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PRE-VOCATIONAL STUDIESAGRICULTURAL SCIENCE For Junior Secondary SchoolsBOOK 1 ByMathias O. Ojirika O. J. OkonNelson D. OkugieDr Wasiu Olayemi Dr L. Raimi iii

© TANUS BOOKS All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission, in writing, of Tanus Books Limited. First published 2012 Revised Edition 2015 TANUS BOOKS LIMITED Head Office: Calabar Office: 4, Ola-Ayeni Street, Prospect House, 80, MCC (Anansa) Road, off Simbiat Abiola Road, Calabar, Cross River State, Nigeria. Ikeja, Lagos, Tel: 08188316096 Nigeria. E-mail: [email protected] Tel: 01-3429755, 08054894123 E-mail: [email protected] Ibadan Office: Website: www.tanusbooks.com 57, Polytechnic Road, Adjacent to First Bank Plc, Abuja Office: Sango, Suite A10/A11, Dansarari Plaza, Ibadan. 5, Ziguinchor Street, Tel: 08180160821 off Ibrahim Babangida Way, E-mail: [email protected] Zone 4, Wuse, Abuja, Asaba Office: Nigeria. De’ Park Plaza, Tel: 09096220886 Opp. Ministry of Lands & Survey, E-mail: [email protected] Ibusa Road, Asaba, Port Harcourt Office: Delta State. Ada Odum Shopping Centre, Tel: 08104809866 Shop C7, 1st floor, 10, Choba/NTA Road, E-mail: [email protected] Rumuokwuta Junction, Port Harcourt, Nigeria. Tel: 09092881324 E-mail: [email protected] ISBN – 978-978-8427-72-8iv

Editorial Advisory Board Professor Oye Ibidapo-Obe Professor Stephen UcheHis Excellency, Dr Yakubu Kwari Editors Isaac Okeme O. J. Okon v

Foreword In recent times, there has been a great upsurge in the level of concern over the state of education in Nigeria. Following complaints of a decline in the educational achievement in the nation’s schools, the decay in schools infrastructure and the glaring poor conditions of service of teachers, the Federal and State governments responded with enhanced salaries and other fringe benefits for teachers while their various agencies moved to address the decay in schools infrastructure. At the same time, the Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council (NERDC), as well as the various examination bodies, such as the West African Examinations Council (WAEC) and National Examinations Council (NECO) have appropriately revised their curricula in consonance with the demands of the National Council on Education. In spite of these and other initiatives of Government that seek to put the education system on a sound footing, the provision of vital instructional materials that are affordable, dependable and easily within students reach, is problematic. Among these particularly critical instructional materials that are vital for optimal education output, are textbooks. Even with the best trained and motivated teachers in the best equipped schools, the lack of vital textbooks can vitiate the learning process and, consequently, the attainment of set educational goals. Unfortunately, the textbooks available in the market may lack sufficient variety to meet the peculiar needs of the members of the diverse population of students. Under such a situation, there is very little likelihood that Nigeria will adequately attain the Millennium Development Goal of Education for All (EFA), and also respond appropriately in consistence to the National Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy (NEEDS). As patriotic stakeholders in the development of the nation’s education system, the Executives (Board) of Tanus Publishers took upon themselves the task of preparing and publishing a large array of primary and secondary school textbooks. The essence is to provide greater stimulation towards the preparation of school textbooks among Nigerians, address the inadequacies observed among those in the market and offer a greater variety of text materials from which pupils and students may make their choices. Of course, part of this effort seeks to revive the rapidly declining reading culture among Nigerian youths.vi

The range of subjects for which Tanus Publishers have prepared textbooks include EnglishLanguage, Social Studies, Mathematics and Basic Science and Technology at the primaryschool level; Basic Science, Business Studies, Basic Technology, English Language, Mathematicsand Agricultural Science at junior secondary school level, and Chemistry, Physics, Biology,Economics, Mathematics, Geography, English Language and Agricultural Science at thesenior secondary level. Also, in appreciation of the increasing relevance of computers incontemporary societies and their place in school curricula, Tanus also has textbooks dealingwith the subject area of Computer Science for the first nine years of formal education. Thesetextbooks are specifically prepared for use in individual grades or classes and, thus, are veryconvenient to carry. It is gratifying to note that Tanus Publishers already have in their stable,an array of Technical Books for Technical Colleges and Trade Books.In preparing the manuscripts, authors were recruited from the ranks of serving teachers inNigerian schools. They were subjected to a training seminar where modalities for manuscriptpreparation were outlined, style of writing defined and the essence of focusing primarily onthe Nigerian experience and background underlined. Thereafter, authors worked in groups todevelop outlines in consistence with the existing syllabuses. The manuscripts that emergedwere duly edited. These measures were taken to ensure the preparation of good qualitytextbooks that would serve the needs of Nigerian students.I personally have a great deal of admiration for the courage and patriotism of TanusPublishers. The task they have taken upon their shoulders is enormous and they definitelyneed our encouragement. Nigerian students surely will be better off with these additions tothe secondary schools book markets in Nigeria.PROF. STEPHEN C. UCHEProfessor of Science EducationConsulting Editor vii

Preface These well-researched series of Agricultural Science for Junior Secondary Schools, Books 1-3, are based on the realigned National curriculum for Pre-vocational Studies designed by the Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council (NERDC). Based on the stipulated broad theme in the curriculum, one that has as its main focus, “employment generation, skills development and self-reliance posture”, Book 1 focuses on such specific topics as Importance and Forms of Agriculture, Classes and Uses of Crops, Classes and Uses of Farm Animals, Methods of Weed and Pest Control, Factors of Agricultural Production, all designed to reinforce students’ knowledge of the basic concepts of Agriculture and overall agricultural business. Each chapter in the three series, opens with a broad definition of the subject under review and ends with class and outdoor activities, designed to drive the points studied home. Thereafter, there is also at the end, a short exercise of questions which should revise the details studied in the chapter under review. In addition, a liberal use of illustrations has been utilised, even though this is not to be taken as a replacement for actual farming activities which are highly recommended through the series. In preparing the series, our collective experience as serving school teachers came into play. The special training seminar where modalities for manuscript preparation were outlined, style of writing defined and the essence of focusing primarily on the Nigerian experience and background presented, came in quite handy. If properly and logically presented to young learners by their teachers, the details in the series will ensure that young students develop a lifelong interest in Agricultural Science. Mathias O. Ojirika O. J. Okon Nelson D. Okugie Dr Wasiu Olayemi Dr L. Raimiviii

