Example 3 from The Great Debaters, directed by Denzel Washington Practice: Select and integrate parts of this passage to support a point about Harvard’s use of logos. Highlight the parts of the passage that are most important. Harvard Debater 1: From 1914 to 1918, for every single minute the world was at war, four men laid down their lives. Just think of it: Two hundred and forty brave young men were hurled into eternity every hour, of every day, of every night, for four long years. Thirty-five thousand hours; eight million, two hundred and eighty-one thousand casualties. Two hundred and forty. Two hundred and forty. Two hundred and forty. Here was a slaughter immeasurably greater than what happened at Amritsar. Can there be anything moral about it? Nothing -- except that it stopped Germany from enslaving all of Europe. Civil disobedience isn't moral because it's nonviolent. Fighting for your country with violence can be deeply moral, demanding the greatest sacrifice of all: life itself. Nonviolence is the mask civil disobedience wears to conceal its true face: anarchy. Remember: context, key part of quote, frame, analysis, and MLA citation. How do the Harvard debaters use logos in the above passage? ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ 51
Example 4 from The Great Debaters, directed by Denzel Washington Practice: Now select and integrate parts of this passage to support a point about Harvard’s use of pathos. Highlight the parts of the passage that are most important. Harvard Debater 1: From 1914 to 1918, for every single minute the world was at war, four men laid down their lives. Just think of it: Two hundred and forty brave young men were hurled into eternity every hour, of every day, of every night, for four long years. Thirty-five thousand hours; eight million, two hundred and eighty-one thousand casualties. Two hundred and forty. Two hundred and forty. Two hundred and forty. Here was a slaughter immeasurably greater than what happened at Amritsar. Can there be anything moral about it? Nothing -- except that it stopped Germany from enslaving all of Europe. Civil disobedience isn't moral because it's nonviolent. Fighting for your country with violence can be deeply moral, demanding the greatest sacrifice of all: life itself. Nonviolence is the mask civil disobedience wears to conceal its true face: anarchy. Remember: context, key part of quote, frame, analysis, and MLA citation. How do the Harvard debaters use pathos in the above passage? ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ 52
Example 5 from Lord of the Flies by William Golding Possible Topic Sentence for Paragraph Two: The fire running out of control symbolizes the potential violence of the boys on the island. Evidence One: “the fire laid hold of the forest and began to gnaw” (44) Interpretive Notes (leads to other evidence): --Fire depicted as an animal (squirrel) that is wild and ready to devour the forest --the boys are cheering at the sight: they needed the fire, but it does not seems all good --the flames became a “wild life” and “crept as a jaguar” (more animal imagery) Start of paragraph: The fire running out of control symbolizes the potential violence of the boys on the island. The boys needed the fire to send a signal, but once it begins to burn it is compared first to an out-of control squirrel that “laid hold of the forest and began to gnaw” (44). This imagery makes the fire seem vicious, savage and wild. The boys cheer, and then the flames become “a kind of wild life” (44). There is a parallel drawn between the fire and the boys, which Ralph seems to realize. (continue with explanation) Evidence Two: Ralph realized “the beginnings of awe at the power set free below them” (44) “The knowledge and awe made him savage” (44). Interpretive Notes: --Connection to Genesis-Garden of Eden and knowledge of good and evil --Ralph sees the potential evil or violence Evidence Three: “Piggy glanced nervously into hell and cradled the conch” (44) Interpretive Notes: --Piggy, who has realized more than the others from the beginning, sees that the fire is a kind of hell or evil—not the paradise the boys saw earlier. --He clings to the conch, which represents civilization and order to him 53
Part VIII: Glossary of Terms 54
