HPE Book 10_2076 Edition

before the ejaculation of semen. And semen needs to be ejaculated outside from the Vagina. It is not 100 percent sure because sometimes sperms can enter into the Vagina before it is ejaculated outside. It is about 82% effective. It is also called coitus interruptus method. (iii) Cervical Mucus Test Method It is also an important natural female contraception method. In this method, the texture, colour and thickness of the Cervical mucus is examined for confirmation of unsafe and safe period. Normally, in the beginning days right after completing menstrual bleeding, vagina remains dry. During this time the cervical mucus consists of a thick plug at the Cervix. But after few days, under the influence of the rising level of Oestrogen, the Cervix releases thick, translucent and non-slippery mucous. However, around the ovulation time, Cervix produces thin, transparent, slippery and non-breakable mucous. Hence, if the mucous is obtained transparent, slippery and stretchable, it can be confirmed as a fertile period. In this condition, couples should avoid sexual intercourse. Safe period Unsafe period • Thick • Thin • Translucent • Transparent • Non-stretchable • Stretchable • Non-slippery • Slippery Cervical Mucus Test Technique Cervical mucus test method refers to test of mucus secreted by Cervix. We can find out the chance of conception by checking the cervical mucus carefully. If the mucus is thick, there is high chance of conception and if mucus is thin there is less chance of conception. But we should not forget that it is not 100 percent effective to stop conception. (iv) Lactational Amenorrhea Method The Lactational Amenorrhea Method (LMP) is the use of breastfeeding as a temporary family planning method. There are various endocrine studies which have shown that breastfeeding delays the return of menstruation, ovulation and conception after child birth. During the time of breast feeding, there is less chance of conception because it suppresses production of Estrogen and Progesterone hormone which are essential hormone for ovulation. If breastfeeding is practiced properly, (i.e. at least 8 times in a Health, Population and Environment Education-10 51

day and at least 2 times at night and for 20 minutes each time) it may resist ovulation at least from 6 months to as long as 18 months. In this parlance, LMP provides natural protection against pregnancy. If she keeps breast feeding very often, her protection from pregnancy may last longer than 6 months and perhaps as long as 18 months. On the other hand, most of the mothers who do not breast feed have resumed menstruation and ovulation may be as early as six weeks after delivery. (v) Basal Body Temperature Method It is also one of the important natural contraception method. It is probably the first scientific method based on periodic abstinence to be developed. Essentially, a woman should record body temperature immediately on waking each morning to get a reading of basal temperature. To get proper record of every change of body temperature, the thermometer should be kept either in the mouth or arm pit. The process should continue throughout the month. During the early part of the menstrual cycle BBT remains at lower level. At the time of ovulation, the temperature of female rises by about 0.2°C to 0.5°C (0.4°F to 10°F) and then maintains higher level until the onset of the next menstruation. The shift of temperature from a lower to a higher level indicates for ovulation. Sexual intercourse should be avoided for three consecutive days in which the temperature has been recorded at the higher level. Then the woman can start sexual intercourse with a very little risk of conception. NAME: .................................................................. MONTH: ......................... DATA oC 37.6 37.5 37.4 37.3 1 23 37.2 6 5 4 32 1 37.1 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 32 32 33 37.0 P 36.9 36.8 36.7 36.6 36.5 36.4 36.3 36.2 36.1 36.0 DAY of CYCLE 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 PERIOD and P P PP P P MUCUS P = Period (bleeding) Basal Body Temperature Method 52 Health, Population and Environment Education-10

B. Use of Artificial Contraceptive Devices Artificial contraception method includes both temporary and permanent contraception. They are of different types. Some of them are described below: (i) Temporary Contraceptive Devices The use of Temporary contraceptive Devices delay the birth and help to maintain birth spacing too. They help to widen the gap between the first and the second child. There are different devices for female and male. They are described below: 1. Physical Method (Barrier Method) Condom, Femidom, and Diaphragms come under the barrier method of artificial temporary contraception. a. Condom A condom is a sheath made up of thin latex rubber. Some condoms are coated with a dry lubricant or with spermicide. It is used by male. It is elastic and oily which makes sexual intercourse comfortable. It is worn in an erected Penis just before the sexual intercourse. It is found in average size in different colours and textures. It prevents the sperms to spill over the Vagina. It keeps the sex partner safe from different sexually transmitted infections (STIs) including HIV and AIDS. The user should handle it properly because there may be chance of tearing. Advantages It prevents STIs including HIV and AIDS as well as pregnancy when used correctly It is inexpensive It can be used without medical advice It is safe, no hormonal side effects It increases sexual enjoyment since it avoids chance of pregnancy or STIs Helps to prevent ectopic pregnancies Can be stopped at any time Can be used by men of any age In general, anyone can use condoms safely and effectively if not allergic to latex Disadvantages It can be used only once Latex condoms may cause itching for a few people who are allergic to latex and lubricant Health, Population and Environment Education-10 53

There is small possibility of tearing or slip off during sex May embarrass some people to buy, ask partner to use, put on, take off, or throw away condoms b. Femidom Femidom is a woman controlled artificial contraceptive device to protect against STIs including HIV/AIDS and unwanted pregnancy. It is made up of thin, transparent, soft plastic bigger in size compared to the male condom. Before sex, a woman places the closed end of the sheath in her Vagina. During sexual intercourse, the man’s Penis goes inside the Femidom. Then it does not let the sperm enter into the Uterus. It is also useful for those females who have side effects of contraceptives. Advantages There isn’t any side effect and no allergic reaction of using it It can be used without medical advice It prevents from sexually transmitted infections (STIs)and unwanted pregnancy It does not hinder the sexual satisfaction Controlled by woman Disadvantages It is expensive at this time It is difficult to maintain privacy High chance of failure It can be used only once Usually needs partner’s consent There is problem of place to dispose it after use Woman must touch her genitals c. Diaphragm The Diaphragm is a soft hemispherical dome shaped rubber cap that covers the cervix. It should be kept on the cervix before sexual intercourse with spermicidal jelly or cream. It is available in different sizes in the market. So the women should use it according to the size of their Uterus. It works like Condom and Femidom. It becomes barrier against sperms. Diaphragms 54 Health, Population and Environment Education-10

block sperms from entering the Uterus and Fallopian Tubes , where sperms could meet an ovum. The female needs to have special training and counseling before using them. Advantages It prevents pregnancy effectively if used correctly with every act of sexual intercourse Safe, woman-controlled method that almost every woman can use It doesn’t reduce sexual satisfaction It can be stopped at any time No effect on breast milk Easy to use with a little practice No hormonal side effects Disadvantages Requires fitting by a family planning provider, involving pelvic examination May be difficult to remove. Sometimes Diaphragm can tear as the woman removes it It cannot be used without training 2. Chemical Methods Oral and vaginal tablets come under this method. They are described in detail below: a. Oral Contraception (Pills) Missed 2 or more of these first 14 pills? Take 1 now. Take all A substance or a combination the rest as usual. Also use condoms or spermicide for 7 days. of substances, usually steroids Missed 2 or more of administered orally which these 7 pills? Take 1 prevents pregnancy is called oral now. Take the rest of this row, one each contraception or pills. The main day. forms of oral contraception include Start a new pack the next day. Throw the the combined oral pills containing last row of this pack Missed any of these 7 pills? Throw the both Oestrogen, Progestagen and away. missed pills away. Take the rest as usual. the progestagen-only pills (POP) Also use condom or and hormonal post-coital pills. spermicide for 7 days The latter post-coital pills can Oral Pills Taking Method be used in emergency right after unprotected sexual intercourse. In combined pills, there are 28 pills in a kit. Among them, 21 pills are called active pills which contain synthesized female sex hormones called oestrogen and progestagen. The remaining 7 tablets are iron tablets which are brown in colour and called “remainder pills”. The 21 active pills suppress the development of ovum and stops ovulation. The users should Health, Population and Environment Education-10 55

start from active pills because they are for stopping conception. When active pills are finished then remainder pills should be taken. Women who use oral contraceptives should swallow a pill each day to prevent pregnancy. At present day, combined oral contraceptives contain very low doses of hormones. They are often called low dose combined oral contraceptives. Similarly, progestin-only oral pills contain very small amounts of only one kind of hormone i. e. progestin. They do not contain Oestrogen and also called mini pills. It is better to take them in the evening. In case of missing, the users must take immediately when they remember. But these pills should not be taken by the women who are suffering from Diabetes , Cancer, Asthma, T. B. Hepatitis, etc. Advantages It is inexpensive It is 99.99% effective, when used correctly It reduces abdominal pain during menstruation It helps to continue menstruation It is beneficial for the woman with low weight No need to use anything at the time of sexual intercourse Increase sexual enjoyment because no need to worry about pregnancy Can be used as long as a woman wants to prevent pregnancy Fertility returns soon after stopping Disadvantages It is not effective if not taken regularly It causes breast tenderness, slight weight gain, nausea and mild headache The amount of milk may decrease if woman is breast feeding (in the case of combined pills) Doctor’s advice should be taken before using it Problem of blood pressure might be seen in some females It can cause nausea, headache, acne, etc In a few women, it may cause mood change including depression, less interest in sex Very rarely can cause brain stroke, blood clots in deep veins of the legs or heart attack Do not protect against STIs and HIV and AIDS b. Foam Tablet Foam tablet is a kind of chemical contraceptive. It is a tablet which contains an active spermicide with foaming ingredients and are placed deep in the vagina close to the Cervix. It should be kept at the cervix at least 10 minutes before sexual intercourse. 56 Health, Population and Environment Education-10

It melts due to body temperature CFoontaramcepitniveg Tablets and converts into foam which makes thick layer and blocks Foam Tablet (Kamal Chakki) sperm to enter into the Uterus. It also destroys the mobility of sperms and helps to inhibit conception. It is called ‘Kamal Chakki’ in Nepali market. Advantages It is useful for the female who has vaginal dryness It doesn’t have any side effects It can be used without advice of medical personnel It doesn’t need any training to use so that any interested female can use it It prevents against infection in the vagina No effect on breast milk production Easy to use with a little practice No hormonal side effect May increase vaginal lubrication Disadvantages It is ineffective after 1 to 2 hours of use The users should wait at least for 10 minutes so that it needs patience Irritation of vagina may occur in some females It may reduce sexual satisfaction It is burdensome to the user since it has to be used before each intercourse May cause warm sensation May cause irritation to woman or her partner, especially if used several times a day c. Gossypol It is an oral tablet for male. It was brought into practice by the scientists of China. The scientists claim that it was experimented in about 4 thousand males and 4 thousand females. It is not easily available in the market. The users may feel fatigue, lack of appetite and other different problems after using it. Gossypol Pills Health, Population and Environment Education-10 57

