HPE Book 9_2076 Edition

b. Fertile Land Access to fertile land also makes difference in the volume of migration. For instance, a large number of people from mountain and hill are migrating to the Terai region due to inadequate fertile land in Mountain and Hilly region. In some remote areas of Hill and Mountain they get food grains only for three to four months despite their hard labour. c. Industrialization Industrialization is also an important factor of migration since a large number of people take part in the migration process for employment opportunities. It is considered as a pull factor of migration. 3. Environmental Factors a. Climate Climate is the long term pattern of the weathers. It is what we expect to happen season to season. People like to live in moderate climatic region rather than the extremely unbalanced climatic region. For example people do not like to reside in extremely hot and cold climatic region. They feel comfortable in the moderate climate. Moderate climate attract people for settlement. So, climate is also considered as an important factor of migration. b. Natural Calamities Natural calamities like Flood, Landslide, Catastrophic Flooding Earthquake, Storm, etc cause great loss of human property and life. Hence, a significantly large number of population leave those calamities prone areas in search of safe life. Hence, calamities are also considered as important factors of population change. 2.4 Marriage Marriage is such an institution, which brings male and female together through physical and psychological attachment. It is one of the universal social institutions of a family. Marriage is universal and socially recognized institution established by the human society to control and regulate the human sex life. It allows stable relationship in which a man and a woman are socially and legally permitted to have children providing right to sexual relation. In fact, it is the union of male and female which is the gateway to enter into a family life as well as to kinship bond. According to E.S. Bogardus, “Marriage is a social institution admitting men and women to family life that is to living in the intimate personal relationship of husband and wife for the purpose of begetting and rearing children”. 51

From the above definition, it is clear that marriage is a universal social institution. It is found in almost all the societies in one or the other forms. According to UN definition, “Marriage is a legal union of persons of opposite sex, the legality of which may be established by civil, religious or other means recognized by the law of each country”. Age at marriage has direct relation with fertility level. It means if people get married in early age it results into rapid growth of population. On the other hand, marriage at appropriate age helps to control the rapid growth of population. According to the existing law of Nepal, the legal age at marriage for male and female is 18 years with the consent of their guardians and 20 years without the consent of their guardians. We can observe similar trend of legal age at marriage in other SAARC countries also. For instance; in the context of India, the legal age at marriage for male and female are 21 years and 18 years respectively. In Bhutan and Srilanka, the legal age at marriage for both of the male and female is 18 years. Moreover, the legal age at marriage in Bangladesh is maintained at 18 for female and 24 for male. The scenario of the marriage age in the developed countries is found different. In those countries, focus is given on carrier, independent and vocational life rather than religious and social norms and values for marriage. From reproductive health and socio-economic perspective, an ideal age of marriage for female is 20-25 years and for male is 25-30 years. In this age, they are physically mentally and socio- economically matured for the start of marital or conjugal life. 2.5 Areas Affected by Migration As we discussed earlier, migration is a complex phenomenon. It is always driven by the push and pull factors. It plays an important role for the redistribution of population. In the context of Nepal, migration rate is alarmingly high from rural areas to urban areas possibly due to the lack of proper development planning and unbalanced regional development. Migration pattern and trend in Nepal reveals that the population percentage of the Mountain and Hilly regions are decreasing due to the large volume of migration of the people to the Terai Region. In such condition, uncontrolled migration has created problems in various aspects both in the place of origin and the place of destination. They are discussed below: 2.5.1 Impact on Environmental Aspect Uncontrolled migration has created serious problems and complexities in both of the places (the place of origin and the place of destination). Consequently, it has made our life very suffocative and difficult. Some effects on the environmental aspects due to uncontrolled migration are mentioned as follows: Uncontrolled migration has resulted into serious environmental pollution everywhere (both in the place of origin and place of destination). 52

Rapid deforestation has occurred in the name of land for cultivation, resettlement, construction work, etc. Loss of biodiversity has also become a great problem by uncontrolled migration. Greater problem of environmental sanitation and drinking water prevail in the dense areas. Energy crisis problem may occur due to over exploitation of nonrenewable natural resources. Scarcity of Drinking Water There is serious problem of solid waste management in the crowded areas especially in the big cities. It is difficult to manage sewage system due to uncontrolled migration. There is high prevalence of communicable diseases. Uncontrolled migration results into unbalanced distribution of population in the country. The sources of water such as well, spring, river, rivulets, are drying due to deforestation. Natural resources in the place of destination will be overexploited whereas in the place of origin it will be under used which causes imbalance in the natural resources. Due to over cultivation, the production capacity of land has been decreased. The sloppy land and marginal lands are cultivated to yield more crops causing natural disasters. 2.5.2 Impact on Economic Aspect As we discussed earlier, migration is age and sex selective process. Various economic complexities are observed due to migration in the place of origin and the place of destination as well. Some of the consequences are mentioned below: There may be scarcity of human resource in the place of origin and unemployment problem persists in the place of destination. The area of place of origin cannot be developed due to brain drain problem and on the other hand, at the place of destination, all the migrants compete for everything. There is undue pressure on natural resources by overcrowded population in the place of destination. Agricultural production will be reduced due to lack of working people in the field in the context of place of origin. The problems like high throat cut competition in job, settlement problem due to high price of land and high cost of living make human survival difficult in the place of destination. 53

It has increased slum areas in the cities. There is possibility of poor quality of life in the place of origin due to depopulation and in the place of destination due to overpopulation. The problem of famine and malnutrition has emerged because of food crisis in hill. The price of land in the country has suddenly increased. Therefore, the number of landless people is increasing. There is monopoly of immigrants on trade promotion and industry of our country. 2.5.3 Impact on Health and Social Aspect Numerous social consequences can be seen due to uncontrolled migration in both the places (origin and destination). Some of the social impacts are mentioned as follows: There is undue pressure in education, transportation, health services and other social sectors in the place of destination. There is problem in the supply of electricity, drinking water, and settlement in the place of destination. There is high possibility of frequent conflict, quarrel and disputes between the migrant and non-migrant local people. The social crimes like theft, murder, robbery, kidnapping, prostitution, smuggling, etc may create great problems due to overcrowded population. The antisocial activities like black marketing, quackery, smuggling and fraudulent activities make our life chaotic. The recreation canters like sport canters, public parks, health clubs, swimming pools, etc are inadequate with the increase of population by migration flow. Some of the uncommon and unacceptable activities like oppositions, protests, crowd, criminal activities, etc increase at the place of destination. There will be lack of human power for the social and economic development activities in the place of origin. Dependency ratio becomes unbalanced in the place of origin due to out- migration of young adult (economically active) population. In urban areas, landless people living at the bank of river and slum areas. They are vulnerable to risk of diseases and natural calamities like Flood, Landslides, etc. 54

Summary M De-facto Census Technique: In this census technique, population is enumerated based on their actual place of residence. The government declares a fixed date as ‘the census day’. In this technique, census enumeration is conducted at moon night and this night is called as the census night. M De-jure Census Technique: In this census technique, population is enumerated at their permanent residence. In this technique, population enumeration need to be completed within the defined time period (2-3 weeks). M Modified De-jure Technique: In this technique, population enumeration is done based on their usual place of residence. (Here, usual place of residence means the place where people are living for more than six months.) In the context of Nepal, the population census has been conducted through this technique since 1952/54 AD onwards. M In the context of Nepal, the four censuses prior to the 1952/54 census are considered as ‘head counts’ (means not up to the international standard). M Vital Registration System: It is also known as Civil Registration System. It is a continuous, permanent and compulsory legal registration and statistical recording of vital events of life including live birth, death, marriage, divorce, adoption, etc. M Sample Survey: It is a process of collecting, compiling analyzing and publishing demographic, socio-economic data from the sample population of a specific place at a specific time. M Formal demography is the scientific study of human population primarily with respect to their size, structure and changes there in. M Social Demography is a multidisciplinary subject which deals not only with the population variables but also with other interrelated subject matters and variables. M The first hand data collected through questionnaire, interview, observation and focus group discussion directly from the field is called primary data. M The census, vital registration system, sample survey, administrative record and population register are known as primary sources of population data. M Marriage is a social institution admitting men and women to family life to live in the intimate personal relationship of husband and wife for the purpose of begetting and rearing children. M Migration refers to the movement of people from one place to another place crossing the migration defining area and by changing the usual place of residence. M The first scientific census with internal standard in Nepal is considered as the 1952/54 census. 55

Exercise A. Very short answer questions. 1. What is Demography? 2. What is modified De-jure census? 3. Mention any two social factors affecting death. 4. Mention any four examples of primary sources of population. 5. What do you mean by primary source of population data? 6. Mention any two adverse impact of uncontrolled migration on social aspects. 7. List down any two features of census. B. Short answer questions. 1. Explain the census history of the world. 2. Compare between formal and social demography. 3. Explain the socio-cultural factors affecting birth rate. 4. Explain the history of vital registration system in Nepal. 5. Give an introduction to marriage. Mention any four advantages of proper age at marriage. 6. What is sample survey? Mention its merits and demerits. 7. What is Vital Registration System? Explain its merits and demerits. 8. Explain the impact of migration on socio-economic and environmental aspects. 9. Explain briefly about the secondary sources of population data. C. Write differences between: 1. Census and Sample Survey 2. De-facto and De-jure census method 3. Primary source and secondary source of population data D. Write short notes on: 1. Sample Survey 2. Administrative records 3. Modified De-jure census method 4. Primary source of population statistics E. Long answer questions. 1. Explain the various types of census methods and justify the rationale behind the operation of the modified de-jure census method with reference to Nepal. 2. Explain the social, economic and environmental factors affecting mortality rate with reference to Nepal. Project Work Conduct a socio-economic and demographic survey of your community by collecting data from 10 households under the guidance of your subject teacher. Then present the report in your class. 56

