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Index AB (simple-comparison) design, 71–72, 87 animal models, 82 ABAB design, 72–75, 87 animal research ABCAC design, 74 abusive relationships, 153 activity anorexia, 440– 442 acquisition adjunctive behavior, 434 – 436 advantages of, 81–84 classical conditioning, 129–130 behavioral system theory, 446 – 449 defined, 162 behaviorism, 14 observational learning, 463– 466 control group designs, 67–70 activity anorexia evolution, 11–12 basic procedure, 440– 441 imitation, 468– 471 clinical implications, 444 – 445 instinctive drift, 429– 430 compared to anorexia nervosa, 441– 443 language defined, 452 overview, 440 artifical, 480– 484 underlying mechanisms, 443– 444 overview, 476 – 478 activity levels and anorexia nervosa, 441– 445 sign, 478– 480 adaptation, 11, 44, 106 talking to animals, 483 adjunctive behavior. See also activity anorexia naturalistic observation, 64 – 65 basic procedure, 434 – 436 preparedness in operant conditioning, 428– 429 defined, 452 rule-governed behavior, 485 as displacement activity, 438– 440 sign tracking, 431– 434 in humans, 436 – 438 taste aversion conditioning, 423– 427 noncontingent reinforcement, 271 anomalous behavior patterns. See adjunctive overview, 434 behavior; instinctive drift; sign tracking adjusting schedules, 275–276, 289 anorexia nervosa. See also activity anorexia age and impulsivity, 406 – 407 clinical suggestions, 444 – 445 aggression overview, 441– 443 during extinction procedure, 298 antecedent events, 224 observational learning, 471– 475 anthropomorphism, 470 reinforcement for, 246 anticipatory contrast, 318, 333 schedule-induced, 435 anxiety conservation hypothesis, 343 agoraphobia, 191 appetitive conditioning, 112–116, 123 Ainslie, G., 405, 490 appetitive stimuli, 54 –55, 86 Ainslie–Rachlin model of self-control applied behavior analysis, 37– 41, 44 commitment responses, 408– 410 Aristotle, 6 –7, 394 delay function for larger later reward, 405– 408 artificial language experiments, 480– 484 overview, 401– 405 artistic appreciation, 240 small-but-cumulative effects model, 411 ASL (American Sign Language), 478– 480, 483 aircribs, 40– 41 association, law of, 6 –7 Akeakamai (dolphin), 482 associations alarm calls, 476 delayed, 424 – 425 alchohol, acquisition of preference for, 464 – 465 specificity of, 425 alternate behaviors, 395 asymptote of conditioning, 129 alternatives as reinforcers, 390–393 attraction, interpersonal, 116 American Sign Language (ASL), 478– 480, 483 automaintenance, negative, 434 Anderson, C. A., 474 autoshaping, 432– 434, 452 animal cognition, 27, 322 aversion conditioning, taste, 422– 427, 453 aversion therapy, 199–201, 207 535

536 Index aversive conditioning, 112–116, 123 and dating, 287 aversive stimuli, 54 –55, 86 defined, 289 avoidance overview, 285–287 behavioral contracting, 409 conditioning behavioral contrast, 315–318, 333 obsessive-compulsive disorder, 350–353 behaviorism. See also radical behaviorism phobias, 345–350 defined, 44 historical background of defined, 251 versus escape behavior, 229 Aristotle, 6 –7 overview, 340–342 British empiricists, 8–9 preparedness in operant conditioning, 428– 429 Descartes, 8 theory of punishment, 374 evolution, 11–12 two-process theory of, 342–345 functionalism, 10 structuralism, 9 backward chaining, 278 study of observable behavior, 12–16 backward conditioning, 119–120, 123 overview, 1–5 Baer, A. M., 368 schools of Baer, D. M., 368 cognitive behaviorism, 23–28 balanced approach to studying, 21 methodological behaviorism, 16 –19 Bandura, Albert neobehaviorism, 19–23 social learning theory, 28–30 Bobo doll studies, 471– 472, 474 between-species differences in taste aversion self-delivered consequences, 396 conditioning, 426 social learning theory, 28–30 bias from matching, 388–389, 415 baselines, 71, 86 binge eating/purging-type anorexia, 443 basketball and matching law, 386 biological dispositions in learning Baum, W. M., 387 activity anorexia bedtime tantrums, 307 basic procedure, 440– 441 behavior. See also adjunctive behavior; avoidance; clinical implications, 444 – 445 compared to anorexia nervosa, 441– 443 choice; elicited behaviors; escape behavior; overview, 440 measurement of behavior; observational underlying mechanisms, 443– 444 learning; operant behaviors; rule-governed adjunctive behavior behavior basic procedure, 434 – 436 alternate, 395 as displacement activity, 438– 440 analysis, 37 in humans, 436 – 438 applied analysis of, 37– 41, 44 overview, 434 contagious, 459– 460, 497 behavior systems theory, 446 – 449 covert, 30, 53–54, 87 operant–respondent interactions defined, 3, 44 instinctive drift, 429– 431 differential reinforcement of other, 306–308, 333 sign tracking, 431– 434 experimental analysis of, 37 overview, 421 foraging, 384 –385 preparedness and conditioning high-probability, 282, 364 classical conditioning, 422– 428 low-probability, 283, 364 operant conditioning, 428– 429 overt, 30, 53–54, 87 blocking private, 54 conditioned taste aversion, 423 problem, 199–201 defined, 162 respondent, 217, 429 as example of specificity, 147–150 social, 385 Rescorla-Wagner theory, 179 species-specific, 95 Bobo doll studies, 471– 472, 474 steady-state, 258 body–mind dualism, 8, 45 superstitious, 272 Boer, D. P., 445 target, 4 Boice, Robert, 362–363 training, 247–250 Bolles, R. C., 429 verbal, 55 behavior systems theory, 446 – 449, 452 behavioral bliss point approach

