male reproductive gonads. They are about 4 cm long and 2 cm wide. They are found in oval shape and whitish colour. Inside the testis, there are about 200 - 300 cone shaped sections called lobules. In each lobule, there are 2 - 4 thin coiled up tiny muscular tubes called seminiferous tubules where spermatozoa 29

are produced. An external pouch called Efferent Testis Seminiferous scrotum encloses them. They also ductules tubule secrete the male sex hormone called testosterone hormone. Epididymis Duct of epididymis ii. Epididymis The seminiferous tubules get convoluted Vasdeferens and formed a coma shaped structure, coiled which is called Epididymis. It is a very seminiferous tubules long narrow tube, which is extensively coiled up. They are located on the posterior side of each testis. This tubule alone if unravelled would extend for several meters. It passes sperms from the testis to vasdeferens. iii. Vasdeferens The vasdeferens emerges from the tail of the epididymis and ends to ejaculatory duct. There are two vasdeferenses in the male reproductive system. They are about 45 cm long. They transport spermatozoa from the epididymis to the seminal vesicle. iv. Ejaculatory Ducts A short muscular duct that joins seminal vesicle with urethra is known as ejaculatory duct. There are two ejaculatory ducts in a male reproductive system. They emerge from seminal vesicles and end by opening into the urethra. They are approximately 2.5 cm long. They carry seminal fluid and sperms from the seminal vesicles towards the urethra. Seminal vesicle Epididymis Urinary Ejaculatory duct Testis bladder Vas deferens Prostate gland Scrotum Cowper gland Urethra Penis 30 Foreskin

v. Seminal Vesicles There are two small fibro-muscular pouches called seminal vesicles in the male reproductive system. They are joined to the ampula of the vasdeferenses. They are located on the posterior part of the urinary bladder. They are about 5 cm long and 3 cm wide. They produce sticky viscous fluid called seminal fluid and store sperms. The seminal fluid supplies nutrients to sperms and helps in sperm motility. vi. Prostate Gland Prostate gland is an important part of the male reproductive system. It lies just below the urinary bladder. It is walnut shaped and measures about 4 cm long and 2 cm wide. It surrounds the starting portion of urethra and the ejaculatory duct. It produces a thin slippery fluid called prostatic fluid. It facilitates the sexual function by neutralizing the acid suspension of urethra by releasing prostatic fluid and blocking urination during intercourse time. vii. Penis Penis is an external male reproductive organ. It is cylindrical in shape and is formed by soft fibro-elastic tissues. It is divided into three parts such as root, body, and glans. The tip of the penis (glans) is triangular which is covered by the double folded skin called prepuce or foreskin. It surrounds the urethra. C. Menstruation Cycle Discharge of blood, dead ovum, mucus membrane, and dead endometrial cells from the uterus throughout the vaginal canal is called menstruation. It occurs for 4-6 days at the interval of one month. However; in some females, it may vary from as short as 18 days to as long as 40 days also. Menstruation occurs in every female from menarche to menopause. 29 30 P M2Pens3trPua4tiPon Ph Usually, It is observed among 1 the females from the age of 11/ 13 years to 45/49 years. The 28 4-6 days aseP following diagram illustrates a 14 days 27 5 phase) P 6 25 26 complete menstruation cycle: 7 Factors to be considered at Menstrual CyclePhase (Iuteal10 Prolo Fertile Menstruation of 30 days 22 23 24 8 9 10 Menstruation is a normal Ovulation Occurs process that occurs in every P= Menstrual PeriodSecretory0 21 days Phase female. Proper hygiene of the genital organ should be phase) 11 12 maintained during this period. However, the problems like 2 19 13 14 (foli 18 17 16 15 cular 31