Unit POPULATION, ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT 3 Learning Objective After completing this unit, students will be able to: • Explain the concept and various aspects of development. • Explain the different indicators of development. • Illustrate interrelationship between population, environment, and development. • Define, classify and tell the importance of industries. • Tell the impact of development works on environmental aspects. • Tell effects and measures to minimize, unplanned urbanization. 3.1 Relationship Among Population, Environment and Development Population implies to the total number of people residing in a particular place or a country in a particular time period. The aggregate of all the external forces or condition in our surrounding that directly or indirectly influence the growth and development of human life including their social and economic condition is called environment. In other words, environment denotes the sum total of physical and biological factors that affect the survival, growth, development and reproduction of organism. Population, environment and development activities are interdependent among themselves. Environment is the key factor, which influences the life pattern of the living organism, human behavior and socio-economic development process. Development simply denotes change plus growth in the economy, structure, attitude, and institution from positive aspects. We know that development is really much more than merely economic growth. Development program bring positive change in the existing situation. Development makes progress in social, economic and cultural aspects in the society and the nation. It helps not only to fulfill the various needs and necessities but also increases the capability of people to be self- dependent. We can say that development requires to meet the basic needs of the people and able to extend the opportunities to satisfy their aspirations for better life. Development always involves progressive transformation of economy and society. The satisfaction of human needs and aspirations is the ultimate objective of development. Hence, good understanding of development really helps to address 57

the issues beyond the economic progress like freedom, equity, health, education, safe environment and much more in the nation building process. Development Tourism Electrification Agriculture Irrigation Health Environment Communication Transportation Construction Environment Forestry Education Industry Technology Culture Development Activities Population Relationship among population environment and development We know that man is a part of environment. Therefore, there is never ending interaction between man and the environment. Man can establish positive and negative interaction with the environment. Positive interaction of man with the environment helps to maintain ecological systems in proper order. In this situation, we can have sound environment to survive, fresh air to breath, clean water to drink and healthy habitat to live in. On the other hand, man’s negative interaction with environment results into pollution, energy crisis, spread of dreadful diseases and unprecedented natural hazards. People exploit the resources to conduct development activities. While carrying out development activities we need to balance and coordinate between population, development activities and environment. Population control, environment conservation and development process can go together side by side if people carry out development activities in sustainable manner. People get every essential thing from the environment. All sorts of population and development related activities are conducted within the environment. The activities related to agriculture, industry, health, education, transportation, communication, security, human settlement, science, technology, and employment come under the scope of population and development. 58

People should realize that it is Bridge Under Construction at Ring Road, Kathmandu their responsibility to protect the environment while carrying out activities in those sectors. The development activities without proper plan and long-term vision affect the environment and sustainability of life. Thus, development activities should be carried out under the backdrop of long- term vision. For sustainable living, man needs to establish good coordination among population, environment and development activities. 3.1.1 Concept of Development Development is a process of progressive transformation of individual, family and society. The ultimate goal of development is to fulfill human needs and aspiration. It helps to promote living standard and quality of life of population. In this sense, development is not just an economic growth but also growth plus qualitative change. Development can be considered as a process by which the members of society increase their personal and institutional capabilities to mobilize and manage resources. At the same time, people are able to maintain quality of life through access to education, health care, employment opportunities, safe and clean environment and so on. Hence, development is perceived as a process, which brings positive change in the physical, socio-cultural, economical and environmental aspects. It helps to fulfill various needs and aspirations of the individuals and the society and provide necessary environment for self-dependency and self-help. The sustainability of development is interlinked with the dynamics of population growth. According to Micheal Todaro “Development is a multi-dimensional process involving changes in structure, attitude and institutions as well as the acceleration of economic growth, the reduction of inequality and the eradication of absolute poverty.” At the same time; another scholar Chi-Yuen Wu opines that, “ A process of societal transformation from a traditional society to a modern society is called development.” With reference to the above definitions; gradual change is possible in the existing condition of the country through development activities. Some of the needs like food, shelter, clothing, education, communication, health service, drinking water, 59

sanitation, energy and entertainment are the basic needs of the people. The minimum criteria of development are to fulfill the basic human needs. Development enhances the strength of self-dependency and capability on people. Well planned and environment friendly development activities can help to fulfill the human needs and conserve the environment side by side. There are different dimensions of development. Those dimensions include rural development, community development, urban development, human resource development, economic development, environment protection climate change, good governance, accountable and efficient administration etc. In this context, we can say that development process requires meeting different aspects of human needs by satisfying their aspirations for better life. The following aspects are incorporated in the development issues: Economic, social, political and cultural progress Orientation from traditional system to modernisation Response to effective and goal oriented demand Production of necessary goods and services Poverty alleviation and fulfillment of needs Socio-economic transformation Development of technology Mobilization of resources Promotion of quality of life Development of human Skills Promotion in the sense of self-esteem Get rid of poverty trap Environment balance Equity and liberty Infrastructure of Development Development is associated with many dimensions like economic progress, improvement in living standard, fulfillment of needs, environmental balance, social development, development of human capability, and development of technology. Economic development is possible through different socio-economic and cultural activities by utilizing the natural resources with the help of skilled and competent human resource. We know that strong foundation of infrastructure is mandatory for the development process. They are the basic requirement for the development process beforehand. The term ‘infrastructure’ of development refers to those basic structures or 60

foundation that support the society and the nation for the development process. Roads, bridges, water supply, buildings, schools, dams, power plants, electricity, transportation and hospitals are the examples of infrastructures of development. Hence, all the essential prerequisites required for the development process can be considered as infrastructure of development. In this context, we can say that- All the prerequisites including physical, economic, social, human resource and technology which are essential for the development works are called infrastructure of development. Infrastructure helps to accomplish the development programmes according to the plan. Therefore, infrastructure provides foundation to accelerate development activities, improve socio-economic condition of the society and nation. In this sense, it is difficult to achieve development goal without good enough infrastructures. Aspects of Infrastructure of Development 1. Physical Aspect Physical aspects of infrastructure Belly Bridge include roads, bridges, canals, drainage, buildings, power plants, dams, telephones, mobiles, etc. They help to carry out development activities according to the development planning. 2. Social Aspect Social aspects of infrastructure is also equally important to carry out development activities in a sustainable way. The prerequisites like education, communication, transportation, electricity, social security and internet services, etc are the example of social infrastructure of development. These infrastructures help to meet the development goal. 3. Economic Aspect Without economic infrastructure, Cement Factory development is almost impossible. If there is strong and sustainable economic infrastructure, development activities can be launched effectively. Banks and other financial institutions, industries, capital investment, marketing of goods and services are the examples of economic aspect of development. 61

4. Human Resource Aspect Educated, well trained and skilled persons in particular sectors is considered as human resource. The skilled manpower is required in the field of education, agriculture, health, communication, science and technology. Such skilled and educated manpower come under the human resource aspect. Doctors, engineers, teachers, lawyers, Doctors at Operation technicians, surveyors, journalist, electricians, plumbers, masons, pilots, etc are the examples of dexterous human resource. Skilled human resource is essential to carry out development activities. Activity Visit any one construction site of your locality. Prepare a short report on its positive and negative impact on socio-economic and environmental aspects by collecting required information from the stakeholders of that community. 3.1.2 Indicators of Development The UNDP describes the three essentials of development such as: Expansion of knowledge Having a decent standard of life Ability to lead a long and healthy life In this context, fulfillment of basic needs is the first criteria of development. After the fulfillment of those needs people think for security, love, affection, self- esteem, self-identity, self-respect, etc. The fulfillment of these needs is considered as an indicator of development. In fact, indicators of development refers to the parameters of development. Since development is a dynamic process; its indicators are also dynamic in nature. These indicators play a significant role in evaluation and measurement of development prospects. The development activities can be made proportionately balanced and sustainable by giving equal importance to all places in the fulfillment of human needs. If the government and other concerned agencies fail to make the development activities sustainable and balanced; social problems and environmental crisis increase in the country. It may cause unequal distribution of population and consequently results into unmanaged settlement. To make the development process balanced and sustainable the industries and other development related infrastructures need to be established in different 62

geographical regions proportionately. The raw materials required for the industries should be generated and utilized within the country. To make improvement in the standard of living through economic progress, focus must be given on development of human resource, creation of employment opportunities, increment in the production of goods and services. There are various indicators of development. They are explained below: A. Economic Progress Economic Progress is the primary indicators of development. To promote the status of education, health, communication, transportation, electricity, finance, etc economic strength is essential. Economic strength can be made possible by mobilizing natural resources. People invented many new things and contributed for industrialization and economic progress. There should be proper utilization of resources and proper distribution system of the products and services in the country. The economic progress can be analyzed with the help of comparative study of gross domestic product (GDP) and gross national product (GNP) of the country. Hence, GDP and GNP can be considered as the indicators of economic progress. They are explained below: Gross Domestic Product (GDP) Gross domestic product is the “monetary value of all goods and services produced inside the country in a specific year from the various sectors like agriculture, industries, banking, tourism, transportation, communication, education, health, hydroelectricity, pharmaceuticals, etc.” GDP per capita is the dollar value of a country’s per person earning in a year. It can be calculated by dividing the GDP of a particular year by its total population of the same year. It reflects the average income of a citizen of the country. A rise in per capita GDP signals growth in the economy and tends to reflect an increase in productivity. Gross National Product (GNP) GNP is also known as GNI (gross national income). GNP is the value of all goods and services produced in a country in a specific year, plus income earned by its citizens abroad, minus income earned within the domestic economy by foreign residents. The GNI per capita is the average income of a country’s population for a given year. It can be calculated for a country by dividing the country’s national income by its total population. It reflects the average income of a country’s citizens. It can be used as a means of evaluating the living condition and quality of life of people in different areas. The situation of GNI Per capita among the SAARC countries are illustrated in the following table: 63