3. Injectable Contraceptives Depo-provera, Intra-Uterine Device, Nor plants, etc come under these types of contraceptives. They are described as follows: a. Depo-Provera Injection Depo-provera is a female contraceptive device. It is also called Depot-medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA), Depo and Megestron. It contains progestin hormone which is released slowly suppresses the development of ova. It also thickens mucus in the cervix which does not allow the sperms to pass into the uterus. Normally, It works for three months. So that it is also called quarterly injection. It should be taken within 7 days of menstruation, specially in thigh, buttock or arm. Advantages It is 99% effective It doesn’t interfere with sex It lasts for three months after using once The female who has blood pressure problem can also use it Increase sexual enjoyment because no need to worry about pregnancy No tension of daily pill taking May help prevent uterine fibroid Helps prevents ectopic pregnancy Disadvantages Change in menstruation bleeding is likely, including light spotting or heavy bleeding It may increase the weight of the body in some females It doesn’t prevent against STIs including HIV and AIDS Swelling, especially in leg is seen in some female It may cause headache, moodiness, breast tenderness, nausea, less sex drive and or acne are observed in some women b. Intra-Uterine Contraceptive Device (IUCD) Uterus Intrauterine Intra-uterine Contraceptive device is a very effective, Cervix device reversible, long- term temporary female contraception. (IUCD) In Nepal, Copper T (TCU - 380A) is most widely used. It is an English letter ‘T’ structured small plastic device Strings wrapped by copper. So, it is also called Copper ‘T’. It is kept in the Uterus by the help of doctor or expert. 58 Health, Population and Environment Education-10

It makes sperm inactive and works as barrier against sperms. It also does not allow conception in the Uterus. Once it is used, it works for 12 years. It is not recommended to use this device to female sex workers and the women who have already given birth to more than two children. A provider can remove the IUD easily with the help of the doctor. Advantages It is 99% effective No interference with sex Long lasting, It works at least for 10 years It doesn’t disturb health of women It is useful to mothers who are breast feeding Increases sexual enjoyment because no need to worry about pregnancy Does not suppress the production of breast milk No interaction with any medicine No hormonal side effects Disadvantages May come out of the Uterus , possibly without the woman’s knowledge Pain in waist and lower abdomen might be felt in some females Longer and heavier menstrual bleeding or bleeding between periods possibly contributing to anaemia It doesn’t prevent against STIs including HIV and AIDS Irregular menstrual bleeding is observed in the beginning Severe cramps and pain may occur to some women c. Norplants The Norplant implant system is a set of 6 small (3-4 cm long), white plastic capsules. It is also called subdermal implants. It is made up of soft and flexible white colour rubber capsule. Each capsule is about the size of a small matchstick. Each capsule contains Progestin hormone. They are placed under the skin of a woman’s upper arm within 7 days of menstruation. It should be inserted by a doctor or a trained health worker. It needs simple incision to insert them. When they are inserted in the arm they start Way of using norplants to release the hormone gradually and mix up in the blood stream. Then it suppresses production of ova and thickens the mucus layer in the Cervix which doesn’t let the Health, Population and Environment Education-10 59

sperm pass into the Uterus. A set of Norplant capsules can prevent pregnancy for at least 5 years. All six capsules should be taken out, if users want baby and after 5 years of insertion. Advantages It works for five years It doesn’t reduce sexual satisfaction It is not so expensive It makes woman free from using different devices every day Very effective even in heavier women No Estrogen side effects Fertility returns almost immediately after capsules are removed Disadvantages Pain and tenderness in breasts might be felt in some females Menstruation becomes irregular in the beginning It doesn’t prevent against STIs including HIV/AIDS It may cause acne, headache, nausea, etc Change in menstrual bleeding, including: light spotting, prolong bleeding and or amenorrhea may occur Weight gain, hair loss, acne, dizziness and enlargement of ovarian cysts may occur (ii) Emergency Birth Control Devices and their Uses Emergency contraception refers to postcoital methods: those used after unprotected sexual intercourse. An emergency contraception may be appropriate if a regularly used method has failed (for example, if a condom breaks) or if unprotected sex has occurred. Similarly, the IUD is also used by a few number of women as emergency contraceptive. Emergency contraceptives are designed only for emergency use and should not be relied on as a regular method. The most frequently used emergency contraceptive is a two-dose regimen of certain combined oral pills. Emergency birth control devices can be used in the following conditions Ü If used IUD has been missing Ü If intake of pills forgotten for more than two days Ü If ejaculation takes place inside the vagina during the fertile period Ü If tearing of condom, slipping or coming out of diaphragm takes place Ü If subjected to sexual violence like rape Ü If natural birth control methods are failed Ü If sexual intercourse is established without using any contraceptives 60 Health, Population and Environment Education-10

The following precaution should be adopted before using birth control devices Ü The pregnant women are not allowed to use such devices Ü Before using these devices, health check up of women is necessary by the experts Ü The women who have swollen blood vessel in her knees and symptoms of breast cancer should not use it The following can be considered as emergency birth control method 1. Use of Combined Pills for Emergency It is very popular method. In this method, woman should take 4 low-dose combined active pills within 72 hours as a first dose, equal number of pills need to be taken after 12 hours as the second dose. At present , two pills have been packaged as emergency contraceptive and available in the pharmacies. These two doses emergency pills have to be taken 12 hours apart. The first dose must be taken within 72 hours after unprotected intercourse (the sooner, the better) and the second dose must be taken right after 12 hours of the first dose. The most common side effects are nausea, vomiting and breast tenderness. Combined normal oral pills Using method Within After 12 72 hours hours 1. First dose within 72 2. Second dose after 12 hours of unprotected hours of the first dose. intercourse. Using methods of Combine Pills as Emergency Contraception Effects after taking emergency (combined) pills Vomiting may occur within 24 hours of administration of the pills in about 50% of women. If vomiting takes place within two hours, another dose should be provided. It is better to apply efforts to stop vomiting. To avoid vomiting during this time, it is better to eat fruits and protein rich diet. 2. Progestin only pills for emergency These pills contains progestin hormone. Nepal Family Planning Association and Nepal CRS Company distribute these pills in Nepal. At the same time they are distributed by other international companies too. One Progestin Only Pill must be taken within 72 hours of unsafe sex and equal dose should be taken after 12 hours of the first dose. It is 98% effective if used correctly and causes less nausea and vomiting compared to the combined Pills. Health, Population and Environment Education-10 61

Progestin only emergency pills Using method Within After 12 72 hours hours 1. First dose within 72 2. Second dose after 12 hours of unprotected hours of the first dose. intercourse. Using methods of Progestin Only Pills as Emergency Contraception Effects of Progestin only pills The effects of these pills are also similar to combined pills. It also makes women to experience nausea or vomiting. However, there are very few adverse effects. 3. Use of IUD Vasectomy Site IUD also can be used as emergency contraception. If inserted within five days of unprotected intercourse, they are even more effective than emergency pills. This service is provided in different clinics of Nepal Family Planning Association, Marie Stopes and other authorized health centre’s. The IUD has to be taken out during menstruation period. The probability of getting pregnant with its use is 0.1% if used correctly. (iii) Permanent Methods of Contraception 1. Vasectomy Vasectomy is a permanent method of family planning for male. It is the most effective method for those who decide they will not want more children. It is a safe, simple and quick surgical procedure. It is not castration. It does not affect the function of Testes and does not affect sexual ability. It is also called male sterilization or male surgical contraception. It needs simple incision on the upper part of Scrotum. It is done by cutting Vasdeferenses and tying them in both sides. So that sperms cannot pass to Seminal Vesicles. It is effective 6 to 10 weeks after surgery. Therefore, it is better to use condom during sexual intercourse for 20 times of ejaculation or should apply any other method of contraception at least for 10 weeks. 62 Health, Population and Environment Education-10

Advantages It is very much effective There isn’t any problem in sexual satisfaction There isn’t any side effect in the body It doesn’t reduce sexual ability A single, quick procedure leads to lifelong, safe and effective family planning Nothing to remember except to use condoms or another effective method for the first 20 ejaculations or the first three months, whichever comes first No repeated clinic visits required Disadvantages It doesn’t prevent against STIs and HIV and AIDS Sometimes, this operation is found unsuccessful due to rejoining of ducts Pain in the Scrotum, swelling and bruising Not immediately effective Reversal surgery is difficult, expensive , and not available in most areas of the world 2. Laparoscopy Laparoscopy Laparoscopy is a permanent Site contraception for female. It is also called female sterilization or female surgical contraception. In this sterilization a small incision (2 cm- 5 cm) is made just below the Navel. An instrument called Laparoscope is entered through the incision. With the help of Laparoscope, fallopian tubes are closed with a ring, a clip or by electro coagulation. Due to this, ova and sperms cannot meet together and fertilization becomes impossible. It should be done within 30-42 days of delivery or within 5 to 8 days of menstruation. Advantages It is an effective measure of contraception It makes couple’s life happy It avoids burden from using contraception frequently It avoids fear of conception during sexual intercourse It doesn’t reduce sexual satisfaction Health, Population and Environment Education-10 63

Disadvantages It doesn’t prevent against STIs and HIV and AIDS It needs expert doctor or health worker to use it It is complex and risky method It cannot be used by the woman who has already have abdominal operation 3. Minilap Minilap is also a permanent Minilap Site contraception for female. Small incision is made in lower abdomen just above the pubic hair. Then the Uterus is raised with an instrument (uterine elevator) to bring each of the 2 fallopian tubes under the incision. After that, the fallopian tubes tied and cut down or else closed with a clip or ring. It stops to pass ova through fallopian tubes and conception is not possible even though sperms are ejaculated inside the vagina during sexual intercourse. It must be done within 45 days of delivery or within 8 days of menstruation. Advantages It is 100% successful It is not so complicated like Laparoscopy It helps to limit the family size It doesn’t reduce sexual satisfaction No need to admit in hospital for operation Disadvantages It is difficult to reverse, if anyone wants The service is not available everywhere It cannot prevent STIs including HIV/AIDS 64 Health, Population and Environment Education-10

Comparison Between Male Sterilization and Female Sterilization Male Sterilization (Vasectomy) Female Sterilization (Minilap/Laparoscopy) Ü It is very effective but slightly Ü It is very effective, slightly lower failure higher rate of spontaneous rate. recanalization and pregnancy. Ü Become effective 6 to 8 weeks Ü Become effective immediately. after surgery. Ü Very slight possibility of serious Ü Slight possibility of serious infections. infection including Tetanus under conditions of poor hygiene. Ü There is no anesthesia related Ü There are few anesthesia related deaths. deaths. Ü Can be performed by a trained Ü One doctor and at least two assistants person with or without an are needed for vasectomy. assistant. Ü Safely performed by nurses and Ü Usually only doctors with training in paramedics. gynecology can perform Laparoscopy and more difficult for paramedics. Ü Does not requires specialized Ü Laparoscopy requires; expensive, equipment. complex equipment. Ü Medical problems are not seen. Ü There is slight risk of ectopic pregnancy. The following factors are to be considered after Minilap, Vasectomy and Laparoscopy Ü Complete rest is required up to 15 days of surgery. Ü Balance diet should be taken. Ü It is better to avoid sexual intercourse until the wound recovers, and especially in the case of Vasectomy other temporary contraceptives must be used for 20 ejaculations. Ü It is appropriate to avoid heavy works, until the wound recovers. Ü The activities like cycling, horse riding, motorcycling should be avoided till the wound recovers. Ü It is necessary to calculate Age Specific Death Rate to evaluate the age pattern of mortality rate according to age group. Ü Population Growth Rate can be defined as the rate at which population is increases in a given year due to the interplay of rate natural increase and net migration rate; expressed as percentage of the base population. Health, Population and Environment Education-10 65

