Mega Science 2.0: Environment Sector

MEGA SCIENCE 2.0 Environment SectorMEGA SCIENCE 2.0SECTORAL REPORTENVIRONMENT I

MEGA SCIENCE 2.0 Environment Sector II

MEGA SCIENCE 2.0 Environment SectorSMCEIGENACE 2.0Environment Sector III

MEGA SCIENCE 2.0 Environment Sector©Academy of Sciences Malaysia 2014All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored ina retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise without the priorpermission of the Copyright owner.The views and opinions expressed or implied in this publication are thoseof the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Academy ofSciences Malaysia. IV

MEGA SCIENCE 2.0 Environment SectorContentsFOREWORD iiPREFACE iiiACKNOWLEDGEMENT ivEXECUTIVE SUMMARY vLIST OF TABLES & FIGURES xACRONYMS xiCHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background 1 1.2 Environmental Issues 2CHAPTER 2: CARBON AND CLIMATE 2.1 Carbon and Climate 7 2.2 Forms of Carbon 8 2.3 Carbon in The Atmosphere 8 2.4 Carbon Pricing and Carbon Trading 15 2.5 The Use of Wood to Replace Coal as Fuel 16 2.6 Other Geoengineering Solutions to Climate Change 20CHAPTER 3: WATER 3.1 Objective 24 3.2 Water Resources Management in Malaysia 24 3.3 Water Supply and Demand Management 27 3.4 Reducing Non-Revenue Water 30 3.5 Wastewater Recycling 31 3.6 Groundwater Development 32 3.7 Rainwater Harvesting 33 3.8 Flood Storage Ponding Systems 34 3.9 Desalination 34 3.10 Water Pollution Control and Management 35 3.11 Non-point Source and Novel Pollutants Management 37 3.12 Pollution Load Limits 39 3.13 Pollution Monitoring Network 40 3.14 Ecosystem Services 42 3.15 Water Footprint/Virtual Water 45 3.16 Wastewater Treatment Technology 47 3.17 Bioeffluent 48 3.18 Biosolids Management 49 3.19 Biogas Capture 49 3.20 Integrated Urban Water Resources Management 50 3.21 Commercialisation of Water Technology 51 3.22 Capacity Building and Water Knowledge Development 52 3.23 Summary 60 V

MEGA SCIENCE 2.0 Environment SectorCHAPTER 4: ENERGY 4.1 Renewable Energy Options 68 4.2 Energy Production from Second-Generation Bioethanol 69 4.2.1 Prospects for Second-Generation Bioethanol In Malaysia 69 4.2.2 Advantages and Benefits of Bioethanol 69 4.3 Feedstock Availability 69 4.4 Technical Challenges 69 4.5 Energy Production from Integrated Biogas Recovery and Microalgae 69 Cultivation in Palm Oil Mill Effluent Treatment 4.5.1. P rospects 69 4.5.2 Advantages and Benefits 70 4.5.3 Technical Challenges to Produce Biomethane from POME 72 4.5.4 Technical Challenges to Cultivate Microalgae from POME 72 for Bioenergy Production 4.6 Biodiesel Production from Microalgae 72 4.7 Bioethanol Production from Microalgae 73 4.8 Technical Challenges for an Integrated Bioenergy Production System 73 4.9 Energy Production from Municipal Solid Waste Landfill Gas 73 4.9.1 Prospects for Biogas from Municipal Solid Waste in Malaysia 73 4.9.2 Advantages and Benefits 74 4.9.3 Technical Challenges to Generate Energy From Municipal Solid Waste Landfill Gas 74 4.9.3.1 Landfill Gas Collection Systems 74 4.9.3.2 Waste-To-Energy Technologies for Municipal Solid Waste Landfill Gas 74 4.10 Energy Production from Small Hydropower 75 4.10.1 Prospects 75 4.10.2 Advantages and Benefits 76 4.10.3 Technical Challenges 76 4.11 Development of Large Scale National Solar Photovoltaic Industry 76 4.11.1 Prospects 76 4.11.2 Advantages and Benefits 77 4.11.3 Technical and Commercial Challenges 77 4.12 Energy Storage Technologies 78 4.12.1 Prospects 78 4.12.2 Advantages and Benefits 78 4.12.3 Technical Challenges 79 4.13 Nuclear Energy Generation Using Thorium-Based Technology 80 4.13.1 Prospects 80 4.13.2 Advantages and Benefits of Thorium-Based Nuclear 80 Power Technology 4.13.3 Availability of Thorium 80 4.13.4 Extraction of Thorium 80 4.13.5 Low Waste Production, Storage and Disposal 80 4.13.6 Proliferation Resistance 80 4.13.7 Higher Power Generation Efficiency 81 VI

MEGA SCIENCE 2.0 Environment Sector 4.13.8 Technical Challenges for Liquid Fluoride Thorium Reactors 81 4.14 Energy Efficiency and Conservation 81 81 4.14.1 Prospects 81 4.14.2 Advantages and Benefits 82 4.14.3 Technical Challenges 82 4.15 Science, Technology and Innovation Opportunities 84 4.16 ConclusionCHAPTER 5: WASTE MANAGEMENT 90 5.1 Municipal, industrial and city waste management 90 5.2.1 Three Approaches to Municipal Waste Management 91 5.2.2 Construction and Demolition Waste 91 5.2 Composting the Biodegradable Part of MSW 92 5.3 Plastic, Glass, Iron, Aluminium and Paper Waste 93 5.4 Green City Waste 93 5.5 Hazardous Waste 93 5.6 E-waste 94 5.7 Nuclear and Heavy-Metal-Contaminated Waste 94 5.8 Industrial Waste Management 96 5.9 Waste Management in Kuala Lumpur 97 5.10 Chicken Dung Waste Management 98 5.11 Palm Oil Mill Waste Management 99 5.12 Assessment of Some Published Technologies for Palm Oil Mill Waste 101 Management 101 5.13 Landfills Waste from Palm Oil Mill Industry 101 5.14 Instruments for Composting In Malaysia 102 5.15 Liquid Palm Oil Mill Waste Management 102 5.16 Assessment of Existing Technologies Used for POME Treatments 106 in Pond Systems 106 5.17 Challenges in Waste Management 5.18 Conclusion 111 5.19 Recommendations 112CHAPTER 6: LAND AND FORESTS 112 6.1 Conceptual Background: The Management of Land in Malaysia 113 6.2 Colonial Rule, Postcolonial Rule and the National Land Laws 113 6.3 Torrens System 114 6.4 Land Ownership under the Federal Constitution 114 6.4.1 Land Ownership under the National Land Laws 114 6.5 Government Policies Regarding Land Use and Forestry 115 6.5.1 Forest Legislation 115 6.5.2 Forestry Policies in Malaysia 115 6.5.3 The National Forestry Policy 1978 (Revised 1992) 115 6.6 Forestry Regulation and Administration 6.6.1 Forestry Administration 6.6.2 Administration of Forest Use VII

MEGA SCIENCE 2.0 Environment Sector 6.7 Forest Land Use and Land Use Change in Malaysia 117 6.7.1 Historical Perspective 117 6.8 Current Land Use and Land Tenure Arrangement 118 6.9 Land Use Change and Land Capability Classification after 1970 119 6.10 Definition of Forests 119 6.11 Forest Cover Change and Current Extent of Forest 119 6.11.1 Forest Resources and Scarcity of Forests 121 6.11.2 Forest Sustainability between Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah and Sarawak 122 6.11.3 Mangroves: Forests of the Tide 128 6.12 Environmental Contribution of Forests 130 6.12.1 Biological Benefits of Forests 130 6.12.2 Conservation Measures of Flora and Fauna Biodiversity 131 6.12.3 Carbon Conservation and Sequestration in Forestry 133 6.13 Malaysian Forests Are Places of Adventure 135 6.14 Payment for Environmental Services 136 6.15 Major Forces to Drive Forest Transition 137 6.16 Science, Technology and Innovation: Reflections and Policy Recommendations 137 6.17 Conclusion and Way Forward 1407.0 SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND INNOVATION FOR THE ENVIRONMENT 7.1 Innovation opportunities and models 143 7.2 Ranking of Innovation 146 7.2.1 The Ranking of Countries by the Bloomberg Innovation Index 146 7.2.2 F actors of Evaluation 146 7.3 Support for Independent Innovators 147 7.4 List of Opportunities for Research, Development and Innovation 147APPENDICESREFERENCES VIII

MEGA SCIENCE 2.0 Environment Sectori

MEGA SCIENCE 2.0 Environment SectorFOREWORDThese Sectoral Reports are the output of the Academy’s and Electronics, and Environment, where the science,Mega Science Studies for Sustained National engineering and technological areas have beenDevelopment (2013-2050), a Flagship Programme identified in the short-term (2013 – 2020), medium-termof the Academy, first introduced by my predecessor, (2021 – 2035) and long-term (2036 – 2050) periods, willAcademician Tan Sri Dr Yusof Basiron FASc. The be of use by the central agencies’ policy makers andfirst series of reports covering Water, Energy, Health, planners as well as by the other relevant Ministries.Agriculture and Biodiversity have already beenpublished. I would like to record our appreciation to the Government of Malaysia for supporting this Study The Academy had adopted the concept of a Mega financially as part of the 10th Malaysia Plan. ContinuedScience Framework as a comprehensive vehicle to financial support from the Government is essential fordrive the use of Science, Technology and Innovation the Academy to continue with its Flagship Programmes(STI) to contribute towards economic growth. Mega in the other Sectors which have already been identified.essentially means big, therefore the disciplines of Mega I would also like to congratulate the Sectoral TeamScience implies a pervasive (broad-based), intensive Leaders and all Fellows of the Academy who were(in-depth), and extensive (long period of engagement) involved in producing these Sectoral Reports for a jobuse of science knowledge to produce technologies, well done.products and services for all sectors of the economy toderive economic growth and development. It also calls TAN SRI DATUK DR AHMAD TAJUDDIN ALI FAScfor extensive investment in research and development Presidentactivities to enhance the knowledge base for the Academy of Sciences Malaysiatargeted sectors. Since knowledge in marketing andfinance is equally important in promoting the success ofa commercial venture as compared to technical needs,it is envisaged that the Mega Science approach willrequire research to be conducted both in non-technicalas well as in traditional scientific sectors. We are confident that the ideas and findings containedin this second series of Reports covering the Sectorsof Housing, Infrastructure, Transportation, Electrical ii

MEGA SCIENCE 2.0 Environment SectorPREFACEIn this second series of the Mega Science Framework energy, genomics, stem cells, nanotechnology,Studies for Sustained National Development (2013- biotechnology and the noveau-ICT must conform to the2050), undertaken by the Academy of Sciences new order of sustainability, ethical and moral obligationsMalaysia, STI opportunities have been identified whilst contributing to the economic development ofand roadmaps provided for the short to long term the nation. The environment sector has attempted toapplications of Science, Engineering and Technology address these issues.(SET) in the critical and overarching sectors such ashousing, infrastructure, transportation, electrical and There are vast opportunities in various sectors ofelectronics, and the environment sectors. These sectors the national economy which can be leveraged upon inwere selected on the basis of their inter-connectedness an attempt to resolve challenges and problems facedwith the electrical and electronics sector providing the by the populace through innovative approaches in theplatform towards the “Internet of Things” and linking the application of SET. Through identifying and developingfour other sectors seamlessly. various tools through SET, it will go towards ensuring that our economy is not only sustained but sustained in One of the most frequently asked questions by a sustainable manner.decision-makers and scientists themselves is “Howcan STI contribute more effectively to economic The Academy recognises the importance of crossdevelopment and wellness in a sustained manner without disciplines linkages that must be integrated duringcompromising the environment’s sustainability”. There planning, implementation and monitoring of nationalare good reasons to refer to STI because they have a programs and projects. Social engineering musttrack record to meet critical challenges posed primarily be designed to match the rapid technical advancesby the growth of human population and their wants. In to minimise their negative impacts, including thethis respect, and especially in the 5 new sectors, STI will implementation of Life Cycle Assessments (LCA) of therise again to meet the new challenges in response to the various products and services in these five sectors.national and global demand to factor towards enhancingquality of life in all products, processes, services and PROFESSOR DATO’ DR SUKIMAN SARMANI FAScdevelopment projects. Project Director Mega Science Framework Study 2.0 The biggest challenge to all scientists is how to use the Academy of Sciences Malaysiafixed earth resources (especially water, land, forests andminerals) to produce food, water and goods for humanneeds without depriving habitats for the millions of otherspecies and destroying the ecosystems. Proven existingtechnologies must continuously be improved to be eco-friendly whilst the emerging one such as renewable iii

MEGA SCIENCE 2.0 | EEnnvviriroonnmmeennttSSeeccttoorrACKNOWLEDGEMENTTHE ENVIRONMENT SECTOR STUDY TEAMThe Academy of Sciences Malaysia wishes to thank and acknowledge the following Sectoral TeamMembers for the provision of their expertise and technical input in the preparation of the Report aswell as for ensuring that the Report was completed in a timely manner:i) Dr Francis Ng FASc (Leader)ii) Dr Low Kwai Sim FASciii) Dr Wan Razali Bin Wan Mohdiv) Dr Ognyan Stoganov Kostovv) Dr Khor Cheng Seong iv