Table 3.1: Status of GNI Per capita of the SAARC Countries, 2015 AD S.N. Countries GNI Per Capita (US$) 1 Maldives 7,290 2 Srilanka 3,400 3 Bhutan 2,390 4 India 1,610 5 Pakistan 1,410 6 Bangladesh 1,080 7 Nepal 730 8 Afghanistan 680 Source: The World Bank, 2015 AD B. Quality of Life The term ‘quality of life’ is associated with comfort, productivity and prosperity of human life. However, the term quality of life itself is a relative term so that different people from different socio-economic, cultural and political background make different sense towards it. It is a common phenomenon that even the persons with the same socio-economic family background working in the same office or doing same business may have different sense towards quality of life. When rich people are not satisfied with their life, the poor people who are passing through hardship of life may be living with smile and hopes. It is thus quality life can take different meaning to different people. Yet, we must not forget that the quality life of family and society is impossible without satisfying their basic needs like food, clothes, housing, security, fresh air, safe and potable water, health service and education. In a common sense, quality of life means the existence of life with happiness and satisfaction from the fulfillment of basic needs and other social, cultural and psychological needs of the people. In this context, we can assume that quality of life is the satisfaction of the various needs of people such as psychological and spiritual needs on the one hand and consumption of necessary basic needs for survival on the other hand. Economists have perceived the improvement in the living standard as an indicator of development. According to this presumption, people should get the following essentials for the attainment of quality of life: e Every individual should get nutritious and balanced diet in their everyday meal. e Adolescents should get appropriate counselling for making appropriate family size. e Every family member should get the facility of regular health checkups. 64

e Every member of the family should get proper counselling on marriage, pregnancy, birth spacing and so on. e Individual should get the facility of exercise and rest. e The house, courtyard, garden, public places, water sources and natural environment should be clean and safe. e Every individual should have access to quality education. e Family should get opportunity to generate income source for livelihood. e People should get peace and security for living individual and social life in decent way. i. Basic Needs Oriented Approach The basic needs oriented approach is one of the major approaches in the measurement of quality of life, especially for the developing countries. This approach attempts to define the minimum resources necessary for the long term physical well-being in terms of consumption of goods. This approach was introduced by the International Labour Organization (ILO), in 1970 AD. Indeed, this approach was introduced to replace the per capita income approach. According to this approach, the minimum basic needs of individuals must be fulfilled for the attainment of quality of life. In this context, the government of Nepal has also developed the policy to address the basic needs of people from the 6th five year plan onwards. The government of Nepal has recognized the basic needs as given below: Basic Needs of People According to the Government of Nepal • Food • Education • Housing • Employment • Safe drinking water • Medicine • Health services • Fresh air • Sanitation services • Transportation ii. Physical Quality of Life Index (PQLI) Physical quality of life index is one of the major non-economic measurement tool of quality of life. The PQLI was introduced by Prof. Morris D. Morris in 1976 AD. PQLI is the composite index of three statistics such as: e Literacy Rate e Infant Mortality Rate Index e Life Expectancy at Birth Index The PQLI of a country can be calculated by taking the average value of those three statistics. The value of PQLI ranges between 0 and 100 digits. The countries having higher PQLI score or score near to 100 is assumed to be the countries where their 65

people are enjoying better quality of life and the countries having low PQLI score or near to 0 is assumed to be the country where its people are living with low quality of life. In many respects, the PQLI was a predecessor of the human development index (HDI). iii. Human Development Index (HDI) The Human Development Index (HDI) is a statistical tool used to measure a country’s overall achievement in its social and economic dimensions. The Pakistani economist Dr. Mahbub Ul Haq and the Indian economist Dr. Amartya Sen created HDI in 1990 AD which was further used to measure the country’s development by the UNDP. Human development index (HDI) is one of the important bases in the study of quality of life. Generally speaking, HDI is a summary measure of three key dimensions of human development: a long and healthy life (life expectancy index), access to knowledge (education index) and a decent standard of living (income index). HDI can be computed with the help of Life Expectancy Index, Education Index and Income Index. The HDI value always ranges between the digit 0 and 1, where 0 indicates the lowest HDI and 1 indicates the highest HDI. Therefore, the countries having high score of HDI are considered as the countries with high quality of life. On the other hand, the countries with low HDI score are known as the countries with poor quality of life. According to the recent provision of new methodology, the HDI is categorized into four levels such as: Different Levels of HDI Score Level of Human Development HDI Score Very High Human Development 0.800 - 1.000 High Human Development 0.700 - 0.799 Medium Human Development 0.551 - 0.699 Low Human Development 0.00 - 0.550 Since its inception period, 1990 AD, the UNDP has been continuously publishing annual HDI report. Nepal attained 138th rank with the score of 0.527 in 2006 AD. Similarly, in 2011 AD, Nepal was placed in 157th rank with the score of 0.458 out of the 187 countries and again it maintained 157th position with the score of 0.463 amongst the 185 countries in the world in 2013 AD. According to the Human Development Report, 2016 AD, Nepal was placed in 144th rank with the score 0.558. According to the classification of HDI category, Nepal falls in low human development group. The status of Nepal in HDI is illustrated by the table that is given below: 66

Table 3.2: The HDI Status of Nepal, 2004 - 2016 AD Year Rank Score 2004 140th 0.504 2006 138th 0.527 2011 157th 0.458 2013 157th 0.463 2015 145th 0.548 2016 144th 0.558 Source: Human Development Report, 2004 - 2016 AD Table 3.3: Human Development Index of SAARC Countries, 2013 & 2016 AD HDI Rank Countries HDI Score 2013 2016 Sri Lanka 2013 2016 Maldives 92nd 73rd 0.715 0.766 India 104th 105th Bhutan 0.688 0.701 Bangladesh 136th 131st Nepal 0.554 0.624 Pakistan 140th 132nd Afghanistan 0.538 0.607 146th 139th 0.515 0.579 157th 144th 0.463 0.558 146th 147th 0.515 0.550 175th 169th 0.374 0.479 Source: Human Development Report, 2013 and 2016 AD The above table reveals that Sri Lanka is the superior amongst the SAARC countries placing 92nd and 73rd rank in 2013 and 2016 AD respectively out of the 185 countries so far. It falls in the category of high human development countries and is followed by Maldives, India and Bhutan respectively. Among the SAARC countries, Afghanistan got the least position 175th and 169th ranks with the score of 0.374 and 0.479 according to the HDI report, 2013 AD and 2016 AD respectively. Furthermore, the top ten very high human development countries for the year 2016 AD are illustrated by the following table: Table 3.4: The Top 10 Countries in Human Development Index of in the World, 2016 AD S.N. HDI Rank Countries HDI Score 1 1st Norway 0.949 2 2nd Australia 0.939 3 2nd Switzerland 0.939 67

4 3rd Germany 0.926 5 5th Denmark 0.925 6 5th Singapore 0.925 7 7th Netherlands 0.924 8 8th Ireland 0.923 9 9th Iceland 0.921 10 10th Canada 0.920 Source: UNDP, 2016 AD Table 3.5: The 10 Countries with Least Human Development Index of in the World, 2016 AD S.N. Rank Country HDI Score 1 179th Eritrea 0.420 2 180th Sierra Leone 0.420 3 181st Mozambique 0.418 4 182nd South Sudan 0.418 5 183rd Guinea 0.414 6 184th Burundi 0.404 7 185th Burkina Faso 0.402 8 186th Chad 0.396 9 187th Niger 0.353 10 188th Central African Republic 0.352 Source: UNDP, 2016 AD C. Happiness Index Happiness can be defined as the ‘overall enjoyment of life as-a-whole’. Happiness can also be considered as an important indicator of development. People who are living economically poor life but feeling happy can be considered as an indicator of development in happiness index. Economic prosperity without happiness cannot be considered as development. Happiness can be obtained through the fulfillment of basic needs, social security, individual and family satisfaction. Hence, human satisfaction can be considered as an essential indicator of development according to this approach. The New Economic Foundation (NEF) has been publishing the Happiness Planet Index since 2006 AD. In this index, the seven aspects are considered as infrastructure of development. They are mentioned below: 68