Summary Ü Achille Guillard is the first person to use the term Demography. He used the term Demography in 1855 AD in his book “Elements of Human Statistics or Comparative Demography” by combining the two Greek words ‘Demos’ and ‘Graphia’. Ü John Graunt is the first person who examined the trend of mortality and fertility from the death record maintained by the churches in London in his famous book ‘Natural and Political Observation Made upon the Bills of Mortality’ in 1662 AD. This work has been considered as the start of population study. Therefore, he is also called as father of Demography or Population Study. Ü Fertility can be defined as ‘the actual reproductive performance of a woman or a group of women’. So, a woman is considered fertile if she had ever born any child otherwise she is considered as an infertile woman. Ü Fecundity refers to “the capacity of a man and a woman, or a couple to participate in reproduction”. In other words, fecundity is a biological capacity of a woman, man or a couple to have children. Ü CBR is the total number of live births per 1000 midyear population of a given place for the specified year. It is customary to say crude birth rate since it cannot measure actual fertility rate due to the placement of total midyear population in the denominator where only a small portion of that population involve in the fertility process. Ü General fertility rate is the total number of live births per 1,000 midyear women’s population of the reproductive period. It is a refined measurement of fertility over the Crude Birth Rate because it is calculated by dividing the total number of live births by the midyear population of the women in reproductive period and multiplied by 1,000. Ü Population doubling time refers to the number of years required for the population of a place to double its size with reference to the current rate of population growth. Ü The population growth rate with more than 2% and TFR with more than replacement level (2.1) is considered as rapid population growth rate. Ü Population management can be considered as a process by which growth rate and distribution pattern of population can be managed in accordance with the carrying capacity of the available resources of the given place. Ü Birth spacing, use of contraception and legal age at marriage are considered as the direct measures of population control. Ü Status of women, education, gender equality and equality, women employment etc are considered as the indirect measures of population control. Ü Natural contraception method is the process of avoiding unwanted pregnancy without using any artificial contraceptive devices. This method depends on identifying the ovulation or fertile period of the menstrual cycle. Hence, it is also known as fertility awareness based contraception method. 66 Health, Population and Environment Education-10

EXERCISE A. Very short answer questions. 1. Give a definition of Demography. 2. Who is known as the father of Demography? 3. Mention any two social consequences of rapid population growth rate. 4. What is Sex Ratio? 5. What is midyear population? 6. Mention any two adverse impact of uncontrolled migration on social aspects. 7. Give any two examples of direct population control measures. 8. Write any two disadvantages of Norplants. B. Short answer questions. 1. What is total fertility rate? How is it calculated? 2. Briefly explain about oral pills along with their advantages and disadvantages. 3. Give the meaning of migration. How is gross Migration Rate calculated? 4. Briefly describe the cervical mucus method of contraception. 5. Define Infant Mortality Rate. Suppose, 2,100 live births were recorded in Pathari Sanischare Municipality in 2015 AD. Among them 60 infants died before completing one year of age. Find Infant Mortality Rate. 6. Explain the impact of migration on socio-economic and environmental aspects. C. Write differences between: 1. Fecundity and fertility 2. Natural and artificial factors of population change 3. Vasectomy and Minilap 4. Net Migration Rate and Gross Migration Rate D. Write short notes on: 1. Basal body temperature method 2. Rate of Natural Increase 3. Depo-Provera E. Long answer questions. 1. What is Rapid Population Growth Rate? Explain the consequences of rapid population growth on social, economic and environmental aspect. 2. What is dependency ratio? How do you calculate old and young dependency ratio? What are the advantages of having knowledge of dependency ratio? Project Work Collect the data of birth, death, migration and total family members from 10 households of your community for a specific year. Calculate CBR, GFR, CDR, NMR,GMR of that place and present the report in the class. Health, Population and Environment Education-10 67

UNIT POPULATION, ENVIRONMENT AND 3 DEVELOPMENT Learning Achievement After completing this unit, students will be able to: Explain the development activities in different sectors. Explain the interrelationship among population, environment and development. Elaborate the need and importance of regional balance in development of the nation. Define and tell the importance and principles of sustainable development. 3.1 Population, Environment and Development Activities We know that population is the total number of people residing in a particular place or a country in a particular time period. The aggregate of all the external forces or condition that directly or indirectly influence the growth and development of human life including their social and economic condition is called environment. In other words, environment denotes the sum total of physical and biological factors that affect the survival, growth, development and reproduction of organism. Population, environment and development activities are interdependent among one another. Environment is the key factor, which influences the life pattern of the living organism, human behaviour and socio-economic development process. Development denotes positive change in the perception, social system, way of living, economy and institutional set up. We know that development is really much more than merely economic growth. Development always involves progressive transformation of economy and social system. The satisfaction of human needs and aspirations is the ultimate objective of development. It helps to fulfill the various needs and necessities and also increases the capability of people to be self-dependent. We know that man is a part of environment. Therefore, there is never ending interaction between man and the environment. Man can establish positive and negative interaction with the environment. Positive interaction of man with the environment helps to maintain ecological systems in proper order. In this situation, we can have sound environment to survive, fresh air to breath, clean water to drink and healthy habitat to live in. On the other hand, man’s negative interaction with environment results into pollution, energy crisis, spread of diseases and unprecedented natural hazards. 68 Health, Population and Environment Education-10

People exploit the resources to conduct development activities. While carrying out development activities we need to maintain balance and coordination between population, development activities and environment. Population control, environment conservation and development process can go together side by side if people carry out development activities in sustainable manner. All sorts of population and development related activities are conducted within the environment. People should realize that it is their responsibility to protect the environment while carrying out activities in those sectors. The development activities without proper plan and long-term vision affect the environment and sustainability of life. Thus, development activities should be carried out under the backdrop of long-term vision. For sustainable living, man needs to establish good coordination among population, environment and development activities. We know that environment and development activities are interrelated to each other. It is obvious that environment is the source of many things for human beings. During the interaction with the environment, people either get adapted or modify the natural environment. Development activities generally bring change in the existing condition of the environment. But, while carrying on development works we should not forget the existence and association between human and environment. Therefore, environmental aspect should be put in centre while conducting developmental activities. This type of development model helps to keep balance between development and environment. The activities that are illustrated in the following diagram can be considered as the activities under population, environment and development. Environment Communication Culture Health Security Human Resource Environment Technology Population & Development Housing Environment Agriculture Education Industry Employment Environment Development Activities in Different Sectors According to the above diagram, the various activities in the sector of agriculture, industry, health, education, transportation, communication, security, human settlement, science, technology, and employment come under the scope of population, environment and development. Some major activities are explained below: A. Agriculture Agriculture is considered to be backbone of Nepalese economy. It is the major source of livelihood of Nepalese people. Around 60 percent of the total population still Health, Population and Environment Education-10 69

depends on agriculture for their subsistence. Most of them are small and marginal farmers. As one third of the GDP comes from agriculture sector, it is quite clear that it has an immense role to play in reducing poverty and ensuring food security and balance of trade of Nepal. Contrary to very important position of agriculture sector in development of Nepal, there is not so much attraction in this sector due to nominal benefit. However, development in agriculture is possible through scientific land reform, protection of farmers’ rights, commercialization of the agricultural products, diversification, and use of modern science and technology in agriculture sector. The government should give priority in agricultural sector so that it can create employment opportunities and supplies adequate food materials to the people. If there is proper utilization and market management of the agricultural products, it can support the development of other sectors also. B. Industry Industrialization is one of the activities of population, environment and development. Industrialization is taken as one of the most vital indicators of economic growth and prosperity of the nation. Therefore, today’s main necessity is to support industrialization by establishing industries based on agriculture and local resources in rural sector and establishing and developing industrial zones in urban areas. Industrialization plays an important role to alleviate dependency on agriculture and existing unemployment and poverty of the nation. Investment in industries also contribute in the creation of employment, development of resources, skill and productivity. Adequate infrastructures have to be managed for the promotion of industrialization and encouraging local and foreign investment in industries. Industrialization creates both negative and positive impact on population and environment. Unmanaged industrialization creates negative impact on environment. Consequently, it spreads various kinds of diseases and impair human health and their productivity. On the other hand, well managed industries creates employment opportunities, checks import of goods and boost up socio-economic condition of the people without deteriorating the environment. Activity Visit some local level development activities related sites of your locality. Observe those activities and get detail information about that activities in the following table: S.N. Development Social Benefit Economic Benefit Impact on Activities Environment 1. 2. 3. 70 Health, Population and Environment Education-10

C. Health Health is the basic human right of the people. The Constitution of Nepal, 2072 BS has incorporated health as a fundamental right of the people. The basic foundation of development is the healthy and productive human resource. Quality health services and healthy environment and good nutrition are very important components for healthy life. So, it is the obligation of the government to provide basic health services free of cost. It is also equally necessary to make provision of safe drinking water and sanitation facilities to the people for their healthy life. In the context of Nepal, there is a problem in the delivery of quality health services due to lack of economic development and resources. People cannot live healthy life if there is lack of safe drinking water and sanitation facility. Hence, health related activities can be considered as one of the important foundation of the development process. D. Social Security Social security is primarily a human welfare program providing social protection, or protection against poverty, old age, disability, unemployment and others. It enhances social justice. Social Security is a public provision for the economic security and social welfare of individuals and their families, especially in the case of income losses due to unemployment, work injury, maternity, sickness, old age, and death. The term social security encompasses not only social insurance but also health and welfare services. Social security may refer to social insurance, where people receive benefits or services including provision for retirement pensions, disability insurance, survivor benefits and unemployment insurance. Social security system can be promoted through the social justice, poverty alleviation and other various welfare programs. Nepal is yet to go for a wide range of social security programs to provide benefit to the needy people. E. Housing Residence is also one of the basic needs of the people. There is improvement in the overall health condition of the individuals if there is provision of appropriate residence for them. However, unmanaged human settlement creates adverse impact on the individual’s health. In fact, well planned human settlement helps for the management of population and environment. In this context, human settlement creates both of the negative or positive impact on population, environment and development. F. Education Education is an effective tool for personal empowerment and enhancement of human dignity. It plays a significant role in the welfare of people, as well as the socio-economic development of the nation. It enhances access to information that is necessary to carry out various essential activities of daily life and work, and has an impact on an individual’s ability to participate in society and better understand important public issues. Investment in education could be seen as an investment in human capital formation and an instrument for acquiring skilled human resources. A population with strong education background places a country in a better position to meet the complex socio-economic challenges that it confronts. Health, Population and Environment Education-10 71