Table of ContentsForeword.................................................................................................. ivPreface .................................................................................................... viContents .................................................................................................. viiTHEME: CONCEPT AND MEDIUM OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION ......... 1Chapter One: Importance and Forms of Agriculture .................................................... 11.1 Meaning of Agriculture .............................................................................................. 11.2 Importance of Agriculture ......................................................................................... 11.3 Scope of Agriculture .................................................................................................. 31.4 Forms of Agriculture .................................................................................................. 31.5 Areas of Specialisation (branches) in Agriculture ...................................................... 61.6 Types of Agriculture ................................................................................................... 7 Summary ................................................................................................................... 8 Class Activities ........................................................................................................... 8 8 Revision Questions .................................................................................................... Chapter Two: Classes and Uses of Crops ..................................................................... 92.1 Parts of Crop Plants and their Functions ................................................................... 92.2 Classification of Crops ................................................................................................ 112.3 Classification of Crops Based on their Lifespan......................................................... 122.4 Classification of Crops Based on their Uses................................................................ 14 Summary.................................................................................................................... 19 Class Activities............................................................................................................ 19 Revision Questions..................................................................................................... 19Chapter Three: Classes and Uses of Farm Animals ...................................................... 203.1 Forms of Farm Animals .............................................................................................. 203.2 Basic Characteristics of Farm Animals ....................................................................... 243.3 Classification of Farm Animals ................................................................................... 273.4 Uses of Farm Animals and Animal Products............................................................... 29 ix

Summary.................................................................................................................... 29 Class Activities.......................................................................................................... 30 Revision Questions..................................................................................................... 30 Chapter Four: Methods of Weed and Pest Control ................................................... 31 4.1 Definition of Weeds and Pest Control..................................................................... 31 4.2 Characteristics of Weeds .......................................................................................... 31 4.3 Uses of Weeds .......................................................................................................... 31 4.4 Methods of Weed Control ........................................................................................ 33 4.5 Effects of Weed Control Methods on the Environment and Vegetation .................. 34 4.6 Types of Crop Pests ................................................................................................. 34 4.7 Classification of Insect Pests Based on Mouth Parts................................................. 35 4.8 Damages Caused by Crop Pests ................................................................................ 36 4.9 Effects of Crop Pests on Yield ................................................................................... 37 Summary................................................................................................................... 37 Class Activities.......................................................................................................... 38 Revision Questions................................................................................................... 38 Chapter Five: Factors of Agricultural Production ........................................................ 39 5.1 Factors of Production ............................................................................................... 39 5.2 Importance of Land as a Factor of Production.......................................................... 42 Summary................................................................................................................... 42 Class Activity............................................................................................................. 42 Revision Questions ................................................................................................... 43 ENTREPRENEURSHIP 45 46 Chapter Six: Entrepreneurship and Entrepreneur…..................................................... 46 6.1 What is Entrepreneurship……………..……………………………………................................ 47 6.2 Who is an Entrepreneur……………..……………………………………................................... 47 6.3 Qualities/Characteristics of Entrepreneurs…………..…..……………............................. 50 6.4 Forms of Business Enterprise……………..………………………………................................. 6.5 Forms of Production……………..……………………………………......................................... x

Summary: …………………………..……………………………………........................................... 52 Class Activities…………………………..…………………………………....................................... 53 Revision Questions…………………………..………………………………................................... 53Chapter Seven: Leadership and Entrepreneurship……............................................... 547.1 Who is a Leader……………..……………………………………................................................ 547.2 Examples of Great Leaders in Nigeria……………..………………………........................... 557.3 Entrepreneurship and Leadership Styles…………………………………........................... 597.4 Traits of Leaders and Businessmen……………………………………................................ 59 Summary: ………………………………………………..………………......................................... 60 Class Activities…………………………..…………………………………..................................... 61 Revision Questions…………………………..…………………………….................................... 61Chapter Eight: Operations Management................................................................... 628.1 Meaning of an Office………………………..………………………………................................. 628.2 Types of Offices………………………..…………………………………….................................... 648.3 Office Machines and Equipment………………………..…………………............................. 648.4 Production Space: Plant Location and Plant Layout………………….......................... 678.5 Recruitment and Training of Staff………………………..…………................................... 67 Summary: …………………………..…………………………..………………................................. 68 Class Activities…………………………..………………………………........................................ 68 Revision Questions…………………………..…………………………….................................... 68Chapter Nine: Products Target Customers…………...................................................... 699.1 Packaging ………………………………………………………………........................................... 709.2 Branding……………………………………………………………................................................. 709.3 Courtesy/Customer Relationship Management……..……………………...................... 709.4 Awareness/Advertisment……………………………..……………………............................... 719.5 Marketing and Marketing Functions…………………………………….............................. 719.6 Market Research…………………………………………………………….................................... 729.7 Competition Versus Tactics…………………………………………….................................... 739.8 Sales Promotion…………………………………………………………....................................... 74 Summary: …………………………..…………………..……………….......................................... 74 xi