MEGA SCIENCE 2.0 Environment SectorEXECUTIVE SUMMARYMEGA SCIENCE 2.0 ENVIRONMENT SECTORThis report aims to provide an overview of the major of energy and the elimination of forests globally areenvironmental issues that affect Malaysia. They include the rapid increase in human population, from below 2carbon and climate change and the management of billion at the start of the 20th Century to 6 billion at thewater, energy, waste, land and forests. Until a few years end of the century. The global population is expectedago, the climate was considered too big for humans to to reach 8 billion by 2030 and 9 billion by 2050. Themanage, and water, energy, waste, land and forests present trajectory of economic development coupled towere considered national issues of no concern to the environmental degradation is clearly leading towardsrest of the world. Within Malaysia, water, land and global disaster. Environmental issues are intimatelyforests were treated as State resources and managed connected with each other and cannot be viewedby separate authorities with little or no consultation in isolation. The challenge we face is to find ways toamong themselves. This environmental paradigm now develop without negative consequences and to undo thehas to be reassessed in the light of new environmental negative consequences that have accumulated. To facerealities affecting the country and the world. this challenge we need to understand the environment as a whole and not as separate sectors unrelated to Climate change is the result of global warming caused each other.by the increase in greenhouse gases especially carbondioxide, released primarily by the generation of energy Hence, to safeguard our environment, newthrough combustion of coal and hydrocarbons and also technologies will be very important but will not be enoughby the clearing of forests, which results in the carbon if old bad habits remain unchanged. Bad habits resultingstored in forest vegetation and soils being released as in wasteful use of water and energy, proliferation ofcarbon dioxide. The forces that drive the generation waste, misuse of rivers and oceans as rubbish dumps, v

MEGA SCIENCE 2.0 Environment Sectorand the clearing of forests in the single-minded pursuit reduction of emissions can be effected in a number ofof profit, are rooted in personal perceptions. A very ways: (a) by more efficient and frugal use of energy (b)large part of environment management will involve the by increasing the use of non-fossil energy alternativesmanagement of human perceptions and behaviour, in such as solar, wind and nuclear power (c) by substitutingwhich political and social leadership will play vital roles. fossil fuels with renewable fuels such as wood and other biomass and (d) by reducing and reversing deforestation. Climate change: Climate change is now at the topof the global environmental agenda. The global climate The amount of greenhouse gases emitted orregime, although complicated and highly variable from \"carbon footprint\" for each activity can be calculated.season to season and place to place, is nevertheless The MYCarbon initiative in Malaysia is designed tothe result of a balanced equilibrium that has been encourage organisations to voluntarily declare andmaintained for thousands of years. monitor their carbon footprints. This is expected to increase corporate and public awareness and lead to This equilibrium is being upset by the recent rapid more voluntary reductions. It needs to be emphasisingbuild-up of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Even that good leadership is needed to promote voluntarya small rise of 2oC, now believed to be inevitable, will reductions. What government can do is to provideresult in a large increase in the rate of evaporation incentives for positive efforts. Taxes on emissions couldof water into the atmosphere, and cause abnormal be eventually be imposed.rainfall and wind patterns. The intensity and frequencyof storms, droughts and other climatic extremes have Therefore, Malaysia should establish a wood-pelletingbeen increasing steadily over the past few decades. industry to replace imported coal with local-grown woodThe thinning of ice caps is causing the ocean level to for the generation of electricity. Such an industry willrise. A substantial proportion of the carbon dioxide that not come into existence unless a complete system isgoes into the atmosphere passes into the ocean and put into place that would include wood-growers, wood-increases the acidity of the water. The rise in ocean pelleting plants, wood-using power generation plants,acidity is a threat to marine life and endangers the and facilities for collection, transportation, research andmarine food chains that support human food security. development. To initiate and manage such a system the establishment of a suitably empowered Carbon Authority The principle greenhouse gas is carbon dioxide, which would be necessary.is emitted by all living organisms in respiration, but theamount emitted in biological respiration is normal. What In Europe, the use of wood pellets to replace coalis abnormal is the additional amount that has been for generation of electricity is given top priority but inemitted since the start of the Industrial Revolution in the Malaysia there has been surprisingly little or no attemptmid-1700s in Europe, when human and animal muscle to develop an industry dedicated to the production ofpower began to be replaced by engines powered by the wood to replace coal for electricity generation. Instead,combustion of coal and hydrocarbons. The world now attention is being given to nuclear energy even thoughruns on electricity generated mostly by combustion of the conditions for growing trees in Malaysia are muchcoal, and on engines powered by the combustion of better than in Europe, and growing trees would be muchpetroleum. more popular than other alternatives. The combustion of wood and other forms of biomass would emit CO2 but To counter the effects of climate change, the countries the amounts emitted would be reabsorbed by new plantof the world have agreed to establish targets for reduction growth, hence the net emission would be zero.of greenhouse gas emissions, to be implemented in2020. Some countries, especially those in the EuropeanUnion, are moving ahead with targets of their own. The vi

MEGA SCIENCE 2.0 Environment Sector Water: Water has so far been plentiful in Malaysia, Conventional ways to meet growing demands forbut shortages are being experienced in certain places water through structural works such as dams, treatmentand at certain times due to increasing demand and rapid plants and distribution systems and through interstategrowth of urban populations. The abundance of water transfers will reach a limit and other methods will havein the past is reflected in the way water is consumed. to be developed. Wastewater recycling, groundwaterThe per capita consumption of water in Malaysia is development, rainwater harvesting, storage of flood2,103 m3/annum, which is much higher than the global water and desalination of sea water are importantaverage of 1,385 m3/annum. options that need to be developed. The volume of water used to produce a product over Although Malaysia is rich in groundwater, knowledgethe whole of its supply chain is known as the water of the quantity, distribution, and limits of sustainabilityfootprint of the product. There is no national database have to be researched. Hence, more attention has toon the water footprints of Malaysian agricultural and be given to ground water tapping and to the saving ofindustrial products but it is expected that the water rainwater for local use by storing or by encouragingfootprints of, our agriculture and industrials products it to sink into the ground. In dry weather, the soils drywould be relatively high. out too quickly, putting our crops, parks and gardens at risk. Property developers could do more to increase the There has been a tendency to treat the rivers as drains surface area for rain water to percolate into the soil. Newinto which sewage can be freely dumped; to be flushed designs for pavements and drains are needed.out to the sea. Generalised or ‘non-point’ pollution in theform of eroded soil is responsible for the silting up of The wetlands of Malaysia are used to function asdams and the raising of river beds, requiring expensive flood-control and water-retention areas, nonetheless,thede-silting measures. Fertiliser pollution due to leakage drainage of vast areas for oil palm agriculture hasfrom plantations and farms contributes to proliferation of reduced the areas of wetlands drastically. As a result,algae and decline of dissolved oxygen levels required by it may be necessary to create new wetlands as waterfish and other aquatic life. The range of new pollutants storage and flood-control facilities. The desalinationfrom the healthcare, agricultural and manufacturing of sea water is being given high priority is the Middleindustries has been increasing and their long term East, Singapore and other areas that have a shortageeffects when flushed into the rivers are mostly unknown. of water. Thus, any breakthroughs that could reduceWater pollution control requires innovation, particularly the cost of desalination would have a ready worldthe innovation of automated monitoring equipment that market. All polluted rivers should be cleaned up and allcan be installed in all major riverine systems to help rivers managed as pollution-free waterways by 2030.detect sources of pollution. At present, most monitoring Clean river basins are already the norm in Japan andis based on manual sampling. Korea. There is no technological excuse for lagging behind. Enforcement may involve the establishment of In view of uncertainties in rainfall distribution due to river basin authorities that are empowered to take theclimate change, water now has to be regarded as a necessary actions.precious resource, to be managed and used carefully. Atpresent, a lot of water is lost through leakages and theft Energy: Malaysia’s primary commercial energyfrom the distribution network. The rate of water leakage supply consists of four fuels namely oil, gas, coal,varies from 17.6% in Penang to 66.4% in Perlis, with an and hydroelectricity. The current supply mix is heavilyaverage of 30%. Most pipelines are over 40 years old dependent on fossil fuels, with less than 5% contributionand need renewal. Technologies are needed for efficient from hydroelectricity in year 2010 and negligible sharedetection of leaks and there should be a phased and from non-hydroelectric renewables. The nation’ssustained programme to renew old pipelines. electricity generation mix is largely driven by fossil fuels particularly coal, and it is noteworthy that there is vii

MEGA SCIENCE 2.0 Environment Sectorno share of renewables reported in 2010 or projected The key to recycling and reuse of household waste isto 2030. Instead, nuclear energy has been planned for separation of waste into manageable components atdeployment. source. Paper is effectively recycled because there are pulp and paper plants that use waste paper and they pay Added to that, second-generation bioethanol derived for the collection of paper by collectors who provide afrom non-food biomass sources especially empty fruit house-to-house service. The success of paper recyclingbunches from oil palm waste holds potential for petrol indicates that glass, metals, plastic and other recyclableblending for use as transportation fuel. First-generation products could be similarly treated. Manufacturers ofethanol became environmentally notorious because glass and metal products might be taxed for pollution ifit was made from corn and other food crops, thereby they have no programmes for collecting and recyclingcreating competition and conflict with food production. their products.Second-generation ethanol is made from non-foodbiomass which is theoretically cheaper and more Moreover, manufacturers should also be encouragedplentiful but the technology needs to be made workable to design products with longer life spans, and that can beno matter what the theory may be. easily separated into components for recycling. All kinds of green and food waste can be composted to make Another potential source of energy is microalgae which fertilisers. With planning and sustained implementation,can thrive on waste water such as Palm Oil Mill Effluent the amount of waste needing incineration and burial(POME) and is more productive of biomass than land can be reduced to a small fraction of current waste.plants. The lipids from algal biomass can be converted In many developed countries, Composting Councilsto biodiesel and bioethanol for energy. An integrated or similar bodies have been set up by local authoritiessystem can be developed to simultaneously harness to promote comprehensive, integrated and sustainedenergy from recovering the biogas of methane from efforts in waste management. The local conditions aremicroalgae biomass residue and in POME treatment. different from each place. Therefore, local bodies should be better at devising solutions. For example the disposal Other sources of energy include methane that could of waste paper may depend on whether there is a localbe generated from suitably engineered sanitary landfills, paper industry and if not, is it possible to establish aelectricity from mini hydropower stations, solar energy viable local alternative?captured by solar panels, and nuclear energy usingthorium-based technology. The challenge is to achieve Apart from that, POME and attached-to-mill landfillseconomic viability within a feasible timeline. are still environmental problems. Standards for POME discharged in Peninsula Malaysia are still not good Waste: Waste management in Malaysia is relatively enough according to new environmental requirementsprimitive, with two main options: disposal in landfills and and as compared to Sabah and Sarawak. Theincineration. It is estimated that 90-95% of municipal composting of waste biomass using innovative zerosolid waste ends up in landfills. There is high public discharge technologies to make nutrient-rich compostsresistance to incineration plants located close to also deserves more effort in Research and Developmentpopulated areas. If they are located far away the cost (R&D). There is high demand for fertilisers in agricultureof trucking the waste rises greatly. The amount of waste which could be met by the development of an intensivewill increase with the increase in population, which, industry to manufacture high-quality organic fertilisers.according to the Department of Statistics Malaysia, willrise from to present 28.6 million to 36.4 million in 2030. The rise of the chicken industry has resulted in immense quantities of chicken dung that need to be The concept of waste as a resource worth recycling properly composted. Existing efforts to convert chickenis only realised in the case of old newsprint and paper. dung into organic fertilisers are unsatisfactory; the viii

MEGA SCIENCE 2.0 Environment Sectorproducts are of poor quality and could even be toxic. genetic resources, and the role of local communities inThe chicken industry should be held accountable for the forest development. However, research by governmentsafe disposal of chicken waste. research institutions and government-salaried scientists is too slow and expensive to cover the rich biodiversity Land and forests: One of the most scenic drives in resources of the country. The potential of Malaysia’sMalaysia is the drive from Gombak up to the mountain biodiversity wealth can only be realised by harnessingpass between Selangor and Pahang. Only a short the interest of amateur natural historians, and throughdistance out of Kuala Lumpur, splendid tropical high the formation of a Natural History Museum to serveforests stretch all the way from the roadsides to the as the national centre and mentor for all biodiversitymountain crests, but only on the Selangor side of the research. Furthermore, Malaysia is placing increasedpass. On the other side is Pahang, with almost no scenic emphasis on the role of forests in recreation and natureforests to be seen. This is a stark reminder that land tourism. The area of land protected as national parksand forests are administered by the States and different amounts to 434,340 ha in Peninsular Malaysia, 245,172States have had different priorities. ha in Sabah and 78,177 ha in Sarawak. In nature tourism, Sabah is considered the most advanced of the The area of forests in Malaysia now stands at slightly States of Malaysia and provides a good role model forabove 50% of the land area and the overall figure has other States.been relatively stable for the past 10 years. This isgood news. However, the bad news is that the amount Science, Technology and Innovation for theof timber taken out of forests has been excessive, environment: The environment offers innumerableexceeding the \"allowable annual cut\" to sustain good opportunities for science, technology and innovation.natural regeneration, i.e. the ability of the forest to Chapter 7 provides a review of efforts in Malaysiaregrow without human assistance. The amount of timber and elsewhere to promote innovation. Most top-downthat second and third generation forests can carry is models for innovation based on government planningexpected to be significantly below the original amount. have not worked as hoped, but new models are beingIntervention is needed to promote regeneration in the tried and it important to keep trying. Special problemsworst affected areas and accelerated R&D is needed to faced in Malaysia include absence of competition andreduce logging damage. urgency in research, low expectations, inadequate promotion of innovation, and a poor DIY culture. These The importance of forests for the maintenance of the are problems that need to be addressed by those whoglobal climate, biodiversity and other environmental are in a position to influence the research culture of theresources has led to the realisation that the policy of country, particularly in the universities and researchautomatically giving priority in allocation of land to mining institutes.and agriculture should be replaced by a freeze on furtherforest clearance. The growth of agriculture should bebased on more efficient use of the land already clearedfor agriculture instead of on the clearing of more forests.There is a special need to intensify forest regenerationand to place all the remaining mangrove forests understrict forest management. Malaysia is a mega-diversecountry, ranked 12th in theworld ranking of countries. In 1992 the National ForestPolicy was broadened to include the conservation ofbiological diversity, the sustainable utilisation of forest ix