G. Communication Communication is a process of dissemination of message, information, feeling and idea from one place to another place or one person to another. We can exchange our views, knowledge, ideas and information through the means of communication. Newspapers, magazines, telephone, postal service, cell phones, internet, television, radio, etc are the examples of means of communication. The world has become just like a small village due to the advancement of means of communication. It plays an important role for the social and economic development of the society and the nation. Nepal is also advancing towards advanced technology in the field of means of communication. Similarly, excess in information and communication is increasing even in the remote areas of the country. The information and messages through various means of communication play important role for the management of population, family management, sanitation and environment conservation. Hence, it is necessary to maximize the utilization of information and communication for the overall development of the country. H. Human Resource The individuals who are working in different business, occupation and service is considered as human resource. In other words, educated, skillful and well trained work force in the field of education, communication, agriculture, health, science and technology are considered as human resource. Doctors, engineers, teachers, lawyers, surveyors, journalist, pilots, electricians, plumbers, etc are the examples of human resource. Human resource is the foundation for the social and economic development of the nation. It helps to increase economic growth rate and alleviate poverty of the country. Human resource has been given priority in every periodic development plans of Nepal. There should be good set up of infrastructures like education, health, employment, etc for the development of human resource in order to prevent youths from emigrating outside for the foreign employment. I. Employment Employment is to generate income by involving in the business or occupation. In another words, employment is the job done by an individual for earning income. When people are employed they can solve their economic problem and fulfill their needs. Continuous involvement and dedication in the profession can make a person entrepreneur, industrialist or trader in the society, nation and even in the international arena. In the context of our country, some common fields of employment are civil service, farming, tourism, teaching, trade, animal husbandry, carpentry, business of metal and bamboo items, etc. These professions generate income sources to the people. Such income helps to meet the needs of family members by providing education, health, nutrition, etc. The condition of having no job or employment in the working age is 72 Health, Population and Environment Education-10

known as unemployment. The jobless people without any income generating sources are called unemployed people. It is the prime responsibility of the state to promote employment opportunities to the human resource by imparting education, trainings and skills. Currently, in Nepal, 2.5 million people of working age are unemployed and labour participation rate stands at 83.4 percent. Out of the total population, 30 percent is either unemployed or underemployed whereas 400 thousand people are entering labour market every year. Employment opportunities can be generated by creating environment for entrepreneurship, skill development new job opportunities. It helps in the management of population in one hand and there is possibility of sustainable development by proper utilization of environmental resources. J. Culture Culture is considered as the total way of life, social interaction, pattern of behaviour. Infact, culture is a broad term that includes our way of living, moral and manners, languages, arts, rituals, festivals, religions, costumes and traditions, etc. Our culture and cultural aspects remain lively through preserving and promoting the important archaeological, religious and cultural heritages of the nation. These historical, archaeological and religious heritages are the important foundation for the social and economic development of the nation. If it is possible to develop eco-tourism, culture and industrialization through expanding their identity, conservation and promotion. 3.2 Regional Balance in Development The proportional development in all regions is considered as regional balance of development. Even though the concept of the regional development for the balanced development of the nation in Nepal was emerged during the fourth and fifth plan period, the materialization of the objective of maintaining regional balance has not been experienced yet. Consequently, the results of the development could not be equally delivered among the people due to the growing imbalance among the political regions. Therefore, it has become the need to speed up the effort to develop the backward regions in balanced manner. Nepal is transforming into the federal structure. It is necessary to set the goal to make balanced development even in different districts, towns and villages of the same province or state. Therefore, keeping in view the integration of national economy, a strong strategy for regional development is necessary in order to appropriately utilize the available human resources and natural resources as well for the balanced development of the country. Basedontheavailable data,anenormousgapisseenbetweentheHumanDevelopment Index of the urban and rural areas. The Index of Mid-Western Development Region and Far-Western Development Region are found weaker in comparison to other development regions. Gender Development Index, Gender Empowerment Index and Human Poverty Index have also shown that the condition of the rural areas Health, Population and Environment Education-10 73

and the Mid-Western Development Region is weaker than in other areas/regions of the country. The above mentioned situation shows that the past efforts made for achieving the goal of balanced development could not be successful. Therefore, the present need is to make effort for developing all the regions in a balanced way by reducing the regional inequality, integrating the national economy, and utilizing the available natural resources. In this context, with the vision of raising the living standards of the people of all the regions of the country in just and equitable manner through the balanced development of all the regions of the country, the Plan has set the following objective and strategies. There should be identification of the economic possibilities of different places and formulating and implementing the economic development plan for these areas. The backward areas in respect of economic and infrastructure development should be given special priority while allocating resources. Emphasis should be given in the development of the production system where local resources and skills are utilized on the basis of sectoral comparative advantage and local competitive capacity. Priority will be given in the development of physical and social infrastructures such as road, electricity, drinking water, basic health services, etc in the areas lacking infrastructure development. Importance of Balanced Regional Development It ensures proportional development process in all regions and sectors. It helps to reduce regional inequality in development process. It encourages the state and entrepreneur for dispersion of industrial and development activities in different regions and sectors. It helps to reduce the gap between center and periphery. It helps to paves the way for optimum utilization of resources available in different parts of the country. It creates employment opportunities in different parts of the country. Table 3.1: The HDI of Nepal According to Regions, 2011 AD Geographical Regions HDI (2011 AD) Eastern and Mid Mountain 0.475 Eastern and Mid Hill (Except Kathmandu Valley) 0.490 Eastern and Mid Terai 0.463 Kathmandu Valley 0.622 Western Hill 0.511 Western Terai 0.480 Western, Mid Western and Far Western Mountain 0.398 Mid Western and Far Western Hill 0.423 Mid Western and Far Western Terai 0.472 Nepal 0.490 Source: Nepal Human Development Index, 2011 AD 74 Health, Population and Environment Education-10

Activity Discuss the consequences of unbalanced development activities in the country with the help of the HDI table given above. At the same time, also discuss about the appropriate strategies to be adopted by the government to maintain regional balance in the development process and programs. 3.3 Sustainable Development Sustainable development is the foundation for human beings for their sustainable life. It helps to get a desirable future for human society in which living conditions and resource-use meet human needs without undermining the sustainability of natural systems and the environment. So that future generations may also have their needs without suffering from crisis. Indeed, sustainable development ties together the concern for the carrying capacity of natural systems with the social and economic challenges being faced by people in their day to day life. Simply speaking , it is an environment friendly long lasting development. The Brundtland Commission (1987 AD), in its report ‘Our Common Future’ has quoted the definition of sustainable development as “development process that aims to meet the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs is called sustainable development.” This development approach gives emphasis on the environmental, economic, and socio-political dimensions of development works by exploring changing patterns of consumption, production and distribution of resources for the sustainability. According to the principle of sustainable development, any kind of activities should not be far beyond the carrying capacity of environmental resources. So, we should not exploit the resources excessively in order to satisfy our needs. If over exploitation of resources take place, it causes adverse effects on environment. The ultimate goal of sustainable development is to keep balance in population, environment and development. Therefore, the objective of sustainable development can be pursued through proper management of forest resources, watersheds, wetland ecosystem, industries, transport system, sustainable farming, and maintaining integrity between man, nature and developmental works. Hence, it ensures maximum and long term benefits with minimum exploitation of existing means and resources. In this situation, we can promote our quality of life through the sustainable use of available means and resources without deteriorating environment and the nature. 3.3.1 Importance of Sustainable Development Sustainable development provides foundation for environmental conservation, It is also a means to achieve development goal of the nation. In this regard, sustainable development has a great importance to keep balance between development works and ecosystem. Some of the importance of sustainable development are explained below: Health, Population and Environment Education-10 75

A. Proper Utilization of Resources Sustainable development gives emphasis for the proper use of resources. For this, people should develop positive attitude and behaviour for the rational utilization of natural resources. In this situation, we should get help from eco-friendly technology to run development works. It helps in the protection of environment and controls the over exploitation of the resources. B. Realization of Responsibility Sustainable development changes people’s knowledge, skill and thinking. People realize the importance of forest, wildlife, watersheds, land and other resources as well. They have realized that the resources are their common properties in which individuals cannot use according to their personal vested interest. So, this kind of felling is really helpful for the conservation of natural resources. C. Development of Basic Areas Sustainable development emphasizes on the development of basic areas. Health, education, agriculture, tourism, water supply, housing, transportation are to be taken in basic areas. But while doing work in basic areas, conservation measures need to be integrated. D. Focus on Public Participation To achieve the goal of development, focus should be made on public participation. It encourages people for development and conservation of resources. Therefore, sustainable development provides ample opportunities for the integration of environment conservation and development programs. E. Determination of the Limit of Development Though the limited resources are enough to meet the human needs, people desire to conduct development works beyond the limits. Development works beyond the limit of carrying capacity causes adverse effects on environment, resulting into the degradation of the resources. In this regard, sustainable development helps people to develop a feeling of proper development considering the carrying capacity of the Earth. F. Long-term Vision Sustainable development aims to gear up economic and social development without any damage on the environment. It tries to alter the attitude of people so that the resources can be preserved for future generation. Therefore, sustainable development always contributes for the conservation of resources having long-term vision. 3.3.2 Objectives of Sustainable Development Sustainable development is an important development concept of the 20th century. It gives assurance of human welfare and environmental conservation at present 76 Health, Population and Environment Education-10

generation and guarantees the protection of the future generation. Sustainable development deserves the following objectives: e Conservation of environment e Rationale use of natural resources e Conservation and promotion of wildlife e To fulfil human needs e To alleviate poverty e To foster social justice and prosperity e To protect the human existence e To conserve cultural heritages e To increase public participation and self-dependency e To increase economic growth rate Activity Conduct a talk program in your school on ‘need and importance of sustainable development in for the sustainable living without compromising the needs of the future generation’ by inviting development expert. 3.3.3 Principles of Sustainable Development It is obvious that the Earth and human civilization can be preserved only through sustainable development. Man is the driver of development works. Thus, s/he should conduct any development activities in eco-friendly way. Some of the principles of sustainable development activities are mentioned below: A. Conservation of Ecosystem The principle of sustainable development is to keep balance between biotic and abiotic aspects of environment. This principle helps to protect the existing ecosystem of the Earth. In order to conserve it, the aquatic and terrestrial ecosystem should be protected at different time periods. B. Sustainable Development of Society Wetland Ecosystem Sustainability of society depends on the availability of healthy residence, balanced diet, adequate health service, employment and quality education. If these elements are developed and become available to the people in the society, it becomes a sustainable society. It assists in developing their positive attitude towards nature and living beings. The society is driven towards conserving the environment. Health, Population and Environment Education-10 77