severe pain at lower abdomen, heavy bleeding, etc may arise during the menses time. Hence, the following points need to be considered at menstruation time: e Menstruation is a natural process. If someone has her first menstruation, she must discus the problems with friends and seniors to get right information and advice. e In case of physical pain during the period, it is good to drink more liquid and use hot rubber bag. (It is said that bed rest may be harmful, hence simple body movement and walking is beneficial) e It is better to use disposable sanitary pad. If the sanitary pad is not available, clean, and soft cotton, cloth can be used. e Regular bathing is required for good hygiene during this period. Vagina must be clean after each urination. e Heavy work may be harmful in this period. e More rest is recommended during this period. e Balanced diet is required for good health in this period. e More attention in personal hygiene is essential. [Activity] Draw the well labelled diagrams of male and female reproductive system in a chart paper and cling it on your classroom wall. Word Meaning Embryo : the human product of conception up to approximately the end of the second month of pregnancy Motility : ability to move spontaneously and independently Viscous fluid : a fluid whose viscosity is sufficiently large to make the viscous forces a significant part of the total force field in the fluid. Zygote : the cell resulting from the union of an ovum and a spermatozoon 32

Recap S Reproduction is the process by which organisms make more organisms like themselves. In human beings, this process occurs through sexual reproduction. S The vaginal canal is a fibro-elastic muscular tube of about 8 cm long. It is the female genital to receive the penis during sexual intercourse and it allows menstrual flow and childbirth. S The uterus is a pear shaped muscular hollow reproductive organ of about 7.5 cm long and 5 cm wide. It is the place where the fertilized ovum becomes implanted and develops into a foetus during the pregnancy period. S There are two fallopian tubes in the uterus. They are about 10 cm long. The fallopian tube receives ovum from the ovary and passes to the uterus. Normally, fertilization occurs in the fallopian tube. S The ovaries are the female gonads. They are oval shaped and are about 4 cm long and 2 cm wide. Ovaries hold a large number of immature ova and also secrete the female sex hormones called estrogen and progesterone. S The testes are the male reproductive gonads. They produce sperms and also secrete the male sex hormone called testosterone hormone. S Epididymis is the coma shaped structured convoluted semniferous tubules. It is a very long narrow tube which is extensively coiled up. It passes sperm cells from the testis to vasdeferens. S Vasdeferenses are the male reproductive organs. They are about 45 cm long. They transport spermatozoa from the Epididymis to the seminal vesicles. S There are two ejaculatory ducts in male reproductive system. They are approximately 2.5 cm long. They carry seminal fluid and sperms from the seminal vesicles towards the urethra. S There are two small fibro-muscular pouches called seminal vesicles in the male reproductive system. They are about 5 cm long and 3 cm wide. They produce sticky viscous fluid called seminal fluid and store sperms. S Prostate gland is a walnut shaped important part of the male reproductive system. It lies just below the urinary bladder. It surrounds the starting portion of urethra and the ejaculatory ducts. It produces a thin slippery fluid called prostatic fluid. It facilitates the sexual function by neutralizing the acid suspension of urethra by releasing prostatic fluid and blocking urination during intercourse time. S Penis is a cylindrical shaped external male reproductive organ. This genital is used in copulation. S Discharge of blood, dead ovum, mucus membrane, and dead endometrial cells from the uterus throughout the vaginal canal is called menstruation. It occurs for 4-6 days at the interval of one month. Usually, menstruation is observed among the females from the age of 11/13 years to 45/49 years. 33

EXERCISE A. Answer the following questions. 1. What is human reproduction? 2. Explain the structure and function of uterus. 3. Explain the structure and function of fallopian tube. 4. Illustrate the structure and function of testes. 5. Briefly explain the structure and functions of Epididymis. 6. Write the differences between vas deferens and ejaculatory ducts in two points. 7. What is menstruation? 8. Mention any four factors that are to be considered during menstruation. B. Fill in the blanks. 1. There are................................lobules in each testis. 2. ................................produces seminal fluid. 3. Prepuce lies at the tip of the................................. 4. At the end of the conception period, the fertilized zygote implants on the ................................wall. 5. Menstruation is the.........................of.........................from the vaginal canal. C. Write short notes: a. Seminal Vesicles b. Prostate gland c. Fertilization d. Reproduction Community Work Visit a health center or community hospital nearby your school and collect the data about the patients who received health service of reproductive health problem. Analyze that data in terms of age and sex composition. 34