Class Activity…………………………..…………………………………........................................ 75 Revision Questions…………………………..……………………………..................................... 75 Chapter Ten: Product Costing and Raising Capital...................................................... 76 10.1 Costing…………………..……………………………………........................................................ 76 10.2 Pricing and Pricing Strategy…………………..………………………………............................. 76 10.3 Pricing Strategies…………………..……………………………………........................................ 77 10.4 Factors Influencing Pricing…………………..…………………………….................................. 78 10.5 Financing Business: Equity, Loan and Venture Capital………................................... 78 10.6 Accounting Language/Relevant Books of Accounts............................................... 79 10.7 Entrepreneurship in Agriculture……………..………………............................................ 80 Summary: ………………………..……………………..………………........................................... 81 Class Activity…………………………..…………………………………......................................... 82 Revision Questions…………………………..……………………………………............................. 82xii

THEME: CONCEPT AND MEDIUM OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION CHAPTER 1 Importance and Forms of AgriculturePerformance ObjectivesAt the end of this chapter, students should be able to: 1. State the importance of agriculture; 2. Explain types of agriculture, and 3. State forms of agricultural practices.IntroductionThe word agriculture is obtained from two Latin words: “ager” meaning field or land and“cultura” meaning cultivation. Simply, agriculture can be defined as land cultivation.Agriculture can also be defined as the cultivation of crops and the rearing of animals for man’suse as food or raw materials. Since agricultural activities go beyond production (cultivation ofcrops and rearing of animals) and consumption (man’s use as food and raw material), a morecomprehensive definition of agriculture is required.Agriculture is the practice of farming, including cultivation of the soil for the growing of cropand the rearing of animals to provide food, wool and other products.1.1 Meaning of AgricultureAgriculture can further be defined in a more comprehensive way to include the producing,processing, transporting and marketing of all plant and animal materials that are of benefitto man.There are two types of agriculture; they are subsistence and industrial agriculture.1.2 Importance of Agriculture in the Society 1The benefits of agriculture to man and the nation are enormous. The following are some ofthem:a. Provision of Food: The primary importance of agriculture is the provision of food. The risk of malnutrition and starvation is reduced, if not avoided, through the production of plants and animals food items. Examples of food items from agriculture include meat, eggs, milk,

fish, vegetables, cereals, roots and tubers, fruits, legumes, etc. Food supports man’s existence and growth through the supply of the needed energy and repairs of body cells and tissues. b. Provision of Employment: Agriculture provides jobs for peoples. Such people are the farmers, those working in agro-based industries, agricultural research institutions, Ministry of Agriculture. About 75 per cent of Nigerians make their livelihood from agriculture. c. Provision of Income: From the sales of crops and animals, the farmer obtains income (money) which he uses for his family’s upkeep (this is called subsistence farming). Workers in the agricultural sector also obtain wages and salaries which they use to take care of all their needs. d. Provision of Shelter: Agricultural materials are used for the provision of shelter. For examples, timber, bamboo, etc., are used for building doors, windows, and also for making home furniture. Grasses and palm fronds are also used in making thatch roofs, especially in rural areas. e. Provision of Foreign Exchange: The export of agricultural products helps the country to earn more revenue. Such products which Nigeria exports to other countries include cocoa, kolanut, groundnut, palm kernel and timber. The revenue obtained from the export of these products is used to purchase machines and other industrial goods that are not produced within the country. f. Helps in Rural Development: Rural communities having agro-based industries, agricultural research institutions or large commercial farms often enjoy the provision of basic amenities by government. Such amenities include good roads, electricity, pipe-borne water, hospitals, schools, etc. g. Provision of Clothing: Agriculture provides clothing materials from both plant and animal sources. Cotton from the cotton plant is used in making most clothing materials. Hides and skins from animals are used in making caps, bags, shoes and belts. Wool from sheep is used in making heavy clothing like sweaters, etc. h. Provision of Raw Materials: Agriculture provides raw materials for most industries. Below are examples of industries and the agricultural raw materials they use. Table 1.1: A table showing list of agricultural industries and the raw materials they make use of Industries Agricultural Raw Materials Used a. Soap/cream Palm kernel, palm oil, cotton seed, groundnut. b. Food processing/canning Tomatoes, fish, meat, milk/sugar cane, maize. c. Textile Wool, cotton, silk, jute.2

d. Feed mill Maize seed, sorghum, cotton seed, palm kernel, groundnut.e. Beveragef. Furniture Cocoa, coffee, tea.g. Paper Timber. Wood pulp.1.3 Scope of AgricultureAgriculture is a multidisciplinary subject and applied science. The practice and understandingof agriculture depends to some extent, on having a fair knowledge of the following areas:Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Health Science, Mathematics, Geography and Economics.1.4 Forms of AgricultureThe forms of agriculture that are practised and encouraged in many parts of the world are:(i) Crop farming (ii) Horticulture (iii) Livestock farming (iv) Apiculture(v) Fish farming (vi) Snail farmingi. Crop Farming: This entails the planting, tending and harvesting of crops. There are two types of crop farming. These are: a. Plantation Crop Farming: This involves the growing, tending and harvesting of tree crops such as oil palm, rubber, cocoa, oranges and other perennial crops like plantain, banana, pineapple, etc., b. Arable or Field Crop Farming: This involves the planting of annual crops. These crops are also called food crops, for example, cassava, maize, yam, beans, etc. The following cropping systems may be used in crop farming: Mono-cropping, mixed cropping, continuous cropping and crop rotation.ii. Horticulture: This is the form of agriculture which deals with the growing, tending and marketing of ornamental plants (flowers), fruits and vegetables. The production and marketing of vegetables is called olericulture. The production and marketing of fruits is called pomology or fruticulture. The production storage and marketing of ornamental floral crops is called floriculture. The fruits and vegetables are for food, and for landscaping. Examples of fruits are oranges, pawpaw, bananas, mangoes, etc. Examples of vegetables are tomatoes, garden egg, fluted pumpkin, amaranthus, okra, etc. The flowers are used for landscaping and for sale. Examples of ornamental plants (flowers) are Yellow bush, Ixora, Rose, Hibiscus, etc.iii. Livestock Farming: It is the rearing of farm animals for food and for sale. These animals include cattle, sheep, goat, pig, rabbit and poultry (chicken, duck, turkey, etc.). 3