C. Conservation of Biodiversity Conservation of biodiversity resources is essential for balanced development. Thus, sustainable development always focuses for the conservation of biodiversity. For this, conservation programs at national and international level can be conducted. D. Population Management People survive by consuming the means and Silver Bullet Mammal, New Zealand resources of the Earth. But rapid population growth increases the consumption rate of resources. But it is the fact that resources of the Earth cannot be increased as per the need of people. Sustainable development focuses to control population growth rate to minimize the exploitation of resources so as to balance the ecosystem. E. Development of Human Resource Humans have important role in utilization and conservation of resources. For the sustainable use of resource conservation, knowledge and skill of people should be developed. The development of human dexterity helps to apply the principle of sustainable development. F. Increase in People’s Participation Local people are both the consumer and conserver of the resources. In the absence of people’s participation, conservation of natural resources is almost impossible. In this regard, sustainable development emphasizes to increase people’s participation. G. Conservation of Cultural Heritage Social tradition, customs, religious places and culture are the priority area of sustainable development. These important gifts of society are to be preserved reforming the bad customs. Conservation of these aspects really contribute for the sustainable development. H. Limit of Carrying Capacity Human being should run the development works considering the carrying capacity of the ecosystem and the Earth. We know that, the Earth has limited carrying capacity. Over use of resources and unsustainable development activities results in to adverse impact on environment. Therefore, man should conduct development activities within the limit of carrying capacity of the Earth and its components. I. Improvement in Quality of Life Another principle of the sustainable development is to acquire quality of life. The ultimate goal of sustainable development program is to improve the level of quality of 78 Health, Population and Environment Education-10

life. Inclusive development and human resource development help to acquire quality of life. Sustainable development always gives focus on quality of life. J. Environment Conservation Sustainable development always gives focus on the conservation of environment. So, it is also called environment friendly development. Development activities are carried out without deteriorating the quality and status of biological resources, ecological balance and environmental components. 3.3.4 Application of Sustainable Development The principle of sustainable development should be interlinked with the various fields of developmental works. Improper utilization of natural resources makes the existence of living beings more challenging. It also causes inequality and injustice, consequently it hampers the balanced development in all parts of the society and nation. Development and environment are just like the two sides of a coin. Therefore, we should not forget to protect environment while carrying out development works. It is mentioned in the Human Development Report that “Development without adequate environmental conservation is weak. At the same time, without development, the means for necessary investment will lack and the environmental conservation will be unsuccessful.” Hence, the principle of sustainable development need to be applied appropriately in each and every field. Agriculture, industrialization, construction, education, health, forestry, transportation and tourism are the scope of development programs. Hence, while carrying out the development activities, environment should be put in the centre. In addition to this, bioengineering, eco-tourism, nuclear energy generation are the fields in which principle of sustainable development is mandatory. Eco-tourism and community forest management programs are some of the examples of application of sustainable development. The World Tourism Organization declared, “2002 AD as the International Year of Eco-tourism,” highlighting the growing importance of sustainable development. The following concepts should be integrated while carrying out development works for the sake of sustainable development: e All kinds of development activities should be integrated with conservation programs. e Emphasis should be given for the social development. e The programs of conserving animals and plants should be adjusted in accordance with development works. e Natural resources should be used rationally. Perpetual resources should be used maximum whereas there must be the minimum use of nonrenewable resources. e Development works should be limited within the Earth’s carrying capacity. e The production and use of destructive objects are dangerous to human society and environment. Thus they should be made illegal and prohibited at global level. Health, Population and Environment Education-10 79

Summary Ü Development denotes positive change in the perception, social system, way of living, economy and institutional set up. Development always involves progressive transformation of economy and social system. The satisfaction of human needs and aspirations is the ultimate objective of development. Ü Development in agriculture is possible through scientific land reform, protection of farmers’ rights, commercialization of the agricultural products, diversification, and use of modern science and technology in agriculture sector. Ü Unmanaged industrialization creates negative impact on environment and it spreads various kinds of diseases and impair human health and their productivity but managed industries creates employment opportunities, checks import of goods and boost up socio-economic condition of the people without deteriorating the environment. Ü Newspapers, magazines, telephone, postal service, cell phones, internet, television, radio, etc are the examples of means of communication. The world has become just like a small village due to the advancement of means of communication. Ü Educated, skilful and well trained work force in the field of education, communication, agriculture, health, science and technology are considered as human resource. Ü Doctors, engineers, teachers, lawyers, surveyors, journalist, pilots, electricians, plumbers, etc are the examples of human resource. Ü Human resource is the foundation for the social and economic development of the nation. It helps to increase economic growth rate and alleviate poverty of the country. Ü It is the prime responsibility of the state to promote employment opportunities to the human resource by imparting education, trainings and skills. Ü Currently, in Nepal, 2.5 million people of working age are unemployed and labour participation rate stands at 83.4 percent. Ü Out of the total population, 30 percent is either unemployed or underemployed whereas 400 thousand people are entering labour market every year. Ü Nepal is transforming to the federal structure. It is necessary to set the goal to make balanced development even in different districts, towns and villages of the same province or state. Ü The development process that aims to meet the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs is called sustainable development. Ü The sustainable development approach gives emphasis on the environmental, economic, and socio-political dimensions of development works by exploring changing patterns of consumption, production and distribution of resources for the sustainability. 80 Health, Population and Environment Education-10

EXERCISE A. Very short answer questions. 1. What is development? 2. What is environment? 3. What is the ultimate goal of development? 4. Mention any two principles of sustainable development 5. Give any two examples of social security. 6. When was the report of Brundtland Commission of ‘Our Common Future’ published? 7. Mention an importance of regional development. B. Short answer questions. 1. Explain the interrelationship between population, environment and development. 2. What is development? Mention any four importance of it. 3. Why is development work necessary for the development of the nation? Give reason. 4. Demonstrate the role of agriculture in the overall development of the nation. 5. Demonstrate the relation of balanced regional development with sustainable development with reference to Nepal. 6. Mention the objectives of sustainable development. 7. How can you relate the role of environment while carrying out the various kinds of development activities? C. Write short notes on: 1. Human resource 2. Carrying capacity of the earth 3. Communication D. Long answer questions. 1. What is sustainable development? How can you apply the principles of sustainable development in your context? 2. ‘Focus should be given on regional balance in development activities for the delivery of equal benefits of those activities in all places of the nation.’ Explain with justification. Project Work Observe any one development program of your locality and prepare a report based on the heading or subtitle that is given below by taking information from the field work. a. Title of the Study b. Introduction of the Study c. Objective of the Study d. Method of Data Collection e. Socio-economic Benefit of the Program f. Environmental Impact of the Program g. Conclusion and Recommendation Health, Population and Environment Education-10 81

UNIT POPULATION AND ENVIRONMENTAL 4 STATUS OF NEPAL Learning Achievement After completing this unit, students will be able to: Explain the trend of population distribution in Nepal by ecological region. Tell the meaning of ecosystem. Elaborate the ecosystem of Mountain, Hill and Terai Region. Identify the impact of human activities on the ecosystem of Mountain, Hill and Terai Region. Mention the mitigating measures of effects on the ecosystem of Mountain, Hill and Terai Region. Participate in environment management and conservation programs. 4.1 Population Distribution by Ecological Region The arrangement of population according to the ecological division is called population distribution by ecological region. Geographically, our country is divided into three ecological regions. They are Mountain, Hill and Terai. Ecological division reflects the variation in climatic condition and the variation of agricultural land and other resources. The population of Nepal is not distributed evenly. The population distribution of the country by ecological regions for the census years 1971 AD to 2011 AD is shown in the following table: Table 4.1: Distribution of Population by Ecological Division, Nepal 1991 AD - 2011 AD Ecological 1991 (%) 2001 (%) 2011 (%) Region Population 7.8 Population 7.3 Population 6.7 1,44,31,130 45.5 16,87,859 44.3 1,78,792 43 Mountain 84,19,889 46.7 1,02,51,111 48.3 1,13,94,007 50.3 Hill 86,28,078 11,21,453 1,33,18,705 Terai Source: CBS, 2012 AD The table reveals that the population of the Terai region has been increasing rapidly in every census year. The Terai region had enumerated 46.7 percent of the total population in the census year 1991 AD and it has reached to 50.27 percent in the census year 2011 AD. On the other hand, there has been a remarkable decrease in the share of population in Mountain and Hilly regions. For instance, the population 82 Health, Population and Environment Education-10

of Mountain region has been declined from 7.8 percent in 1991 AD to 6.73 percent in 2011 AD. Similarly, the population of Hilly region declined from 45.5% in 1991 to 43% in 2011 AD. Initially, Terai region was covered with dense forests highly infested with Malaria and other transmissible diseases. However, the diseases were controlled later. The increasing rate of deforestation for the human settlement and the pattern of population distribution by ecological zone has also changed. According to the 11th national population census report 2011 AD, Terai alone shared about 50.27 percent of the total population, whereas Hill and Mountain regions occupied 43 and 6.7 percent respectively The population of Nepal is not evenly distributed due to the diversity in topography and uneven distribution of means and resources, climate, unequal distribution of facilities, services and their accessibility. For instance, we observe high density of population in those areas with adequate provision of employment, education, health services, transportation, electricity services and other facilities in comparison to those places with inadequate facilities and opportunities. Reasons of Unequal Population Distribution in Nepal by Development and Ecological Regions Diversity in land topography Uneven distribution of means and resources Diversity in climatic condition Uneven distribution of fertile land Lack of regional balance in development programs High rate of in-migration from Mountain and Hill to the Terai region Uneven access to socio-economic and political opportunities and facilities 4.2 Concept of Ecosystem Generally speaking, ecosystem can be considered as the system resulting from the integration of all the living and nonliving factors of the environment. In other words, Ecosystem is a basic functional unit consisting of both biotic and abiotic components interacting with each other for maintenance of life process. The term ‘ecosystem’ is derived from two words ‘eco’ and ‘system’ where ‘eco’ implies to environment and ‘system’ implies to interacting and interdependent complexity. An ecosystem may be as small as a pond or cropland ecosystem and as large as an Ocean, desert and forest ecosystem. We can observe that the ecosystem influences the food habits, economic activities and the way of life of the people living in those places. Furthermore, it also influences habitats, reproduction and regeneration process of plants and animals. Similarly, Health, Population and Environment Education-10 83

the growth, expansion and development process of the total living organisms are governed by the complexity of ecosystems. Sun Air Consumer (eagles) Producer Water (Pine trees) Rock and Soil Decomposer (Fungi, Bacteria) Natural Ecosystem of Mountain Region 4.2.1 Ecosystem of Nepal by Geographical Region Nepal is a small country in between two big countries, located on the northern margin of South Asia. The country is rectangular in shape with a total area of 1,47,181 square km which accounts 0.03 percent and 0.3 percent of the total land area of the World and Asia respectively. Nepal lies between the longitude of 80°4’ to 88°12’ East and latitude of 26°22’ to 30°27’ North. The country has nearly 885 km length and 193 km breadth in its spatial extension. Its altitude ranges from 60 to 8,848 meter from the sea level. The topography of Nepal is full of amazing altitude variation from the lowland plain to perpetual snowy ranges above 8,000 meters. According to physiographic division, the country is divided into the following sub-divisions: The Trans Himalaya The Mahabharat Range Bhawar Outer Himalaya The Midland Hill The Inner Terai The Main Himalaya The Siwalik Range The Plain Terai The Churia is the Southern fragile Hill Region of Nepal, geologically known as the Siwalik. Bhitri-Madhesh, also known as Inner-Terai is disjointed from the Terai by the Churia range and has topographic features similar to those prevailing in the plain Terai. The Terai region lies in the extreme southern part of the country. It is continuously extended from the East to West with the breadth almost 16 km to 32 km bordering with India. According to Land Resource Mapping Project, 1986 AD, 20.7% of the total area of Nepal is occupied by cultivable land. A. Mountain Region The Mountain Region lies in the northern part of the country. This region is distributed ranging from the altitude of 4,877 to 8,848 meter. It occupies about 35 percent of the total land area of the country. The Mountain Region is divided into different sub- 84 Health, Population and Environment Education-10