Unit Personal Health 2 Learning Achievement After completing this unit, students will be able to: M Give introduction to personal health. M Tell the different ways to keep body healthy. M Explain the need and importance of regular health examination. Introduction to Personal Health We can keep our body healthy through good hygiene. We need to keep our body clean for living a healthy life. Regular exercise, proper rest and sleep as well as entertainment are also equally important for having good personal health. We also need to eat balanced and healthy food along with adequate water. The bad habits like smoking, alcoholism and drug abuse deteriorate our health. Pseudo fashion show off, unnecessary body makeup, unhealthy food and unsafe sexual behaviour ruin our health, productivity and life. Infact, personal health leads to healthy and quality of life. A. Ways to Keep Body clean There is direct association between cleanliness of body and personal health. Personal hygiene can prevent people from various kinds of diseases. It also makes them look good. Unwashed hands can cause various kinds of diseases like diarrhea, dysentery, worm infestation, etc. Washing hands before preparing or eating food, after going to the bathroom, after coughing or sneezing, and after handling garbage, can prevent from spread of bacteria and viruses. We should always wash our hands. We need to consider following points to keep our body clean: e Hands and feet must be washed thoroughly with clean water and soap after using the toilet, before making or eating food and after handling dogs or other animals. e Hair should be washed regularly with shampoo and clean water. e Teeth should be brushed twice a day after every meal. e The different parts of the body such as eyes, nose, skin, genitals should be kept clean. 35

e Clipping of nails, washing of clothes and combing hair should be done timely and regularly. e Clean water and hanky should be used to keep eyes clean. e Taking bath regularly. e Clean and comfortable clothes should be worn according to the changing season. e The substances like alcohol, tobacco and narcotic drugs should not be taken. e Never walk with bare feet and there should be separate slippers for the toilet use. e The articles like towel, comb, brush, etc should be used personally. [Activity] Conduct an essay competition on the topic ‘Need and importance of good personal health’ among your class 8 friends under the supervision of your subject teacher and read the highest scoring top three essays in the class for discussion. B. Regular Health Examination Regular health examination is done for risk factors and to evaluate health condition of individuals. It prevents us from different kinds of diseases. For example, regular measurement of blood pressure helps to detect the condition of blood pressure. The objective of regular health examination is to control the risks factors for future diseases. It is essential to live a healthy life. The following points should be considered during the health examination time: Periodical health examination is necessary to observe the condition of the vital organs of our body like heart, kidney, lungs, intestine, etc. There should be regular health examination of the pregnant women and infants. There should be regular measurement of height and weight of the children. The children should be provided with easily digestible balanced diet. There should be timely vaccination to the children. There should be provision of eye check up routinely. Word Meaning Alcoholism : the excessive drinking of and dependence on alcoholic beverages Genitals : the sexual organs (the testicles and penis of a male or the labia, clitoris, and vagina of a female) Narcotic drugs : the illegal drugs that alters the normal condition of the body and develops tolerance ladder and addiction to the users Pseudo : false or deceitful 36

Recap S One of the most effective ways we have to protect others and ourselves from illness is personal hygiene. S Washing hands thoroughly after using the bathroom, not to cough or sneeze on others, putting rubbish into the dustbin is area of personal health. S Washing hands thoroughly with soap and water before preparing or eating food, after using bathroom, after coughing or sneezing, and after handling garbage can prevent us from the prevalence of infectious diseases. S Ideally, you should brush your teeth after every meal. Brushing teeth at least twice daily minimizes the accumulation of plaque and harmful bacteria in your mouth. S You should brush your teeth twice a day - after breakfast and before you go to bed. S The purpose of the periodic health examination is to evaluate health status, screening for risk factors and health condition of the individuals. S Periodical health examination is mandatory to observe the condition of the vital organs of the body. S There must be proper and timely vaccination of the children. EXERCISE A. Answer the following questions. 1. What is personal hygiene? 2. Why do we need to wash our hands? 3. At what conditions you need to wash your hands? 4. Why do we wash our hair? 5. Mention the points that need to be considered while washing hair. 6. Illustrate an ideal routine for brushing teeth mention its advantage. 7. What is regular health examination? Mention the purpose of regular health examination. B. Write True or False. 1. Washing hands thoroughly after using the bathroom is not the area of personal hygiene. 2. Massaging scalp may help to remove dead skin cells and dirt from the hair. 3. Brushing teeth at least twice a day minimizes the accumulation of plaque and harmful bacteria in our mouth. 4. Periodical health examination is not necessary in our life. 5. Proper and timely vaccination is mandatory to the children. 37