MEGA SCIENCE 2.0 Environment SectorLIST OF TABLES Table 6.3: Projected Sustainable Log Production and Domestic Consumption Table 2.1: Summary Of Major Carbon Pools and Export Demand Up to The Year in Gigatonne* (1 Gt = 1 Billion Tonnes) 2015 Compared with 1987 (Million M3 – Table 2.2: Annual Average Number of Natural Roundwood Equivalent) Disasters in South and East Asia (droughts, earthquakes, floods and tropical storms) LIST OF FIGURESTable 2.3: Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Malaysia in Year 2000 Figure 2.1: Charcoal in the form of horticultural Table 2.4: Fuel Mix for Electric Power Generation in carbon or biochar Malaysia, With Projections to 2030 Figure 2.2: The Secret Garden of 1 Utama - growing Table 3.1: Available Water Resources for Malaysia on horticultural carbonTable 3.2: Summary of Marine Water Quality Figure 3.1: Water Surplus Countries in 2050Table 3.3: Environmental Flow Determination Methods Figure 3.2: Total Water Demand for MalaysiaTable 3.4: Examples Of Markets for Ecosystem Figure 3.3: Non-Revenue Water for States in Services Malaysia 2011 – 2012Table 3.5: Typical Filtration Technologies Figure 3.4: Groundwater Utilisation in MalaysiaTable 3.6: Electricity Generated from Sewage Biogas Figure 3.5: Volume of Desalinated Water Produced in Selected Countries in 2009 Worldwide.Table 3.7: Major Institutions involved in Water Figure 3.6: Water Quality Status for Malaysian Rivers Research and Development 2005 – 2012Table 3.8: Water-Related Courses Offered by Local Figure 3.7: Pollution Loading by Sources for Year Institutions 2012Table 3.9: Science, Technology and Innovation Figure 3.8: Ecosystem Services as Defined by the Opportunities (2013 – 2050) Millennium Ecosystems AssessmentTable 4.1: Malaysia: Fuel Mix for Electricity Figure 3.9: Comparative Water Footprint of Nations Generation (2010-2030) Figure 3.10: Framework for Water Footprint Table 4.2: Malaysia National Renewable Energy (Re) Implementation Targets Figure 3.11: Urban Population (%) within MalaysiaTable 4.3: Malaysia: Land Area of Major Crops Figure 3.12: PISA 2012 Scores for Malaysia and Planting and Annual Production (2007) Neighbouring CountriesTable 4.4: Mature and Potential Energy Storage Figure 4.1: Malaysia: Primary commercial energy Technologies for Various Applications supply by source (1980–2010)Table 4.5: Summary o STI Opportunities for Figure 4.2: Malaysia: Fuel mix for electricity Environmentally-Sustainable Energy generation (2000-2030) Production for Malaysia Figure 4.3: Conceptual framework for integrated Table 5.1: National Strategic Plan for Solid Waste biogas recovery and microalgae Management: Targets cultivation in palm oil mill effluent (POME) Table 5.2: Prognoses for Science, New Technologies, treatment for third-generation bioenergy Innovation, Policy and Legislation for Waste production. Management Figure 4.4: A floating roof closed-tank anaerobic Table 6.1: Land Use Patterns by Region in 2005 digester system for POME (Million Ha) biogas capture in Malaysia.Table 6.2: Changes in Forest Area: Malaysia Figure 4.5: Bukit Tagar Sanitary Landfill in Hulu Selangor, Malaysia Figure 4.6: Waste-to-energy plant at Semenyih x

MEGA SCIENCE 2.0 Environment Sector Resource Recovery Centre in Semenyih, BO — Business Opportunities Selangor, Malaysia BOD — Biochemical Oxygen DemandFigure 4.7: Tenaga Nasional Berhad (TNB) mini CDM — Clean Development Mechanism hydropower dam at1.65m from Sungai CFC — Chlorofluorocarbons Mentawak, Pahang near the Bertam CTI — Coral Triangle Initiative Valley DDT — Figure 5.1: Total generation of MSW in Peninsula DID — Department of Irrigation and Malaysia DrainageFigure 5.2: Waste management rates (reuse and DMA — District Metering Areas recycling) in EU and Malaysia EEZ — Exclusive Economic ZoneFigure 5.3: Composition of MSW in Malaysia. EGS — Environmental Goods and ServicesFigure 5.4: Generation of waste from industrial E&E — Electronics and Electrical activity in Malaysia EP — Entry ProjectFigure 5.5: Waste generation in Kuala Lumpur EPP — Entry Point ProjectFigure 5.6: Modern municipal waste management ETP — Economic Transformation concept suitable for big cities like Kuala Programme Lumpur GCM — Global Circulation ModelsFigure 5.7: Palm Oil Industry products and waste GDP — Gross Domestic ProductFigure 5.8: Increase in oil palm plantation area and GHG — Green House Gas palm oil kernel cake waste GIS — Geographic Information SystemFigure 5.9: Effect of recycled (composted) mill GNI — Gross National Income wastes on number and yield of FFB (20 GTP — Government Transformation kg/tree/y, in Perak) ProgrammeFigure 5.10: Life-cycle chain: extraction — production HTC — Humid Tropic Centre — consumption — waste ILBM — Integrated Lake Basin ManagementFigure 5.11: Conceptual hierarchy of waste ICZM — Integrated Coastal Zone management ManagementFigure 6.1: Distribution of tropical rainforest in IPR — Intellectual property rights Southeast Asia and Relative Position of ISMP — Integrated Shoreline Management Malaysia PlanFigure 6.2: A typical hill forest in Malaysia IRBM — Integrated River Basin ManagementFigure 6.3: Forest resources in Malaysia in 2011 IUWM — Integrated Urban Water ManagementFigure 6.4: Potential volume of undisturbed PFE IWK — Indah Water Konsortium Sdn Bhd and second cycle MUS / SMS available IWRM — Integrated Water Resources for logging in Peninsular Malaysia ManagementFigure 6.5: Estimated area and potential volume of KeTTHA — Ministry of Energy, Green PFE under MUS available for relogging in Technology a nd Water Peninsular Malaysia (Kementerian Tenaga, Figure 6.6: Mangroves – Forests of the tide Teknologi Hijau Dan Air) KPKT — Ministry of Urban Well-being, Housing and Local Government ACRONYMS (Kementerian Kesejahteraan Bandar, Perumahan dan Kerajaan ASM — Academy of Sciences Malaysia Tempatan)BCM — Billion Cubic Metres LUAS — Lembaga Urus Air SelangorBMP — Best Management Practices MADA — Muda Agricultural Development xi

MEGA SCIENCE 2.0 Environment Sector Authority MRO — Maintenance, Repair and OverhaulMBJB — Majlis Bandaraya Johor BahruMICE — Meetings, Incentives, Conference MSMA — Manual Saliran Mesra Alam MyVAP — Malaysian Vehicle Assessment and Exhibition ProgrammeICAO — International Civil Aviation Organisation NASA — National Aeronautics and Space AdministrationICT — Information and Communication NCAP — New Car Assessment Programme TechnologyIMO — International Maritime Organisation NCER — Northern Corridor Economic Region NFI — National Foresight InstituteIoV — Internet of Vehicles NKEA — National Key Economic AreasIPR — Indirect Potable ReuseiRAP — International Road Assessment NLPTM — National Land Public Transport Master Plan Programme NRF — National Research FoundationIRTAD — International Traffic Safety Data and Analysis Group NSA — National Safety Authorities OEM — Original Equipment ManufacturerISO — International Standards Organisation ORT — Open Road TollingITIS — Integrated Transport Information System PEMANDU — Performance Management and Delivery UnitITS — Intelligent Transportation System PMR — Pressure Management AreasIWTS — Inland Waterway Transportation Systems PRC — People’s Republic of China POME — Palm Oil Mill EffluentKeTTHA — Kementerian Tenaga, Teknologi Hijau PUSPAKOM — Pusat Pemeriksaan Kenderaan dan AirKLIA — Kuala Lumpur International Airport Berkomputer (Computerised Vehicle Inspection Centre)KLIA2 — Kuala Lumpur International Airport 2 PVT — Periodic Vehicle TestingKTMB — Keretapi Tanah Melayu BerhadLFA — Logical Framework Analysis PWD — Public Works Department RMP — Royal Malaysian Police (Polis Diraja LiDAR — Light and Radar Malaysia)LNG — Liquefied Natural GasLSE — Labuan Shipyard and Engineering R&D — Research and Development RSA — Road Safety Audit Sdn Bhd. RSD — Road Safety Department (Jabatan LP — Local PlanLPG — Liquefied Petroleum Gas Keselamatan Jalan Raya) RTD — Road Transport Department (Jabatan LPT — Land Public Transport Pengangkutan Jalan)LRT — Light Railway TransitMAE — MAS Aerospace Engineering SAP — Special Area Plan SCORE — Sarawak Corridor of RenewableMAHB — Malaysia Airports Holding Berhad EnergyMAS — Military Aerospace SectorMHA — Malaysian Highway Authority SDC — Sabah Development Corridor SEA — South East AsiaMIGHT — Malaysian Industry – Government SMART — Stormwater Management and Road Group for High TechnologyMIROS — Malaysian Institute of Road Safety Tunnel SMS — Safety Management System Research SP — Structure PlanMLFF — Multilane Free FlowMITRANS — Malaysian Institute of Transport SPAD — Suruhanjaya Pengangkutan Awam Darat (Land Public Transport MOT — Ministry of Transport Commission of Malaysia)MoU — Memorandum of Understanding xii

MEGA SCIENCE 2.0 Environment SectorSRI — Strategic Reform InitiativesSS — Suspended Solids S&T — Science, Engineering and Technology STI — Science, Technology and InnovationTDMA — Time Division Multiple AccessTfL — Transport for LondonTOD — Transit Oriented DevelopmentTRB — Transportation Research BoardTRG — Transportation Research GroupUAV — Unmanned Aerial VehicleUK — United KingdomUMPEDAC — UM Power Energy Dedicated Advanced CentreUN — United NationsUNDP — United Nations Development ProgrammeUNEP — United Nations Environment ProgrammeUNESCAP — United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the PacificUPM — Universiti Putra MalaysiaUPT — Urban Public TransportVTS — Vessel Traffic ServiceWHO — World Health OrganisationWIPO — World Intellectual Property OrganisationWP — Wilayah Persekutuan (Federal Territory)WSUD — Water Sensitive Urban Design xiii

MEGA SCIENCE 2.0 Environment Sector 1 xiv

1CHAPTER 1 MEGA SCIENCE 2.0 Environment Sector INTRODUCTIONThe aim of this Mega science study is to provide an 1.1 BACKGROUNDoverview of environmental issues and to promote the As time progression, environmental issues aresearch for innovative solutions.This study covers five highlighted in the media. The news may be aboutdrought,environmental sectors, namely carbon/climate, water, bush fires and water shortages, followed by tropicalenergy, waste and land/forests. Separate Ministries storms and flooding,followedby landslides, garbageof government departments are responsible for overflow, disease outbreaks, and so on, without end.the separate sectors and each sector is backed by Firefighting is the usual reaction by harassed authorities.professionals with specialist interests. Division into Notwithstanding, emergency solutions devised in asectors has had the advantage making management hurry are usually not as sustainable as solutions basedsimpler.The downside is that each sector has promoted on holistic knowledge and implemented in a preplannedits own interests. In reality, all the sectors are linked, and manner. To arrive at holistic solutions and to implementthe biggest challenge in environment management now them in the absence of emergency, we need publicis to understand the linkages in order to deal effectively officials who understand the environment in totality, andwith the environmental challenges of the future. a general public that is well-informed and supportive.Departments, ministries and specialist professionals Thus, we hope this study will help to promote a betterhave to learn to work together to support new solutions, understanding of the environment among public officialstranscending the narrow sectoral concerns of the past. as well as the public. Thereby, contributing to better environmental management. 1