The Hero’s Journey Archetype: Stages and Elements The Hero’s Journey Archetype A common plot pattern that is reflected in literature, film, short stories and everyday life. Typically, the archetype involves a hero going on a journey, which leads to transformation. The Known World Typically the hero begins his/her journey in the known, familiar world. He/she must leave the known world in order to start the journey. The Unknown World This is where the journey takes place, where the hero faces a series of challenges and temptations and transforms. The Call The hero’s invitation to start the journey. The call offers him/her the opportunity to face the unknown and gain something of physical or spiritual value. The hero may be willing or unwilling to answer the Call; he/she may embrace or resist the journey, but must complete the journey in order to become his/her new self. The Threshold The “jumping off point” for the journey which marks the boundary between the known and the unknown. To begin the journey the hero must cross the threshold and face the unknown. The Threshold Guardian The hero’s protectors who will not let him/her start the journey until he/she is ready. Challenges and Temptations On the journey, the hero faces a series of tasks, risks, and obstacles to progress, called Challenges and/or Temptations. These become more difficult as the journey progresses and help the hero become stronger, more skilled and confident. Talisman A tool, weapon or gift given to the hero that helps him/her along the journey. Helper(s) Character(s) who assists the hero during the journey. 55
Mentor As the most important helper, a mentor teaches and/or guides the hero during the journey. Abyss The greatest challenge of the journey. In the Abyss the hero must overcome his greatest fear(s)/test(s) and often must do so alone. Revelation A sudden, dramatic change in the way the hero thinks or views life. This new “revelation” or insight shifts his thinking and is a reflection of how the hero has changed as a result of the journey. Transformation A fundamental change in being and behavior, a movement into a new self. The hero “transforms” in this stage of death and rebirth; part of the hero dies so that a new part can be born. Atonement This stage involves the hero accepting his/her new self and new place in the world. (The hero is “at one” with his/her new self). Sometimes Atonement also involves a reconciliation (reunion and new acceptance) with a person or idea with which the hero felt at odds. In traditional stories, this person is often the hero’s father or father figure. The Return When the hero returns to everyday life after completing the journey, this stage is known as the Return. Sometimes this is also a physical return to the hero’s known world, which may appear different to the hero as a result of the journey. The Gift This is what the hero brings back to the Known World, a gift to his/her community. It may be a prize (such as treasure), a person, or simply wisdom. 56
Persuasive Strategies: Logos, Ethos, Pathos (This handout was created Professor Alicia Upano, San Diego State University.) To Appeal to LOGOS To Develop or Appeal To Appeal to PATHOS (logic, reasoning) to ETHOS (emotion) (character, ethics) LOGOS refers to the argument PATHOS refers to words or itself; the reasoning the author uses; ETHOS refers to how an author passages an author uses to activate logical evidence builds credibility & trustworthiness emotions Types of LOGOS Appeals Ways to Develop ETHOS Types of PATHOS Appeals Theories / scientific facts Author’s profession / background Emotionally loaded language Vivid descriptions Indicated meanings or reasons Author’s publication Emotional examples Anecdotes, testimonies, or (because…) Appearing sincere, fair minded, narratives about emotional experiences or events Literal or historical analogies knowledgeable Figurative language Emotional tone (humor, sarcasm, Definitions Conceding to opposition where disappointment, excitement, etc.) Factual data & statistics appropriate Quotations Morally / ethically likeable Citations from experts & authorities Appropriate language for audience Informed opinions and subject Examples (real life examples) Appropriate vocabulary Correct grammar Personal anecdotes Professional format Effect on Audience Effect on Audience Effect on Audience Evokes an emotional response. Evokes a cognitive, rational Helps reader to see the author as Persuasion by emotion. response. reliable, trustworthy, competent, (usually evoking fear, sympathy, Readers get a sense of, “Oh, that and credible. empathy, anger,) makes sense” The reader might respect the or “Hmm, that really doesn’t prove author or his/her views. How to Talk/Write About It: anything.” Examples How to Talk/Write About It: How to Talk/Write About It: Examples Examples The author appeals to logos by Through his use of scientific By referencing 9/11, the author is defining relevant terms and then terminology, the author appealing to pathos. Here, he is supports his claim with numerous builds his ethos by demonstrating eliciting both sadness and anger citations from authorities. expertise. from his readers. The author’s use of statistics and The author’s ethos is effectively The author’s description of a child expert testimony are very developed through his reflection on t with cancer was a very persuasive convincing logos appeals. massacre at Wounded Knee; readers appeal to pathos. see that he is sympathetic to the struggles faced by oppressed peoples. 58