Unit Nutrition 3 Learning Achievement After completing this unit, students will be able to: M Explain about nutrition. M Explain the types of malnutrition. M Explain the various nutrient deficiency diseases. M Tell the ways of preparing balanced diet from locally available food materials. M Illustrate the methods of preserving nutrients while cooking food. M Tell the effect of junk food on human health. Nutrition is a food science which explains about getting the right amount of nutrients from healthy foods in the right combination. According to Lusk Graham, “nutrition is the sum process concerned with growth maintenance and repair of the living body as a whole or of its constituent parts”. Good nutrition is essential for maintaining healthy bodily function. Carbohydrate, proteins, and fats as well as fibers, vitamins, minerals and water are the examples of nutrients. They supply energy to our body. Nutrients are essential for the growth and development of our body. Malnutrition Malnutrition is a broad term, which refers to both under nutrition and over nutrition. Malnutrition can be defined as “the condition of insufficient, excessive or imbalanced consumption of nutrients.” Children who are severely undernourished experience slow behavioral development and mental retardation. Types of Malnutrition On the basis of complexity level, malnutrition can be classified as: 38

i. Normal Malnutrition Such type of malnutrition does not have specific symptoms. Therefore, this type of malnutrition cannot be marked easily. It is normally the condition of underweight according to height. It can be identified by regular weight examination. ii. Medium Malnutrition In this type of malnutrition, children are not having normal weight and height according to age but nutritional deficiency diseases are not observed in them. In this condition, the child keeps on crying most of the time. iii. Severe Malnutrition In severe malnutrition, children suffer from kwashiorkor, marasmus, goiter, rickets and other specific nutrient deficiency diseases. a. Some Common Complication due to Malnutrition i. Kwashiorkor Kwashiorkor is a severe form of malnutrition in children that occurs when there is inadequate protein in the diet for a long period. If this disease is not treated in time, it may cause severe health problem to the children. Mainly the children below five years of age suffer from this disease. Signs and Symptoms Æ Low height and weight of children according to age Æ Reddish-orange hair discolouration Æ Loss of muscle mass Æ Large and distended abdomen Æ Pale and moon face Æ Muscle cramps Æ Persistent diarrhoea Æ Swelling occurs due to oedema Æ Fatigue and anaemia can be observed Æ Irritability Æ Dry skin with cracks is observed Preventive Measures Æ Provide foods that contain necessary nutrients especially proteins Æ Aware people about balanced diet Æ Protect child from other infections Æ Women should be encouraged for breast-feeding Æ Take care of mother from antenatal to postnatal period Æ Timely immunization 39

ii. Marasmus Marasmus is a form of severe malnutrition. This disease is also called ‘Protein energy malnutrition’ (PEM). It is caused by the deficiency of carbohydrates, fats and proteins. In this disease, body weight is reduced to more than 60 percent of the normal body weight. This disease is mainly found among the children below five years of age. Signs and Symptoms Æ Very often the child suffers from diarrhoea and loss of interest in food even in hunger Æ The skin wrinkles and the face looks like that of an old man Æ Loss of body weight in proportion to its height Æ The muscles and fat of the body start to decrease Æ The limbs are thin but the stomach gets bigger Æ The baby becomes thinner day by day Preventive Measures Æ Babies in the weaning period should be given sarbottam lito five or six times a day along with adequate breast-feeding Æ The baby should be given balanced diet (especially rich in proteins, fats and carbohydrate) Æ Mother should be made aware about the child nutrition iii. Rickets Rickets is childhood bone disorder due to the deficiency of vitamin ‘D’ in meal. In the absence of vitamin ‘D’, calcium and phosphorus are not absorbed well by our body. In the absence of calcium and phosphorus, the growth of bone and teeth is obstructed. As the bones become soft and weak, children are unable to bear the weight of the body; then bones of the feet are crooked and bent. Signs and Symptoms Æ Restlessness and slow in crawling and walking activities are observed in children Æ Bones of the legs seem crooked and bent Æ The wrists and ankles are swollen and enlarged Æ The head seems enlarged and flattened 40