1. Economic Prosperity In this aspect, the consumers are given top priority. In this aspects, the individuals earning, the average earning and the distribution condition of the income of the total individuals of the country is taken into consideration. 2. Environmental Prosperity In this aspect, the condition of the land, water, air, and forest resources are taken into consideration. Similarly, the issues like environmental pollution, transportation system, waste management system and ecological systems may also need to be analysed in environmental prosperity. 3. Physical Prosperity In this aspect, the conditions of different kinds of disabilities, obesity, and complicated degenerative diseases are analyzed. 4. Mental Prosperity Here, the use and nonuse of medicine to reduce mental stress is analyzed. Moreover, data analysis of the mentally diseased population is also carried out in this aspect. 5. Workplace Prosperity The different relevant issues like opportunity to work, unemployment, complain against the performance at the workplace, changes in the nature of job and legal provision for job are studied under this heading. 6. Social Prosperity In this domain, the record of social incidences that occur in the society such as social discrimination, security, divorce rate, domestic violence, social conflict and crime rate are analyzed and recorded in a systematic manner. 7. Political Prosperity In this aspect, the political issues like the condition of democracy, individual freedom, status of human rights, constitutional rights including internal and external conflict are observed. Table 3.6: Status of Happiness Index in SAARC Countries, 2016 AD Rank Countries Score 84th Bhutan 5.196 92nd Pakistan 5.132 107th Nepal 4.793 69

110th Bangladesh 4.643 117th Srilanka 4.415 118th India 4.404 154th 3.360 NA* Afghanistan Maldives NA* * Not Available Source: UN Sustainable Development Solutions Network, 2016 AD Activity Visit any 10 households of your neighborhood and observe the socio- demographic situation of that locality on the basis of the indicators provided in the table given below: Indicators Status Remarks Total no. of family members Total male population Total female population Education level Age at marriage Birth spacing Access to health service Provision of nutritious food Gender equality Bank saving status 3.2 Concept of Human Resource Development Human resource refers to a group of individuals who are willing to contribute their skills, talents and professional attitude in order to achieve organizational goals. In other words, human resource refers to the group of individuals who make up the workforce of an organization. Human resource includes the manpower from the common manual worker to highly skilled work force. In other words, the educated, skillful and well trained work force in the field of education, communication, agriculture, health, science and technology are considered as human resource. Human resource is needed to carry out development activities. They can handle the assigned works properly. Even in the agricultural field, trained and skilled human 70

resource is needed for sustainable farming. Doctors, engineers, teachers, lawyers, surveyors, journalist, pilots, electricians, plumbers, etc are the examples of human resource. Classification of Human Resource Human resource can be classified into various categories. They are mentioned below: a. Highly skilled Human Resource The human resource having high level of education, sound knowledge, highly skilled, well trained, experienced and high level of working efficiency is called highly skilled human resource. The human resource like doctors, pilots, engineers, lawyers, foresters, etc are the examples of highly skilled human resource. b. Semi-skilled Human Resource The human resource having medium level of education, sound knowledge, skilled, trained and with good working efficiency is called semi-skilled human resource. The human resource like surveyors, J.T.A., masons, plumbers electricians, lab technicians, etc are the examples of semi-skilled human resource. c. Unskilled Human Resource The human resource not having education, specific training and skill is called unskilled human resource. The persons like labourers in the field of agriculture, industries and other sectors are considered as unskilled human resource. Farmers, coolies, manual labourers are the examples of unskilled human resource. Development of Human Resource After 1990 AD, the concept of human resource as an infrastructure of development and its optimum mobilization came into practice. It is now realized that it is not possible to mobilize other resources in the absence of development of human resource. Realizing this fact, various strategies have been formulated and programs have been carried out to develop the capacity of Highly Skilled Human Resource in Health Sector the manpower especially in the developing countries. 71

We know that natural resources are passive resources whereas the human resource is the active resource. Natural resources can be useful only with the help of the effort provided by human resources. Being the rational being; human can utilize the natural resources with the help of intelligence and labour. Although, there is adequate natural resources, the development of that place is not possible in the absence of capable and wise human resource. Skill manpower plays a great contribution for the development of the nation. Population beyond the carrying capacity of the nation and the given place bring adverse impact on socio-economic development process. The strength of manpower is determined by the national policy, topography, natural resources and working environment of the country. Human resource can be considered as an indicator of development due to its contribution in the following aspects: Proper utilization of natural resources Increase in production Utilization of physical capital Modernization of agriculture Industrialization Development of infrastructure Environment conservation Social development Economic progress The effectiveness of human resource management organization largely depends up on the performance of people working in that organization. It is concerned with the effective management of available human resource in the organization. It plays an important contribution for the success of an organization. Human resource development is a plan to make the organizational functions more effective. It helps to promote the strength of organization and worker. At the same time, it also plays a great role to foster the space for individual development. Individuals can be provided with necessary trainings in the area of innovative ideas, skill, technologies and work efficiency. Human resource development is felt essential to develop we feeling and teamwork culture among the working staffs. It is also essential to develop the helping attitude. Human resource development is entirely related with the capacity building of the manpower. Personal aspiration, satisfaction, and individual needs of the working staff need to be considered in human resource management. The working staffs are made responsible by giving emphasis on the development of both of the workers and organization. 72

3.2.1 Need and Development of Human Resource Human resource is the nontechnical and technical manpower needed for the various forms of work. Human resource development can be proceeded by making proper planning of the human resource as per the nature of work. Indeed, human resource development means the planning for the preparedness and efficiency enhancement of the manpower. There is preparation of human resource through formal education and different forms of trainings. Human resource is essential for the social, economic, and scientific development of the country. The need of the human resource can be justified by the following points: To fulfil the needed manpower and to manage the overstaffing of the manpower. To manage demand and recruitment of the manpower according to the philosophy of human resource management. To recruit the employees on the basis of cost analysis of labour. To know the availability and feasibility of the skilled and expert manpower for the development activities in the nation. To bring diversity in the work and to study the demand and supply of the manpower in the market. To increase the productivity of the organization through proper management of the available manpower. 3.2.2 Importance of Human Resource Development Human resources development is a vast field. In many organizations, the human resource development process begins from the time of hiring of a new employee and continues throughout that employee’s tenure with the organization. Many employees come into an organization with only a basic level of skills and experience and receive training in order to do their job effectively. The purpose of human resource development is to provide ‘coaching’ needed to strengthen and promote the knowledge, skills, and abilities to the employees. It is necessary to make proper management of the manpower of an organization for a specific plan period. It helps to get capable manpower to materialize the goal of the organization. Development of human resources is essential for an organization for their growth, strength and sustainability. Unlike other resources, human resources have unlimited potential. Importance of human resource development are explained below: A. Management Function Preparation of human resource development for an organization can help in the planning, policy making, budget allocation, profit loss analysis and total management of that organization. Moreover, human resource development is equally important for the development of a nation. 73

B. Effective Mobilization Today’s world is the world of information and technology. Similarly, from the economic perspective it is also the industrial world. Every country should walk with the pace of the world for its development. The human resource should be mobilized strategically to meet this goal. Human resource development can help for the effective mobilization of the manpower and resources in the country. C. Motivation Motivation ensures willingness of employees for doing job effectively. The employees should be motivated toward their jobs in order to increase productivity and efficiency. Motivation consists of need, satisfaction, performance appraisal, and reward management. The human resource who can mobilize the physical resources at zero risk is essential for the success of the organization. The services and facilities provided to the human resource directly affect the goal achievement process of an organization. Human resource development helps to draw incentive plan for the betterment of manpower. At the same time, it provides motivation in search of manpower and their involvement for the future. D. Expansion of Human Relation The human resource development can strengthen the capacity of manpower and expand working relation. It plays key role in effective communication, supervision and leadership development in an organization. It also helps to develop a good rapport between the human resource and the stakeholders inside and outside the organization. Expansion of human relation brings positive impact in the productivity working efficiency and internal managerial system. E. High Productivity Human resource manager and other line managers can contribute to productivity by mobilizing their workforce effectively and efficiently. Productivity depends upon different factors such as; investment, innovation, resource mobilization and motivation. Human resource development is considered an important factor to higher productivity, better relation and greater profitability for any organization. In summary, the importance of human resource development are mentioned in the following points: e Human resource development makes people more competent. HRD develops new skill, knowledge and attitude of the people in the concerned organizations. e With appropriate HRD programme, people become more committed to their jobs. People are assessed on the basis of their performance by having a acceptable performance appraisal system. 74