Fig. 1.1: Poultry Fig. 1.2: Rabbitry4

Fig. 1.3: Cattle rearingSystems of livestock farming include: a. Extensive System: The animals are allowed to roam about and feed on whatever they can find. An example is free range in poultry and nomadic herding by the Fulani. b. Semi-Intensive System: Livestock are provided with housing and are allowed to go out and feed on prepared pasture at times. c. Intensive System: Here, feeds and medication are given to the animals within the pen.iv. Apiculture: This form of agriculture involves growing and caring for bees to produce bee’s wax and honey for food and sale. Apiary is the place where bees are kept. The usefulness of honey is so great that beekeeping is becoming very popular in Nigeria.v. Fish Farming: This form of agriculture deals with the rearing of fish in an enclosed water body called pond, until they mature and are harvested for food and market. It also involves the cultivation of other marine animals like shrimps, prawns, periwinkles, crocodiles, etc. The study and management of fish and other aquatic animals is known as fishery.vi. Snail Farming: This is the growing and management of snails for food and market purposes. The study and management of snail is known as heliciculture. Snail farming is cheap and easy to practice. Food consumed are vegetables which are readily available. Snail housings or pens are cages made from woods or condemned car tyres. 5

1.5 Areas of Specialisation (branches) in Agriculture Areas or branches of agriculture are the different areas an individual can pursue as a career in agriculture. Each of these requires study in higher institutions of learning. The areas or branches of agriculture are: (a) Crop Science (b) Soil Science (c) Animal Science (d) Veterinary Medicine or Animal Health (e) Fishery (f) Forestry (g) Agricultural Engineering (h) Agricultural Education or Extension (i) Agricultural Economics. a. Crop Science: This is the study of how crops are cultivated, managed and used by man. The following form the sub areas of crop science: i. Agronomy: The study of crops. ii. Crop Pathology: The study of crop diseases and control. iii. Entomology: The study of insect pests of crops and their control. iv. Plant Breeding: The study of ways of improving varieties of crops to meet the needs of the people. v. Horticulture: This is the study and the growing of flower (ornamental plants), vegetables and fruits. b. Soil Science: This is the study of the nature, types and management of soil to suit the cultivation of a particular crop. It covers areas like water conservation, fertility management, erosion control, etc. c. Animal Science: This is the study and management of farm animals. It covers areas such as animal feeds and feeding, animal housings, hygiene, diseases and pests control. d. Veterinary Science: This is the branch of agriculture that deals with the study, prevention and treatment of animal diseases and pests. e. Fishery: This is the study and the rearing of fishes and other aquatic animals. f. Forestry: This deals with the study of forests and forest products. It covers the plants and animals in the forest. g. Agricultural Engineering: This area of agriculture deals with the study, design and use of machines and tools in farming operations. Machines and tools like plough, milking machines, sprayers, hoes and mowers are products of the field of agricultural engineering. h. Agricultural Education and Extension: This area deals with the spreading of information on agricultural innovations and discovery to farmers. The information collected from agricultural research institutions are taken to farmers by the extension officers. i. Agricultural Economics: This area of agriculture deals with the study of how agricultural activities can be planned, financed and marketed with a good profit margin for the farmer.6

1.6 Types of AgricultureThe types of agriculture are determined by the scale at which they are practised. There aretwo types of agriculture, namely:1. Subsistence Agriculture: This simply means self-sufficiency farming in which the farmerfocuses on growing crops and raising livestock enough to feed himself and family. The outputis not enough for it to be sold. The goal of subsistence agriculture is to produce enough food toensure the survival of the individual family. Subsistence agriculture is labour-intensive becauseall work is done by humans and animals and also only hand tools and simple machines areused on this type of farm, examples, hoes, cutlasses, wheelbarrows, shovels, etc.Subsistence agriculture does not rely on the use of chemical fertilisers; rather it depends moreon natural techniques. Most farmers use animal waste from their farms as manure for crops.2. Industrialised/Intensive/Commercial Agriculture: This is the direct opposite ofsubsistence agriculture. It can also be called “Intensive agriculture or commercialagriculture”.Industrialised agriculture is the type of agriculture where large quantities of crops andlivestock are produced through industrialised techniques, for the purpose of sale. This typeof agriculture allows for a high production level which in turn creates markets for these cropsto be sold. Industrialised agriculture is able to produce large quantities of food due to thefarming methods used. Rather than using manpower and animals to work on farmlands,industrialised agriculture makes use of large machines.The main goal of industrialised agriculture is to increase crop yield, which is the quantity offood that is produced for each unit of land. Crops and livestock obtained from this type ofagriculture are produced to feed the masses and the products are sold worldwide.a. Subsistence Agriculture: This is the type in which the farmer produces crops or animals mainly for his consumption.b. Commercial Agriculture: This is the type of agriculture in which a farmer produces his crops or livestock mainly for sale.Differences between Subsistence and Commercial AgricultureFarm size Subsistence IndustrialLabour Small LargeCapital Family Hired/paid staffTools Little HugeCropping system Crude/hand MechanisedProduce Mixed cropping Mono-croppingBelief Family use Sales Superstitious/traditional Modern/scientific 7