Æ Physical growth of the child is very slow Æ The abdomen is enlarged or distended Æ There is deformity in the ribs Preventive Measures Æ Food containing vitamin ‘D’ like eggs, ghee, butter and cheese should be included in the meal Æ Rickets can be treated with administering vitamin ‘D’ in early stage Æ Sun basking can also provide vitamin ‘D’ to our body Æ Breast feeding should be encouraged iv. Anaemia This disease is caused by the deficiency of iron in the diet for a long period. This problem is mostly seen among the small children and pregnant women. Without adequate iron, our body cannot produce enough hemoglobin for red blood cells. This condition results into anemia. Causes Æ Low intake of vitamins like folic acid and vitamin B12 in the diet Æ Low intake of iron and copper in diet Æ Caffeinated drinks like tea, coffee, etc. Æ Heavy menstrual bleeding Æ Infection by the diseases like malaria, kalazar, hookworm, etc. Signs and Symptoms Æ Feeling of dizziness and tiredness Æ Pallor complexion Æ Shortness of breath Æ Ringing in the ears Æ Poor resistance to infection Æ Weakness and fatigue Æ Dry nails Preventive Measures Æ Intake of iron containing food like liver, fish, eggs, green vegetables, millet, beans, etc. Æ Vitamin ‘C’ containing fruits like lemon, orange and green leafy vegetables should be provided 41

v. Night Blindness Night blindness is the inability to see well at night or in poor light. The person suffering from this disease cannot see well in low light at an early dawn and in the evening time. This disease is caused by the deficiency of vitamin ‘A’ in diet. If a pregnant mother cannot get Vitamin ‘A’ adequately; her baby may also suffer from night blindness. If the affected persons are not treated in time, they may suffer from complete blindness in their future life. Signs and Symptoms Before After Æ If children have this disease, they do not move here and there in the evening Æ In dim light and in the evening, they cannot see the objects well Æ They cannot see very well in the bright sun Æ The eyeballs seem dry and rough Preventive Measures Æ Food containing vitamin ‘A’ like; egg, fish, meat, etc should be provided Æ Breast-feeding at least for two years should be encouraged Æ Vitamin ‘A’ capsule can be given to the patient vi. Scurvy Scurvy is caused by the deficiency of vitamin ‘C’ in the diet. Swelling and hemorrhage is seen in the gums in its early stage. In the later stage, subcutaneous bleeding and the opening of previously healed wounds may occur due to prolonged deficiency of the vitamin. It can affect any person whether s/he is an infant or adult. It may cause anemia also. Signs and Symptoms Æ The signs like loss of appetite, growth retardation are observed in children Æ General weakness and fatigue may be experienced Æ Spongy bleeding gums and loose teeth appears Æ Swollen tender joints can be observed Æ Haemorrhage in various tissues is observed Æ Lethargic and bad breath occurs Æ Scurvy may result in anaemia 42