MEGA SCIENCE 2.0 Environment Sector This study omits consideration of the ocean, which Under the UN Convention on Biodiversity that cameneeds a separate study because the ocean (divided into into force in 1993, the biodiversity resources withinseveral ‘oceans’, but all are interlinked and vastly larger a country are the property and responsibility of thethan the total land area) is being depleted by over-fishing, countries in which they occur. However, the atmospherepollution from waste and most ominously, by increase in remains global common propertyandthere are noacidity. The increase in acidity is due to carbon dioxide mechanisms of governance in place. Furthermore, now,passing into the ocean from the atmosphere. with the threat of global warming, a rising ocean level, and1.2 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES acidification of the ocean, all due to man-made changesEnvironmental issues are complex. However, at present in the atmosphere, the matter of management of thesolvable, although some may think otherwise. It is atmosphere has become increasingly urgent. What thefeared that the longer we postpone, the more difficult the world needs is a new global understanding of collectivesolutions will be. Hence, the following offers a panoramic ownership and responsibility for the environment, likeview of the environment, with a time horizon stretching a new layer of ownership on top of existing layers. Atup to 2050. present, different nations have different priorities. ThereOwnership of the Environment is a danger that such differences will make it impossible for the world to react to environmental threats in a collective, timely and effective manner even in the face of impending disaster. Management of the environment is tied up with Technological Innovation as a Principal Driver ofownership of the resources associated with the Change in the Modern Worldenvironment. In the past, when populations were small,land could be utilised for farming, housing or mining by The massive and rapid changes to the environmentanyone who had the means to clear and use the land, that have occurred since the Industrial Revolution thatand when the land was abandoned it reverted to forest began in the 1700s (c. 1760) were the result of STI.and could be reused by others. Normally, human societies are resistant to change, but scientific innovation has turned out to be a culturally The idea that land is a permanent property of the neutral force that can break through all the normalState and that the state may then issue grants of barriers. For instance, electric street lighting began withownership to individuals and corporations for fixed the efforts of one innovator and entrepreneur, Thomasperiods or in perpetuity, was implemented by the British Edison (1847 – 1931), who invented the electric lightAdministration as a means of obtaining state revenue. bulb and staged a demonstration of electric streetWith ownership of land came ownership of forests and lighting in 1879. Before Edison died in 1931, electricother products of the land, the minerals in the land, street lighting had become a reality in cities in manyand the water resources on or under the surface of the parts of the world. The motorcar, aircraft and otherland. When Malaysia came into existence as a Federal technological innovations have also had histories ofcountry, land and its associated resources became the rapid global acceptance. In addition, recent examplesproperty of the individual states. Offshore resources, include iPads, cellular phones, thumb drives, digitalsuch as petroleum resources, belong to the Federal cameras and high-speed trains. Self-driving cars areGovernment if they fall under the territory of Malaysia. already in the pilot testing stage. Overall, the pace ofNonetheless, oceanic resources not within national innovation is accelerating steeply and there is no turningboundaries have been open to free exploitation but this back.situation is now gradually being brought under controlby international conventions. Malaysia has so far not Until about 50 years ago, few people thought thatbeen active in the exploitation of oceanic resources. the environment needed to be protected, saved or managed. The dominant concept in ecology was that 2

MEGA SCIENCE 2.0 Environment Sectordisturbances were small compared to the enormity of gases, especially carbon dioxide, methane and nitrousthe global environment, and nature would always be oxide in the atmosphere. The greatest culprit is carbonable restore the original equilibrium. dioxide. Carbon dioxide is produced when the so-called ‘fossil fuels’ such as coal and petroleum are burnt The invention of DDT as a cheap and effective poison (combusted).to wipe out mosquitoes and other dangerous insectswas hailed as a miracle. However, the euphoria was Coal is nowadays mainly used to generate electricity,short-lived and mosquitoes made a comeback. DDT and petroleum is used as a portable fuel to power allalso turned out to be an indiscriminate insect-killer with forms of transportation (ocean, air and land transport).a long active life. As a result, birds and other animals In the past few decades, a massive and growing streamthat ate insects were poisoned. The poison had found of carbon dioxide has been sent into the atmosphereits way into the food chain so that food supplies became by the combustion of fossil fuels. At the same time, themore and more tainted. As it turned out, DDT was just clearing of forests and the intensification of agriculturethe beginning of the problem of man-made chemicals have resulted in carbon stores in forests and soils beingin the environment, sprayed on to fruits and vegetables converted to carbon dioxide. Through the greenhouseand fed to farm animals to control pests and diseases, effect, the average world temperature has risen 1oCbut eventually threatening the health of humans. Today, compared to before the Industrial Revolution and a risethe safety of food and water has become a pervasive by 2oC is now considered inevitable (World Developmentpublic issue due to the increasing amounts of synthetic Report of the World Bank 2010).chemical products in the environment in the form ofpesticides, drugs, plastics and industrial chemicals, the This increase may seem small when compared withpossible long-term effects of which are not yet known. daily and seasonal fluctuations in climates, but this is an increase over and above the normal range of In the 1970s and 1980s it was found that the ozone fluctuations, and on a global scale it is expected to havelayer in the stratosphere that absorbs up to 97% catastrophic effects. The increase in global temperatureof incoming ultraviolet light was being damaged by is already evident in the thinning of ice at the poles andchlorofluorocarbons (compounds of chlorine and fluorine the early melting of snow on the tops of high mountains,with carbon) used in refrigeration and aerosol sprays. leading to a rise in global sea levels and changes in theThe dramatic appearance and annual enlargement of flow of water in the great rivers that are fed by snow inthe ‘ozone hole’ in the stratosphere caused sufficient the Himalayas, Tibet and other high mountain regions.global concern to prod all countries to collectively phase The increase in temperature is also responsible forout the use of Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). This was increasing the amount of water evaporated into thebrought into effect through the Montreal Protocol. As a atmosphere, causing unprecedented changes in rainfallresult of implementation of the Montreal Protocol, the and wind patterns.ozone layer is gradually recovering from damage. Withfurther action to phase out hydroflourocarbons, used Globally, there is little agreement between countriesas a less-damaging substitute for CFCs, by 2030, the on how to share out the task of reducing global fossil fuelozone layer is expected to be restored to 1980 levels by usage, except for the European Union, which has set2050. The success of this Montreal protocol has been a target for 20% of its energy to come from renewablehailed as a good model for future international action to sources of energy by 2020, half of it to be implementedprotect the global environment by substitution with renewable sources and half from savings through greater efficiency in energy usage. In the 1980s scientists began to be aware that world Under its Renewable Energy Directive, member statestemperatures were rising and the rise seemed to be of the European Union have taken on binding nationaldue to a phenomenon known as the greenhouse effect, targets for raising their share of renewable energy incaused by the increase in concentration of certain their energy consumption by 2020. 3

MEGA SCIENCE 2.0 Environment Sector These targets, which reflect Member States’ different a national grid of wires, was providing lighting for nearlystarting points and potential for increasing renewables every household, even in remote areas. Firewood,as aproduction, range from 10% for Malta to 49% for Sweden. source of heat for cooking,had been replaced by gasThese national targets will enable the European Union from the petroleum industry or by electricity, whereas,(EU) as a whole to reach its 20% renewable energy water was supplied by networks of pipes that connectedtarget for 2020, which is more than double the 2010 State-managed reservoirs to individual households.level of 9.8%. In setting such a target, whole new suites Cars then had become the main form of transportation.of innovation opportunities are created, ranging from In addition, computers had become common and werethe harnessing of wind, solar, hydro and tidal power to changing the nature and organisation of work.the plantation of trees for renewable biomass energy,the redesign of motor vehicles, redesign of buildings, In the same period of 50 years, the population ofrecovery of energy from waste, invention of new and Malaysia almost quadrupled to 23.4 million (up frompowerful batteries to store energy,and so on. 6.1m in 1950) and that of the world more than doubled to 6 billion (from 2.5 billion in 1950). This vast increase The targets will reduce the EU’s dependence on in population was made possible by technologicalimported energy. However, the implementation of the improvements in public health and in food productiontargets has been complicated and difficult for a mixture and distribution. At the same time, the human populationof reasons (\"Europe’s Energy Woes\", The Economist, has become concentrated in cities. The concentration ofJanuary 25, 2014). Nevertheless, Europe has raised the people in the cities has created huge localised demandstarget to 40% reduction by 2030. Countries that do not for energy and water and huge localised amounts ofset energy targets and stimulate innovative means to waste to be disposed of safely. However, it is still commonmeet such targets may miss out and be left behind by for sewage in Malaysia to drain into the rivers and thethe new innovations that will reshape the economy of rapidly expanding oil palm industry is generating morethe world. waste than natural restoration processes can handle. AsThe Effect of Science, Technology and Innovation a consequence, many rivers are heavily polluted.on the Malaysian Environment The Decoupling of Science, Technology andIn Malaysia, up to the 1950s, most of the population Innovation from Detrimental Environmental Effectswas rural. Firewood was the main fuel for cooking and STI has transformed the world by providing the toolsevery rural household kept a pile of rubber wood as fuel. to reduce poverty and raise life expectancy. TheseGround water, drawn up with buckets from shallow wells, improvements have come at a cost of much damage to thewas the most common source of water for domestic use. environment. There is reason to think that improvementsKerosene was an essential commodity for lighting and can be made without damage to the environment; thatwas sold in every village sundry shop in tin cans and the two are not necessarily coupled in a cause-and-bottles. The open drains emptied waste straight into the effect relationship. STI, properly channelled, may evenrivers. The most common form of transportation was the contribute solutions to undo the collateral damagebicycle. The population of Malaysia was 6.1million. that has been caused. It may be possible to eradicate poverty, provide and maintain a good standard of living, Yet, new technologies had already been innovated avert disastrous climate change, keep rivers and oceansand incubated, mainly in the USA, and were ready for healthy, protect scenic landscapes and provide room forimplementation on a global scale. By the year 2000, all the forms of life that share the earth with humans.within a short span of 50 years, electricity, produced by This may seem like a tall order, but it is worth aiming for.hydroelectric and coal-fired generators and distributed by 4

MEGA SCIENCE 2.0 Environment SectorThe Role of Government can contribute to the collective effort by making theirThe Government is responsible for most of the big own contributions regardless of what governments do.decisions involving the environment. It is responsible This would involve a change in individual habits andfor public utilities such as the supply of electricity, water attitudes in the use of energy, water and land and in theand public transportation, the disposal of waste, and the generation and disposal of waste. The habits of mass-management of forests, water bodies and fossil carbon consumerism which have based the mass-productionresources. It is also responsible for the atmosphere. and consumption of throwaway goods, have so farGovernments can affect the use and misuse of resources been subsidised by the public due to the cost of wastethrough the selective application of subsidies and tariffs. management has not been factored into the cost ofIt could set targets and standards for achieving desirable production. Manufacturers should now strive to makeoutcomes, and devise incentives for compliance, In goods more lasting, more biodegradable, or easier toinnovation, Governments can provide public recognition disassemble for recycling.for innovators and make funds available for researchand development. It can monitor and disseminate Hence, the changes will require strong publicinformation on the State of the environment so that understanding and support. This is as environmentalwould-innovators can have access to accurate national issues require long term vision and commitment tobase-line data. It could fund the establishment of pilot resolve. For that matter, corporate and individualprojects. support for environmental education, research and innovation can make a crucial difference, whereas in the Governments are rarely monolithic. In a Federal past, development could be pursued without limits, thesystem, the powers of the Government could be next few decades will require hard decisions to be madeexercised at Federal, State or local levels. In many nationally and globally, and these decisions will needsignificant ways, local authorities can be more proactive to be implemented across all parts of society. In short,than the State or Federal Authorities. In Australia, for where environment is concerned, nobody can escapeexample, Sydney has become the first city to become the consequences of ignorance and inaction.carbon-neutral.Townships and local communities maytake steps to manage their environment and providemodels for others. Competition between local authoritiesmay result in more innovation. Differences in localenvironments may require local adaptations. As consequence, the agencies of Government, suchas Government Ministries and Departments and Public-funded Institutes and Universities could promote goodenvironmental practices such as waste separation,reduction of energy usage (reduction of carbonfootprint), tree-planting and so on, and publicise theirenvironmental contributions in their annual reports.The Role of Society, Collectively And IndividuallySince the environment is impacted by the dailyactions of every individual, in the way individuals useenvironmental resources and generate waste, individuals 5

MEGA SCIENCE 2.0 Environment Sector 2 6

2CHAPTER 2 MEGA SCIENCE 2.0 Environment Sector CARBON AND CLIMATEThe dominant global environmental issue of today is experience a personal example of the greenhouse effectclimate change, in particular, global warming resulting when we park our cars in the sun and the temperaturefrom a steep increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere inside the car gets higher than the temperature outside.from the combustion of coal and hydrocarbons. The The greenhouse effect prevents the earth from losingconcentration of carbon dioxide is now over 392 ppm as too much heat, otherwise the whole earth would getcompared to 280 ppm in pre-industrial times or before frozen and inhospitable at night. The problem is that1850 (see e.g. Robert Kunzig in National Geographic there is a fine thin line of balance between incoming andNews; May 9 2013). outgoing heat, and this balance is being upset by the2.2 CARBON AND CLIMATE recent unprecedented increase in carbon dioxide.Most of the additional amount has been added in thepast few decades and 85% of it has been contributed Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is part of the totalby the burning of coal and hydrocarbons. The earth carbon on earth. The total amount of carbon on earthis heated up by solar radiation and in turn the earth is fixed. If the amount of carbon in the atmosphere isradiates heat into outer space. Carbon dioxide and increased, the increase must be the result of transferother greenhouse gases retard the radiation of heat out into the atmospheric pool from one or more of theof the earth in what has been called the \"greenhouse other carbon pools on earth. Carbon is present noteffect\"; after the way greenhouses made of glass trap only as carbon dioxide in the atmosphere but also insolar energy and become hotter inside than outside. We various forms in living organisms, forests, soil, oceans, coal deposits, petroleum deposits, etc. (Table 1). This chapter begins with the nature of carbon pools and how 7