Index 537 bonobos, 470– 471, 483 chimpanzees, 477– 481 boundaries, bright, 490, 492 choice. See also Ainslie–Rachlin model Bourret, J., 386 Brandstätter, V., 490– 491 of self-control break-and-run pattern, 260 matching breeds, dog, 448– 449 Breland, Keller, 429 concurrent schedules, 380–382 Breland, Marian, 429 deviations from, 385–390 Breuer, Joseph, 66 law, 382–386 bright boundaries, 490, 492 melioration, 390–393 British Cruelty to Animals Act (1876), 82 overview, 379–380 British empiricism, 8–9, 44 self-control Brown, P. L., 432 controlling responses, 394 –397 Bryant, Kobe, 142 delay of gratification paradigm, 400– 401 bulimia, 442– 443 overview, 394 Burns, M., 433 small-but-cumulative effects model, cancer patients, taste aversion conditioning in, 427 410– 412 canine intelligence, 448– 449 as temporal issue, 397– 400 case study approach, 65– 67, 86 classical behaviorism, 16 Catania, A. Charles, 2 classical conditioning. See also phobias catharsis, 66 acquisition, 129–130 cause-and-effect relationships, 67 appetitive conditioning, 112–116 CER (conditioned emotional response) aversion therapy, 199–201 aversive conditioning, 112–116 paradigm, 113 basic procedure, 107–112 chained schedules, 276 –280, 290 defined, 3, 123 changeover delay (COD), 387 discrimination training, 136 –138 changing-criterion design, 78–81, 86 disinhibition, 130–133 Chantek (orangutan), 483 excitatory conditioning, 116 –117 Cherek, D. R., 437 experimental neurosis, 136 –138 children extensions to higher-order conditioning, 138–142 acquired preferences, 464 – 465 sensory preconditioning, 143–146 Ainslie–Rachlin model of self-control, 401– 403 external inhibition, 156 bedtime tantrums, 307 extinction, 130–133 clear behavioral rules for, 58 Gulf War syndrome, 203 contingent reinforcement, 272, 274 inhibitory conditioning, 116 –117 delay of gratification, 400– 401 instinctive drift, 429– 430 differential reinforcement of other behavior, and interpersonal attraction, 116 medical applications of, 201–204 306 –307 observational learning in, 461– 463 dissociative identity disorder, 370–371 occasion setting, 154 –155 extinction, 296 –297, 300 versus operant conditioning, 226 extrinsic rewards, 239–240 overview, 105–106 generalized reinforcers, 237 Pavlov’s discovery of, 106 –107 help in raising, 3 and preparedness, 422– 428 imitation by, 468– 469 pseudoconditioning, 158–160 impulsiveness, 406 – 407 sign tracking, 431– 434 internal events, 31 specificity in Little Albert study, 183–186 blocking, 147–150 noncontingent reinforcement, 271–274 latent inhibition, 151–153 observational learning and aggression, overshadowing, 146 –147 spontaneous recovery, 130–133 471– 475 stimulus discrimination, 133–136 punishment, 353–354, 357–361 stimulus generalization, 133–136 rules for, 485 temporal arrangement of stimuli, 117–121 shaping, 244 temporal conditioning, 154 taste aversions, 427– 428

538 Index classical conditioning (continued ) Conger, R., 385 unconditioned stimulus revaluation, 156 –158 conjunctive schedules, 275, 290 underlying processes in consequences compensatory-response model, 171–177 Rescorla-Wagner theory, 178–182 immediate versus delayed, 392–393, 397– 400 S-S versus S-R model, 168–169 operant, 220–223 stimulus-substitution versus preparatory- consistency, 398 response theory, 169–171 contact desensitization, 198 contagious behavior, 459– 460, 497 clicker training, 244 contiguity COD (changeover delay), 387 and contingency, 56 –57 cognition, animal, 27, 322 law of, 7, 45 cognitive behaviorism, 22–28, 44 temporal, 56, 88 cognitive information-processing approach, 22 contingencies. See also rule-governed behavior cognitive map, 24, 44 classifying, 233 cognitive-behavior therapy, 30 defined, 56 –57, 86 commitment responses, 408– 410, 415, 492 of punishment, 227 communication systems, 476 – 477 of reinforcement, 226 comparative cognition, 27, 322 sign tracking, 432 comparative designs, 68, 86 types of compensatory-response model, 171–177, 207 complex schedules, 290 negative punishment, 231–234 compound stimuli, 146, 162 negative reinforcement, 228–230 concurrent schedule of reinforcement, 380–382, 415 overview, 226 –227 conditioned compensatory responses, 176 –177 positive punishment, 230 conditioned emotional response (CER) positive reinforcement, 228 continuous reinforcement schedules, paradigm, 113 258–259, 290 conditioned reinforcers. See secondary reinforcers contracting, behavioral, 409 conditioned response (CR), 108, 111, 123 contrast conditioned stimuli (CSs) anticipatory, 318, 333 law of, 6, 45 aversive, 423 contrived reinforcers, 241–243, 251 classical conditioning, 108, 110 control group designs, 51, 67–70, 87 defined, 123 controlled responses, 394 –395 preexposure effect, 151 controlling responses, 394 –397 relevance to US, 425– 426, 452 Coolidge effect, 97 sign tracking, 432– 433 Coren, Stanley, 448– 449 stimulus-substitution theory, 170 counterconditioning, 