Preventive Measures Æ Intake of foods containing vitamin ‘C’ such as carrots, broccoli, cabbage, spinach and fruits like orange, lemons, guava, papaya, strawberries, etc. Æ Green vegetables should be cooked short so that vitamin ‘C’ can be preserved Æ Scurvy can be treated administering the Ascorbic acid vitamin ‘C’ tablets vii. Goiter Goiter is the enlargement of thyroid gland due to the deficiency of Iodine in the body. The thyroid gland is located in the lower part of the throat. The gland cannot secrete enough thyroxin hormones if there is deficiency of Iodine in our food. Consequently, the gland becomes larger in search of the thyroxin hormone. Signs and Symptoms Æ The thyroid gland enlarges in the throat. As a result, a swelling is visible in front of the neck Æ The weight of the thyroid gland increases from its usual weight 25 gm up to 200 gm but in severe cases, it even reaches up to 500 gm Æ It disturbs the physical and mental development Æ Nervousness and increased blood pressure Æ Cretinism may appear to some patients Æ A feeling of tightness in the throat Æ Coughing more frequently than usual Æ Difficulty in breathing Æ Hoarseness of voice Preventive Measures Æ Iodine tablets as well as capsules can be administered Æ If goiter already prevails, consult the medical personnel Æ Supply food that contains Iodine Æ Always consume iodized salt [Activity] Collect the pictures of different nutrient deficiency diseases; collage them in a chart paper and cling it on your classroom wall. b. Ways of Having Balanced Diet from Locally Available Foods It has been already said that a balanced diet is essential for our good health. There 43

are different kinds of foods available in our surrounding. The foods that are found in our locality can be divided into different groups such as: Group of Foods Name of the Foods Milk products: milk, ghee, curd, cheese, butter, etc. Animal Sources Meat, fish, egg, etc. Plant sources Rice, wheat, maize, corn, millet, buckwheat, etc. Cereals Gram, cow pea, peas, mung dal, beans, rajmah, etc. Pulses and legumes Almond, mustard, coconut, sunflower, soyabean, etc. Oil Spinach, cabbage, lettuce, mustard leaves, kurilo, etc. Green leafy vegetables Mango, guava, banana, apple, grapes, pomegranates,etc. Fruits We can have balanced diet from the foods that are available in our locality. Vegetables and fruits are important part of a healthy and balanced meal. Fruits and vegetables are the vital source of vitamins and minerals. There is evidence that people who eat fruits and vegetables everyday are at lower risk of heart disease, stroke, and cancer. Meat, fish, legumes, and eggs are good sources of protein and minerals. They are essential for growth, and development of the body. Legumes include beans, peas, lentils, groundnuts, and soybeans. Milk and dairy foods such as cheese and yoghurt are good sources of protein. They also contain calcium, which helps to keep our bones healthy. Fat is also a good source of energy for the body but too much consumption can lead to obesity. c. Methods of Preserving Nutrients While Cooking Food Though we are having enough food in our diet, those food may lack nutrients due to improper way of handling. In this context, we can preserve nutrients in our food stuffs by applying the following measures: ^ The rice grains should not be washed too much before cooking. Because the vitamins may be washed away. ^ The vegetables to be eaten raw should be properly cleaned and cut only before eating them. ^ If the rice gruel is to be taken out while the rice is being cooked, it should be used in the vegetable. ^ Vegetable should be cut into pieces only after it has been properly washed and cleaned. If it is washed after cutting it into pieces, the vitamins may be lost. ^ The vegetable should not be over-cooked. ^ Spice, oil, and ghee should not be used too much in the food. ^ Vegetable should not be cut into very smaller pieces. 44

^ It is better not to use unauthorized colours in the food. ^ Rice should be cooked covering with a metal lid. ^ Food should not be deep-fried or overcooked. ^ Potatoes should be lightly peeled off. ^ Ghee should not be overheated. d. Packet Food (Junk Food) and its Impact on Health We can see the increasing tendency of eating junk food in our surroundings and school area. The readymade foods like potato chips, bhujia, chauchau, dalmoth, burgers, biscuits, sweets, French fries are some examples of junk foods. Eating of these junk foods impairs our health. Having just one serving of junk foods spoil our food habits. These kinds of foods contain very high levels of trans fats, salt and sugar but there is lacking of essential nutrients like protein, minerals, vitamins etc. Consumption of junk food invites nutrient deficiency diseases, obesity and other health problems. Some of the disadvantages of junk foods are mentioned below: ^ There is mixing of food additives such as colours, yeast, tasting powder and preservatives which may impair our health. ^ Long-term consumption of junk food may cause peptic ulcer. ^ Consumption of date expired packet/junk food becomes poisonous. ^ It may increase the risk of heart disease, gastro-intestinal diseases. ^ It does not fulfill all nutritional needs of our body. ^ Continues use of fast food may cause loss of appetite. ^ It impairs in the physical and mental development of the children. [Activity] Write down the effects of junk food on human health in a chart paper and cling it on your classroom wall. Word Meaning Cretinism : dwarfism and mental retardation due to too little secretion of thyroxin hormone in childhood Haemorrhage : profuse bleeding from ruptured blood vessels Lethargic : lacking mental and physical alertness and activity Subcutaneous : situated under the skin 45