MEGA SCIENCE 2.0 Environment Sectorcarbon is transferred between them. The unit of measure of everyday pencils, so called because it was thoughtfor describing global carbon pools is the gigatonne (Gt). originally to be a form of lead, but lead is an entirelyOne gigatonne is 1billion tonnes. One tonne is 1000 kg. different element. Coal is the fossilised wood of trees buried and subjected to extreme heat and pressure Table 2.1 Summary Of Major Carbon Pools through geological time. In the process of fossilisation in Gigatonne* (1 Gt = 1 Billion Tonnes) nearly all other elements in wood are removed leaving amorphous carbon. Charcoal is coal made by incompleteCarbon pools Amount C in Gt burning of wood.Atmosphere 750Vegetation (land and ocean) 610 The scientific understanding of carbon began in 1772Soil (to 1 m deep) 1500 when Antoine Lavoisier showed that coal and diamondCoal deposits 900 could both be burnt and in burning, produce the sameHydrocarbon fossil deposits 4,000 amount of gas (carbon dioxide) per gram. In 1786,Methane hydrate 500 – 5,000 Gaspari Monge and CA Vandemonde did the same kindOcean water 38,000 of experiment with graphite and showed that graphiteRocks in earth’s crust 100,000,000 is elementally the same as coal and diamond. Carbon was formally designated as an element in a book bySources: globecarboncycle.unh.edu/CarbonPoolsFluxes.shtml, Lavoisier in 1789. worldoceanreview.com/en/wor-1/energy/methane- hydrate/ Elements can be bonded with other elements in different ways to form different compounds. Over tenNote: The values cited are estimates that vary between million different compounds of carbon are known and, authorities and are modified as research continues. amazingly, these represent only a small fraction of what is theoretically possible. Carbon dioxide CO2 is carbon2.3 FORMS OF CARBON bonded with oxygen (one C to two O atoms). At theCarbon is one of 98 naturally-occurring chemical other extreme are fibres such as those in cotton andelements on earth. In chemical notation, carbon is wood, made up of very long chains of C combined withdesignated by the letter C. The unit carbon atom is other elements.unstable and practically unknown as a free atom. 2.3 CARBON IN THE ATMOSPHERENonetheless, it becomes very stable when the carbon The carbon pool in the atmosphere is a relativelyatoms are bonded to each other in various configurations. small pool holding 750 Gt of carbon mostly as carbon dioxide, with smaller amounts of methane CH4. As the There are three well-known configurations, which atmospheric carbon pool is small compared to otherresult in diamond, graphite and coal. Namely, diamonds pools, it is relatively easy to change by transfer fromare the hardest of all naturally-occurring substances other pools. Before the onset of modern of fossil fuelwhile graphite is so soft that it makes a black streak usage and forest-clearing, the level was about 560when pressed on a piece of paper. Polished diamonds Gt;hence, making it the smallest of all the pools. It hasare highly prized as gemstones but industrial-grade now overtaken the vegetation pool, which has declineddiamonds are used as abrasives. Graphite is the ‘lead’ to 610 Gt. The atmospheric CO2 level has been rising at 2.0 ppm per annum from 2000 to 2009 and the rate has increased since then. 8

MEGA SCIENCE 2.0 Environment SectorThe Vegetation Carbon Pool more glucose than they need for structural buildingThe vegetation carbon pool is the main component of and energy. The extra is processed, through the actionthe living carbon pool. A living organism is a body made of enzymes, into sugar, starch or fats. It is combinedof carbon-based materials, kept alive by energy from with nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorous (obtained fromcarbon-based fuels. Living organisms include plants, nutrients in the soil) to form the proteins, DNA, ATPanimals, fungi and microbes. The mass of bodies of and other compounds essential for life. Stored plantall living thing is collectively known as biomass. The products include sugar (e.g. in sugar cane), starch (e.g.carbon content of oven-dry plant biomass is 45 – 50%. in tapioca), fats (e.g. in oil palm) and protein (e.g. in soyThe carbon content of animal biomass is lower, at about bean).18%. The carbon pool of living vegetation is estimatedto be about 610 Gt of which 560 Gt are in land plants, Animals feed also directly on plants or indirectly bymostly in the form of wood. The rest is in ocean plants, feeding on other animals to obtain the carbohydrates,mostly as plant plankton. fats and proteins that they need for body building and for energy. Fungi, now classified independently of plants Energy is required by living organisms to stay and animals, live on plants and animals, as parasitesalive,grow, move, and reproduce. The ultimate source on living tissues or saprophytes on newly dead tissues.of energy for living organisms isthe sun, in particular the Through respiration, all living organisms return carbonpart of the solar light spectrum that is captured by green dioxide to the atmosphere.plants in the process of photosynthesis. Land plantstake in carbon dioxide from the atmosphere while water Hence, there is continuous exchange of carbonplants take in carbon dioxide dissolved in water. In the between living organisms and the atmosphere, withplant, the carbon dioxide is reacted with water (H2O) to 120 Gt of carbon taken in annually by land plants inform glucose C6H12O6,.The captured energy of the sun photosynthesis, balanced by the same amount ofis then stored in the glucose molecule. Simultaneously, carbon returned to the atmosphere via respiration byoisxsyugmenmOar2isisedreinleathseedfo.rTmhuelap: rCoOce2s+sHo2fOph→otoCsy6Hn1th2Oes6 i+s all living terrestrial organisms collectively. In the oceanO2. Photosynthesis takes place in chlorophyll-containing there is a similar exchange of carbon dioxide betweenorganelles known as chloroplasts, in chemical steps ocean organisms and water.mediated by enzymes. Enzymes are molecules thatenable chemical reactions to take place at normal body Biomass can be burnt or combusted and in thetemperatures. process, water is driven off as steam and the carbon is reacted with oxygen from the atmosphere to form The energy stored in glucose C6H12O6 becomes carbon dioxide. The energy released by combustion isavailable to living organisms through the process of high-temperature heat, which is hot enough to kill allrespiration, which is the reverse of photosynthesis: forms of life. In contrast, the energy to sustain life comesC6H12O6 + O2 → CO2 + H2O. Oxygen is taken in from from metabolic processes within living organisms thatthe atmosphere (or from solution in water) and reacted take place at normal body temperatures, in a series ofwith glucose in chemical steps mediated by enzymes. finely regulated small steps mediated by enzymes.Carbon dioxide and water are produced and energy is The Soil Carbon Poolmade available to the body in finely regulated amounts, The soil contains carbon contributed by the remainsin a form that the organism can use. of dead biomass such as leaf litter and dead roots in various stages of decomposition. The carbohydrates, In the plant, glucose is also the starting material for proteins and fats in recently dead biomass are sourcesthe synthesis of cellulose, which is the building material of food for insects, bacteria, fungi, and other organismsfor plant cell walls, fibres and wood. Plants produce that live in the soil and decompose biomass. 9

MEGA SCIENCE 2.0 Environment Sector Among the results of biological decomposition of surface of the ocean there is continuous interchange ofbiomass is the formation of humus. Humus improves CO2 between the surface water and the atmosphere,the texture and fertility of soils and decomposes at a but in the ocean depths, the pool of dissolved carbon isvery slow rate. Eventually even humus is decomposed, almost undisturbed.to carbon dioxide, water and soil nutrients. Soil may Acidification of the Oceanalso contain ‘recalcitrant’ carbon in the form of charcoal The increase in CO2 concentration in the atmospherefrom wild fires or open burning. Charcoal is said to be has the parallel effect of increasing the concentration ofrecalcitrant because it is an elemental form of carbon CO2 in the ocean because CO2 is exchanged betweenthat cannot be easily changed except by fire which the atmosphere and the ocean. It is estimated that 30-would change the carbon to carbon dioxide. The humus 40% of CO2 generated by human activities goes into theand charcoal particles (if present) are responsible for ocean. As a result, the warming of the atmosphere isthe dark colour of the top layer of undisturbed soils. accompanied by the acidification of the ocean becauseTogether with soil microbes they are also believed to be dissolved CO2 has acidic properties. The increase inresponsible for concentrating nutrients in the top layer of ocean acidity has deleterious effects on marine life. Aundisturbed soils decline of coral formations has already been detected. Globally, the soil carbon pool is estimated at 1,500 Gt. In The expected results on planktonic life forms willforests, the amount of carbon in the soil usually exceeds affect the marine food chains, damage the productivitythe amount of carbon in the living vegetation except in of oceanic fisheries and endanger human food security.the humid tropics, in which dry land forest (as opposed to A recent article in The Economist (Jan 18, 2014) haswetland forest) contain more C above than below ground. drawn attention to the work of E. Sandford and hisWhen a forest is cleared, the loss of leaf litter exposes team in the University of California, Davis, comparingthe soil to higher temperatures and to forces of erosion the growth of oysters in normal seawater and in water(such as rain splash), this results in its humus content containing double the normal level of dissolved CO2,becoming quickly decomposed to carbon dioxide, as which is the expected level in the oceans in 2100. Thewell as destroying its microbial content. Consequently, size of the oysters was reduced by 30-40%.this has several negative impacts. Namely, carbon The Fossil Carbon Pool: Coal and Hydrocarbonsdioxide is added to the atmosphere. The destruction ofnutrient-rich soil microbial biomass allows its nutrients to Over a geological time span of hundreds of millionsbe lost by leaching, and the soil is physically degraded. of years, layers of biomass have been accumulatedA good soil is permeable to water and air and able to in low-lying areas or water basins and buried underretain moisture and nutrients. In clayey soils that tend soil and sand, which has stopped the process ofto get compacted and impermeable, humus prevents biological decomposition. These deposits have, throughcompaction and improves permeability. In sandy soils high pressure and heat, been fossilised into coal orthat are poor in water and nutrient retention, humus converted into hydrocarbons. The total of coal depositsimproves water and nutrient retention. In the process are estimated to be 900 Gt, while hydrocarbon depositsof losing its high-carbon humus content, soil is rendered may be as much as 4,000 Gt. In short, the fossil carbonless able to support plant growth without massive use of pool is larger than the atmospheric, vegetation and soilfertilisers and other inputs. carbon pools combined, but all of it originates from theThe Oceanic Carbon Pool living carbon pool of ancient times.The ocean carbon pool is much bigger than theatmosphere and vegetation pools. It holds 38,000 Gt ofcarbon, mostly in the form of dissolved CO2 and dissolvedcarbonates such as calcium carbonate CaCO3. At the 10

MEGA SCIENCE 2.0 Environment Sector Therefore, all coals and hydrocarbons can be used formations. Over the ages, such areas may have beenas fuel in combustion. In combustion, carbon dioxide alternately raised above water and then submergedis produced. As it has taken many millions of years again. With each submersion, another layer of marineto make coal and hydrocarbon deposits from fossil organisms would be deposited. These alternate risingsbiomass, these fuels are regarded as non-renewable. and submersions over millions of years have resulted inIn contrast, recent biomass is considered a renewable gas and liquid petroleum deposits at various depths inform of fuel because vegetation can be grown readily the same drilling area.within the human time frame. PetroleumCoal Petroleum is a mixture of liquid hydrocarbons rangingThere are coal deposits in all continents exceptAntarctica. from transparent free-flowing liquids to dense blackMany coal deposits began as wetland forests during the tar. Highly liquid petroleum is used a fuel, to generateCarboniferous Period 300 – 350 million years ago. The electricity and in internal combustion engines to powerwetland conditions in those forests slowed down the motorised vehicles. The densest formof petroleum,processes of decay, allowing biomass to accumulate which is known as bitumen, is used to surfaceas peat. Soil was slowly deposited over the peat and roads. Petroleum is also the starting material for thethrough geological time, massive deposits of biomass manufacture of plastics. Whether used as a fuel towere accumulated under thousands of meters of soil generate electricity or to power motorised vehicles, the(silt, sand and clay) and subjected to high temperatures products of petroleum combustion are carbon dioxideand pressures. In the process the buried biomass was and water.changed into coal, which is almost pure carbon. Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) LPG is a mixture of ‘heavy’ gaseous hydrocarbons, Coal is nowadays the main fuel for the generation particularly propane C3H8 and butane C4H10. These gasesof electricity. In generating electricity, coal is fired or are heavy because they are denser than air, and easilycombusted to change water to steam. Steam expands liquefied under moderate pressure. LPG is obtainedinto a very much larger volume than water. The expanding during the refining of crude petroleum or directly fromsteam is channelled to spin turbines that generate underground deposits. LPG is used as a fuel and alsoelectricity. About 40% of the world’s supply of electricity as an aerosol propellant and as a refrigerant to replaceis generated from coal. Coincidentaly, in Malaysia the chlorofluorocarbons. The latter has been phased outsupply of electricity generated from coal is about 40%, because it causes damage to earth’s protective ozoneand this level is expected to be maintained until 2030 layer.(Table 4). China is the world’s largest producer and Natural Gas or Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)consumer of coal, relying on coal for 70% if its energy Natural gas is a mixture of ‘light’ gaseous hydrocarbonsrequirement. consisting of methane CH4 and ethane C2H6, whichareHydrocarbons lighter than air. Odorant is usually added to the gasHydrocarbons are compounds of carbon bonded to to make it noticeable and objectionable for ease ofhydrogen, derived from the biomass of marine plants and detection. Liquefied natural gas is natural gas liquefiedanimals accumulated in the sea bottom, covered by soil by compression. It is a good source of portable fuel.sediments and subjected to intense heat and pressureover geological time. Under high pressure and heat, thesand and other materials in soil have fused into rock 11