divisions such as Main Himalaya, Outer Himalaya and Trans (Inner) Himalaya. In which, the Main Himalaya are the outstanding geographic divisions with most prominent peaks like Dhaulagiri (8,167 m), Annapurna (8,019 m), Manasalu (8,163 m), Mt. Everest (8,848 m) and Kanchanjungha (8,586 m). They are the valuable natural assets of the country and symbol of identity of Nepal for the outside world. Similarly, the areas Topography of Mountain Region beyond the main Himalayas is called Trans-Himalayas. They are also known as Bhots. In addition, there are several small valleys. Highland dwellers like Bhote and Sherpa people have been living in some places on the elevation of above 4,000 meter over there. There are 16 districts in this region. 1. Physical Aspects Physical aspect of the ecosystem includes land topography, climate, rivers and edaphic factors. The Mountain region has beautiful mountain ranges, snow capped peaks and valleys. Dolpa, Mustang, Dolakha, Manag are some of the places of this region. For instance Kanchanjungha, Langtang, Mahalangur, Ganesh, Annapurna, Dhawalagiri and Kanjirowa are the major mountain ranges. The lakes like Tilicho, Rara, Phoksundo, Tso- Rolpa, Imja, etc are famous lakes of this region. This region occupies 35% of the total land area of the country. According to Land Resource Mapping Project (1978/79 AD); of the total land of the Mountain region, only 4.4% land is under cultivation. The rugged terrain, high altitude and steep slope are the main limiting factors. Moreover, a large proportion of land in the mountain region is rocky and barren. Topographic condition of this region is rugged. The mountains above 5,000 meters are always covered with snow and ice. During the winter, season snowfall occurs up to the elevation of 3,000 meter. This region is divided into three sub-divisions: Main Himalaya, Inner-Himalaya and Outer Himalaya. This region is extended from 4,877 to 8,848 meter altitude from the sea level. There is no rainfall in the inner Himalayan region like Manang, Mustang, Mugu, Dolpa which lie beyond the main Himalaya. So, these areas are also called as rain shadow areas of Nepal. In this region, the snow line starts from the elevation of 4,000 meters in the West and from the altitude of 5,000 meters in the Eastern part of the country. The climate of this region is extremely cold compared to that of the Hill and Terai Region. Health, Population and Environment Education-10 85

Physical Aspects: Some Facts of Mountain Region Land coverage : 35 percent Cultivable land : 4.4 percent Altitude : 4,877–8,848 meter Climate : cold, humid and dry Topography : rough, steep, rugged, snow covered Sub-division : Main Himalaya, Inner Himalaya and outer marginal Himalaya Mountain peaks : Sagarmatha, Dhaulagiri, Annapurna, Manaslu, Choy, etc. Snowline : 4,000 meter in the west and 5,000 meter the East Precipitation : Snowfall in the winter Mountain ranges : Kanchanjungha, Mahalangur, Annapurna, etc. Soil type : Unfertile, silty and rocky Valleys : Arun valley 2. Biologic Aspects Animals, plants, vegetation and birds are included in the biological aspects of the ecosystem. Mountain region has extreme variation in land topography and climate within a small area, because of this it has become the habitat of various plants, animals, birds and wildlife. The animals and plants which have adapted in the cold and dry climate, and less oxygen are found here. Though, the agricultural production is very low, barley, potato, buckwheat and Uwa are cultivated in this region. Similarly, green vegetables like carrot, spinach, onion and radish are also produced here. Apple, lemon, orange and some other citrus fruits are grown here. Rice is also cultivated by the people in some lower part of valleys and basins. The trees like Maple, Gobre Salla, Devdar, Rhododendron, Bhojpatra, Sprus are found in this region. The medicinal plants like Jatamasi, Panchaunle, Yarsagumba, Timur, Padamchal are also found here. Shrubs are found above 4,000 meters altitude. The wild animals like Snow Leopard, Wildboar, Black Bear, Red Panda, Jharal, Ghoral, Yak, Sheep, Assamese Monkey are the common animals found in this region. Similarly, the birds like Danfe, Munal, Koklas, Chilme Kalij, Luinche, etc are found in this region. The plants and animals which can be adapted in the cold climate and low oxygen can only survive here. Biological Aspects: Some Facts of Mountain Region Trees : Maple, Gobresalla, Devdar, Bhojpatra, etc. Herbs : Jatamasi, Yarsagumba, Timur, Padamchal, etc. Wild animals : Snow Leopard, Wild boar, Red Panda, Assamese monkey, Musk deer, etc. Domestic animals : Sheep, Horse, Yak, Bhote Kukur, etc. 86 Health, Population and Environment Education-10

Birds : Damphe, Munal, Koklas, Chilme, Snow Pigeon, etc. Fruits : Apple, Lemon, Orange, etc. Crops : Barley, Potato, Buckwheat, Millet, Uwa, Junar, etc. Vegetable : Carrot, Spinach, Onion, Garlic, Radish, etc. 3. Socioeconomic Aspects Socioeconomic aspect denotes language, religion, occupation, food habits and way of life of the people. The Sherpa, Thakali, Magar, Mugal, Manangis, and Bhote communities live in this region. People wear thick woollen clothes like Bakkhu, Docha woollen hat, etc in this region. Human settlement is found along the river side and some areas near steep slopes even up to the elevation of 4,572 meters altitude. Lhosar, People ploughing and planting rice plant Buddha Purnima, Dhumje, Dashain, Udhauli, Ubhauli and Mani Rimdu are the festivals celebrated by the people of this region. Most of the festivals are celebrated with much feasting, dancing and singing. Most of the people of this region are Buddhist and Hindus. Various mother tongues like Sherpa, Gurung, Hyalmo, Thakali, Rai, Magar, Bhote, etc are spoken by the overwhelming population in this region. There are 16 districts in this region. The famous places like Olangchungola, Namche, Muktinath, Chame and Thakkhola lie in this region. People of this region have tendency to migrate to the Hill and the Terai temporarily because of snow fall and cold climate in the winter and return back in the summer. The housing, food habits, and clothing, occupation and life styles of the people of this region are different from other regions. Houses of this region are mostly constructed with stones and wood having flat roof. Generally, the people of this region keep cattle in the ground floor of their house. There are many famous religious sites including Muktinath, Gosaikunda, Pathibhara, Tanboche gumba and Mustang gumba in this region. If the infrastructures were well set in this region, people would have raised their economic status by tourism and other economic activities. Due to the cold climate, geographical constraints, lack of fertile soil and modern facilities, this region is sparsely populated. According to the census of 2068 BS, only 6.73% population of the country had been enumerated in this region. Health, Population and Environment Education-10 87

Socio-economic Aspect: Some Facts of Mountain Region Population : 6.73 percent Districts : 16 districts Castes/Ethnic groups : Sherpa, Thakali, Manangi, Chhetri, Rai, Limbu, Bhote, etc. Festivals : Lhosar, Buddha Purnima, Dhumje, Udhauli- Ubhauli, Mani Rimdu, Dashain, etc. Religion : Buddhist, Hindu, Kirant, etc. Language : Sherpa, Thakali, Rai, Bhote, etc. Famous Religious Sites : Muktinath, Gosaikunda, Pathibhara, Mustang gumba, Tangboche gumba, etc. Clothes : Bakkhu, Docha, Woollen hat, etc. House : Stone house having flat roof with small windows. Famous places : Olangchungola, Namche, Chame, Thakkhola, etc. Occupations : Agriculture, mountaineering, tourism, domestic trade, animal husbandry, etc. Life style : People temporarily migrate to the hill and Terai in winter along with their cattle and return in summer. B. Hill Region Topography of Hill Region The Hill Region lies between the Mountain and Terai Region. This region is expanded ranging from the elevation of 610 to 4,877 meter from the Sea level. This region has occupied about 42% of the total land area of the country. This region is divided into three sub-divisions such as Midland Hill, Mahabharat Range, and Siwalik Range. It extends from East to West without any break. The Mahabharat Range (also known as Lesser Himalayan) has remained as a natural defensive wall towards the south so as to protect the mountain people and their culture from the southern invasion. Furthermore, the Midland Hill Region (commonly known as Pahad) is a broad zone between the Mahabharat range and the Main Himalaya. This is a zone of innumerable valleys, river basins and tars. Kathmandu and Pokhara are famous fertile valleys in this region. This region has the elevation ranging from 610 meter to 4,877 meter. At present, this region is under the serious attack of environmental maladies. Due to severe deforestation, in most of the places people 88 Health, Population and Environment Education-10

are facing acute shortage of fuel, wood and fodder to run daily life. Soil erosion has become nonstop phenomena, aggravated by floods and landslides. 1. Physical Aspect The Hilly region is situated between the Mountain in the north and the Terai in the south and extends from east to west without any break. This region ranges from 610 to 4,877 meters altitude between the Mountain and the Terai. It is formed by rugged topography with hills and hillocks. Valleys, basins, tars and plain lands are the major settlement areas of this region. Hills of various topographical structures with terraces are found here. It has occupied about 42% of the total land area of the country. This region occupies an intermediate position in the proportion of cultivated land. According to Land Resource Mapping Project (1978/79 AD), of the total land of this region 17.2% is cultivated there. This region is divided into three sub-divisions such as Mahabharat range, Mid land, and Chure or Siwalik. Due to the topographical difference, rich diversity of ecosystems is found in this region. It has moderate climate which is suitable for settlement. Hence, this region is enriched with vast diversity of biological resources. Physical Aspect: Some Facts of Hilly Region Land coverage : 42 percent Cultivable land : 17.2 percent Altitude : 610–4,877 meter Climate : Moderate mild and healthy Topography : High, peak hill, valley, basin, tar, etc. Sub-division : Mahabharat range, Midland, Siwalik Valleys : Kathmandu, Pokhara, Surkhet Lakes : Phewa, Rupa, Begnas, Madi, etc. Precipitation : Heavy rainfall during monsoon Soil type : Silty and unfertile 2. Biological Aspect Due to the physical diversity, Hilly region is rich in biological diversity. Hilly region is the main area of deciduous and mixed forests. Uttis, Gobre Salla, Paiyu, Katus, Chilaune, Ranisalla, Khayar and Kharsu are the main species of trees of this region. In the higher altitude, Rhododendron and Kharsu are predominantly found. Bojho, Bell, Chirauto, Tejpat, Timur, Chutro, Kalo, Dhaturoo, Panch Aunle, Rato chyau, Amala, Harro and Barro are some of the medicinal plants of this region. Maize, Potato, Rice, Millet, Buckwheat and Soybeans are cultivated in this region. Clouded Leopard, Leopard cat, Rhesus monkey, Porcupine, Wild dog, Chital, Monkey, Jackal, Sloth bear and Wild Cat are predominantly found wild animals of this region. Cow, Buffalo, Horse, Donkey and Health, Population and Environment Education-10 89