192, 207 vicarious emotional conditioning, 462– 463 countercontrol, 33, 44 conditioned suppression theory of punishment, 374 covert behavior, 30, 53–54, 87 conditioning. See also classical conditioning; covert sensitization, 200 CR (conditioned response), 108, 111, 123 operant conditioning cross-fostering experiments, 478– 479 asymptote of, 129 Cruelty to Animals Act (1876), British, 82 avoidance CSs (conditioned stimuli) aversive, 423 obsessive-compulsive disorder, 350–353 classical conditioning, 108, 110 phobias, 345–350 defined, 123 backward, 119–120, 123 preexposure effect, 151 delayed, 118, 123 relevance to US, 425– 426, 452 diagrams, 4 sign tracking, 432– 433 fear, 422 stimulus-substitution theory, 170 instrumental, 212, 215 vicarious emotional conditioning, 462– 463 one-trial, 425 CS-US relevance, 425– 426, 452 simultaneous, 119, 124 cumulative effects model of self-control, 410– 412 taste aversion, 422– 427, 453 cumulative recorders, 59– 60, 87 trace, 119, 124 trials, 110 vicarious emotional, 461– 463

Index 539 Darwin, Charles, 10–11 overview, 311 dating and behavioral bliss point, 287 peak shift effect following, 312–314 deflation, unconditioned stimuli. See revaluation; discriminative stimuli for extinction unconditioned stimuli degree of deprivation, 304 defined, 252 delay discrimination training, 311 distinctive signal for extinction, 304 changeover, 387 overview, 333 function operant antecedents, 223–225 for punishment, 252 for larger later reward, 405– 408 dishabituation, 123, 133 overview, 402– 405 disinhibition, 130–133, 156, 162 of gratification, 400– 401 displacement activity, 438– 440, 452 delayed associations, 424 – 425 dissociative identity disorder (DID), 370 delayed conditioning, 118, 123 distinctive signal for extinction, 304 delayed consequences, 392–393, dogs, intelligence of, 448– 449 397– 400 dolphins, 482 delayed matching-to-sample procedure, Domjan, M., 433 322–323, 325, 333 Doyle, T. F., 437 deliberate practices, 20 DRH (differential reinforcement of high rates), dense schedules, 261 269, 290 dependent variables, 51–52, 87 drive reduction theory, 280–282, 290 depression, 299 driven approach to studying, 21 deprivation DRL (differential reinforcement of low rates), adjunctive behavior, 436 269, 290 defined, 55–56, 87 DRO (differential reinforcement of other degree of, 304 behavior), 306 –308, 333 in self-control, 395 DRP (differential reinforcement of paced Descartes, René, 8 responding), 269, 290 descriptive research drug use case studies, 65– 67 adjunctive, 437 defined, 87 overdose, 176 –177 naturalistic observation, 64 – 65 dualism, mind–body, 8, 45 desensitization duration, 60, 87 contact, 198 duration schedules, 267–268 imaginal, 194 systematic, 192–195, 208 eating disorders, 2 in vivo, 194, 200 eating habits, 464 – 465 determinism, reciprocal, 29, 45 effect, law of, 213–215 deviations from matching, 385–390 elicited behaviors. See also respondent behavior DID (dissociative identity disorder), 370 dietary neophobia, 424 fixed action patterns, 94 –96 dieting, 444 – 445 habituation, 96 –99 differential reinforcement of high rates (DRH), opponent-process theory of emotion, 100–105 269, 290 reflexes, 92–94 differential reinforcement of low rates (DRL), sensitization, 96 –99 269, 290 emetics, 199 differential reinforcement of other behavior emotion, opponent-process theory of, 100–105, 123 (DRO), 306 –308, 333 emotional responses differential reinforcement of paced responding conditioned, 113 (DRP), 269, 290 vicarious, 461– 463, 497 directed forgetting, 323 empiricism discrimination, 309–312 British, 8–9 discrimination training defined, 44 classical conditioning, 136 –138 overview, 6 –7 defined, 333 endorphins in anorexia, 443 errorless, 320–321, 333

540 Index Energies of Men, The, article, 492 previous experience with extinction, 304 Epling, W. F., 441– 444 schedule of reinforcement, 301–303 Epstein, Robert, 398 side effects of, 297–301 Epstein, S., 104 spontaneous recovery, 305–306 Ericsson, K. A., 21 extinction bursts, 297, 333 ERP (exposure and response prevention), 351, 374 extinguished conditioned taste aversion, 423 errorless discrimination training, 320–321, 333 extrinsic punishment, 355, 374 errors, categorizing behavior by number of, 63 extrinsic reinforcement, 238–241, 252 escapable-shock condition, 365 escape behavior fading, 320–321, 333 Falk, J. L., 434 – 439 avoidance conditioning FD (fixed duration) schedules, 267, 290 obsessive-compulsive disorder, 350–353 fear phobias, 345–350 conditioning, 422 defined, 252 as contagious behavior, 459 negative reinforcement, 229 overcoming, 2 overview, 340–342 vicarious emotional conditioning, 461– 462 two-process theory of avoidance, 342–345 feeding systems, 446 establishing operations, 56, 87 female exposure to violence, 474 ethics FI (fixed interval) schedules, 264 –265, 290 animal research, 82–83 first-order conditioning, 139 Little Albert experiment, 186 Fisher, E. B., 404 ethology, 35 fixed action patterns, 5, 94 –96, 123 Etscorn, F., 424 – 425 fixed duration (FD) schedules, 267, 290 evolution, 11–12 fixed interval (FI) schedules, 264 –265, 290 evolutionary adaptation, 11, 44 fixed ratio (FR) schedules, 259–262, 290 excitatory conditioning, 116 –117, 123 fixed schedules, 267 experimental analysis of behavior, 37 fixed time (FT) schedules, 270, 290 experimental avoidance, 346 flexion reflexes, 11 experimental groups, 51 flexion response, 93, 123 experimental neurosis, 136 –138, 162, 369 flooding, 195–198 experimental research flooding therapy, 196, 207 control group designs, 67–70 food single-subject designs preference, 428 restriction, 83 changing-criterion, 78–81 taste aversion conditioning, 422– 427 multiple-baseline, 76 –78 foraging behavior, 384 –385 reversal, 72–75 forget trials, 324 simple-comparison, 71–72 FR (fixed ratio) schedules, 259–262, 290 exposure and response prevention (ERP), 351, 374 freedom, situational, 477, 497 exposure therapies, 198 free-feeding weight, 83 external inhibition, 156, 162 frequency, law of, 7, 45 extinction Freud, Sigmund, 66, 197, 439 classical conditioning, 130–133 frustration, 298 defined, 162, 333 FT (fixed time) schedules, 270, 290 differential reinforcement of other behavior, fugue states, 65 functional communication training, 306 –307 306 –308 functional relationships, 52–53, 87 overview, 221–222, 296 –297 functionalism, 10, 44 procedure, 296 process, 296 Galdikas, B. M. F., 469– 470 and relationship breakups, 301 Galef, B. G., Jr., 469 resistance to Gandhi, Mohandas K. (Mahatma), 492– 493 Garcia, J., 425– 426 defined, 334 Gardner, Allen, 479 degree of deprivation, 304 distinctive signal for extinction, 304 history of reinforcement, 303 magnitude of reinforcer, 303–304

Gardner, Beatrix, 479 Index 541 generalization gradients, 309, 334 generalized imitation, 468, 497 in social learning theory, 28 generalized punishers, 356, 374 true, 467– 470, 497 generalized reinforcers, 237, 252 immediate consequences, 392–393, genetic factors in radical behaviorism, 397– 400 35–37 immediate reinforcement, 234 –235 goal gradient effect, 278, 290 implementation intentions, 491, 497 Gollwitzer, P. M., 490– 491 impulsiveness, 405– 407, 416 Goodall, Jane, 64 in vivo desensitization, 194, 200 grammar in vivo exposure procedure, 198 in vivo flooding, 196 defined, 468 incentive motivation, 281, 290 overview, 476 – 477 incubation, 189–190, 207 symbolic language, 482 independent variables, 51–52, 87 Yerkish artificial language, 480– 481 inescapable-shock condition, 365 Grant, D. S., 447 infatuation, 38 graphs, reading, 28 inferences, 13 gratification, delay of, 400– 401 inflation, unconditioned stimuli. See revaluation; Green, L., 404, 409– 410 guided participation, 198 unconditioned stimuli Gulf War syndrome, 203 inhibition Guthrie, Edwin, 329–330 external, 156, 162 habituation, 96 –99, 123, 392 latent Haendel, V., 405 Hampton Court maze, 61 in classical conditioning, 151–153 Heffernan, T., 396 defined, 162 helplessness, learned, 366, 374 taste aversion conditioning, 423– 424 Herman, Louis, 482 reciprocal, 192–193, 207 Herrnstein, R. J., 382, 384, 405 inhibitory conditioning, 116 –117, 123 heterogeneous chains, 278 innate tendencies, 446 – 449 higher-order conditioning input, 22 instinctive drift, 429– 431, 452 in classical conditioning, 138–142 instructional control, 308 defined, 162 instructions. See rule-governed behavior vicarious emotional conditioning, 462 instrumental conditioning, 212, 215 high-intensity stimuli, 98 intelligence of dogs, 448– 449 high-probability behavior (HPB), 282, 364 intensity, 60, 87 history of control, 189 intentions, implementation, 491, 497 homogeneous chains, 278 interactions. See operant-respondent interactions Honzik, C. H., 24 intermittent punishment, 359 Houston, A., 384 –385 intermittent reinforcement schedules, How to Discover What You Have to Say: A Talk to 258–259, 290 internal events, 30–34 Students, paper, 398 interpersonal attraction, 116 HPB (high-probability behavior), 282, 364 interreinforcement intervals, 435– 436 Hull, Clark L., 19–23, 280 interstimulus interval (ISI), 118 hypnosis, 347 interval recording, 62, 87 interval schedules, 266 –267 imaginal desensitization, 194 intrinsic punishment, 355, 374 imaginal flooding, 196 intrinsic reinforcement, 238–241, 252 imitation introspection, 9, 44 investigation, systematic, 213 of aggression, 471– 475 IQ test, canine, 448– 449 by animals, 468– 471 ISI (interstimulus interval), 118 generalized, 468, 497 observational learning, 467– 471 James, William, 10, 42, 492, 494 overview, 467– 468 Jenkins, H. M., 432 Jones, Mary Cover, 192, 194