MEGA SCIENCE 2.0 Environment SectorShale gas is uniformly cold at 0-4oC and the pressure exceeds 35Shale gas is natural gas trapped in rock formations bar. Under these conditions, methane hydrate is stable.known as shale. In nature the gas can only escape The deposits have accumulated through geological timethrough fractures in the rock formation. Fracking is and estimates of the amount vary from 500-2500 Gt tothe process of fracturing shale artificially by hydraulic 1000-5000 GT of carbon.power to release the gas. The process of fracking wasdeveloped in North America and has become the major Methane is a powerful greenhouse gas, many timessource of gas for energy production since year 2000. more potent than carbon dioxide. It has a globalCarbon in Methane Hydrate warming capacity 34 times that of carbon dioxide (forMethane,consisting of one atom of carbon bonded to the same mass) in a 100 year period. In a 20 yearfour atoms of hydrogen, CH4, is the lightest (having the period, its warming capacity is 72 times that of CO2. It islowest molecular weight) of all hydrocarbons. Methane feared that with unrestrained global warming, methaneis found as fossil deposits of natural gas formed under hydrate may break down and its methane released intogeological conditions and trapped under layers of rock. the atmosphere. Such events may have happened in the geological past and contributed to mass extinctions. Unlike other hydrocarbons, methane is alsogenerated on land by ongoing anaerobic decomposition Under natural conditions, small amounts of methane(decomposition in the absence of oxygen) of manure, escape from the methane hydrate deposits but aremunicipal solid waste, including other forms of acted upon by deep-ocean bacteria and oxidised to CO2biomasscan be produced by anaerobic composting of so that what escapes into the atmosphere is CO2, notbiomass. Flooded rice fields produce methane from methane. The process would increase the rate of oceandecaying vegetation. Methane is also produced in acidification and deplete the oxygen supply in the ocean.anaerobic processes of digestion in the stomachs of The depletion of ocean oxygen on a big scale wouldlivestock. About 37% of on-going methane production is endanger fish and other marine animal life. The use ofby animal digestion.Methane is also different from other methane (e.g. as LNG), as a fuel, converts high-impacthydrocarbons in that at freezing temperatures it can CH4 to lower-impact CO2. Hence, the huge deposits ofbond with water to form methane hydrate, also known methane hydrate on the ocean floor may be consideredas methane clathrate: (CH4)4(H20)23, which is white solid as huge deposits of fossil fuel.at ice temperatures. Carbon in Rocks in the Earth’s Crust The largest amount of carbon on earth is stored in Before year 2000, methane hydrate was an obscure sedimentary rocks in the earth’s crust. Mud, richsubstance about which very little was known. Its in decomposed plant matter, is changed into shalesignificance only began to be realisedafterlarge deposits through heat and pressure, and such shale may bewere found in regions of permanent ice (permafrost) in rich in carbon. Moreover, the shells and skeletons ofocean floor around at the bottom of the continental slopes marine animals accumulated in the sea floors over timeat depths of 350 – 5000 m. The deposits are thought to are metamorphosed through geological processes intohave been formed through geological time by the action limestone and marble. Certain limestone formationsof bacteria on plankton that have died and accumulated may also have been formed by direct reaction betweenat the bottom of the ocean. The deposits thickest around CO2 and calcium in the ocean. Such rocky deposits maythe continental shelves because that is where plankton be uplifted to form hills and mountains. These rocksis most abundant due to nutrients washed into the store 100,000,000 Gt of carbon. The storage of carbonocean from the land. Below a depth of 350 m the water in rocks is a stable form of storage. 12

MEGA SCIENCE 2.0 Environment Sector The manufacture of cement from limestone contributes species adapt slowly. Microorganisms and insects5% of carbon dioxide emissions in the atmosphere. The with short reproductive cycles will adapt much betterprocess of making cement involves the breakdown of than vertebrates and trees. Low-lying coastal areas,limestone CaCO3 by heat to obtain CaO, with emission including major cities and agricultural lands, and lowof CO2. One tonne of cement results in the emission of lying countries, risk being destroyed. Crop yields are900 kg of CO2 of which 50% is from the chemical process likely to be depressed by temperatures to which theand 40% from the fossil fuel used to generate the heat crop plants are not adapted. There will be many otherrequired to drive the process. effects, not all predictable.Inherently, although humansGlobal Warming and Its Consequences may adapt through technology, but the world will be aThe historical rates of exchange of CO2 between the very different place and the poorer communities withatmosphere, ocean, living organisms and soil are normal fewer technological options will face a bleak futureand natural because they have been long established before 2050.and are finely balanced against each other. According to the 2014 World Development Report by The earth is heated up by solar radiation and in turn the the World Bank, on Risk and Opportunity, the numberearth radiates heat into outer space. Greenhouse gases of natural disasters (droughts, earthquakes, floodslike CO2retard the radiation of heat out of the earth. Life and tropical storms in all parts of the world have beenon earth has evolved around a stable balance between increasing in the past three decades. Table 2 providesthe amount of heat that comes in and the rate at which the annual average number of natural disasters in Southheat goes out. Any imbalance will have destabilising and East Asia. The warning signs of increasing climaticeffects. The balance is now being upset by the rapid and geological instability are ominous.and massive increase in CO2 in the atmosphere throughcombustion of fossil fuels. Table 2.2 Annual Average Number of Natural Disasters in South and East Asia Even a small rise of one or two degrees above thenormal range, applied globally, can be expected to have (droughts, earthquakes, floods and tropical storms)big effects. It would increase the level of evaporationby which water is taken up as water vapour to form rain Region 1981 – 1990 1991 - 2000 2001 – 2010clouds. Increase in rainfall and shifts in rainfall locations South Asia 2.5 3.5 5may be expected and are indeed already apparent. East Asia 1.9 2.8 4.1The early melting of mountain snow and ice is affectingthe flow of water in rivers, in particular the great rivers In consideration of these and other warning signs, thethat start from the Himalayas and Tibet to feed the UN Climate Change Conference held in Warsaw inagricultural plains of China, India and Continental SE November 2013, decided to prepare a Universal ClimateAsia. The thinning of polar ice caps is contributing to Agreement in 2015, to be implemented in 2020.rising ocean levels. Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Malaysia Accordingly, the natural balance to which life andhuman development have become adapted for tens In 2000 the statistics for greenhouse gas emissions inof thousands of years is being changed in a matter of Malaysia were reported as in Table 2.3. The greatestdecades. As a consequence, many species are likely source of carbon dioxide emission is the energy industry,to become extinct before they can adapt, especially which generates electricity through the combustionspecies with long reproductive cycles because such of coal and hydrocarbons. The fuel mix for power generation in Malaysia from 1980 to the present and projected to 2030 given in Table 4, taken from the ASM 13

MEGA SCIENCE 2.0 Environment SectorAdvisory Report 1/2013 (Sustainable Energy Options The rest (92.7%) was generated by fossil fuels: coalfor Electric Power Generation in Peninsular Malaysia to (36.5%) and hydrocarbons (56.1%). By 2030 the2030, Academy of Sciences Malaysia). dependence on fossil fuels is expected to drop to 68%. However, non-hydro renewable fuels such as biomass In 2010, hydro and renewable energy sources are lowly regarded and are not expected to contributeaccounted for less 7.3% of Malaysia’s power generation. more than 4% to electricity generation while nuclear is expected to contribute 6% in 2030. Table 2.3 Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Malaysia in Year 2000Activity % of totalTotal: 167.44 Mt CO2 100%Energy industries (generation of electricity, petrol refining, etc. 35%Transport 21%Manufacturing and construction 16%Forest and grassland conversion 14%Others 14%Table 2.4 Fuel Mix for Electric Power Generation in Malaysia, With Projections to 2030Fuel Type 1980 1990 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2030Natural gas 7.5 15.7 77.0 70.2 55.9 25.0 21.0 25.0Coal 0.5 7.6 8.8 21.8 36.5 45.0 49.0 43.0Hydro 4.1 5.3 10.0 5.5 5.5 26.0 25.0 23.0Petroleum 87.9 71.4 4.2 2.2 0.2 1.0 1.0 <1.0Renewables (non-hydro) 0 0.3 1.8 3.0 4.0 3.0Nuclear 0 0 0 6.0 0 0 0 0 0 0Source: Lian, After & Abdul Rahim 2011 The amount of coal produced in Malaysia is about Nonetheless, there is at present no plan to replace393,000 tons per annum, which represents 10% of coal with locally-grown wood for energy productiontotal coal usage. The rest of Malaysia’s annual coal despite Malaysia’s climatic suitability for growing wood.requirement is provided by imports from Indonesia This is in sharp contrast with the projected 6% for(84%), Australia (11%) and South Africa (5%). (ASM nuclear energy by 2030.Advisory Report 2/2003). 14

MEGA SCIENCE 2.0 Environment Sector The emissions from forest and grassland conversion, 2.4 CARBON PRICING AND CARBON TRADINGincludingothersources, make a total of 28%, which Every human activity that generates greenhouse gaseswould compriseofCO2 emissions from conversion has a ‘carbon footprint’, for which, Wright, Kemp, andof forests, methane generated by growing rice, CO2 Williams, in the journal Carbon Management, hademissions from agricultural soils, and methane from suggested the following definition:digestive processes in cattle. Of increasing concern isthe emission of nitrous oxide from the use of nitrogen- “A measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide (CO2)rich fertilisers. Nitrous oxide N2O is 310 times as potent and methane (CH4) emissions of a defined population,as carbon dioxide in global warming. However, there are system or activity, considering all relevant sources, sinksno studies are available on the emission of nitrous oxide and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary ofin Malaysian agriculture. the population, system or activity of interest. CalculatedMeasures for Reduction OfCO2Emissions as carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) using the relevantCurrent global initiatives to reduce carbon dioxide 100-year global warming potential (GWP100).\"emission are focused on several actions of which themain ones are in the fields of energy-management, Hence, it is possible to calculate the amount ofland-management and waste-management; all aimed carbon dioxide that every activity generates. Thisat reducing the ‘carbon footprint’ of human activities, as ‘carbon footprint’ can be used to measure responsibilityfollows: for climate change. A tax on pollution could be imposed to pay for activities that remove carbon dioxide from1. Replacement of fossil fuels for generation of energy the atmosphere. Some countries are in progress of with solar, wind, geothermal, waves, mini-hydro, implementing such a tax. In light of that, numerous large and nuclear options; corporations are already conducting internal audits on their carbon footprints to identify and reduce their main2. Improvement of design of buildings to reduce energy sources of pollution in anticipation of such a tax. usage; According to The Economist (December14, 2013),3. Adjusting air-conditioning and heating levels in Microsoft has fixed a price of $6-7 per tonne of C, where public buildings to reduce energy consumption; as Exxon Mobil has fixed it at $60 per tonne. These figures are used to calculate the value of future projects4. Reduction of energy consumption through and to guide investment decisions in the belief that a better design of engines, vehicles, and industrial carbon tax is inevitable and is expected to be applied processes; in many countries by 2020. The idea is to identify and restructure units that produce disproportionate pollution.5. Protection and promotion of carbon sinks such as Disney, a media conglomerate, invests in schemes to forestsand soils; offset or reduce carbon emissions and charges the cost of these to its business units in proportion to how much6. Increasing terrestrial carbon sinks through they contribute to the company’s overall emissions. In reforestation and tree-planting; and effect, this works like an internal carbon tax. The US Administration has estimated the cost of environmental7. Managing biomass waste to reduce emission of carbon at $37 per tonne. greenhouse gases and to produce energy and compost. It is estimated that the 500 largest listed companies in the world emit a total of 3.6 billion tonnes (3.6 gigatons) of greenhouse gases a year. In Britain, the government 15