Summary The two Latin words from which agriculture is obtained are “ager” and “cultura”. Ager means field or land while cultura means cultivation. Agriculture, thus, is the cultivation of crops and rearing of animals for use by man. The importance of agriculture to an individual lies in the provision of food, shelter, income, employment and clothing. The importance of agriculture to the nation is in the provision of foreign exchange, helping in the rural development and in the provision of raw materials. Scope of Agriculture: Agriculture is a broad subject. It requires the knowledge of the following subjects in its practice and understanding: Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Health Science, Geography, Economics, Mathematics, etc. Forms of Agriculture The practical forms of agriculture are crop farming, livestock farming, horticulture, bee keeping, fish farming, and snail farming. Areas of Agriculture The different areas of specialisation in agriculture are crop science, soil science, animal science, veterinary medicine, fishery, forestry, agricultural engineering, agricultural education or extension and agricultural economics. Types of Agriculture The two scales or levels at which agriculture is carried out are subsistence and industrialised or intensive or commercial scale. Class Activities 1. Students should discuss the importance of agriculture in the economy. 2. Students should discuss agricultural importance in their local communities. Revision Questions 1. Define the term “agriculture”. 2. What are the Latin words that make up “agriculture”? 3. Mention and discuss four important uses of agriculture to man. 4. Mention and discuss three important aspects of agriculture to the nation. 5. Enumerate the subjects which relate to and enhance the practice and understanding of agriculture. 6. State and discuss any four forms of agriculture. 7. Mention and describe six areas of specialisation in agriculture you know. 8. Give the difference between industralised/intensive/commercial and subsistence8 agriculture.

CHAPTER 2 Classes and Uses of CropsPerformance ObjectivesAt the end of this chapter, students should be able to: 1. Identify crop plant farms; 2. Classify crops according to farms, lifespan, uses, and types, and 3. State the various uses of crops.IntroductionIn this chapter, we would focus our attention on the meaning, classes and uses of crops. Cropsare defined as cultivated plants that are grown on a large scale commercially.A crop can also be defined as any cultivated plant that is harvested for food, clothing, livestock,biofuel, medicine, etc.2.1 Parts of Crop Plants and their FunctionsCrop plants are plants which are cultivated by man for use as food, herbs or raw materials.Examples are vegetables, fruits, spices, legumes, cereals, etc.Crop plants are divided into two parts called systems. The systems are: 1. The root system, and 2. The shoot system 9

Fig. 2.1: Crop plant 1. The Root System This is the part below the soil and consists of the tap roots, lateral roots and root hairs. Functions of the Root i. Root holds the plant firmly to the soil; ii. Helps in absorbing soil nutrients and water; iii. Some roots serve as food storage organs, as for example, cassava, sweet potato, etc, and iv. Some are used for propagation. 2. The Shoot System This is the part of the plant which grows above the soil surface. The shoot system of crop plant consists of the stems, branches, leaves, buds and flowers. Functions of the Stem i. Holds the leaves together; ii. Transports nutrients from the roots to other parts of the crop and manufactured food from the leaves to other parts of the plant; iii. Some are used in propagation, as for example, cassava, waterleaf, sweet potato, etc., and10 iv. Some store food, as for example, sugar cane, etc.

Functions of the Leaves i. Use sunlight to manufacture food by a process called photosynthesis; ii. help in transpiration (removal of excess water), and iii. may store food, examples., onion, cabbage, etc.Functions of the Flowers i. Help the pollination to attract insects to the crop plant; and ii Produce fruits and seeds on pollination and fertilisation. Fig. 2.2: Maize plants2.2 Classification of CropsClassifications of crops may be done according to seed leaves (cotyledons). There are twoclasses of crops based on their cotyledons and morphology. These are:i. Monocotyledons: They are those plants with one seed leaf (cotyledon). Their seeds cannot split into two. Examples of monocotyledon crop plants are maize, rice, oil palm, sorghum, plantain, coconut. It is a flowering plant with an embryo that bears a single cotyledon (seed leaf). 11

Fig. 2.3: Waterleafii. Dicotyledons: These are crop plants with two seed leaves (cotyledons). Their seeds can split into two halves, as for example, beans, groundnut, cotton, waterleaf, cocoa, etc.Morphological differences between Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons1. Cotyledon Monocots Dicots2. Germination One cotyledon Two cotyledons3. Stem Hypogeal Epigeal4. Root Soft herbaceous stem Strong woody stem5. Leaf shape Adventitious or fibrous Taproot6. Leaf vein Long and narrow Short and broad7. Leaf arrangement Parallel Net Alternate Opposite 2.3 Classification of Crops Based on their Lifespan Crop plants can also be classified based on their lifespan into: (a) Annual crops (b) Biennial crops (c) Perennial crops a. Annual Crops: These are crops which take one year or less to grow, produce flowers,12

fruits and die. Examples are maize, okro, beans, sorghum, rice, yam, tomatoes, etc.Maize TomatoesTubers of yam OkraFig. 2.4: Some examples of annual cropsb. Biennial Crops: These are crops which take two years to grow, produce flowers and mature. The first year is for vegetative growth while the second year is for flowering and fruiting. Examples are cassava, cocoyam, carrot, onions, pepper.Cassava CarrotsOnions PepperFig. 2.5: Examples of biennial cropsc. Perennial Crops: These crops are also called permanent crops. They take more than two years to grow and bear fruits. There are two types of perennial crops. These are: a. Herbaceous perennials which have soft stem. Examples are plantain, pawpaw, banana, pineapple, oil palm, etc., and b. Woody perennials that have a hard stem, as for example, mango, oranges, cocoa, 13

rubber, cashew. Cocoa Orange Rubber Mango Fig. 2.6: Examples of perennial crops 2.4 Classification of Crops Based on their Uses Classification of crops according to economic and practical uses is as follows: a. Food crops b) Economic crops a. Food Crops and their Uses i. Cereals: These are grain crops and are rich in carbohydrates. They are used as food by man and as feed for livestock. Examples are rice, guinea corn, millet, maize, barley, wheat, etc. ii. Legumes: They are grain crops which are rich in proteins. Examples are beans, groundnuts, soya bean, lima bean, Bambara nut. Most leguminous crops have the ability to fix nitrogen to the soil. iii. Roots and Tubers: These crops store food in their roots or underground stem. They are rich in carbohydrates. Examples of root and tuber crops are cassava, yam, potatoes and cocoyam.14