Goats are the domestic animals that are found in this region. This Region is suitable for livestock farming, fruticulture and silviculture. The fruits like; Orange, Lemon, Guava, Banana, Strawberry, Pomegranate, etc are cultivated in this region. Similarly, the vegetables like Spinach, Pumpkin, Bitter gourd, Brinjal, etc are found in this region. Kalij, Falcon, Eagle, Dove and Parrot are the common birds of this region. In the rivers, rivulets and streams fish of different species including Asala and Jalkapur are found in this region. So, this region can also be termed as the paradise of biodiversity. Biological Aspect: Some Facts of Hilly Region Trees : Uttis, Chilaune, Gobra salla, Paiyu, Katus, Khayar, Kharsu, etc. Herbs : Tejpat, Chiraito, Chutro, Kalo dhaturo, Panch aunle, Harro, Barro, Rato Chyau, etc. Wild animals : Clouded Leopard, Leopard cat, Sloth bear, Wild cat, Porcupine, Chital, etc. Domestic animal : Cow, Buffalo, Horse, Goat, Donkey, etc. Fruits : Orange, Lemon, Guava, Banana, Strawberry, etc. Birds : Kalij, Falcon, Hawk, Wild cock, Eagle, Parrot, Dove, etc. Crops : Paddy, Wheat, Maize, Millet, etc. Cash crops : Coffee, Tea, Sugarcane, Oil seeds, Cardamom, etc. Vegetable : Brinjal, Spinach, Bitter gourd, Pumpkin, etc. 3. Socioeconomic Aspect Cultural heritage of our country Because of moderate climate, people of Hilly region wear seasonal clothes. Thick woollen clothes are preferred in the winter and thin cotton clothes in the summer by the inhabitants. People of different ethnic groups speak their respective mother tongues like Newari, Rai, Tamang, Sherpa, Gurung, Magar, Chepang, Raute, Kusunda, Nepali, etc in their communities. The people of various castes and ethnic communities like; Rai, Limbu, Magar, Brahmin, Chhetri, Newar, Dhami and others have settled down in this region. They celebrate different festivals in accordance with their rites and rituals. People of this region celebrate festivals like Dashain, Tihar, Shivaratri, Buddha Purnima, Udhouli-Ubhouli, Maghe Sakranti, Losar, Id, Ramzan, Christmas and other national and local festivals. Most of the village people are engaged in agriculture horticulture, livestock, poultry 90 Health, Population and Environment Education-10

farming for their livelihood. The people in urban areas are mostly engaged in business, production, banking, social service, civil service but majority of the people are in agriculture. They cultivate fruits, rice, potato, millet, etc in tars, basins and plain lands. Houses of this region are mostly made up of stones, bricks or mud with thatched roofs and tiles. But, concrete buildings are also being constructed especially in the towns and city areas. The famous religious and cultural sites such as Haleshidham, Pashupatinath, Swyambhunath, Manakamana, Changunarayan, Ruru Kshetra, Dakshinkali, Boudhanath, Swargdwari, Ridi, etc lie in this region. Majority of the people of this region live in the rural areas. Kathmandu, Pokhara, Banepa valleys are located in this region. Ilam, Bhaktapur, Banepa, Bhojpur, Okhaldhunga, Dhankuta, Diktel, Pokhara, Kathmandu, Lalitpur, Kirtipur, Dhulikhel are the major towns and cities of this region. The places with elevation above 3,000 meters in this region are sparsely populated due to the physiographic and climatic difficulties. On the other hand, the lower hills and valleys are densely populated. Actually, hill landscape is both natural and cultural mosaic shaped by geological forces and human effort. Agricultural land of this region is excessively exploited due to the pressure of population growth. As a result of inadequate and due to lack of development works, people of this region are found to be migrating to the Terai specially in the urban areas due to various facilities. According to the census of 2068 BS, 43.01% of the total population are living in this region. There are 39 districts in this region. Socio-ecomomic Aspect: Some Facts of Hilly Region Population : 43.01 percent Districts : 39 districts Castes/Ethnic groups : Gurung, Magar, Rai, Limbu, Newar, Damai, Tamang, etc. Clothes : Thick woollen clothes in the winter and thin cotton clothes in the summer. House : House mostly made up of stones, bricks or mud with thatched roofs and tiles in the village and concrete buildings in the city areas. Festivals : Dashain, Tihar, Buddha Purnima, Udhauli-Ubhauli, Maghe Sakranti, Id, Christmas, etc. Religion : Hindu, Buddhist, Islam, Christian, Kirant, etc. Language : Nepali, Newar, Magar, Gurung, Tamang, Rai, Limbu, etc. Famous Religious places : Pashupatinath, Swoyambhunath, Budhanilakantha, Sworgadwari, Ruru, Dakshinkali, Manakamana, etc. Famous places : Pokhara, Kathmandu, Dhulikhel, Kakani, Sindhuli gadhi, Ilam, Dhankuta, Palpa, etc. Occupation : Agriculture, service, business, trade, tourism, industry, etc. Health, Population and Environment Education-10 91

C. Terai Region The Terai region lies in the southern most part of the country. It is continuously extended from the East to West. It has occupied about 23% of the total land area of the country. This region expands to the altitude of 60 to 610 meter from the Sea level. It is divided into three sub-divisions such as; The Bhaban region, The southern plain Terai and Inner Terai. Its average breadth is about 30 kilometers. In this Topography of Terai Region region, the temperature is hot and humid. The topography is plain and the soil is alluvial and fertile. The Terai includes several dun valleys like Surkhet and Rapti Valleys (Dang) in western Nepal and the Rapati Valley (Chitwan) in Central Nepal. There are 20 districts in this region. 1. Physical Aspects In contrast to Mountain and Hill region, the land of Terai is flat and the climate is hot and humid. The fertile alluvial flat land of Nepal extends from the East to the West stretching along the Nepal-India boarder and paralleling the Hill region. It covers 23% of the total land of the country. According to Land Resource Mapping Project, this region has occupied about 51.7% of the total cultivable land of the country. Terai region of Nepal also includes some inner valleys like Rapati (Chitwan), Deukhuri (Dang) which are also called dun valleys. The Terai region is divided into two sub division, Inner-Terai and the Main Terai. The structure of ecosystems of three divisions are different to each other. The fertile soil is deposited here by the rivers from the north. Physical Aspect: Some facts of Terai Region Land coverage : 23 percent Cultivable land : 51.7 percent Altitude : 60-610 meter Climate : Hot and humid Topography : Plane Sub-division : Main Terai, Inner-Terai Precipitation : Heavy rainfall during monsoon Soil type : Alluvial and fertile 2. Biological Aspects There are different species of animals, birds and plants. Sal, Sisau, Satisal, Karam, Sahaj, Dhayaro, Simal, Pipal are the common species of trees found here. Bengal 92 Health, Population and Environment Education-10

Tiger, Asiatic Elephant, One-horned Rhinoceros, Barking Deer, Common Leopard, Wild boar, Swamp deer, Hispid hair, Squirral, etc are the common species of animals of this region. Vultures, Kites, Falcon, Dove, Crane, Eagle, Crow, Kingfisher, Peacock and Giant pied hornbill are the birds commonly found in this region. The soil of this region is fertile and suitable for agricultural production. Rice, Maize, Wheat, Tobacco, Pulse, Sugarcane, Jute, etc are cultivated in this region. Harro, Neem, Tulsi, Bojho, Pudina, Barro, Dhaturo, Serpentina are the commonly found medicinal plants of the Terai region. Various species of fish like Kauwai, Rahu, Mungri, Singhi, Grass carp, Common carp, Silver carp, etc are found in the streams, rivers and ponds. Biological Aspects: Some facts of Terai Region Trees : Sal, Sisau, Satisal, Karam, Simal, Pipal, etc. Herbs : Neem, Pudina, Ghiukumari, Sarpagandha, Bojho, Dhaturo, Ghod Tapre, Titepati, etc. Wild animals : Asiatic Elephant, Bengal Tiger, Common Leopard, One-Horned Rhino, Barking Deer, Swamp Deer, etc. Domestic animals : Cow, Buffalo, Pig, Goat, Horse, Donkey, etc. Fruits : Banana, Pineapple, Jackfruit, Papaya, Watermelon, Pomegranate, Guava, etc. Birds : Eagle, Hornbill Dove, Parrot, Luiche, Sparrow, Crow, King Fisher, Vulture, Nightingale, etc. Crops : Paddy, Wheat, Maize, Millet, etc. Vegetable : Cabbage, Cauliflower, Brocauli, Brinjal, Ladys Finger, Tomato, etc. 3. Socio-economic Aspects The Terai region has some unique socioeconomic characteristics than that of the Mountain and Hill. Availability of alluvial soil has made the Terai region as granary basket of Nepal. Most of the people of this region are engaged in agriculture, business and services. People celebrate the festivals like Id, Maghi, Chhat, Holi, Sama- chakhewa, Dashain, Tihar, etc. Rajbansi, Tharu, Rajput, Satar, Dhimal, Majhi, Yadav, Jha, Teli, Kayastha, Musahar, Harijan are the common castes/ethnic groups living in this region. Various temples, monasteries, churches, mosques are found here. Some religious and cultural places are Lumbini, Tribeni, Barah Kshetra, Janaki mandir, Debghat, Gadhimai are very famous in this region. People from Mountains and Hills are migrating to the Terai region due to the availability of the facilities like transport, education, trade, employment and the fertile land. Houses are constructed with wood and mud with thatched or tiled roofs. In the towns and cities people mostly live in RCC buildings. The socioeconomic characteristics is influenced by Indian culture to some extent. According to the census of 2068 BS, Health, Population and Environment Education-10 93

50.27% people live in this region. The natural resources of this region are over exploited due to the high population pressure. There are 20 districts in this region. Socio-economic Aspect: Some facts of Terai Region Population : 50.27 percent Districts : 20 districts Castes/Ethnic group : Rajbansi, Tharu, Dhimal, Majhi, Rajput, Satar, Yadav, Jha, Teli, Kayastha, etc. Festivals : Id, Maghi, Chhat, Holi, Hipawali, Sama-Chakhewa, etc. Religion : Hindu, Muslim, Jain, Sikh, Christian, etc. Language : Maithili, Bhojpuri, Tharu, Dhimal, Santhal, Rajbansi, Nepali, etc. House : Wood, mud, dry grass, bamboo with thatched or tiled roofs in the village and RCC buildings in the city area. Famous religious Places : Ramdhuni, Barahakshetra, Budasubba, Lumbini, Janakpur dham, gadhimai, etc. Famous places : Dharan, Janakpur, Birgunj, Biratnagar, Dipayal, Mahendranagar, etc. Occupation : Agriculture, industry, trade, service, business, etc. 4.3 Effects on Ecosystem by Ecological Regions and Mitigating Measures Various human activities have brought in adverse effect on the ecological process of the ecosystems of different parts of the country. The unsustainable development works like unplanned industrialization, unmanaged urbanization, unplanned construction works, random use of chemical fertilizer in the agricultural field have caused adverse effect on the ecological balance. Similarly, the human activities like deforestation, poaching of wild animals and unmanaged transportation system have further aggravated the existing condition of the environment. Some of the effects of human activities on the ecosystems by geographical regions are mentioned as follows: 4.3.1 Effects on the Ecosystem of Mountain Region and Mitigating Measures Due to the rough topography and geographical remoteness, it is difficult to carry out development work in the mountain region. The population density is very low in this region in comparison to Hill and Terai region. There are less number of industries here in Mountain Region due to lack of infrastructures like; electricity, transportation communication and other facilities. Employment opportunities are inadequate in this region due to the lack of industrial development and unsustainable agriculture. There is lack of technological advancement as there is no strong base of infrastructures 94 Health, Population and Environment Education-10