MEGA SCIENCE 2.0 Environment Sectorhas made it mandatory for companies listed on the main 2.5 THE USE OF WOOD TO REPLACE COAL AS market of the London Stock Exchange to State Green FUELHouse Gas (GHG) emissions in their annual reports. Trees capture and store carbon as wood while they are In Malaysia, the Government has launched, in actively growing. In the process, trees provide importantDecember 2013 a programme called MYCarbon under ecological services in improving air quality, improving thewhich companies and corporations are encouraged to landscape, improving the functioning of the water cycle,voluntarily monitor and disclose their Green House Gas protecting soil, and providing biodiversity habitats. Wood(GHG) emissions. This programme is implemented by is generally considered to be the best green alternativethe Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment to coal because unlike coal, wood is renewable andin partnership with the United Nations Development Malaysia’s wet tropical climate is ideal for tree growth.Programme (UNDP) Malaysia. The main objectives In using wood to generate electricity, the CO2 emittedof MYCarbon, as listed in the Inception Report of 12 would be reabsorbed by continual replanting of treesFebruary 2014, are as follows: for fuelwood. Hence, there would be no net increase in emissions.• To set up a globally recognised, standard corporate GHG accounting and reporting programme in For use as industrial fuel, wood would have to be Malaysia; prepared in a standardised form, e.g. as wood chips or wood pellets. Wood chips are relatively simple• To encourage corporate level carbon accounting and to produce from small-diameter wood; hence, even emission reductions; and branches and twigs can be used. Pellets are produced by compressing wood particles. Wood for fuel can be• To provide standards, guidance and support produced in short rotations of 3-6 years, unlike wood measures (training, fiscal and other incentives). for timber which requires trees to be produce large logs that are straight and cylindrical, in rotations of 30 years As a result, the development of a web portal (www. or more.mycarbon.gov.my) has been initiated. In Europe, wood pellets are already an important Apart from that, the International Convention on Climate source of fuel for generation of electricity, exceedingChange negotiated in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 as well as solar, wind and other non-renewables. It is surprisingthe Kyoto Protocol of 1997 provided three mechanisms that Europe has been able to promote the use of woodfor countries to meet emission targets: carbon trading as non-renewable energy fuel. In contrast, Malaysia hasby which countries can trade their carbon credits with lagged behind. With its tropical climate and abundanteach other, joint implementation by which countries can water resources, Malaysia can greatly increase its roleundertake joint reduction projects and share the credit as a producer of wood chips and wood pellets to replaceobtained and CDM (Clean Development Mechanism) coal. There are opportunities for at least doubling thein which developed countries can undertake emission carbon capturing capacity of trees with fast-growingreduction projects (e.g. creation of tree plantations) trees. If plantations for wood pellets are establishedand obtain credits for themselves. The reduction of outside of forest reserves, in currently unproductivegreenhouse emissions by 5% from 1990 levels would land, such plantations would not interfere with therequire planting 10 million ha per annum globally. (Azlan environmental and economic benefits provided byet al. 2010) normal forest management in existing forests. In addition to that, there is land available outside of forest reserves in the form of neglected land. Such 16

MEGA SCIENCE 2.0 Environment Sectorland is highly visible along the highways, especially in According to the National Biomass Policy 2020Pahang and Negri Sembilan. These lands are under document, the cost of developing a wood pellet plantprivate or State ownership but in which there have been is RM30-40 million, using technology already availableno visible economic activity for many years because overseas, with a capacity of 100,000 tonnes per annum.of urban drift and shortage of rural labour. Such lands The availability of oil palm biomass in volumes large andcould be put to use by planting with fast-growing trees consistent enough to keep a chipping and pelleting planton short rotations of 3-6 years. Such rotations could be in operation is highly doubtful. The supply of oil palmmanaged on a contractual basis with the land owners trunks is dependent on the rate of replanting, which iswithout any need for change in landownership. dependent on the economics of the oil palm industry, not on the requirements of a wood pelleting plant or a Thus, a well-managed programme should solve power generator.several problems simultaneously, namely, as follows: R&D for a wood pelleting industry has to be focused• Put under-utilised land to productive use in wood on the development of suitable species, rotations and production; management systems that are optimised for wood pellet production, not on species and systems that have been• Produce wood chips or pellets for renewable energy developed for other purposes. The National Biomass to replace coal; Policy document mentions Acacia mangium from pulpwood plantations in Bintulu, as well as bamboos,• Increase the scope for innovation in the growing as possible sources of biomass for pelleting. Acacia of trees to shorten rotations, in the development to mangium would be a strong possibility, nonetheless, harvesting technologies and in development of crop- bamboos in the tropics are labour intensive to harvest rotation systems; and because tropical bamboos grow in thick clumps with stems of different ages all mixed up in each clump.• Provide an option for renewable energy that is not Selecting and pulling out individual stems that have as controversial as nuclear. matured is labour-intensive. The National Biomass Policy 2020 document (Version A power-generation plant based on wood pellets2.0, 2013; Agensi Inovasi Malaysia) focuses on the use cannot be established on its own if there is no sustainedof biomass generated as a by-product of oil palm and supply of wood pellets. Landowners will not grow woodother agricultural crops. Oil palm is the largest source for energy if there is no buyer for such wood offeringof agricultural biomass, in the form of leaves and tree a guaranteed and attractive price. Any wood that istrunks. One of the uses for such biomass could be produced cannot be converted to pellets unless there isgeneration of electricity, which would require the leaves a plant to produce pellets on an industrial scale.and trunks to be processed into pellets. The rules on transportation of wood enforced by the The Policy document notes that oil palm trunks and Forest Department will have to be modified to allowleaves have very high water content and one of the main wood to be transported to a wood-pelleting plant fromcosts in making wood pellets is incurred in the drying of privately-owned lands. The industry could also use thethe biomass. It would be much more efficient for oil palm wood waste that is at present dumped into landfills orbiomass to be used for making chemical products that incinerated, including green waste from parks, gardensdo not require drying. At present, the preferred use for and roadsides, wood from the construction industryoil palm leaves and trunks is leave them on the ground discarded after building, and waste from the timber-to fertilise the soil in oil palm estates, so strictly speaking processing industries. The entire system has to be partoil palm leaves and trunks are not wasted or non-utilised. of a deliberate and visible national target to reduce coal with wood. It is unlikely that such a system can be 17

MEGA SCIENCE 2.0 Environment Sectorestablished by the private sector, because there are too created by separating it from nitrogen and other tracemany components involved. The best way to get going gases in the air. If that process can be made economical,may be to establish some sort of Environmental Carbon it would be feasible to retrofit existing power plants withAuthority funded by Government on a pilot scale to a pure oxygen combustion system, simplifying anddevelop the concept in one selected district or State. reducing the cost of carbon dioxide capture.Carbon Sequestration Apart from that, advanced methods for generatingCarbon sequestration is the storage of carbon dioxide in power from coal might also provide opportunities fora safe form so that it does not get into the atmosphere.   capturing carbon dioxide. In coal-gasification units,Sequestration of Carbon Underground as Carbon an emerging technology, coal is burned to produce aDioxide. synthetic gas, typically containing hydrogen and carbonEngineers view carbon sequestration as the grand monoxide. Adding steam, along with a catalyst, tochallenge for the 21st century. They have defined the the synthetic gas converts the carbon monoxide intoproblem as the development of systems for capturing additional hydrogen and carbon dioxide that can beand permanently storing the carbon dioxide produced filtered out of the system. The hydrogen can be used inby combustion. According to the US National Academy a gas turbine (similar to a jet engine) to produce electricof Engineering, there are methods that already exist power.for key parts of the sequestration process. A chemicalsystem for capturing carbon dioxide is already used To store CO2, several underground possibilities haveat some facilities for commercial purposes, such as been investigated. Logical places include old gas andbeverage carbonation and dry ice manufacture. oil fields. Storage in depleted oil fields, for example, offers an important economic advantage — the carbon The same approach could be adapted for coal- dioxide interacts with the remaining oil to make it easierburning electric power plants, where smokestacks could to remove. Certain fields have already made use ofbe replaced with absorption towers. One tower would carbon dioxide to enhance the recovery of hard-to-getcontain chemicals that isolate carbon dioxide from the oil. Injecting carbon dioxide dislodges oil trapped inother gases (nitrogen and water vapour) that escape into the pores of underground rock, and carbon dioxide’sthe air and absorb it. A second tower would separate the presence reduces the friction impeding the flow of oilcarbon dioxide from the absorbing chemicals, allowing through the rock to wells.them to be returned to the first tower for reuse. Depleted oil and gas fields do not, however, have A variation to this approach would alter the combustion the capacity to store the amounts of carbon dioxideprocess at the outset, burning coal in pure oxygen that eventually will need to be sequestered. By somerather than ordinary air. That would make separating estimates, the world will need reservoirs capable ofthe carbon dioxide from the exhaust much easier, as it containing a trillion tonnes of carbon dioxide by thewould be mixed only with water vapour, and not with end of the century. This amount could possibly benitrogen. It’s relatively simple to condense the water accommodated by sedimentary rock formations withvapour, leaving pure carbon dioxide gas that can be pores containing salty water (brine).piped away for storage. The best sedimentary brine formations would be In this case, though, a different separation problem those more than 800 meters deep; far below sourcesemerges — the initial need for pure oxygen, which is of drinking water, and at a depth where high pressure will maintain the carbon dioxide in a high-density State. Sedimentary rocks that contain brine are abundantly available, but the concern remains whether they will 18

MEGA SCIENCE 2.0 Environment Sectorbe secure enough to store carbon dioxide for centuries soil (tanah hitam) that used to be available for horticultureor millennia.  Faults or fissures in overlying rock might was obtained from backyard rubbish dumps that wereallow carbon dioxide to slowly escape, so it will be an periodically set on fire. Contrastively, in the Amazonengineering challenge to choose, design, and monitor basin, the most fertile soils are terra preta, which issuch storage sites carefully.  a black soil with a high charcoal content. These soils occur at the sites of ancient human settlements and are There for, concerns about leaks suggest to some the result of mixing the burnt remains of plants into theexperts that the best strategy might be literally deep- soil through many generations of settlement. What thissixing carbon dioxide, by injecting it into sediments means is that carbon if sequestrated as charcoal canbeneath the ocean floor. High pressure from above be put to good use in agriculture by incorporating it intowould keep the carbon dioxide in the sediments and soil (Ng, FSP, 2009, in “Horticultural carbon, terra pretaout of the ocean itself. It might cost more to implement and high-performance horticulture in the humid tropics”than other methods, but it would be free from worries (Journal of Science and Technology in the Tropics, vol.about leaks. And in the case of some coastal sites of 5, pp. 79-81).carbon dioxide production, ocean sequestration mightbe a more attractive strategy than transporting it to far- To illustrate, a horticultural project has been running inoff sedimentary basins. Kuala Lumpur since 2004 using small charcoal particles as a horticultural medium, pure or mixed with soil. Known It is also possible that engineers will be able to develop as the Secret Garden of 1Utama, this garden measuresnew techniques for sequestering carbon dioxide that 2786 m2 (30,000sqft) in size. The charcoal particlesare based upon natural processes. For example, when are 0.2 – 0.5 cm in diameter. Almost 500 species ofatmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide increased plants have been grown successfully on it. Even paddyin geologic times to a certain unknown threshold, it rice has been grown successfully on pure charcoal.went into the ocean and combined with positively Charcoal is half the weight of soil and particularlycharged calcium ions to form calcium carbonate – suitable for roof gardens. Mixed with soil it makes thelimestone. Similarly, engineers might devise ways of soil open, porous and resistant to compaction. There ispumping carbon dioxide into the ocean in ways that a growing movement of enthusiasts who view the usewould lock it eternally into rock. of charcoal in agriculture as the best method of carbonSequestration of carbon in soil as charcoal (biochar sequestration (the Economist August 29, 2009).or horticultural carbon)The growing of trees provides a form of sequestering Figure 2.1 Charcoal in the form of horticulturalcarbon by locking it up as wood. When a trees stops carbon or biochargrowing, its carbon content is frozen until the tree diesand decays or until its wood products decay. To storecarbon more permanently requires one additionalstep, which is to convert wood to charcoal. Charcoalis relatively stable in nature because it is not used bybacteria, fungi, insects or any of the organisms knownto be responsible for biodegradation, Carbon residues in soil, e.g. charcoal from forest fires orfrom open burning of rubbish, are said to be ‘recalcitrant’as they do not break down easily. In Malaysia, the black 19

MEGA SCIENCE 2.0 Environment Sector 2.6 OTHER GEOENGINEERING SOLUTIONS TO CLIMATE CHANGE Figure 2.2 The Secret Garden of 1 Utama - More than two decades of UN discussions and growing on horticultural carbon negotiations have failed to effectively reduce emission of greenhouse gases. In fact, emissions are accelerating: On the ground, housing projects in Bandar Utama a quarter of all the carbon dioxide ever pumped into theare now landscaped after incorporation of biochar into air by humans was put there in the decade betweenthe soil using a rotovator. Grass and garden plants are 2000 and 2010. The official ambition of limiting theplanted in the biochar/soil mix without bringing in new global temperature rise to 2°C looks increasingly like asoil from elsewhere. This method is labour-saving and bad joke (The Economist Nov 23, 2013).cost-effective because imported soil is difficult to obtain,of unknown quality and often heavily weed-infested. ‘Geoengineering’ techniques, apart from directThe incorporation of biochar produces a much cleaner, storage of CO2 underground, are now being exploredpredictable and better result. by scientists. Among such techniques is ‘fertilisation’ of oceans with iron to encourage growth of plankton. This The conversion of wood to charcoal involves simple is idea is based on evidence that iron is a limiting factortechnologies that are already well-known and but there is for plankton growth. When more iron is made available,a need to improve efficiency. Some new designs claim to plankton will multiply and absorb CO2 in photosynthesis.produce charcoal in 24 hours with close to 50% recovery When plankton ages and dies it will sink deep to theof charcoal from wood, and 75% reduction of emissions. ocean floor and remain sequestered there. OtherWhen carbon dioxide is converted to wood and then to nutrients that may stimulate plankton growth are nitrogencharcoal, the carbon is stored for long periods. Hence, if and phosphorus. Other ideas include the deflection ofbroken up and used to improve soils, it would increase sunlight from the earth through the use of a giant spacethe cropping potential of soils although its storage period mirror ‘spanning 600,000 square miles’, and the use ofmay be reduced through poorly-understood processes aircraft to dim the sun, mimicking the after-effects ofthat have the effect of diminishing carbon particles in volcanic eruptions by filling the upper atmosphere with asoil. fine haze of sulphate particles. Nonetheless, these measures will affect the whole planet and their consequences cannot be fully predicted nor finely controlled as in case of lab-scale experiments. We have only one earth, and no backup option. The practical, moral and ethical problems of geoengineering on a global scale would appear to be insurmountable. However, by 2050, such measures may look inevitable because by then, they may be less risky than doing nothing. It is therefore necessary to take climate change seriously and to start on the long road to restoring ecological balance in the atmosphere and the ocean. Individuals, corporations and governments all have a part to play. The safest carbon sink activities are those connected to forestation and reforestation. Actions 20