542 Index MacDonald, Suzanne, 483 magnitude of reinforcer, 303–304 Kanzi (bonobo), 470– 471, 483 male exposure to violence, 474 Killeen, P., 385 Maslow, Abraham, 274 –275 Klein, S. B., 469 matching Koelling, R. A., 425– 426 bias from, 388–389, 415 language. See also rule-governed behavior concurrent schedules, 380–382 animals, 477– 478 deviations from, 385–390 artificial language experiments, 480– 484 law, 382–386, 416 overview, 458, 475– 477 melioration, 390–393 sign language experiments, 478– 480 maximization theory, 390 symbolic, 480– 483 mazes, 61 Mazur, J. E., 448 lapses, 412 meaningful significance, 80 larger later reward (LLR) measurement of behavior definitions, 57–58 commitment strategies, 408– 410 recording methods delay function for, 405– 408 overview, 401– 405 duration, 60 small-but-cumulative effects model, 411 intensity, 60 laryngeal activity, 17 interval recording, 62 latency, 61– 62, 87 latency, 61– 62 latent inhibition number of errors, 63 in classical conditioning, 151–153 overview, 58 defined, 162 rate of response, 59– 60 taste aversion conditioning, 423– 424 speed, 60– 61 latent learning, 24, 26, 45, 145 time-sample recording, 62– 63 laughter, 459 topography, 63 laws media violence, 473– 475 of association, 6 –7 mediation, 19 of contiguity, 7, 45 melioration theory, 390–393, 416 of contrast, 6, 45 memory, procedures for study of, 322–325 of effect, 213–215 men, exposure to violence, 474 of frequency, 7, 45 methodological behaviorism, 16 –19, 45 matching, 382–386, 416 Miles, Lyn, 483 of parsimony, 14, 45 Miller, N. E., 360 of similarity, 6, 45 mind–body dualism, 8, 45 lean schedules, 261 Mischel, Walter, 400– 401 learned helplessness, 366, 374 modal action patterns, 94 learned industriousness theory, 238 modeling learning. See also biological dispositions in animal sign language, 479 by animals, 470– 471 learning; observational learning in observational learning, 458– 459 defined, 3, 45 in operant conditioning, 463– 466 errorless discrimination, 320–321, 333 models, animal, 82 latent, 24, 26, 45, 145 modification, behavior. See applied behavior analysis social learning theory, 28–30, 45 molar approach, 28, 34 –35 Little Albert study, 183–186 molding, 479 LLR (larger later reward) monkeys, vervet, 476 commitment strategies, 408– 410 Morality Play for the Leisured Class, A, play, 319 delay function for, 405– 408 Morgan, Conway Lloyd, 14 overview, 401– 405 Morgan’s Canon, 14 small-but-cumulative effects model, 411 Moss, Kate, 142 Locke, John, 8 Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus, 20 long-term habituation, 97 multiple chemical sensitivity, 203 love, 38 multiple schedules, 314 –315, 334 low-intensity stimuli, 98 low-probability behavior (LPB), 283, 364

Index 543 multiple-baseline designs, 76 –78, 87 operant behaviors, 212, 217–219, 252 multiple-baseline-across-behaviors designs, 76 operant conditioning multiple-baseline-across-persons designs, 76 multiple-baseline-across-settings designs, 76 animal sign language, 479 versus classical conditioning, 226 Nachtigall, P. E., 482 defined, 252 nativism, 6, 45 discriminative stimuli, 223–226 natural reinforcers, 241–243, 252 genetics, 35–36 natural sciences, 14 historical background of natural selection law of effect, 213–215 defined, 45 selection by consequences, 215–217 in evolution, 11 instinctive drift, 429– 430 and operant conditioning, 218 observational learning in, 463– 467 naturalistic observation, 64 – 65, 87 operant behaviors, 218–219 nature, 6, 12 overview, 4 –5, 212 negative automaintenance, 434 positive reinforcement negative contrast effects, 315, 334 contrived reinforcers, 241–243 negative punishment extrinsic, 238–241 defined, 252, 353 immediate versus delayed, 234 –235 overview, 231–234 intrinsic, 238–241 versus positive punishment, 360 natural reinforcers, 241–243 negative reinforcement, 228–230, 252 primary reinforcers, 235–238 neobehaviorism, 19–23, 45 secondary reinforcers, 235–238 neophobia, 424 and preparedness, 428– 429 neurosis, experimental, 136 –138, 162, 369 punishers, 220–223 neutral stimuli (NSs), 108 reinforcers, 220–223 noncontingent schedule of reinforcement, shaping, 243–249 types of contingencies 270–275, 290 negative punishment, 231–234 no-shock control condition, 365 negative reinforcement, 228–230 novel items in taste aversion conditioning, overview, 226 –227 positive punishment, 230 423– 424, 427 positive reinforcement, 228 NSs (neutral stimuli), 108 operant consequences, 220–223 number of errors, categorizing behavior by, 63 operant-respondent interactions nurture, 6, 12 instinctive drift, 429– 431 sign tracking, 431– 434 observational learning operationalized events, 19 aggression, 471– 475 opponent-process theory of emotion, 100–105, 123 in classical conditioning, 461– 463 optimal interreinforcement intervals, 436 contagious behavior, 459– 460 optimization theory, 390 defined, 468 orangutans, 483 imitation orienting responses by animals, 468– 471 as contagious behavior, 459– 460 overview, 467– 468 defined, 123 in operant conditioning, 463– 467 as reflex, 92 overview, 5, 458– 459 output, 22 phobias, 187 overdose, drug, 176 –177 in social learning theory, 28 overexpectation effect, 180, 207 stimulus enhancement, 460– 461 overgeneralization, 183 overmatching, 387, 416 obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), 350–353 overshadowing occasion setting, 154 –155, 162 defined, 162 Olsen, Mary-Kate, 142 as example of specificity, 146 –147 On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, taste aversion conditioning, 423 overt behavior, 30, 53–54, 87 book, 11 one-process theory, 344 one-trial conditioning, 425