Recap S According to Lusk Graham, “nutrition is the sum process concerned with growth maintenance and repair of the living body as a whole or of its constituent parts”. S The condition of insufficient, excessive or imbalanced consumption of nutrients is called malnutrition. S Normal malnutrition cannot be marked easily. It is normally the condition of underweight according to height. It can be identified by regular weight examination. S In medium malnutrition, children are not having normal weight and height according to age but nutritional deficiency diseases are not observed to them. In this condition, the child keeps on crying most of the time. S In severe malnutrition, the children suffer from different kinds of nutrient deficiency diseases like kwashiorkor, marasmus, goiter, rickets and other, etc. S Kwashiorkor is a severe form of malnutrition in infants and children that occurs when there is deficiency protein in the diet for a long period. S Marasmus is a form of severe malnutrition. This disease is also called ‘Protein energy malnutrition’ (PEM). It is caused by the deficiency of carbohydrates, fats and proteins. S Anaemia is caused by the deficiency of iron in the diet for a long period. This problem is mostly seen among the small children and pregnant women. S Night blindness is caused by the deficiency of vitamin ‘A’ in diet for long period. The person suffering from this disease cannot see well in low light at an early dawn and in the evening time. S Scurvy is a nutrient deficiency disease caused by the deficiency of vitamin ‘C’ in the diet. It can affect any person whether s/he is an infant or adult. It may cause anaemia also. S Rickets is disease of childhood bone disorder due to the deficiency of vitamin ‘D’ in diet for long period. S Goiter is the enlargement of thyroid gland due to the deficiency of Iodine in the body. The thyroid gland cannot secrete enough thyroxin hormones if there is deficiency of Iodine in our food. S Although we have enough food in our meal, our food may lack certain nutrients due to improper way of handling of those food materials. Therefore, the nutrients in foodstuffs should be protected by applying proper way of cooking. S Eating of readymade foods or junk foods like potato chips, bhujia, chauchau, dalmoth, burgers, biscuits, sweets, regularly impairs human health. 46

EXERCISE A. Answer the following questions. 1. What is nutrition? 2. What is malnutrition? 3. How many types of malnutrition are there? Mention them. 4. What is medium malnutrition? 5. What is PEM? Mention its two symptoms. 6. What is Anaemia? Mention its two preventive measures. 7. What is Night blindness? Mention its two symptoms. 8. What is Rickets? Mention its two symptoms. 9. Give any two food deficiency diseases. 10. What kind of disease is Kwashiorker? B. Fill in the blanks. 1. Cretinism is the.........................of.......................... 2. .........................causes ringing in the ear. 3. .........................ball seem dry and rough in.........................disease. 4. Pale and moon face is the.........................of.......................... 5. .........................of proper nutrition is malnutrition. C. Write short notes on: a. Junk Food b. Methods of preserving nutrients while cooking food c. Ways of having balanced diet from locally available foods Community Work Conduct a speech programme about the effect of junk food on human health and its control measures in your community inviting local government representatives, representatives of consumers organization, nutritionist, police representative and shopkeepers of that locality. 47