MEGA SCIENCE 2.0 Environment Sectorto increase plant cover in home gardens, roof tops,roadsides and wasteland, and the adoption of energy-saving habits in transportation, lighting, air-conditioningand waste management can and should be takenatalllevels of society. 21

MEGA SCIENCE 2.0 Environment Sector 3 22

3CHAPTER 3 MEGA SCIENCE 2.0 Environment Sector WATER Water is indisputably the world’s most precious Water is also important in the maintenance of theresource, essential to sustain all life on earth. While environment; whereby pollution, unregulated abstraction71% of the Earth’s surface comprises water, only 3% is and unsustainable use of this resource has jeopardisedmade up of freshwater, of which 69% is trapped as ice its ecological functions as well as reduced its availability.in polar glaciers and 30% are trapped underground as On the flipside, while there are beneficial uses for water,groundwater. This means that readily available surface over-abundance and/ or water scarcity poses hazardswater resources amount to only 0.3% of the total world’s to human population in the form of floods and drought.water, and this volume is found mainly in lakes, rivers, Adapting to these hazards is the other dimension in theponds and swamps (United States Environmental management of water, especially in light of anticipatedProtection Agency). malevolent climatic change. Water is essential for all major human activities Although the science of water is already well-known,and ecosystem functions. People need safe water for the wise use of available water necessitates that it bedrinking as well as for other domestic uses. The lack taken to another level of science and technology throughof safe drinking water has resulted in an annual world innovative ideas and approaches to make it moredeath toll of more than 3.4 million people due to water, effectively managed and efficiently utilised. It is in thissanitation and hygiene-related causes (Water.org). As a context that water, being an important driver, enablersocio-economic enabler, water is used in the cultivation and supporter of life and the environment, is expressedof crops, fishery, fuelling industrial processes, power under Mega Science Phase 2.generation, tourism activities and as the medium ofworld trade (via shipping). 23

MEGA SCIENCE 2.0 Environment SectorPhoto 1: Rivers remains the Photo 2: Lakes are important water Photo 3: The ocean covers most of the main source of water for bodies in the country World’s surface Malaysia3.1 OBJECTIVE Recommendations of Mega Science Phase 1The main objective of Water and the Environment for • Eco-tourism around high ecological value sitesMega Science Phase 2 is to seek a balance between • Urban water-based tourismwise use and management of water as a natural • Market and export high quality waterresource and water as a utility that sustains the value of • Clean water for aquaculture industrythe environment, and hence sustains life. Mega Science • Malaysian brand for domestic water purification unitPhase 1 has already devoted at length on recommending • World leading tropical aquatic research and educationwater as a utility to create new wealth opportunities • Knowledge export(2011 – 2050). All the ten recommended areas will need • Downstream water tappingcompelling innovative ideas and strong science and • Rainwater harvestingtechnology, to make a difference to the socio-economy • Zero pollutant dischargeof the country (See Box on recommendations). 3.2 WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT INThey will need more in-depth elaboration in future byresearchers, but nevertheless, Mega Science Phase 2 MALAYSIAhas acknowledged them as significant for technologicalinnovations for societal transformation, since all of them Worldwide, the importance of water in the environmentare dependent on the fundamental principles of water and for development is realised as critical. Towardsas a resource, and how well this resource is managed this end, the concept of Integrated Water Resourcesto sustain the environment. Management (IWRM) was established as an integral guiding principle at the international conferences on This section on Water and the Environment will Water and the Environment in Dublin, and in Rio dealso be reviewing the types of impediments that can Janeiro in 1992 and endorsed by the 2nd World Waterhinder the successful implementation of the previous Forum and the Ministerial Declaration at The Haguerecommendations, so that actions can be taken early in March 2000. As an embracing concept in integratedto preclude any drawbacks in their implementation in water management, the Global Water Partnershipfuture. 24

MEGA SCIENCE 2.0 Environment Sector(GWP) has devoted its whole network in its advocacy Since then, several states have set up their own Stateof defining IWRM as \"a process which promotes the Water Resource Management Authorities to managecoordinated development and management of water, their water resources, such as Sabah (1998), Selangorland and related resources, in order to maximise the (1999), Pahang (2007) and Kedah (2008). Other statesresultant economic and social welfare in an equitable that have no formal water management agencies yet,manner without compromising the sustainability of vital are planning to do so in the near future to carry out thisecosystems\" (FAO). function (DID 2012). The whole business of water as a resource and water for utilities has generated a lot Malaysia has adopted the IWRM concept as one of of interest with a propensity towards hydro-politics toits key approaches for water resources management become centre stage in the country at present and inand in the process, has implemented reforms in water future.governance, legislation and institutions to professionallymanage water. This largely reflects the Malaysian The National Water Resources Council (NWRC), setWater Vision, which was formulated in 2000 with the up as early as 1998 as the top advisory and coordinatingassistance of governmental and non-governmental body for the country for water resources, is however,agencies to help foster the country towards meeting its lacking in full mandates to carry out its function effectively.future water needs and to sustainably utilise its water It is anticipated that the passage of the draft Nationalresources. IWRM concepts and approaches have now Water Resources Act, completed since 2011 (currentlyformed part of the water agenda in the 5-year Malaysia undergoing review by the Government (ibid.)), andPlans since the Eighth Malaysia Plan (2001 – 2005) to the already adoption of the National Water Resourcesthe current 10th Malaysia Plan (2011 – 2015). Policy 2012, there will be clearer jurisdictions over water resources security, sustainability and collaborative An important challenge in the water agenda is the governance.need for enablers to promote water sector reform,which is seen as a long term process. This is carried Meanwhile, the Water Vision and the Nationalout through outreach and capacity building of personnel Water Resources Policy will need strong inspiration,and institutions in the water sector to develop innovative political will and clear dispassionate STI approaches toideas and solutions relating to wise water use; water address the major challenges in the water sector whereand wastewater treatment; water reuse and recycling; management solutions clearly will affect the wholewater use and demand management; and development population in the country. Among these are:of alternative water resources (ibid.). a) Water Stress – The increased in urbanisation, Even with the water sector reforms, the administration industrialisation, population growth and waterand management of water in Malaysia still remains pollution have placed heavy stresses on the quantityan entangled complex web involving shared Federal and quality of water resources. Relieving theseand State mandates and responsibilities, as well as a stresses could ensure water availability in quantitiesmultitude of government agencies, most of which have and quality for equitable allocation to all sectors.some form of overlapping jurisdictions and functions b) Sustaining Biodiversity – The wise use of water isover water. While the purview over water lies with the essential to sustain the ecological systems and theirrespective State governments, the introduction of the functions. If the ecological environment is degradedWater Services and Industry Act 2006 has placed water by pollution to the level of habitat destruction, itsupply and its associated services under the shared will disastrous to the population that depends onauspices of both the Federal and State governments, them for sustenance directly and indirectly. Thus,while water resource remains under the State before any of these thresholds are reached, STI willjurisdiction. have to provide pragmatic solutions to sustain the 25

MEGA SCIENCE 2.0 Environment Sector ecological environment in order for the population to For this reason, ‘Green growth’ as a concept is survive. also being promoted by the World Water Councilc) Climate Change – Ramifications of climate change (WWC) to move away from traditional carbon are expected in the weather systems in Malaysia, intensive economic models and instead, adopt which in turn will affect water availability. Extreme environmentally-sound economic growth based on weather conditions causing floods and droughts renewable energy, efficient use of water and green will become more common compared to the past. technologies. Adaptation methods to counter these extreme Hence, this paradigm shift in thinking is now being conditions will be necessary and the main question promoted in Malaysia, in certain sectors of the often asked is how STI can help prepare the country economy, as a response to the effects of ever increasing to adapt to these intense changes, where measures environmental cost incur by rapid economic growth are required in the short and mid-term to address and the effects of urbanisation on the water systems. long-term effects. In Malaysia, green growth is already associated withd) Balance Development, Water and the Environment more efficient use of water and energy and the water – The fast pace of development in the country has utility sector is adopting green technology for water resulted in increasing water demand. Besides the supply and wastewater treatment. It is also adopted by pressures mentioned above, the need to transport the industrial sectors, dam constructions, water-based water from source areas (most often outside the city tourism sector, including agricultural water use. It is limits) to the water-hungry population in the urban therefore advocated in this Mega Science Phase 2 to areas; managing point and non-point sources of give priority to innovations in the water resource sector pollution and stormwater runoff and floods, are by by addressing it as a foundation to help create the new no means less stressful in the water sector as it wealth opportunities in the country. gives rise to increased risks to the population and g) Water as an NKEA – In the water resource sector, the environment. Managing all these pressures green technology is less applied mainly because will require a complex andintegrated system. One water resource per se is still not valued as an concept is to develop integrated water resources important resource. There is a perception that water management, and this will be discussed later in is readily available and IRBM will take care of the this Report by integrating elements of the natural management of water resource in the river basins water cycle into all planning design for the country to cater to all water demand needs. Indeed, this (Subramaniam, December 24, 2012). perception will have to be dispelled immediately.e) Green Technology Growth –Adapting and using new One of the important approaches to change this approaches to improve productivity and efficiency of notion is to promote water as one of the National Key water sector development will definitely come on- Economic Areas (NKEA) to enable contributions through stream in future through STI. In the meantime, it is the Economic Transformation Programmes (ETP) to crucial to acknowledge and encourage technological become a significant economic resource generator in investments to foster replacing polluting industries the economy. To develop the water sector (resource with cleaner production to sustain the environment and utility functions of water), water must be regarded and hence to sustain water resources in the country. as an integral part of the nation’s vast natural resourcesf) Water as a Resource – Water as a resource should with great potentials to contribute to the economy and be acknowledged wholeheartedly as it has the societal development. potential to be a vital generator of economic growth. 26

MEGA SCIENCE 2.0 Environment SectorPhoto 4: While Malaysia still has ample Photo 5: Many important ecosystems Photo 6: Water is an important water resources, water stress are facing pressure from resource for various sectors still occurs in parts of the development and pollution and stakeholders country 3.3 WATER SUPPLY AND DEMAND MANAGEMENT accounts for the majority of water use (~70% of totalMalaysia is considered as one of the few nations water production) while it is also facing the highest rateendowed with abundant water resources with annual of water losses (~55%).rainfall of ~3,240 mm. However, rapid populationgrowth, urbanisation, industrialisation, expansion of Thus far, Malaysia has managed to meet its waterirrigated agriculture and climate change have increased demands through the continual expansion of surfacethe demands on water resources as well as contributing water resources, mainly through development ofto its increasing water quality deterioration (Mohd Desa structural works (dams, water treatment plants, water& Shafie) is expected to have a water surplus as shown distribution systems, etc.) and through inter-State waterin Figure 3.1 (Falkenmark, Rockström & Karlberg transfers, for instance, the proposed Pahang-Selangor2009). Nonetheless, the variability in the distribution of Raw Water Transfer Scheme).rainfall often results in water scarcity in certain Statessuch as Perlis and Melaka, while rapid industrialisation It is likely that the capacity limit to develop and abstractand urbanisation have caused water stresses in Pulau water through dams, intakes and treatment plants willPinang and Selangor (refer to Table 3.1 for availability be reached in future, and further development of waterof water resources by states) (DID 2012). resources will have to be in terms of alternative water sources to supplement deficits. One major alternative is In all cases, water demand in all states is expected to implement Water Demand Management (WDM) forto continue to increase (refer Figure 3.2). Among the all sectors and water through innovative ideas to reducecompeting water sectors, irrigation for agriculture non-revenue water etc. (see Section 4.1).Photo 7: Malaysia has a well- Photo 8: Dams provide storage for Photo 9: Leakage, aging piping developed water supply water network and water theft are sector but suffers from high 27 contributors towards NRW non-revenue water

MEGA SCIENCE 2.0 Environment Sectorm3/cap/a 0-500 500-1.000 1.000-1.300 1.300-1.700 1.700-2.000 2.000-4.000 4.000-10.000 >10.000 Figure 3.1 Water Surplus Countries in 2050Source: Falkenmark, Rockström & Karlberg 2009Note : The map illustrates in green the number of countries in 2050 facing water surpluses (>1,300 cubic metres per capita per year) and, in orange/red, countries facing deficits (<1,300 cubic metres per capita per year). Table 3.1 Available Water Resources for Malaysia States Rainfall Actual \ Groundwater Recharge Surface Runoff Evaporation Perlis 470 Kedah 1,880 1,290 120 750 Pulau Pinang 2,310 1,430 130 800 Perak 2,350 1,430 120 930 Selangor 2,420 1,320 170 760 Negeri Sembilan 2,190 1,280 150 490 Melaka 1,830 1,210 130 570 Johor 1,880 1,210 100 1,140 Pahang 2,470 1,130 200 1,100 Terengganu 2,470 1,250 120 1,690 Kelantan 3,310 1,470 150 1,170 Sabah 2,600 1,290 140 1,180 Sarawak 2,560 1,190 190 2,150 Labuan 3,640 1,250 240 1,470 Malaysia 3,100 1,480 150 1,790Source: DID 2012 3,240 1,230 221 28