e An environment of trust and respect can be created with the help of human resource development. e Acceptability toward change can be created with the help of HRD. Employees found themselves better equipped with problem-solving capabilities. e It improves the all round growth of the employees. HRD also improves team spirit in the organization. They become more open in their behavior. e It also helps to create a good culture in the organization. It leads to greater organizational effectiveness so that resources are properly utilized and goals are achieved in a better way. e It increases the participation of worker in the organization. This promotes the role of worker in that organization and workers feel a sense of pride and achievement while performing their jobs. e It also helps to collect essential data on employees which further facilitate and for better human resource planning. e Hence, it can be concluded that HRD provides a lot of benefits in every organization. Therefore, the importance of HRD should be recognized and given a good place to face the present and future challenges in the organization. 3.2.3 Human Resource Development Process Human resource development is related with the individual prosperity of the manpower. It helps to make vision to improve the role of the working staffs at present and prepare for the future role. It helps to improve the relation between the workers, to develop the culture of teamwork and to expand the sense of helping each other. Indeed, the human resource development is systematic process. The following process can be adopted for the development of human resource: A. Formulation of Manpower Planning There should be review of objectives of the organization before the formulation of planning for the human resource development. Thereafter, goal and objectives need to be determined. Internal sources and strength of the organization need to be examined and manpower recruitment planning should be done accordingly. In this framework, organizational structure for the future and human resource development planning also should be prepared in advance. B. Manpower Strength Analysis Working nature of an institution, types of employment available in that institution, total number of job opportunities and their status, and existing manpower of that organization need to be analyzed. At the same time, internal development of the organization and the need of working strategies of that organization should be given top priority. To give momentum to an organization, different aspect like capacity 75

building plan to disseminate the functions of the organization including good faith on the organization also need to be included in this aspect. C. Projection of Needed Manpower for the Future A cross cutting decision should be made to answer what sorts of and how much manpower is required for the organization. It is necessary to make decision about different aspects including manpower development trend, workload of the working staffs and budget of the organization. D. Development of Employment Programme It is the human nature that everybody is seeking for new kind of employment opportunities. In the institution where he is and what he expects new and additional responsibilities. So, there should be adequate employment development programme in the sector of human resource development plan. E. Development of Training Programme It is necessary to conduct refreshment and capacity building training for the development of skill and dexterity of employees in an organization. At the same time, there should be the provision of training programs for the new employees. Indeed, training provides additional energy to the employees and motivates them for work. So, there must be provision of internal and external training programs for the maximum utilization of the strength of an organization in human resource development planning. Manpower Development Strength of Training Analysis Programme Human Resource Development Projection Formulation Process of Needed of Manpower Manpower for the Planning Future Development of Employment Programme 76

3.2.4 Challenge and Future Perspective of Human Resource Development in Nepal To prepare the manpower according to the national and international demand by creating employment opportunities within the country are the challenges of human resource development in the present context. We are facing some of the challenges such as: to maintain balance between the existing human resource and development activities to address the expectation of rural and deprived areas. It is essential to have a long-term action plan and plan for human resource development to face such challenges. It is necessary to develop the long-term vision for the development of human resource: To develop capable and skilled manpower who are competent in the national and international market. To make balance between demand and supply of manpower through the development of competent and skilled human resource. To give emphasis on the employment and self-employment creating technical education and vocational training. To conduct integrated programme for the development of skilled human resource development. To promote capacity of the agencies related to the human resource development. To formulate policies related to the human resource development and to implement it into day-to-day life. To make coordination between the manpower produced by the educational institutions and employment available in the market. To promote capacity of the target group. To develop human resource in that manner so that they do competition with the people in the international market. To define work in an innovative way and to make education more practical and work oriented. Activity Prepare a report on the topic “Human Resource in our School” through the discussion with the school management committee and principal of your school including the following chapters: Chapter-I : Human resource in the context of school Chapter-II : Need of development of human resource in school Chapter-III : Human resource required for shaping the school as a good educational institution Chapter-IV : Plan for development of human resource in the school Chapter-V : Challenges for the school while formulating human resource development planning 77

Summary M Development is a multidimensional process involving changes in structure, attitude and institutions as well as the acceleration of economic growth, reduction of inequality and eradication of absolute poverty. In other words, it is a process of societal transformation from a traditional society to a modern society. M All the prerequisites including physical, economic, social, human resource and technology that support the society and nation for the development process are called infrastructures of development. M The physical infrastructure includes road, bridge, drainage, building electricity, etc. M The human resource aspect of infrastructure includes the dexterous manpower like doctor, engineer, teacher, lawyer, surveyors, plumber, etc. M Social aspect of infrastructure includes education, communication, transportation, health service, social security, etc. M Economic aspect of infrastructure includes banking institutions, industrialization, economic policy, capital for investment, etc. M Quality of life is the life with the satisfaction of the various needs of the people such as psychological, spiritual and social needs in one hand and fulfillment of basic needs for survival on the other hand. M The sense of quality of life differs from person to person and society to society due to the variation in their social, economic and political background and in their perspectives and aspirations as well. M The basic needs oriented was introduced by the International Labour Organization (ILO) in 1970 AD. M Physical quality of life index (PQLI) is a noneconomic measurement of quality of life. This approach was developed by the renown sociologist, Morris D. Morris in 1976 AD. M Human development index (HDI) was introduced in 1990 AD by the Pakistani economist Dr. Mahabub Ul Haq and the Indian economist Dr. Amartya Sen. M According to the recent methodology (2010 AD onwards), the HDI value is categorized into four levels i.e very high (0.800 - 1.0), high (0.700 - 0.799), medium (0.551 - 0.699), low (0 - 0.550). M Nepal has maintained 157th position among the 185 countries with the HDI score of 0.463 in 2013 AD. In the same year, Norway maintained the 1st position with the HDI score of 0.955. M Human resource refers to the manpower from the common manual worker to hilly skilled work force. 78

Exercise A. Very short answer questions. 1. What is development? 2. Under which aspect of infrastructure of development do electricity and communication come? 3. What type of needs of quality of life are education and health services? 4. In how many levels the human development index is divided into? 5. Who introduced the concept of physical quality of life index? 6. When was the approach of basic needs developed? 7. What is environment? 8. What is the ultimate goal of development? 9. What is happiness index? 10. Why is manpower recruitment planning necessary? B. Short answer questions. 1. Explain the basic needs approach as one of the important bases for the measurement of quality of life. 2. What is development? Mention any four importance of it. 3. Explain the interrelationship between population, environment and development. 4. Why is human resource called as an important aspect of development? Explain with justification 5. Which aspects are incorporated in the concept of development? 6. Explain the role of seven progress of happiness index to measure quality of life. 7. Write the importance of human resource development. 8. PQLI can be perceived as an important instrument for the measurement of development. Do you agree? 9. Examine the challenges and future perspective of human resource development in the context of Nepal. C. Write differences between: 1. Physical infrastructures and social infrastructures of development 2. Physical quality of life index and Human development index 3. Gross domestic Product and Gross National Product 4. GDP per capita and GNI per capita 79

D. Write short notes on: 1. Human resource 2. Economic progress as an indicator of development. 3. Happiness Index 4. Basic Needs Oriented Approach E. Long answer questions. 1. Analyze the situation of HDI among the SAARC countries and some developed countries. 2. Critically evaluate the need and importance of human resource development in the context Nepal. 3. What is infrastructure of development? Describe its aspects with suitable examples. 4. Explain the various indicators of development with suitable examples. Project Work Observe the recent development programs in your locality and select any one program among them and prepare a report based on the heading or subtitle that is given below by taking information from the field work. a. Title of the study b. Introduction of the study c. Objective of the study d. Method of data collection e. Socio-economic benefit of the program f. Environmental impact of the program g. Conclusion and suggestion 80

Unit POPULATION AND ENVIRONMENT STATUS OF NEPAL 4 Learning Objective After completing this unit, students will be able to: • Explain the trend of population growth rate of Nepal. • Explain the population composition of Nepal. • Elaborate the population distribution pattern of Nepal by ecological and administrative division. • Analyze the trend of population density by ecological and development region. • Define urbanization and classify the urban areas. • Analyze the impact of urbanization on population and environment. 4.1 Size of Population Population size denotes the total number of people living in a particular place at a particular time. The size of population is always changing in response to fertility, mortality and migration. It is obvious that population is dynamic in nature. The actual size of population can be explained on the basis of particular place and particular time. 4.1.1 Population Size and Growth in Nepal Nepal has a long history of taking census periodically. Initial censuses since 1911 AD until 1940 AD were more or less only head counting of the people. The census up to 1941 AD did not explain details of the census methodology. In 1952/54 AD, the census was conducted using internationally acceptable definition and methodology. Because of various reasons, the census was carried out at two phases (the eastern part of the country was enumerated in 1952 AD and rest of the country was enumerated in 1954 AD). However, due to the time reference problem in the census of 1952/54 AD, the census of 1961 AD is accepted as the first scientific census of Nepal in terms of international standard and comparison. Then the subsequent censuses are all of international standard. Size of population at various censuses since 1911 AD are presented in the following table: 81