Fig. 2.7: Cassava tubersFig. 2.8: Yam tubersiv. Vegetables: These are crops whose leaves or fruits can be eaten fresh or boiled. There are three types of vegetables namely:a Leafy vegetables: examples are Amaranthus, Bitterleaf, onion, waterleaf, cabbage, lettuce, etc.;b. Fruity vegetables: examples are okra, cucumber, garden egg, tomatoes, etc.;c. Rooty vegetables, as for example, carrot, etc;d. Vegetables that serve to provide vitamins and minerals for the body, and 15

v. Fruits: These are also eaten fresh and provide vitamins. Examples are, mango, orange, banana, pawpaw, pineapple, cashew, etc. Fig. 2.9: Pawpaw fruits Fig. 2.10: Mango fruits16

Fig. 2.11: Pineapplevi. Spices: These are crops that add flavour (smell) or taste to food. They are equally rich in vitamins and minerals. Examples are pepper, ginger, thyme, onion, etc. Fig. 2.12: Different types of spicesvii. Oil Crops: These are crops which provide oil when processed. They are sources of fats and oils. Examples are oil palm, groundnut, coconut, cotton, melon, soya bean, etc.viii. Beverage Crops: These are crops which are used in preparing food drinks. They supply 17

minerals to the body. Typical beverage crops include cocoa and coffee, etc. Fig. 2.13: Oil palm fruits Fig. 2.14: Groundnuts b. Economic Crops and their Uses i. Latex Crops: These are crops from which sticky liquid (latex) is obtained. This latex is used in making gum and rubber or plastic items. Examples of latex crops are the rubber tree, Gum Arabic, etc.18

ii. Fibre Crops: These are crops from which thread like substances (fibres) are obtained. This fibre can be used in making ropes, clothes, bags, carpets, etc. Fibre crops include cotton, raphia, kenaf, sisal, jute, etc. iii. Drug Crops: These are crops which are used because of their stimulating and medicinal effects. Examples are neem, kola, tobacco, pyrethrum. iv. Ornamental Crops: These are crops which are used to beautify the environment. They are simply called flowers. Examples are hibiscus, yellow bush, rose, Ixora, etc.SummaryCrops are cultivated plants.The two main parts of plants are called systems. They are the shoot system and the rootsystem.Crops are classified according to: i. Number of seed leaves (cotyledons)-Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons. ii. Lifespan: We have annual, biennial and perennial crops. iii. For economic and practical uses, we have: a. Food crops, which include cereals, roots and tubers, vegetables, spices, fruits, oil crops, legumes, beverage crops. b. Economic crops, which include latex crops, drug crops, fibre crops, and ornamental crops.Class Activities1. Get a sample of two different forms of crop plant.2, List various uses of different crops.Revision Questions1. Explain the term “crop plant”.2. State the differences between monocotyledon and dicotyledon plants.3. Differentiate between annual, biennial and perennial crops.4. Classify crops according to their economic and practical uses and give examples for each class. 19

CHAPTER 3 Classes and Uses of Farm Animals Performance Objectives At the end of this chapter, students should be able to: 1. Describe different forms of farm animals; 2. Identify the basic characteristics of different farm animals; 3. List farm animals found in their locality; 4. Classify farm animals based on size, habitat, etc., and 5. State the uses of farm animals. Introduction Farm animals are the domestic animals reared for the use of their products like meat, milk, egg, skin, oil, wool, etc. These animals include cattle, sheep, goat, pig, chicken, rabbit, duck, ostrich, turkey. Other domestic animals, whose materials are not used for food as mentioned above, are called “pets”. Examples are dogs, cats, etc. 3.1 Types of Farm Animals The following are the identified forms of animals: i. Work Animals: These are animals which are used in assisting the farmer to do work such as soil tillage, and carrying of farm produce (transportation), examples are cattle, donkeys, etc. Fig. 3.1: Using oxen in farming20

Fig. 3.2: A donkey being used to till the farmii. Diary Animals: These are animals which are reared for milk. Diary animals are usually bony, spongy and docile. Examples include White Fulani cattle, Nubian and Jumnapari goats.iii. Guard Animals: These are mostly pet animals. They protect their owners as well as their property. A classic example here is the dog. Some wild animals are used as guards once domesticated.iv. Poultry: These are feathered animals. Apart from providing meat, they are reared mostly for their eggs. Examples are chicken, turkey, ducks, guinea fowl, ostrich, etc.v. Aquatic Animals: These are those animals which live in water but are now cultivated, managed, and harvested by man for food and other purposes. Examples are fish, shrimps, crocodiles, oysters, etc.Fig. 3.3: Fishes 21

Fig. 3.4: Oysters v. Pets: These are animals which are reared to provide fun, protection or entertainment for the owners. Examples are dogs, parrots, cats, etc. Fig. 3.5: Cats22

Fig. 3.6: Parrots Fig. 3.7: A dogNote: Most forms of farm animals, except pets, are sources of meat. 23

3.2 Basic Characteristics of Farm AnimalsCharacteristics and features that can be seen easily in each farm animal will be highlighted inthis unit.Cow Fig. 3.8: Cowsi. They have large body size;ii. Male and female have horns; andiii. They have two pairs of hoofs.Goat: Fig. 3.9: A Goat i. They have medium body size;24

ii. Male and female have horns;iii. Males have beards;iv. They are very inquisitive animals;v. They are tough (hardy) and can survive in harsh environments, andvi. They have a short standing tail.Sheep Fig. 3.10: Sheep 25i. They are of medium body size;ii. Only the males have horns;iii. They have a long tail which hangs down;iv. They have long and droopy ear lobes;v. They have long hairs (wool), andvi. They have long legs.Pig: Fig. 3.11: Pigs

i. They are of medium body size; ii. They have short fixed neck; iii. They do not have horns; iv. They have a high deposit of fats, and v. They have short legs. Rabbit Fig. 3.12: A rabbit i. They have a small body size; ii. They have soft hairs called fur; iii. They have long standing ears called pinna; iv. They look more like pet animals than farm animals; v. They have a short tail, and vi. Their hind limbs are longer than the forelimbs (legs).26