544 Index parsimony, law of, 14, 45 defined, 252 partial reinforcement effect, 302, 334 versus negative punishment, 360 participant modeling, 198 in operant conditioning, 230 patients, taste aversion conditioning in, 427 overview, 353 Pavlov, Ivan P., 106 –107, 431 positive reinforcement Pavlovian conditioning. See classical contrived reinforcers, 241–243 defined, 252 conditioning extrinsic, 238–241 peak shift effect, 312–314, 334 immediate versus delayed, 234 –235 performance, 466 – 467 intrinsic, 238–241 peristalsis, 92 natural reinforcers, 241–243 Perlow, S., 404 negative reinforcers, 230 personal characteristics of models, 465– 466 overview, 228 personal process rules, 491, 497 positive reinforcers, 230 personal rules, 488– 494, 497 primary reinforcers, 235–238 phenomena in classical conditioning secondary reinforcers, 235–238 posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), 191, acquisition, 129–130 discrimination training, 136 –138 367–369 disinhibition, 130–133 Powell, Russ, 241 experimental neurosis, 136 –138 preconditioning, sensory, 143–146, 163 external inhibition, 156 preexposure effect, unconditioned stimuli, 151 extinction, 130–133 preference occasion setting, 154 –155 pseudoconditioning, 158–160 acquisition of eating and drinking, 464 – 465 spontaneous recovery, 130–133 conditioned food, 428 stimulus discrimination, 133–136 measuring with bias, 389 stimulus generalization, 133–136 reversal, 403– 405 temporal conditioning, 154 Premack principle US revaluation, 156 –158 adjunctive behavior, 436 phobias defined, 290, 374 and avoidance conditioning, 345–350 overview, 280 history of control, 189 in reinforcement theories, 282–284 incubation, 189–190 stimulus control, 330 Little Albert study, 183–186 preparatory-response theory, 169–171, 207 observational learning, 187 preparedness overcoming, 2 and conditioning overview, 182–192 preparedness, 188–189 classical, 422– 428 selective sensitization, 191–192 operant, 428– 429 stimulus generalization and discrimination, 135 phobic, 188–189 temperament, 187 defined, 207, 422, 453 treating prevention, relapse, 200, 412 previous experience with extinction, 304 flooding, 195–198 primary punishers, 356, 374 hybrid approaches, 198–199 primary reinforcers, 235–238, 252 systematic desensitization, 192–195 private behaviors, 54 US revaluation, 190–191 problem behaviors, 199–201 Phoenix (dolphin), 482 procedure, extinction, 296 physical restraint, 395 process, extinction, 296 Pierce, W. D., 441– 444 process rules, personal, 491 placebos, 202 procrastination, 362 Plato, 6, 394 productivity, 477, 497 Player, Gary, 396 Project Washoe, 479 Polgar, Judit, 20 promises, self, 492 polydipsia, schedule-induced, 434 – 438 proportions positive behavioral contrasts, 316, 334 deviations from matching, 385–387 positive punishment in matching law, 382–385

Index 545 Pryor, Karen, 244 reference, 476, 479, 481– 482, 497 pseudoconditioning, 158–160, 162 reflex arc, 93, 123 psychoanalysis, 197 reflexes, 92–94, 123 Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It, paper, 12–13 regression, 299 PTSD (posttraumatic stress disorder), 191, 367–369 reinforcement. See also adjunctive behavior; choice; punishers, 220–223, 252 punishment positive reinforcement acquisition of operant response, 464 – 465 benefits of, 358–361 concurrent schedules of, 380–382 effective use of, 358–361 history of, 303 effects of noncontingent influence on replication of aggression, 472 intrinsic, 238–241, 252 experimental neurosis, 367–371 negative, 228–230, 252 learned helplessness, 365–367 performance of operant response, 466 – 467 intrinsic, 355, 374 rule-governed behavior, 487 performance of operant response, 466 – 467 schedules of problems with use of, 357–358 and procrastination, 362 adjusting, 275–276 self-punishment, 395–397 chained, 276 –280 theories of comparing, 266 –267 avoidance, 362–364 conjunctive, 275 conditioned suppression, 361–362 continuous versus intermittent, 258–259 Premack approach, 364 –365 duration, 267–268 types of, 353–356 fixed interval, 264 –265 vicarious, 466 fixed ratio, 259–262 purging, 443 noncontingent, 270–275 purposive behaviorism. See cognitive behaviorism resistance to extinction, 301–303 puzzle boxes, 213–214 response-rate, 268–270 variable interval, 265–266 Rachlin, H., 396, 409– 410. See also Ainslie–Rachlin variable ratio, 262–264 model of self-control self, 395–397 theories of radical behaviorism behavioral bliss point, 285–287 applied behavior analysis, 37– 41 drive reduction, 280–282 behavior analysis, 37 Premack principle, 282–284 defined, 45 response deprivation, 284 –285 genetic factors, 35–37 trials, 110 internal events, 30–34 vicarious, 466 molar approach, 34 –35 reinforcers overview, 16 alternatives as, 390–393 defined, 252 rate of response, 59– 60, 87 habituation to, 392 ratio schedules, 266 matching law, 382–385 ratio strain, 290 negative, 230 Rayner, Rosalie, 183–186 operant consequences, 220–223 reactivity, 71 positive, 230 reciprocal determinism, 29, 45 relapse prevention, 200, 412 reciprocal inhibition, 192–193, 207 relationships recording methods abusive, 153 breakups, 105, 301 duration, 60 improving, 3 intensity, 60 relaxation, 193, 398 interval recording, 62 releasers, 95. See also sign stimuli latency, 61– 62 relevance, CS-US, 425– 426, 452 number of errors, 63 remember trials, 324 overview, 58 replication of aggression, 472 rate of response, 59– 60 repression, 346 –347 speed, 60– 61 time-sample recording, 62– 63 topography, 63