Table 4.1: Population Size and Growth Rate of Nepal, 1911 - 2011 AD Census Year Total Net Growth Average Annual Population (AD) Population Growth Rate Doubling Time - (%) (years) 1911 56,38,749 -64,961 1920 55,73,788 -41,214 -- 1930 55,32,574 7,51,075 1941 62,83,649 19,72,976 -(0.13) - 1952/54 82,56,625 11,56,371 1961 94,12,996 21,42,987 - (0.07) - 1971 1,15,55,983 34,66,856 1981 1,50,22,839 34,86,258 1.16 60 1991 1,84,91,097 46,60,326 2001 2,31,51,423 33,43,081 2.27 31 2011 2,64,94,504 1.64 42 2.05 34 2.62 26 2.08 33 2.25 31 1.35 52 Source: CBS, 2014 AD, Population Monograph (Vol. - I) The above table shows that the population of Nepal was in declining trend up to 1930 AD, then the population started to grow. However, the population of the country did not increase at a uniform rate. It shows that there was decline in the absolute size of population from 5.6 million in 1911 AD to 5.5 million in 1930 AD with a relatively small decline between 1920 AD and 1930 AD. The precise reasons for population decline during the census period from 1911 AD to 1930 AD are not known but may be attributed to the effect of worldwide influenza epidemic, famine, unscientific census counting (under counting) and heavy casualties suffered by Nepalese Army in the First World War. The censuses of 1920 AD, 1930 AD and 1941 AD were conducted in abnormal periods for example, the census of 1920 AD was conducted immediately after the First World War and the 1941 AD census was taken during the mid-period of the Second World War in which about 2,00,000 Nepalese soldiers were recruited in the Gurkha Army. Moreover, the census of 1930 AD was taken at the time when Nepal was preparing for war with Tibet. Besides these reasons, there could have been the problem of under counting of population in those censuses because the census enumeration prior to 1952/54 AD used to be conducted by landlord’s agents. Furthermore, the task of census enumeration was not their main work. They were neither trained nor supervised for enumeration of census data. 82

Possible reasons of population decline in the second and the third census in Nepal: The first world war Spread of pandemic Influenza Recruitment of large number of Nepali youths in Gurkha Army The youths were under enumerated due to the fear of Nepal Tibet war Unscientific population enumeration Famine for long period The population of Nepal started increasing since 1941 AD. The population of the country increased by 2.27 percent during the inter-census period from 1941 to 1952/54 AD, whereas it was observed 1.64 percent during 1952/54 to 1961 AD. However, since 1971 till 2001 census, the population growth rate has crossed 2 percent. The main reasons of the increase of population from 1941 AD onwards are significant decline in mortality rate with persistent high fertility rate, return of Army personnels from the World War I and II, the spread of pandemic disease (influenza), return of many people to the home country from other countries after the establishment of democracy as well as immigration in large number from neighboring countries, especially from Indian sub-continent. The population growth rate during the inter-census period between 2001 AD and 2011 AD has been observed to be stable at 1.35 percent. If the population of our country increases at the same rate, this population will be double after 52 years. Some factors responsible for rapid population growth in Nepal there after 1941 AD: High infant mortality rate Early marriage Low status of women Preference to son Economic value of children High fertility rate Immigration Dominance of rural population Polygamy Illiteracy Superstition Poverty Joint family Lack of population education Unmeet need of family planning services 83

The bar diagram given below further clarifies the size and growth trend of population of the country. Population in Lakhs - 0.13% - 0.07% 1.16% 2.27% 1.64% 2.05% 2.62% 2.08% 2.25% 1.35% 1920 1941 1961 1981 2001 Census Years (A.D.) According to the population census report of 2011 AD, Nepal deserves the following demographic status: Average population growth rate: 1.35%, TFR: 2.6, CBR:24.3, IMR: 46, CMR: 54 respectively. The demographic data of 2011 AD census report is comparatively in better position with respect to previous census results. Some reasons behind the fall of population growth rate during the decade of 2001 AD to 2011 AD may be accounted as education, increase in contraceptive prevalence rate, foreign employment, public awareness, woman empowerment, tendency of late marriage, attraction to small and nuclear family. However, the population growth rate has decreased to a great extent, it is still higher in comparison with the pace of economic growth. Some possible reasons of decline in population growth rate in between the census years 2001 and 2011 AD census: Increase in emigration rate due to foreign employment Increase in contraceptive prevalence rate Inclination of people towards small family Tendency of late age at marriage Status change of women (women empowerment) Access to education and health facilities Rapid Urbanization 84

Activity Study the table 4.1 given above being divided into different groups and discuss in the class in front of your subject teacher. 4.1.2 Composition of Population Population composition is also known as population structure. Population composition can be defined as: The distribution of population according to caste, religion, sex, language, occupation, etc is called population composition. Where caste, religion, etc demonstrate social characteristics; age and sex denote demographic characteristics and occupation denotes the economic characteristics. Population composition is an important aspect of Population Studies. Population composition helps us to know the number of male, female, youth, old and child population. It also reveals the group of people of different religions, castes and ethnic groups, languages and occupations. The information of population composition helps us for developing planning of the country. On the basis of population composition, the population can be classified into the following groups: A. Population Composition by Sex Population classified according to sex is called population composition by sex. It is also called sex structure. Sex composition can be defined as the distribution of population on the basis of sex (i.e. male and female). The trend of sex composition in Nepal for different census years are presented in the following table: Table 4.2: Composition of Population by Sex, 2001 - 2011 AD Census Year Male Female (AD) 2001 Population Percent Population Percent 2011 1,15,63,921 49.9 1,15,87,502 50.1 1,28,49,041 48.5 1,36,45,463 51.5 Source: CBS, 2014 AD. The above table reveals that in the census years 2001 and 2011 AD, the population of female is larger compared to their male counterparts. For instance, the female population in the census years 2001 and 2011 AD have been observed 50.1 and 51.5 percent respectively whereas the male population for the same period were counted to be 49.9 and 48.5 percent respectively. While studying the population composition by sex, we should not forget the contribution of sex ratio. The tabulation of population by sex ratio is useful in the evaluation of census and survey 85

data particularly with respect to the population by sex and age. The sex ratio can be computed by the formula that is given below: MF Sex Ratio = X 100 Where, M Ü Total number of male population F Ü Total number of female population The Sex Ratio for the various censuses has been shown in the following table: Table 4.3: Sex Ratio of Total Population, Nepal, 1971 - 2011 AD Census Year (AD) 1981 1991 2001 2011 Sex Ratio 105 99.5 99.8 94.16 Source: CBS, 2014 AD Sex ratio is usually expressed as the total number of males per hundred female population. According to the given table, the sex ratio has been found high in the census year 1981 while it is observed low in 1991, 2001, and 2011 AD respectively. This low sex ratio might be because of the emigration of large number of male population to foreign countries for seeking jobs and other various reasons. Activity Collect the data of all students of your school for a particular year. Classify that data according to age and sex structure. Then show the population composition of students by age sex in pie charts. B. Population Composition by Castes/Ethnicity Nepal is the country of multi- culture and multi-ethnicities. Our settlement is formed by various castes and ethnic groups. Caste system is the unique feature of the Hindu society. The Hindu society is a caste ridden society. Brahmin, Chhetri, Thakuri, Sanyasi, Badi, Gaine, etc come under various castes in Nepal. Besides the Hindu caste system, there are many ethnic groups in the country. Here, the ethnic groups represent those groups of people having own mother tongue and traditional culture and yet do not fall under the conventional fourfold varnas of Hindu or Hindu hierarchic caste structure and are living with the sense of we feeling. Some of the Hill and Mountain ethnic groups are: Magar, Gurung, Rai, Limbu, Sherpa, Bhote, Raute, etc and Terai ethnic groups are: Tharu, Dhimal, Gangai, Santhal, Jhangar, Koche, Meche, etc. 86

Table 4.4: Some Distinct Castes/Ethnic Groups Reported in the 1991 - 2011 AD Ecological Regions Distribution of Castes/Ethnic Groups Mountain 1991 2001 2011 Hill Terai 459 Nepal 27 45 55 29 50 61 60 100 125 Source: CBS, 2014 AD The national census of 2011 AD has recorded 125 types of castes and ethnic groups. The composition of population by ethnic groups/castes of Nepal for the census year 2011 AD is presented in the following table: Table 4.5: Population Compositions by Caste and Ethnic Groups, Nepal, 2001 and 2011 AD Castes/Ethnic groups Population (%) Chhetri 2001 AD 2011 AD Brahmin 15.8 16.6 Magar 12.74 12.18 7.17 7.12 Tharu 6.75 6.56 Tamang 5.64 5.81 Newar 5.48 5.03 3.94 4.75 Kami 4.27 4.39 Muslim 3.94 3.98 Yadav 2.79 2.34 2.39 1.97 Rai 1.72 1.78 Gurung 1.58 1.46 Damai (Dholi) 1.47 1.61 Limbu 1.40 1.41 Thakuri 1.34 1.40 1.19 1.27 Sarki 1.11 1.16 Teli 0.67 0.47 Chamar 0.35 0.43 Koiri Sherpa Rajbansi 87

Chepang 0.23 0.26 Kayastha 0.23 0.17 Santhal/ Satar 0.18 0.19 658 (total population) 618 (total population) Raute 17.62 17.66 Others Source: CBS, 2001 and 2014 AD Activity Visit any 10 houses of your locality and collect socio-demographic data related to sex and caste/ ethnicity from those households and show it in the following table: House hold No. Male Female Caste/ Ethnicity Total House hold No. 1 House hold No. 2 House hold No. 3 House hold No. 3 House hold No. 4 House hold No. 5 House hold No. 6 House hold No. 7 House hold No. 8 House hold No. 9 House hold No. 10 C. Population Composition by Religion Nepal is a secular state in which people with many religions live in the country. Hence, it is said that Nepal is a multi-lingual and multi-religious country. People in this country are living with the feeling of unity in diversity. The real picture of population composition by religion is demonstrated by the table given below: Table 4.6: Population Compositions by Religion, 2001 and 2011 AD Religion Population (%) Hindu 2001 AD 2011 AD Buddhist 80.62 81.34 10.74 9.04 Islam 4.20 4.39 Kirant 3.60 3.05 88