Literary and Rhetorical Terms Definitions adapted from the ELA Common Core State Standards Glossary. Alliteration The repetition of initial consonant sounds in words. For example, rough and ready. Allusion A reference in literature to a person, place, thing, or event outside of the text. Allusions to another literary work, historic event/figure, famous figure, or biblical figures and classical mythology are common in Western literature. Allusions a) engage the reader and help one to remember the message or theme of the passage; and b) allow the writer to give an example or get a point across without a lengthy explanation Archetype A plot pattern or a character type that occurs frequently in literature, myth, religion, or folklore. See hero’s journey definition; it is a common archetype. Argumentation A speech, writing, or oral debate intended to convince by establishing truth. Most argumentation begins with a statement of an idea or opinion, which is then supported with logical evidence. Another technique of argumentation is the counterclaim, or the anticipation and rebuttal of opposing views. Claim A claim for an analytical essay is specific to the text being examined; it asserts a point that is not readily obvious; and it is coherent, employing logical structure and proper grammar. Literary analyses make an argument about a text (or texts) and support that claim with evidence. Counterclaim A claim made to offset another claim. In arguing a claim, you should always consider potential counterclaims and counterarguments. Diction An author’s choice of words based on their correctness, clearness, or effectiveness. See voice, style, imagery. 59
Drama/Dramatic literature A play; a form of literature intended to be performed before an audience. Drama for stage is also called theatre. In a drama, the story is presented through the dialogue and the actions of the characters. In medias res An epic convention of beginning “in the middle of the action” rather than at the beginning of the story. Epic A long narrative poem in elevated or dignified language, celebrating the feats of a legendary or traditional hero. Epic simile (or Homeric simile) An elaborate simile developed over many lines of verse with many points of comparison. Epigraph A quotation set at the beginning of a literary work suggesting what the theme or central idea will be. Epithet An adjective or phrase identified with a specific character. For example, “the grey-eyed goddess.” Ethos A persuasive strategy that relies on building credibility and trust- worthiness. This usually involves the writer or speaker presenting himself/herself as ethical, reliable and/or likable. (See chart on page 57.) Extended metaphor A metaphor developed at great length, occurring frequently in or throughout a work. Figurative language Language that communicates ideas beyond the ordinary or literal meaning of the words. Examples include simile, metaphor, and personification. Foreshadowing A writer’s use of hints or clues to indicate events that will occur in a story. Foreshadowing creates suspense and prepares the reader for what is to come. Epic Hero A protagonist who embodies the values of his or her culture. 60
Iambic pentameter A metrical line of five feet or units, each made up of an unstressed then a stressed syllable. Thus a line of iambic pentameter contains ten syllables. For example, “I have thee not, and yet I see thee still” (Macbeth, II.1.44). Image/Imagery Words and phrases that create vivid sensory experiences for the reader. Most images are visual, but imagery may also appeal to the senses of smell, hearing, taste, or touch. Logos A persuasive strategy that relies on the author’s use of reasoning and logical evidence. (See chart on page 57.) Memoir A non-fiction narrative based on personal experience or memory. Metaphor A figure of speech that makes a comparison between two things that are basically different but have something in common. Unlike a simile, a metaphor does not contain the words like or as. Meter In poetry, the recurrence of a rhythmic pattern. Monologue A long, uninterrupted speech that is spoken in the presence of other characters. Motif A recurring element (image, word, idea) in a work of literature or art that supports or develops a theme. Myth A traditional story passed down through generations that explains why the world is the way it is. Myths are essentially religious, because they present supernatural events and beings and articulate the values and beliefs of a cultural group. Narrator The person or voice telling the story. The narrator can be a character in the story or a voice outside the action. Paradox A statement that seems to contradict itself, but, in fact, reveals some element of truth. A special kind of paradox is the oxymoron, which brings together two contradictory terms. For example, cruel kindness and brave fear. 61