for development activities. As a result, there is less impact of development works and modernization in the Mountain ecosystem. Some effects of human activities and mitigating measures on the ecosystem of Mountain region are described below: Effects Mitigating Measures Ü Deforestation and excessive use of Ü Proper management of forest forest resources. resources and search of alternative sources of fuel. Ü Landslide, soil erosion and soil Ü Proper management of eco-friendly sterility due to improper use of land and terrace farming and use of resources. compost manure, follow crop cycle. Ü Depletion of pasture land due to Ü Proper management of pasture land, indiscriminate livestock farming. controlling indiscriminate grazing. Ü Increasing land pollution because of Ü Proper management of wastes in mountaineers. those mountaineering area. Ü Global warming causing Glacier Lake Ü Control in emission of green house Outburst Flood (GLOF) gases and proper management of glacier lakes. A. Use of Forest Resources and its Protection Though this region is less densely populated, people have to rely on natural resources. Illegal cross-border trade of wood planks of trees with Tibet is also one of the major problems of deforestation in this region. Firewood has been the major source of fuel in this region. So the people of this region cut down a large number of trees for firewood and cross-country trade of timber with Tibet. These activities have caused in deforestation in this region. Indiscriminate grazing of the pastureland has also caused the depletion of forest resources of this region. To minimize these impacts afforestation program should be launched. At the same time, alternative source of fuel should be searched as well. B. Use of Land and its Protection In this region, only 4% land is suitable for cultivation. So, the agricultural production of this region is low which cannot support the inhabitants of this region even for half a year even though they work hard for the whole year. This region is a food deficit region so people residing here are cultivable land hungry. People even cultivate in steep slope area which increases the rate of landslide and soil erosion. Outdated traditional pattern of agriculture is also the cause of low production in this region. To mitigate these effects, farmers need to be encouraged for sustainable farming. Forage plants should be cultivated in sloppy area or cultivation need to be done with terrace system. Health, Population and Environment Education-10 95

C. Livestock Farming It is needless to say that livestock farming is the main occupation of the people in this region. However, due to lack of scientific knowledge people allow their cattle for indiscriminate grazing in the pasture land. It hinders the regeneration process of small saplings and may also deplete the pasture land. Awareness campaign need to be conducted to make the people sensitive and responsible for sustainable collection, utilization and management of forest resources. At the same time people should be encouraged to grow grass by themselves for their animals in their own land to minimize the effects on the pasture land. D. Growing Pollution because of Mountaineers Many tourists are attracted by snow capped landscape of this region, they come for trekking purpose. During the mountaineering and trekking period the waste materials like cans, bottles, plastics, ropes, etc carried by them are not disposed properly. It has created serious problem in the mountain ecosystem specially in the trekking areas. So, proper management of waste materials in the trekking routes is essential to mitigate the environmental problems. 4.3.2 Effects on the Ecosystem of Hilly Region and Mitigating Measures The Hilly region has more favourable environment for settlement and development activities in comparison to the Mountain region. There is a gradual development of infrastructures for development activities like transportation, electrification, communication, education, etc. In this region, the urban areas are more densely populated in comparison to the rural areas. As a result, the effect of modernization and development activities are more pronounced in the urban areas than in the rural areas. People of this region are engaged in various occupations such as agriculture, business, animal husbandry, etc. People in the urban areas are also attracted to the civil service, trade, production and industrial entrepreneurship. Various human activities have brought adverse effects on the ecosystem of Hilly region. Some of them are mentioned below: Effects Mitigating Measures Ü Deforestation is done for the Ü Search for alternative source extension of agricultural land and for fuel and awareness towards fuel resource. utilization of forest resources without deteriorating. Ü Farmers are using huge amount Ü Awareness on less use of chemical of chemical fertilizer, insecticides fertilizers and biological control and pesticides which deteriorates measures of insects and pests. aquatic and terrestrial ecosystem. Ü Controlling of indiscriminate grazing. Ü Indiscriminate grazing by livestock. 96 Health, Population and Environment Education-10

Ü Environmental problem like Ü Controlling cultivation on marginal, landslide, soil erosion, flood are fragile and sloped land. Terrace emerging with deforestation for the cultivation system should be sake of agricultural land. adopted. Ü The grassland are being converted Ü Overgrazing should be controlled. into desert due to overgrazing. Ü The water resources like river, Ü Awareness programs on water rivulets, ponds of our surrounding pollution and sanitation should be are getting polluted. conducted. A. Use of Forest Resources and its Protection The vegetation, sources of water resource and natural habitats of wildlife are destroyed while carrying out the construction activities. At the same time, more than 65% people of this region use firewood as a source of fuel for cooking. There is high demand of timber for furniture, construction of house and other miscellaneous works. There is a tendency of allowing cattle free in forest for grazing. These activities have resulted into deforestation in this region. To minimize these effects afforestation, public awareness and resource conservational programs should be conducted effectively in sustainable manner. B. Livestock Farming Livestock farming is also one of the important occupations of the people of this region. The natural environment has been degraded due to overgrazing, collection of fodder, firewood and herbs in indiscriminate manner, which has caused gradual decline of forest resources and grassland. To mitigate these effects, people should be rationale while utilizing the resources. Likewise, indiscriminate grazing and over exploitation of forest resources need to be controlled in time. C. Use of Land and its Protection Most of the people in this region are engaged in farming. They do not stop themselves even from cultivating the extremely steep and marginal land in order to meet the demand of cultivable land for growing population. Similarly, the calamities like soil erosion and landslide have also degraded the ecosystem of this region. Moreover, the indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizer has also degraded the quality and productivity of the land. To control these effects, the marginal fragile land should not be used for cultivation. If necessary, terrace system should be used for cultivation in the sloppy land. Farmers must be encouraged to use organic compost manure. Alteration of crops also help to increase the productivity of land. Health, Population and Environment Education-10 97

4.3.3 Effects on the Ecosystem of Terai Region and Mitigating Measures There is more population pressure in the Terai region than in the Mountain and Hill. In-migration from Hill and Mountain to the Terai region has been increasing over the few decades. Due to the plain geophysical structure and sufficient development infrastructures like transportation, communication and education are more in this region compared to that of the Hill and Mountain Region. The unsustainable development works and undue population pressure have adversely affected the ecosystem of this region. Some major effects and their mitigating measures are described below: Effects Mitigating Measures Ü Deforestation Ü Proper management of forest Ü Excessive use of marginal land. resources. Ü Proper utilization and management of Ü Over grazing. Ü Depletion of ecosystem by random land resources. Ü Control of indiscriminate grazing. construction work. Ü Environmental Impact Assessment Ü Industrial pollution. before the construction work. Ü Flood and loss of life. Ü Proper management of industrial Ü Fertile and plain land is being waste and chemicals. submerged by the flood with stone, Ü Tree plantation at the bank of the soil, sand and silt resulting into infertility. rivers and afforestation. Ü Landslide in hilly region and Churiya region should be stopped by planting trees. A. Use of Forest and its Protection The people of Terai depend mostly on agriculture and forest products as other regions. Forest of Terai region has been depleted for the expansion of settlement, cultivation and timber. Smuggling of the forest resources especially for timber is the main cause of its depletion. To mitigate these effects, awareness programs and proper execution of Forest law need to be carried out effectively. Moreover, deforestation and absolute poverty should be eradicated by providing alternative sources of livelihood access to opportunities to the low income families, who depend on the forest resources for their livelihood. B. Constructional Work and Conservation Due to the favourable geo-structure, more constructional works such as roads, canals, etc are possible here. Random construction of physical structures have brought adverse effects on the ecosystem of this region. Thus, integration of conservation programs while carrying out the construction works is an essential part of sustainable development works. 98 Health, Population and Environment Education-10

C. Livestock Farming The forest resource has been utilized conventionally to feed the animals even in the Terai as in other regions. Indiscriminate grazing of the grassland has destroyed the young saplings and they cannot be regenerated again. Thus, overgrazing should be controlled in sustainable manner. At the same time while collecting grass for the cattle, forest resources should be utilized rationally in order to mitigate the adverse effects. D. Industrial Development and Cow Farming Pollution Control Due to the easy access to raw materials and better infrastructure for development, a large number of industries have been established in Terai region. The waste materials coming out from the industries like dust, smoke, and other by-products are affecting adversely the ecosystem of this region. Various programs need to be conducted to control pollution. Modern eco-friendly technology should be used in industries. Plantation of trees around the industries can also help to minimize the effect of dust, smoke and noise pollution. E. Use of Land and its Protection The soil of this region is alluvial and fertile but it has been depleted due to flood, waste materials and random use of chemical fertilizers. Landslide and soil erosion and deforestation of Hilly region should be controlled to check flood in the Terai Region. Use of compost manure should be promoted to maintain the quality and fertility of the soil. Solid and liquid waste of industries should be well-managed. 4.4 Management and Conservation of Environment Environment! A literally known word to everybody, but very few have realized its importance. There is no doubt that environment plays an important role for the survival, growth and development of human beings. Human beings utilize various types of natural resources available in the environment. Our survival is not possible in the absence of environmental resources and its components. The increasing needs and demands of the goods and services of the human society may pose undue pressure on the existing environment and its components. Environment has not been given much importance especially in third world countries like Nepal. The major environmental problems such as physical congestion, air pollution, water pollution, aesthetic pollution due to municipal and industrial wastes, poor sanitation, inadequate sewerage, loss of public open spaces and loss of cultural heritage has not been addressed yet as a result of which environmental pollution has been increasing Health, Population and Environment Education-10 99

day by day and has become from worse to worst. Hence, immediate action is needed to address these problems in an integrated manner. In this situation, proper management and conservation of the environment should be felt necessary for balancing the consumption and preservation of the resources of the environment. In order to bring balance between exploitation and preservation of the environmental resources, environment management should regulate and control the human activities over the environmental components in such a way so that the strength of the environment to sustain the needs and demands of future generation should remain unimpaired. The ultimate goal of environmental management is rational utilization of the environmental components for human welfare and productive life. In other words, environment management aims to mitigate the undue pressure of human activities on environment. Simply, the management and conservation of environment is to preserve the depleting resources and utilizing the other resources to address the needs of the human for their survival and productive life. Many environment related activities have been carried out in action in this decade for the conservation and management of the various components of the environment. For instance, many international conventions, policies, strategies, legal provisions and programs have been established for the management of environment. 4.4.1 Major Activities on Environment Conservation and Management Conservation of living natural resources like plants, animals, and microorganisms and the nonliving components of the environment of the earth are crucial for the development of the society and the nation. Continuous increase in the size of human population has resulted into increasing demand of resources. This situation ultimately increases the possibility of the crisis of resources. In this condition, the renewable natural resources in general and the non-renewable resources in particular are overexploited and may end after some time. We need to take proactive and radical step to conserve these invaluable resources in time. We can carry out the following activities for the conservation and management of our precious environment: A. Conservation of Forest Forest resource plays an important role for the balance of natural environment. We can get various kinds of resources from the forest. In this context, various kinds of forest conservation programs are carried out at local, community and national level in relation to the management of the environment of the particular place or region. We can see forest conservation programs at local and national level under the initiation of the Community Forest Management Program. In addition, The Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation has also conducted many forest conservation programs at various levels. B. Conservation of Soil Soil conservation is also one of the areas of the environment management program. The government agencies like The Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation and The Ministry of Agriculture are working for the conservation and management of soil of 100 Health, Population and Environment Education-10