Unit Disease 4 Learning Achievement After completing this unit, students will be able to: M Define communicable disease. M Tell the preventive measures of communicable diseases. M Draw immunization chart and mention the need and importance of immunization. M Tell the ways of preparing balanced diet from locally available food materials. M Illustrate the methods of preserving nutrients while cooking food. M Tell the effect of junk food on human health. Introduction to Communicable Disease A disease, which transmits among individuals from infected to healthy person is called communicable disease. It is directly or indirectly transmitted from person to person through various mediums. Air, water, food, soil, dust particles, insects and animals are the different medium through which the pathogenic germs are transmitted from the infected person to a healthy person. The spread often happens through contaminated blood or other bodily fluid. Cholera, typhoid, common cold, tuberculosis, hepatitis, syphilis, etc are the examples of communicable diseases. A. Preventive Measures of Communicable Disease Immunization against the infectious diseases Provision of health education Proper disposal of human excreta Improving personal hygiene Use of safe drinking water Handle and prepare food safely Avoid sharing personal items Safe sexual contact Sanitation program i. Use of Safe Drinking Water Water is a fundamental human need. Water is used for various domestic purposes such as drinking, cooking, cleaning, washing clothes, bathing, etc. Reduction of waterborne diseases and management of safe water resources is a major public health goal in developing countries. 48

S Access to drinking water means the source is less than 1 kilometer away and that it is possible to obtain at least 20 litres of water per member of a household per day. S Safe drinking water is water with microbial, chemical and physical characteristics that meet WHO guidelines or national standards on drinking water quality; S Access to safe drinking water is the proportion of people using improved drinking water sources: household connection; public standpipe; borehole; protected dug well; protected spring; rainwater, etc. ii. Safe and Balanced Diet The diet, which contains all the nutrients in right quantity and proportion keeping our body healthy is called balanced diet. Indeed, balance diet makes our body healthy and strong. A balanced diet contains about (50- 60%) carbohydrates, (20-30%) fats and (15 to 20%) proteins with sufficient quantity of vitamins and minerals. In the short-term, it can help us to feel good and stay at a healthy weight. In the long-term, balanced diet can prevent us from the diseases like kwashiorkor, marasmus, anemia, goiter, night blindness, rickets, heart disease, diabetes, osteoporosis, etc. Safe food prevent us form various communicable disease such as diarrhoea, dysentery, typhoid, worm infestation, etc. iii. Sanitation/Cleanliness Sanitation denotes the human effort to make their surrounding clean and safe. WHO defines environmental sanitation as “the control of all those factors in man’s physical environment which exercise or may exercise for adverse effect on his health and survival”. Environmental sanitation affects the health condition of everyone. In this regard, sanitation is the most essential component for healthy human life. Hence, environmental sanitation and human health are inseparable components. Some major areas of sanitation are: 49

e Proper management of waste materials. e Proper disposal of sewage and human excreta. e Supply of clean and safe drinking water. e Protection from insects and rodents. e Good personal hygiene. iv. Immunization Immunization refers to the production of immunity by artificial means against particular diseases. It can prevent the children from many infectious diseases. Various studies show that the people with complete dose of vaccines in childhood are having better health compared to those who DPT Vaccination were not immunized. The unimmunized children have high risk of diseases like measles, hepatitis ‘B’ whooping cough, TB, pneumonia, tetanus, poliomyelitis etc. The immunization schedule is given in the following table: Table: The Immunization Chart for the Child Name of Vaccine Doses Age of Route of Against the Diseases Administration Administration BCG(Bacillus- 1 (0.05ml) At birth Intradermal Tuberculosis Calmette-Guerin) DPT-HepB-HiB 3 (0.5ml) 6, 10, 14 weeks Intramuscular Pertusis, Tetanus, Hepatitis B and Hemophilus Influenza B OPV (Oral Polio 3 (0.5ml) 6, 10, 14 weeks Oral Poliomalities Vaccine) PCV (Pneumococcal 3 (0.5ml) 6, 10 weeks and 9 Intramuscular Pneumonia Conjugate Vaccine) months IPV (Injectable 1 (0.05ml) 14 weeks (Add on to Intramuscular Poliomalities Polio Vaccine) OPV) MR (Measles- 2 (0.5ml) 9 and 15 months Subcutaneous Measles-Rubella Rubella) JE(Japanese 1 (0.05ml) 12 months Subcutaneous Japanese Encephalitis) Encephalitis TD (Tetanus 2 (0.5ml) [1st dose] As soon as Intramuscular Tetanus and Diphtheria) pregnancy is known Diphtheria [For women] [2nd dose] One month apart 50