Pathos A persuasive strategy that relies on appealing to the audience’s emotions. (See chart on page 57.) Personification The act of giving human qualities to something that is not human. For example: The weather is smiling on us today. Love is blind. Perspective A position from which something is considered or evaluated; a standpoint. Persuasion/Persuasive writing Writing intended to convince the reader that a position is valid or that the reader should take a specific action. Differs from exposition in that it does more than explain; it takes a stand and endeavors to persuade the reader to take the same position. Poetic prose Poetry written in prose. Poetic prose preserves poetic qualities, such as heightened attention to language and emotion, through prominent use of metaphor and imagery. Point of view The vantage point from which a story is told, chiefly occurring in literary texts. For example, in the first-person or narrative point of view, the story is told by one of the characters; in the third-person or omniscient point of view, the story is told by someone outside the story. Prose A genre including both fiction and nonfiction that is written in ordinary language. Language without poetic measure or rhythm, distinguished from verse. Prose is arranged in paragraphs. Rhetoric The art of effective expression and the persuasive use of language. Rhyme scheme The pattern of rhyming lines in a poem, indicated by a series of letters that correspond to the rhyming words. Rhythm The pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in a line of poetry. Poets use rhythm to bring out the musical quality of language, to emphasize ideas, to create mood, to unify a work, and/or to heighten emotional response. Script The text of a play, film, radio broadcast, or prepared speech that includes dialogue and stage directions. 62
Setting The time and place of the action in a story, play, or poem. Simile A comparison of two unlike things in which a word of comparison (often like or as) is used. For example, Maya Angelou’s “She stood in front of the alter, shaking like a freshly caught trout.” Soliloquy A dramatic speech, usually lengthy, in which a character, alone on stage, expresses his or her thoughts aloud. Stanza A grouping of two or more lines within a larger poem set off by a space. A stanza is to poetry what a paragraph is to prose. Style A writer’s unique way of communicating ideas. Elements contributing to style include word choice, sentence length, tone, figurative language, and use of dialogue. Subtext In drama, the unspoken emotions or motive of a character conveyed through the delivery of lines. The meaning “beneath the text.” Symbol A person, place, or object that represents something beyond itself. Symbols can succinctly communicate complicated, emotionally rich ideas. Synecdoche a type of figurative language where the part represents the whole. For example, wheels=car, blade= sword. Syntax The way in which words are put together to form constructions such as phrases or sentences. Theme A central idea or message conveyed through a text. Thesis An attitude or position taken by a writer or speaker with the purpose of proving or supporting it. Trochaic Tetrameter A metrical line of four feet or units, each made up of an stressed then a unstressed syllable. Thus, a line of trochaic tetrameter contains eight syllables. For example, “If we shadows have offended,/ Think but this and all is mended” (A Midsummer Night’s Dream, V.2.413-414). 63
Tone An expression of a writer’s attitude toward a subject. Unlike mood--which is intended to shape the reader’s emotional response--tone reflects the feelings of the writer. Tone can be serious, humorous, sarcastic, playful, ironic, bitter, or objective. Verse Anything written in poetic form. Vignette A short, vivid sketch that describes characters, events, and small details of one’s life. Voice A writer’s unique use of language that allows a reader to perceive a human personality in his or her writing. The elements of style that determine a writer’s voice include sentence structure, diction, and tone. 64