546 Index Rescorla-Wagner theory, 178–182, 207 performance of, 466 – 467 research methods. See also measurement of behavior orienting descriptive as contagious behavior, 459– 460 case studies, 65– 67 defined, 123 naturalistic observation, 64 – 65 as reflex, 92 rate of, 59– 60, 87 experimental startle, 92, 124 control group designs, 67–70 vicarious emotional, 461– 463, 497 single-subject designs, 71–81 restraint, physical, 395 restricting-type anorexia, 443 terminology resurgence, 298–299, 334 appetitive stimuli, 54 –55 revaluation, unconditioned stimuli, 156 –158, 163, aversive stimuli, 54 –55 190 –191 contiguity, 56 –57 reversal design, 72–75, 87 contingency, 56 –57 reversal, preference, 403– 405 covert behavior, 53–54 rewards. See Ainslie–Rachlin model of self-control dependent variables, 51–52 rich schedules, 261 deprivation, 55–56 Richards, C. S., 396 functional relationships, 52–53 Rogers, Carl, 274 independent variables, 51–52 Roitblat, H. L., 482 overt behavior, 53–54 Romanes, George John, 213 response, 53 rule-governed behavior satiation, 55–56 characteristics, 484 – 486 stimulus, 53 defined, 484, 497 disadvantages of, 486 – 488 use of animals in behavioral research, 81–84 overview, 458 resistance to extinction self-regulation, 488– 494 rules defined, 334 defined, 484, 497 degree of deprivation, 304 language, 477 distinctive signal for extinction, 304 personal, 488– 494, 497 history of reinforcement, 303 personal process, 491, 497 magnitude of reinforcer, 303–304 small-but-cumulative effects model, 411 previous experience with extinction, 304 Russon, A. E., 469– 470 schedule of reinforcement, 301–303 respondent behavior, 217, 429 salivation tubes, 107–108 respondent conditioning. See also classical Samson, H. H., 437 satiation, 55–56, 87, 395 conditioning Savage-Rumbaugh, Sue, 483 respondent-operant interactions savants, 20 say-do correspondence, 488, 490, 492– 494, 497 instinctive drift, 429– 431 schedule effects, 258 sign tracking, 431– 434 schedule-induced behavior. See adjunctive behavior response cost, 354, 374 schedule-induced polydipsia, 434 – 438 response deprivation hypothesis, 284 –285, 291 schedules of reinforcement response-independent schedules, 270 response-rate schedules, 268–270, 291 adjusting, 275–276 responses. See also stimulus-response model; chained, 276 –280 comparing, 266 –267 unconditioned responses concurrent, 380–382, 415 commitment, 408– 410, 415 conjunctive, 275 compensatory-response model, 171–177, 207 continuous versus intermittent, 258–259 conditioned, 108, 111, 123 defined, 291 conditioned compensatory, 176 –177 duration, 267–268 controlled, 394 –395 fixed interval, 264 –265 controlling, 394 –397 fixed ratio, 259–262 defined, 53, 87 exposure and response prevention, 351, 374 flexion, 93, 123 matching law, 382–385 operant acquisition of, 464 – 465

Index 547 matching law, 382–385 shuttle avoidance procedure, 340–341 noncontingent, 270–275 side effects of extinction, 297–301 resistance to extinction, 301–303 sign language, 478– 480, 483 response-rate, 268–270 sign stimuli, 95, 124 variable interval, 265–266 sign tracking, 170, 431– 434, 446 – 447, 453 variable ratio, 262–264 similarity, law of, 6, 45 schizophrenia, 152 simple-comparison (AB) design, 71–72, 87 schools of behaviorism simultaneous conditioning, 119, 124 cognitive, 23–28 single-subject designs methodological, 16 –19 neobehaviorism, 19–23 changing-criterion, 78–81 radical defined, 88 multiple-baseline, 76 –78 applied behavior analysis, 37– 41 overview, 51 behavior analysis, 37 reversal, 72–75 genetic factors, 35–37 simple-comparison, 71–72 internal events, 30–34 situational freedom, 477, 497 molar approach, 34 –35 skill in matching law, 386 social learning theory, 28–30 Skinner boxes, 39, 215 secondary punishers, 356, 374 Skinner, Burrhus Frederick secondary reinforcers, 235–238, 253 behaviorism, 2 second-order conditioning, 139 delayed consequences, 406 – 407 selection by consequences, 215–217 radical behaviorism selective sensitization, 191–192, 207 self-control applied behavior analysis, 37– 41 adjunctive behavior, 439– 440 behavior analysis, 37– 41 Ainslie–Rachlin model genetic factors, 35–37 commitment responses, 408– 410 internal events, 30–34 delay function for the larger later reward, molar approach, 34 –35 overview, 30 405– 408 selection by consequences, 215–217 overview, 401– 405 self-control, 394 –398 controlling responses, 394 –397 small-but-cumulative effects model, defined, 416 410– 412, 416 delay of gratification paradigm, 400– 401 smaller sooner reward (SSR) overview, 394 commitment strategies, 408– 410 personal rules, 490 overview, 401– 405 small-but-cumulative effects model, 410– 412 small-but-cumulative effects model, 411 as temporal issue, 397– 400 social behavior, 385 self-instruction, 488– 491, 497 social deprivation, 56 self-promises, 492 social learning theory, 28–30, 45. See also self-punishment, 71, 395–397 observational learning self-referent thoughts, 28–29 social species, 482 self-regulation, 488– 494 sociocognitive model, 370 self-reinforcement, 395–397 spatial contiguity, 56 –57, 88 semantic generalization, 134, 163 species, differences in taste aversion conditioning sensitive measures, 59 between, 426 sensitization, 96 –99, 124, 159 species-specific behaviors, 95 sensory preconditioning, 143–146, 163 species-specific defense reaction (SSDR), 344, 429 sex differences specificity in replication of violence, 474 of associations, 425 in taste aversion learning, 426 – 427 in classical conditioning shaping, 243–249, 253 blocking, 147–150 Shenger-Krestovnikova, N. R., 136 latent inhibition, 151–153 Sherman, D., 468 overshadowing, 146 –147 Sherman, L., 404 speed, 60– 61, 88 short-term habituation, 97 spoken language, 478