Chicken Fig. 3.13: A heni. They have a small body;ii. They have feathers;iii. They have two legs;iv. They do not have teeth;v. Their mouth is called a beak, andvi. The female lay eggs.3.3 Classification of Farm Animalsa. Farm animals may be classified according to size. Based on this, there are two types of animals. These are: i Large animals, as for example, cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, etc. ii. Small animals, as for example, rabbit, chicken, etc.b. Farm animals may also be classified according to their habitat. They are grouped into: i. Terrestrial Animals: These are those that live on land. Examples are cattle, sheep, goat, pig, rabbit and poultry birds. ii. Aquatic Animals: These are animals that live in water and can only be reared in water. Examples are fish, oysters, periwinkles, shrimps, prawns, crocodiles, etc. 27

c. Classification according to the mode of reproduction and feeding of young ones. On the above criterion, farm animals may be classified as: i. Mammals: Those that give birth to their young ones alive and breastfeed them. Examples are cattle, sheep, goat, pig, rabbits. ii. Non-Mammals: These lay eggs. Example; the poultry birds.d. Classification according to the types of the stomach. Based on this criterion, the animals are grouped into: i. Ruminant Animals: These are animals with a complex stomach. There are four chambers namely, rumen, reticulum, omasum and abomasum. The Ruminants are animals that chew cuds (bringing feed already swallowed back to the mouth for rechewing). They feed on grasses. Examples of ruminant animals are cattle, sheep and goat. Large SmallIntestine Intestine Rumen Rumen Omasum Oesophagus Reticulum Abomasum Fig. 3.14: Stomach of a cow ii. Non-Ruminants: They are also called monogastric animals. They are animals with a simple (one chamber) stomach. They feed on concentrates. Examples are pigs, rabbits, and poultry birds.28

Cardiac Esophageal region Cardiac gland region Pylorus Pyloric gland region Fundic gland region Fig. 3.15: Stomach of a pig3.4 Uses of Farm Animals and Animal Products1. For Food: The food which farm animals provide include meat, milk and eggs.2. Work: Animals such as bulls are used for land tillage while donkeys and camels are used for carrying loads.3. Sports and Protection: Horses and dogs are used for sports and protection respectively.4. Source of Clothing: Animals, like sheep, provide wools which are used for making cloths.5. Source of Hides and Skins: Higher ruminant skin provides hides and skins which are used in making leather products like belts, caps and shoes.6. Source of Manure: Animal droppings and dung are a good source of manure for crops. The manure is called farmyard manure.SummaryFarm animals are animals reared because of their profitable benefits.1. Forms of farm animals are work animals, dairy animals, guard animals, poultry, aquatic animals, and pets. 29

2. Animals can be classified based on: a. Size; into large or small animals. b. Habitat; aquatic or terrestrial animals: i. Mode of reproduction; to mammals or non-mammal (birds). ii. Number of stomach; into ruminants or non-ruminants. iii. Farm animals are used for food, work support, protection, clothing, manure, hides and skins. Class Activities 1. Students should get a cardboard paper and create a chart with the different features of farm animals and list some of their characteristics. 2. Also, classify these animals mentioned above and state their different forms. Revision Questions 1. Mention and explain the different forms of farm animals. 2. Classify farm animals according to: i. Size ii. Number of stomachs iii. Habitat iv. Mode of reproduction 3. List six uses of farm animals.30

CHAPTER 4 Methods of Weed and Pests ControlPerformance ObjectivesAt the end of this chapter, students will be able to: 1. List the characteristics of weeds; 2. Indicate the uses of weeds; 3. Discuss the methods of weed control; 4. State the effect of weed control methods on vegetation and soil; 5. Classify insects, pests according to mouth parts; 6. Describe the nature of damage done by crop plant pest, and 7. State the effects of pest on the crop yield.IntroductionThis chapter focuses mainly on weed and pest control. Weeds are generally regarded asunwanted plants that grow where they are not meant to grow. These unwanted plants causedamage to the crop plants or organisms that destroy crop plants by feeding on them.4.1 Definition of Weeds and Pests ControlWeed is any wild plant which grows where it was not planted or where it is not needed. Maizegrowing in a rice farm will be considered as a weed.A crop pest can be defined as any animal or organism whose activities leads to damage to theentire crop or parts of the crop plant.4.2 Characteristics of WeedsThe following are the features which enhance the growth and dispersal of weeds. i. Most weeds produce large number of seeds; ii. Weeds germinate and grow rapidly; iii. Weed seeds have long period of viability; iv. Weed also spreads vegetatively through rhizomes, stems or roots; v. They can regenerate from roots, broken stems or seeds, and 31

vi. They can also be dispersed by wind, water, animals or by explosion.4.3 Uses of WeedsThe following are the possible uses of weeds: i. They may serve as food for man and feed for animals; ii. They can be used as medicine for treating ailments; iii. They are useful in making compost manure, and iv. They serve as a means to control erosion.Common Farm Weeds a. Broadleaf weedsCommon Name Botanical NameWater leaf Talinum triangularMucuna Mucuna Pruriens/utilisSiam weed Eupatorium odoratumAfrican marigold Targetes erectaTridax Tridax procumbensCentro Centrosema pubsescensBlue feather weed Commelina nudiflora Fig. 4.1: Broadleaf weeds32