Additional Literary and Rhetorical Terms Allegory A story with literal and symbolic meaning, in which people, things, and actions represent an idea or generalization about life. Allegories have an underlying meaning with moral, social, religious, or political significance, and characters are often personifications of abstract ideas as charity, greed, or envy. Aside A dramatic device in which a character speaks his or her thoughts aloud (usually brief and in an undertone), in words meant to be heard by the audience but not by the other characters. See soliloquy/monologue. Bildungsroman A German word meaning “novel of development.” The bildungsroman is a study of the maturation of a youthful character, typically brought about through a series of social or sexual encounters that lead to self-awareness. Colloquialism A word, phrase, or form of pronunciation that is acceptable in casual conversation but not in formal, written communication. It is considered more acceptable than slang. Deus ex machina A Latin term meaning “god out of a machine.” In Greek drama, a god was often lowered onto the stage by a mechanism of some kind to rescue the hero or untangle the plot. Today the term refers to any artificial device or coincidence used to bring about a convenient and simple solution to a plot. Fable A short, simple story that teaches a lesson. Animals or inanimate objects with human characteristics often serve as characters in fables. See folktale, traditional narrative. Foil A character in a work of literature whose physical or psychological qualities contrast strongly with, and therefore highlight, the corresponding qualities of another character. Folktale A short narrative handed down through oral tradition, with various tellers and groups modifying it, so that it acquires cumulative authorship. Most folktales eventually move from oral tradition to written form. See tall tale. 65
Hyperbole An intentional exaggeration for emphasis or comic effect. Irony The contrast between expectation and reality. This incongruity has the effect of surprising the reader or viewer. An implied discrepancy between what is said and what is meant. Dramatic irony occurs when the audience of a play or the reader of a work of literature knows something the characters in the work itself do not know. The irony is in the contrast between the intended meaning of the statements or actions of a character and the additional information understood by the audience. Verbal irony occurs when an author or spear says one thing and means something else. Situational irony is a discrepancy between the expected result and the actual result. Mood The feeling or atmosphere that a writer creates for the reader. The use of connotation, details, dialogue, imagery, figurative language, foreshadowing, setting, and rhythm can help establish mood. Parody A work that imitates or mocks another work or type of literature. Like a caricature in art, parody in literature mimics a subject or a style. Its purpose may be to ridicule, to broaden understanding of, or to add insight to the original work. Refrain One or more words repeated at intervals in a poem, usually at the end of a stanza, such as the last line of each stanza in a ballad. Used to present different moods or ideas, as in Poe’s use of “Nevermore” in his poem “The Raven.” Satire A literary technique in which ideas, customs, behaviors, or institutions are ridiculed, often with the intent of correcting or reforming the situation. Satire may be gently witty, mildly abrasive, or bitterly critical, and often uses exaggeration for effect. 66
Stream of consciousness A narrative technique for rendering the inward experiences of a character. This technique is designed to give the impression of an ever-changing series of thoughts, emotions, images, and memories in the spontaneous and seemingly illogical order that they occur in one’s mind. Sonnet A poem consisting of fourteen lines of iambic pentameter. Two popular structures are the Shakespearean sonnet, with a rhyme scheme of a-b-a-b, c-d-c- d, e-f-e-f, g-g, and the Petrarchan sonnet, with a rhyme scheme of a-b-b-a, a-b-b- a, c-d-e-c-d-e. See Iambic pentameter and Rhyme scheme. Tragedy and Tragic Hero A drama in prose or poetry about a noble, courageous hero of excellent character who, becomes of some tragic character flaw, brings ruin upon himself. Tragedy treats its subject in a dignified and serious manner, using poetic language to help evoke pity and fear and bring about catharsis, a purging of these emotions. According to Aristotle’s definition of tragedy . . . The protagonist, that is the hero or chief character in a tragedy is of “high estate” which gives him a state of dignity to fall from. The hero must fall from power and from happiness Because of his position, his fall seems all the more a calamity in that it involves an entire nation or people. The fall is due to an error, transgression or weakness in the hero called a tragic flaw. 67
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