Christianity 0.45 1.41 Jain 0.02 0.01 -- 0.46 Prakriti -- 0.04 Bon 0.02 0.01 Sikh 0.01 0.01 Bahai 0.34 0.23 Others Sources: CBS, 2001 and 2014 AD The table reveals that there is the highest position of the Hindu population (80.62%) in 2001 AD and (81.34%) in 2011 AD respectively. D. Population Composition by Age Population composition by age can be considered as the proportion of people in different age groups. It is also considered as age structure. The data about population composition by age are usually organized by 5 years age group, such as 0-4, 5-9, 10-14, 15-19 and so on. The age structure of any population is most commonly studied with the help of a percent distribution and age-sex pyramid. The following table shows the distribution of population by age and sex for the census year 2011 AD: Table 4.7: Percentage Distribution of Population by Five Year Age Groups, Nepal, 2011 AD Age Group Population Percent Distribution (in years) Male Female Total 00-04 05-09 10.23 9.18 9.69 10-14 15-19 12.73 11.50 12.10 20-24 25-29 13.73 12.54 13.12 30-34 35-39 11.23 10.91 11.07 40-44 45-49 8.13 9.63 8.90 50-54 55-59 7.14 8.52 7.85 6.00 7.07 6.55 5.76 6.33 6.06 5.14 5.32 5.23 4.48 4.38 4.43 3.94 3.66 3.80 3.21 2.97 3.09 89

60--64 2.87 2.85 2.86 65-69 2.16 2.03 2.09 70-74 1.55 1.43 1.49 75-79 0.91 0.86 0.89 80-84 0.49 0.48 0.49 85-89 0.20 0.20 0.20 90-94 0.07 0.08 0.08 95 and above 0.03 0.05 0.04 Source: CBS, 2014 AD The above table reveals that there is the highest percentage of population in the age group 10-14 years for both sexes (13.73 percent and 12.54 percent for male and female respectively). It is followed by the age group 5-9 years and 0-4 years age group respectively. The table also reveals that the proportion of population decreases as the age group increases. Furthermore, the status of population composition can also be analyzed with the help of broad age group. This kind of data helps to observe the nature of the population of a country or place. At the same time, it also facilitates to compute dependency ratio by providing data of dependent and independent population. The following table shows the population composition of Nepal by broad age groups: Table 4.8: Percentage Distribution of Population by Broad Age Group, 2001 - 2011 AD Census Year Population Composition by Broad-age Group (in AD) 0-14 15-59 60 & above 2001 2011 39.31 54.2 6.5 34.91 56.96 8.13 Source: CBS, 2014 AD The above table reveals that the proportion of child population (0-14 years) is decreasing in the succeeding census years whereas the independent age group population percentage (15-59 years) is gradually increasing during the same census period. At the same time, the proportion of old dependent population is also increasing surprisingly in the succeeding census years. According to the demographic norms, the population of a country is said to be young population if the young age population (0-14 age group) shares more than 35% of the total population. On the other hand, if the old age population (population above 59 years) shares more than 10% of the total population, it is called aging population. In this context, Nepal has young population. It is customary 90

to say that most of the developing countries are advancing towards the broader line of aging population. E. Population Pyramid Population pyramid is a graphical presentation of age-sex composition of population of a given place. A population pyramid is designed to give a detailed picture of the age-sex structure of a given population. The population pyramid consists of bars, representing age groups in ascending order from the lowest to the highest, horizontally on one another. Percentage of male population by age groups are presented in horizontal bars in the left side from the vertical base line of the pyramid. Similarly, the female population by age groups are presented by the horizontal bars of the right side. The vertical base line shows the age groups. It can be of various types. Amongst the various forms of population pyramids, broad based population pyramid shows the age-sex composition of developing countries whereas narrow-based cylindrical shaped pyramid represents the age-sex composition of the developed countries. 95+ 90-94 85-89 80-84 Male 75-79 Female 70-74 65-69 (Age group) 60-64 55-59 50-54 45-49 40-44 35-39 30-34 25-29 20-24 15-19 10-14 5-9 0-4 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Population percentage Population Pyramid of Nepal, for the national population census of 2011 AD The study of population pyramid provides insight to the readers about the age- sex structure of the population, level and trend of fertility and mortality, history of 91

population trend and socio-economic condition of that place. The above population pyramid is constructed with the help of the data provided that is given below: Table 4.9: Population Composition by Age and Sex, Nepal, 2011 AD Age group Male population (%) Female population (%) 0-4 10.23 9.18 5-9 12.73 11.50 13.73 12.54 10-14 11.23 10.91 15-19 8.13 9.63 20-24 7.14 8.52 25-29 6.0 7.07 30-34 5.76 6.33 35-39 5.14 5.23 40-44 4.48 4.38 45-49 3.94 3.66 50-54 3.21 2.97 55-59 2.87 2.85 60-64 2.16 2.03 65-69 1.55 1.43 70-74 0.91 0.86 75-79 0.49 0.48 80-84 0.20 0.20 85-89 0.07 0.08 90-94 0.03 0.05 95+ 48.5 51.5 Total Source: CBS, 2014 AD Activity Construct a population pyramid of your VDC or Municipality with the help of population data by age and sex that you obtained from village profile of population data of your VDC or municipality. F. Population Composition by Mother Tongue Nepal is a country of multilingual society. There are various languages spoken in different areas of Nepal. Multilingual refers to the different mother tongues 92

spoken by the people. During the 1971 AD census year, 20 different languages were recorded as mother tongues. Similarly, 18 languages in 1981 AD, 32 in 1991 AD, 92 in 2001 AD and this figures has been drastically increased to 123 languages spoken by the people as mother tongue in the 11th national population census 2011 AD. The reasons behind the drastic increase in the mother tongue specialities is due to the fact that a large number of languages used as mother tongues have been resumed because of the growing awareness of several ethnic minorities about the importance of their distinct cultural and linguistic identity. Such mother tongues include Bhujel, Chhantyal, Dura, Ghale, Kishan, Munda, Bajjika, Baitadeli, Doteli, Kumal, Aangika, Yholmo, lhomi, Lohorung, Nachhiring, Thulung, Yakkha, Mewahang, Dumi, Kulung, Dungmali, etc. In the earlier censuses all the Rai languages were recorded under a single heading, called ‘Rai group of languages’. But in the national population census 2011 AD, 25 separate languages had been enumerated in this group of language. The composition of population by languages as mother tongue is presented in the following table: Table 4.10: Population Composition by Mother Tongue in Nepal, 1991 - 2011 AD Mother tongue 1991 Population (in percent) 2011 50.31 2001 44.6 Nepali 11.85 48.61 11.7 Maithili 7.46 12.30 6.0 Bhojpuri 5.37 7.53 5.8 Tharu 4.89 5.86 5.1 Tamang 3.73 5.19 3.2 Newar 2.03 3.63 1.9 Abadhi 1.09 2.47 2.6 2.33 0.77 3.0 Urdu 1.23 3.39 1.23 Magar 1.37 1.49 1.3 Gurung 0.66 1.47 0.45 Limbu 0.04 0.57 0.19 Sherpa 0.18 -- Santhal -- 0.12 0.18 Sunuwar 0.13 0.14 0.02 Danuwar 0.04 0.03 2.99 Thakali -- 1.05 Bajjika 93

Doteli -- - - 2.97 Baitadeli -- - - 1.03 Others 7.47 5.2 5.74 Source: CBS, 2001 and 2014 AD The above table reveals that there is the highest position of the Nepal language speaking population (50.3%, 48.6% and 44.6%) in the census year 1991, 2001 and 2011 AD respectively. It is followed by Maithili (11.85%, 12.3% and 11.7%) in the census year 1991, 2001 and 2011 AD respectively. The languages that have been spoken to be Nepali, Maithili, Bhojpuri, Tharu, Tamang, Newar, Abadhi, Urdu, Magar, Gurung and Limbu. G. Population Composition by Educational Status Education is an important indicator of development. Social and economic development is possible through the development of education. It is needless to say that education is backbone of the development level of a country. In population composition by educational status, we can observe the distribution of population by different level of education. We can also analyse the existing population above 5 years by their literacy rate. Table 4.11: Population Composition by Literacy Rate, 1991-2011 AD Sex Literacy Rate of Population 6 Years and Above Male 1991 2001 2011 Female Total 54.5 65.6 75.1 25.0 42.8 57.4 39.6 54.1 65.9 Source: CBS 2014 AD, population monograph (Vol. II) The above table reveals that the literacy rate of the entire population aged 6 years and above was (39.6%, 54.1% and 66.6%) in 1991, 2001 and 2011 respectively. The percentage of female literates increased by more than 2 fold from 25% in 1991 to (57.8%) in 2011, and that of males; the literacy rate of 1991 (54.5%) increased to (76%) in 2011. Although there has been a significant growth in female literacy rate over the years, females are still lagging behind males in terms of their literacy status by 18 percent in 2011 AD. However, gaps in literacy rates have been narrowing during the period 2001-2011 compared to previous census decades. 94