b. Grass weeds Botanical Name Panicum maximum Common Name Eleusine indica Guinea grass Imperata cylindrica Stubborn grass Axonopus fissifolius Spear grass Cyperus rotundus/Carex Carpet grass Andropogon gayanus Sedge Penisetum purpureum Gamba grass Elephant grassEffects of Weeds on Cropsi. They compete with crops for space and nutrient.ii. They harbour and transfer pests and diseases to crops.iii. They reduce the quality of harvested crops.iv. They increase the cost of production and reduce the farmer’s income.v. Some are poisonous to man and his livestock.4.4 Methods of Weed ControlThe different ways of controlling weed are grouped into three main methods: i. Cultural control or Rotation of crops; ii. Biological control, and iii. Chemical control/Herbicides.i. Cultural Control Method: This includes burning, crop rotation, mulching, flooding, hoeing/ deep tillage, use of cover crops, hand pulling, etc.ii. Biological Control Method: This involves the use of the natural enemies of weed to control weed, examples are the use of parasitic insects and grazing animals.iii. Chemical Control Method: The chemicals used in weed control are called herbicides.There are two types of herbicides. These are: i. Selective Herbicides: Which could selectively destroy either broad leaved weeds or grass weeds only when used. For example, 2-4D used in a maize farm will kill broad- leaved weeds without destroying the maize and grass weeds. ii. Non-Selective Herbicides: These are herbicides that when used will destroy all vegetation. These herbicides are used before the crops germinate (pre-emergence). 33

4.5 Effects of Weed Control Methods on the Environment and Vegetation1. Herbicides washed into a water body may contaminate the water and make it unfit for drinking.2. Herbicides may equally contaminate crops and pastures and make them unsafe as food for animals including man.3. The parasitic insects or grazing animals both attracted to the farm by weed may equally destroy the crops.4. The use of chemicals also may lead to soil pollution.4.6 Types of Crop PestsThere are three groups of crop pests. These are: 1. Insect pests, for example, locusts; 2. Avian (bird) pests, for example, weaver birds, and 3. Mammalian pests, for example, rodents, monkeys, goats, etc.The most destructive crop pest is the insect pest. Fig. 4.1: Weaver bird Fig. 4.2: Rodent34

Fig. 4.3: Monkey4.7 Classification of Insect Pests based on Mouth PartsInsect pests are classified according to their mode of feeding, into: i. Biting and chewing insects; ii. Piercing and sucking insects, and iii. Boring and chewing insects.1. Biting and Chewing Insects: They have strong mandible and maxillae (mouth parts) which enable them to bite and chew leaves and other parts of the crop plant. Examples are grasshoppers, locusts, termites, beetles, caterpillars, crickets, etc. Chintin plate lower jaw Upper lip lower jaw Sharp ridged inside lower jaw Maxillary palp lower jaw Labial palpFig. 4.4: Grasshopper Fig. 4.5: Biting and chewing mouth parts of pests2. Piercing and Sucking Insect Pests: They have a mouth part called proboscis which helps them to pierce through plants and suck the sap (juice). Examples are aphids, white flies, 35

cotton stainer, mealy bugs, scale insects, etc.Fig. 4.6: Proboscis of an aphid Fig. 4.7: An aphid3. Boring and Chewing Insect Pests: They bore into plants and chew the plant tissues. Examples are weevils, stem borers, etc. Fig. 4.9: Stem borers Fig. 4.8: Weevils 4.8 Damages Caused by Crop Pests The following are examples of the damage that could be caused by insect pests: a. Birds attack cereals like rice, maize, etc., and suck seeds at an immature stage; b. Rodents and other mammals eat the stem, fruits and leaves of crop plants;36 c. They reduce the viability of the crops by eating or destroying parts of the crop;

d. They eat up leaves and reduce the photosynthesis process of the plant, ande. Spots of injuries by the pests become channels for disease infection of the crops.4.9 Effects of Crop Pests on Yield1. They reduce yields and quantity of crops produced at each season;2. They lessen the quality of crops;3. They increase cost of production and reduce farmers’ revenue, and4. Some pests are disease carriers, for example, aphids, white flies, etc.Control Methods for Crop Pestsa. Physical control method include: i. Hand picking of insects; ii. Use of scarecrow to scare pests; iii. The shooting of mammals and birds, and iv. The use of traps to capture and kill pest.b. Cultural control methods may include: i. Use of resistant varieties of crops; ii. Regular weeding of the farm, and iii. Change in planting time.c. Chemical control of crop pest may be achieved through: i. Use of insecticides for insects; ii. Use of rodenticides for rodents, and iii. Use of avicides for birds.Summarya. Weeds are plants which grow where they were not cultivated or where they are not wanted.b. Weeds though considered as unwanted plants are equally beneficial as some are used as food, medicine, compost manure and for control of erosion.c. Weed control methods include hoeing, hand pulling, crop rotation, deep tillage, use of herbicides, use of parasitic insects and grazing animals.d. The control methods when not well-managed could pollute water, contaminate pastures and vegetables. The parasitic insects and grazing insects can also damage crops.e. Crop pests are organisms that cause damage to crops. 37

f. Types of crop pests are: (a) Mammalian pests, for example, rodents, monkeys, goat, etc; (b) avian (birds) – weaver bird, and (c) Insects pest – this is the most common and most destructive pest of crops. A typical example is the grasshopper. g. Insect pests are classified according to their mode of feeding. Thus, we have: (a) Biting and chewing insects; (b) Piercing and sucking insects, and (c) Boring and chewing insects. h. Damage by crop pests include: (a) Reduction of yield quality, seed viability; (b). Destruction of the leaves which reduces the photosynthesis process of plants, and (c). Transmission of diseases. Methods of control of crop pests can be mechanical, cultural or chemical. Class Activities 1. The teacher should take the students on a trip to the school farm and teach them how to practice weeds control. 2. Students should mention the effects of weed control methods on the environment and vegetation. 3. Students should list different crop pests. Revision Questions 1. Define the term “weed”. 2. Enumerate four characteristics of weed. 3. State four uses of weed. 4. Mention the ways which weeds can be controlled. 5. What is crop pest? 6. Mention the three main types of crop pests. 7. Mention the three classes of insect pests and give two examples of each class. 8. Enumerate the damage caused by crop pest. 9. Give examples of how crop pests can be controlled.38