548 Index spontaneous recovery structuralism, 9, 45 classical conditioning, 130–133 study habits, 2 defined, 163, 334 subgoals, 407 in extinction, 305–306 superstitious behaviors, 272 suppression ratios, 114 sports and matching law, 386 symbolic language, 480– 483 S-R (stimulus-response) model, 17, 45, systematic desensitization, 192–195, 208 systematic investigation, 213 168–169, 207 S-S (stimulus-stimulus) model, 168–169, 207 talking to animals, 483 SSDR (species-specific defense reaction), 344, 429 target behavior, 4 SSR (smaller sooner reward) targeting, 326 taste aversion conditioning, 422– 427, 453 commitment strategies, 408– 410 teaching by animals, 470– 471 overview, 401– 405 televised violence, 471– 475 small-but-cumulative effects model, 411 temperament, 187, 208 St. Neots’ Margin, 319 temporal arrangement of stimuli, 117–121 startle response, 92, 124 temporal conditioning, 154, 163 statistical significance, 80 temporal contiguity, 56, 88 steady-state behaviors, 258 temporal issue, self-control as, 397– 400 Stephens, R., 424 – 425 test trials, 110 Stevenson-Hinde, J., 428 third-order conditioning, 140 stimuli. See also conditioned stimuli; discriminative Thorndike, Edwin L., 213–215 three-term contingency, 224, 253 stimuli Timberlake, W., 447 appetitive, 54 –55, 86 time-out procedures, 353–354, 374 aversive, 54 –55, 86 time-sample recording, 62– 63, 88 compound, 146, 162 Titchener, Edward, 9 defined, 53, 88 T-maze, 61 high-intensity, 98 Tolman, Edward C., 22, 23–28 low-intensity, 98 topography, 63, 88 neutral, 108 trace conditioning, 119, 124 sign, 95, 124 trace interval, 119 temporal arrangement of, 117–121 training stimulus control applications of, 325–330 behavior, 247–250 behavioral contrast, 315–318 errorless discrimination, 320–321, 333 defined, 334 and intelligence of dogs, 448– 449 and discrimination, 309–312 true imitation, 467– 470, 497 errorless discrimination learning, 320–321 Twitmyer, E. B., 106 fading, 320–321 two by three factorial design, 68 multiple schedules, 314 –315 two-link chains, 277 overview, 308–309 two-process theory of avoidance, 342–345, 374 peak shift effect, 312–314 two-treatment reversal design, 74 procedures for study of memory, 322–325 stimulus discrimination unconditioned reinforcers. See primary reinforcers classical conditioning, 133–136 unconditioned responses (URs) defined, 163, 334 stimulus enhancement, 460– 461, 497 in classical conditioning, 108, 110 stimulus generalization defined, 124 classical conditioning, 133–136 S-R model, 168 defined, 163, 334 unconditioned stimuli (USs) taste aversion conditioning, 423 in classical conditioning, 108, 110 stimulus-response (S-R) model, 17, 45, defined, 124 deflation, 157 168–169, 207 inflation, 157 stimulus-stimulus (S-S) model, 168–169, 207 preexposure effect, 151 stimulus-substitution theory, 169–171, 207 straight-alley mazes, 61 stretching ratios, 261

relevance to CS, 425– 426, 452 Index 549 revaluation, 156 –158, 163, 190–191 vicarious emotional conditioning, verbal commitments, 492– 494 vervet monkeys, 476 461– 462 VI (variable interval) schedule, 265–266, 291 undermatching, 385–387, 416 vicarious emotional responses, 461– 463, 497 University of Hawaii, 482 vicarious punishment, 466 URs (unconditioned responses) vicarious reinforcement, 466 victims of violence, female, 474 in classical conditioning, 108, 110 Viki (chimpanzee), 478 defined, 124 violence, media, 473– 475 S-R model, 168 visualization, 196 USs (unconditioned stimuli) Vollmer, T. R., 386 in classical conditioning, 108, 110 VR (variable ratio) schedule, 262–264, 291 defined, 124 VT (variable time) schedule, 270, 291 deflation, 157 inflation, 157 Walden II, novel, 406 – 407 preexposure effect, 151 Washoe (chimpanzee), 479 relevance to CS, 425– 426, 452 Watson, John B. revaluation, 156 –158, 163, 190–191 vicarious emotional conditioning, 461– 462 Little Albert study, 183–186 methodological behaviorism, 16 –19 variability, increase in, 298 overview, 12–16 variable duration (VD) schedule, 268, 291 White, Eve, 370 variable interval (VI) schedule, 265–266, 291 willpower, 394, 492– 494. See also self-control variable ratio (VR) schedule, 262–264, 291 Wilson, Colin, 319 variable schedules, 267 Wolpe, J., 192–193 variable time (VT) schedules, 270, 291 women, exposure to violence, 474 variables Wundt, Wilhelm, 9 defined, 88 Yerkes Primate Research Center, 480 dependent and independent, 51–52, 87 Yerkish artificial language, 480– 481 VD (variable duration) schedule, 268, 291 verbal behavior, 55 Zentall, T. R., 469