Activity Analyze the literacy status of your locality by collecting the data with the help of the following table by visiting any 10 households of that place: Household No: Literacy Status Total Literate Percentage Illiterate Percentage Name of family members Male Female Male Female 1. ................................ 2. ................................ 3. ................................ 4. ................................ 5. ................................ 6. ................................ 7. ................................ 8. ................................ H. Population Composition by Occupation Distribution of economically active population on the basis of different occupational status is known as occupational composition of population. The following table shows the composition of population by occupation: Table 4.12: Population Compositions by Major Occupations, 1991 - 2011 AD Occupation 1991 2001 2011 Agriculture 80.3 65.7 60.43 6.1 9.3 8.29 Service 3.0 7.9 8.07 Trade 4.2 1.4 2.22 Production 1.8 1.4 2.09 Technical 4.6 11.5 19.03 Others Source: CBS, 2001, 2014 AD. The above table reveals that the economically active population in agricultural sector is in decreasing trend. On the other hand, there is increasing trend of population in the non-agricultural sectors (service, production, sales, professional and technical, etc) over the same period. For instance, in 1991 AD census, of the total active population, 80.3 percent was observed in the agricultural sector. After 10 years (2001 AD), the population in agriculture was counted 65.7 percent whereas 34.4 percent of the total active population was observed in the non-agricultural 95

occupations in 2011 AD. According to the given table, the population percentage in the non-agricultural sectors like trade, production and technical sector is in increasing trend. 4.1.3 Population Density Population density is a simple concept, used in relation to population size to resources, in Ecological Studies. Simply speaking, population density is an effective indicator to measure the pressure of population on land. It can be defined as the total number of people living in a standard unit of area. Population density is usually computed as the population per square kilometer or per square mile of land area. It can be calculated with the formula that is given below: AP Population density = Where, P Ü the total number of population of a given place. A Ü the total area in square kilometer or square mile. Population density of a place is greatly affected by the geographical factors like land topography, climate, soil, vegetation, etc. At the same time, it is also affected by socio-economic factors like; communication, health, education, security, irrigation, electrification and facilities as well. A. Population Density by Ecological Region Geographically, Nepal is divided into three ecological regions (Mountain, Hill and Terai). The pressure of population is increasing in all the ecological zones. The trend of population density by ecological regions of the country is shown in the following table: Table 4.13: Population Density by Ecological Regions in Nepal, 1991 - 2011 AD Ecological Zones 1991 2001 2011 Mountain 28 33 34 Hill 137 167 186 Terai 254 330 392 Nepal 126 157 180 Source: CBS, 2014 AD. From the above table, it is revealed that the density of population is increasing steadily in the Hill and Mountain regions and rapidly increasing in the Terai region. For instance, the population density in Mountain region has been increased from 25 in 1981 AD to 34 in 2011 AD. During the same period the density of population of Hilly region has been increased from 117 per square kilometer to 186 in 2011 AD. On the other hand, population density of the Terai region has been increased 96

from 193 persons per square kilometer in 1981 to 392 in 2011 AD. During the same period, the population density of the country has been observed 102 in 1981 and 180 in 2011 AD. It reveals that population pressure is rapidly increasing in the Terai region in comparison to that of Mountain and Hill. The density of population in the Terai region is very high due to the migration of people from Mountain and Hill to Terai and immigration from neighboring countries especially from India as well. Possible reasons of high population density in the Terai region : Fertile land Transportation facilities Communication services More industries In migration from hill and Mountain Immigration from neighbouring country B. Population Density by Development Region Nepal is divided into five development regions. Population density is increasing in all the development regions. The trend of population density by development region is shown in the following table: Table 4.14: Population Density by Development Regions, 1991 - 2011 AD Development Regions 1991 2001 2011 Eastern 156 188 204 Central 226 293 352 Western 128 155 168 57 71 84 Mid Western 89 112 131 Far Western 126 157 180 Nepal Source: CBS, 2014 AD. The above table reveals that the population density is gradually increasing in all the development regions. It is shown that there is the highest population density in the Central Development Region (352) and lowest in the Mid Western Development region (84) according to the 11th census 2011 AD. For the same census year, the population density was 84 in the Mid Western Development Region. At the same time, the population density of Eastern, Western and Far Western Development Regions were observed in the second, third and fourth position respectively. As we discussed earlier, the factors like socio-economic facilities and opportunities, fertile land, rainfall pattern, vegetation, etc affect the population density by development region. 97

C. Population Density by Place of Residence When we observe population density by place of residence, increasing trend is found in both of the rural and urban area. For instance, the population density of rural area was 138 km2 in 2001 AD and it increased to 153 km2 in 2011 AD. Similarly, the population density in urban area was found 985 km2 in 2001 AD and it reached 1,380 per km2 in the census year 2011 AD. Table 4.15: Population Density by Place of Residence, 2001 - 2011 AD Place by residence 2001 2011 Rural 138 153 Urban 985 1,380 Nepal 157 180 Source: CBS, 2014 AD Activity Collect the data of all students of your school for a particular year. Classify that data according to age group and sex structure. Then show the population composition of students by age sex in pie charts. 4.2 Population Distribution The spatial arrangement of population according to the geographical structure, political and administrative division is called population distribution. The distribution of population of a country may be affected by socio-cultural, economical, environmental, geographical and developmental factors. The data on population distribution is essential for the government agencies as well as for the planners, researchers and other individuals in order to execute planning and programs in the various sectors. The population of Nepal is not evenly distributed due to the diversity in topography, means and resources, climate, unequal distribution of facilities, services and their accessibility. For instance, we observe high density of population in those areas with adequate provision of employment, education, health services, transportation, electricity services and other facilities in comparison to those places with inadequate facilities and opportunities. A. Population Distribution by Ecological Region Population distribution by ecological regions can be considered as the arrangement of population according to the ecological divisions. Geographically, our country is divided into three ecological regions. They are Mountain, Hill and Terai. Ecological 98

division reflects the variation in climatic condition and the variation of agricultural land and other resources. The population of Nepal is not distributed evenly. The population distribution of the country by ecological regions for the census years 2001 to 2011 AD is shown in the following table: Table: 4.16: Percent Distribution of Population by Ecological Division, Nepal 2001 - 2011 AD Ecological Region Distribution of Land Distribution of Population (%) Area (%) Mountain 2001 2011 Hill 35 Terai 42 7.3 6.73 23 Nepal 100 44.3 43.00 48.4 50.27 100 100 Source: CBS, 2014 AD The above table reveals that the population of the Terai region has been increasing rapidly in every census year. The Terai region had enumerated (48.4%) of the total population in the census year 2001 AD and it has increased to (50.27%) in the census year 2011 AD. On the other hand, there has been a remarkable decrease in the share of population in Mountain and Hilly regions respectively. For instance, the population of Mountain region has been declined from 7.3 percent in 2001 AD to 6.73 percent in 2011 AD. Similarly, the population of Hilly region declined from 44.3% in 2001 AD to 43% in 2011 AD. Initially, Terai region was covered with dense forests highly infested with Malaria and other transmissible diseases. However, the diseases were controlled later. The increasing rate of deforestation for the human settlement and the pattern of population distribution by ecological zone has also changed. B. Population Distribution by Development Region In 1972 AD, the concept of development region was introduced for the first time in Nepal. In that year, the country were divided into four development regions (i.e, Eastern, Central, Western, and Far western). In 1980 AD, the Far Western Development Region was further divided into Mid Western and Far Western Development Region. The distribution of population by development region in Nepal has been shown in the following table: Table: 4.17: Percent Distribution of Population by Ecological Division Development Distribution of Land Distribution of Population (%) Region Area (%) Eastern 19.3 2001 2011 23.09 21.93 99

Central 18.6 34.69 36.45 Western 20.6 19.74 18.60 Mid Western 28.8 13.01 13.39 Far Western 13.3 9.47 9.63 Nepal 100.00 100.00 100.00 Source: CBS, 2014 AD The table reveals that, the central and far western development region have been observed with slightly increasing trend in the distribution of population. It has been followed by the mid western development region. In 2001 AD, the central and far western development regions had shared (34.69% and 9.47%) of the total population respectively. This respective figure increased to (36.45% and 9.63%) in 2011 AD. However, slightly decreasing trend is observed in the eastern and western development regions. Moreover, 23.09% and 19.74% of the total population has been shared by the eastern and western development regions in 2001 AD, whereas this has been decreased to (21.9% and 18.6%) respectively in 2011 AD. It is not surprising that the mid-western development region population is found to be increasing steadily. According to the recent census 2011 AD, it is found that more than one third of Nepal’s population live in the Central Development Region and less than 10 percent in the Far Western Development Region. It reveals a great disparity in the distribution of population in development regions. The possible reasons may be due to the unequal distribution of services, facilities and opportunities as well as lacking of effective execution of decentralization of governance system of the country. 4.2.1 Population Distribution by Rural Urban Residence The place which does not have adequate access to development infrastructures like transportation, hospitals, colleges, electricity, communication along with other urban facilities and geographically remote from the headquarters or center is known as rural area. On the other hand, the places having access to all minimum urban facilities and modernization and accessible from the center or headquarters are called urban areas. In our context, municipalities, metropolitan cities and sub-metropolitan cities are synonymously known as urban areas. Hence, if the population distribution is arranged according to the rural-urban residence, it is considered as rural urban population distribution. The following table illustrates the trend of population distribution by rural urban residence: 100