Afam 4970

black power MAY 2022 The Past The Present The Future Kwame Ture George Jackson Leading Movements everywhere AFAM 4970

27 04 Ella Baker 06 George Jackson 08 Malcolm X 10 Claudia Jones 12 Kwame Ture & Hamilton 14 Assata Shakur 16 Angela Davis 18 Marcus & Amy Garvey, UNIA 20 Kathleen Cleaver 22 Fannie Lou Hammer 24  Colin Kapernick 70

27 28 NAACP 30 BLM 32 SNNC 34 Nation of Islam 36 Black Liberation Party 38 BPP 70

ELLA BAKER Written by Jalynn Winrow GIVE LIGHT AND PEOPLE WILL FIND THE WAY.

Ella Baker Ella Josephine Baker was born in 1903 in the city of Norfolk, Virginia. She began her passion for social justice early on after hearing stories of her grandmother’s experiences in slavery (Ella Baker Center). As a student at Shaw University in the 1920s, Baker condemned school policies that were performed in the shadow of the Jim Crow era (James 1994, 9). Post graduation, her political activity rose ten-fold. Baker believed in the power of the collective. She is referred to as a “brilliant strategist”, for her contributions to the Civil Rights Movement(James 1994, 8). She held prominent roles in several organizations, beginning with the Young Negroes Cooperative League in 1930(Ella Baker Center). The YNCL was formed to fight for black economic power and self-sufficiency using the power of the collective (James 1994, 10). One of her many mission statements included the rights of all black people to economic opportunity echoed in the Black Power Movement as written by Hamilton and Ture. Furthermore, Baker was heavily involved in the NAACP, working first as a field organizer, then as director of branches (Ella Baker Center, James 1994, 8). Using her organizational repertoire, Baker also aided Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. in the creation of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) in 1957 (James 1994,8 , Ella Baker Center). She continued her work in the SCLC as first director until after the Greensboro sit-ins due to their departure from grassroots activism (James 1994, 9). Ella Baker believed in not only the power of the collective, but the power of the ordinary person. She believed that social change has its roots in the ordinary person inciting political movements, which is the foundation of what a grassroots movement is. She had close relationships and understanding of the oppressed working class and laborers due to her work in activism in Depression-era New York City (James 1994, 9-12). Her arguably most recognized contribution to black freedom movements was her involvement in the creation of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) following the Greensboro sit-ins of 1960 (Moye 2013, Ella Baker Center). Under Baker’s careful guidance, the organization became a prominent organization for the fight for human rights. Finally, to summarize Baker’s belief in the power of the centralization of people, a quote frequently made by her : “Strong people don’t need strong leaders” (SNCC Digital Gateway). “Ella Baker,” SNCC Digital Gateway, SNCC Legacy Project and Duke University, https://snccdigital.org/people/ella-baker/ James, Joy. “ELLA BAKER, ‘BLACK WOMEN’S WORK’ AND ACTIVIST INTELLECTUALS.” The Black Scholar 24, no. 4 (1994): 8–15. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41069719. Moye, J. Todd. Ella Baker : Community Organizer of the Civil Rights Movement / J. Todd Moye. Library of African-American Biography. 2013. Who was Ella Baker? Ella Baker Center for Human Rights. (n.d.). Retrieved April 24, 2022, f rom https://ellabakercenter.org/who-was-ella-baker/

George Jackson Written by Sade Sogunro PATIENCE HAS ITS LIMITS. TAKE IT TOO FAR, AND IT'S COWARDICE.-GEORGE JACKSON

George Jackson George Jackson was a black revolutionary in a system that was meant to confine him and limit his rights. Born in Chicago, Illinois, he later relocated with his family to Los Angeles at the age of 14. As a teen, he had a number of juvenile problems, which landed him in trouble with the police. When he was 16, he was accused of stealing $71 from a gas station for which he received an indeterminate sentence of one year to life in which his case was reviewed annually. Jackson was never granted parole and spent the rest of his life in prison. While in prison, he developed strong ideas regarding capitalism as the source of the oppression of people of color and became the leader in the politicization of Black and Latinx prisoners in Soledad. George Jackson, Fleeta Drumgo, and John Cutchette were known as the Soledad brothers, who had been accused of killing a correctional officer in retaliation for three black men being killed at the hands of a correctional officer. George Jackson’s letters were important to the black power movement. He provided an inside look of the prison system and the injustice that occurred. Jackson was assassinated on August 21, 1971, while attempting to escape from San Quentin Prison during an armed prisoner insurrection that cost six lives. Months after his brother had tried to break him and the other Soledad brothers out of prison, Jackson's death remains a mystery,(Turner, 1971) while the official story is that he was shot by jail guards while attempting to run. Jackson emphasized the compassion, intellect, strength, and revolutionary potential that those in prison still had even though their rights were infringed upon. Puryear, E., & Rodney, W. (2021, September 7). \"George Jackson: Black revolutionary,\" by Walter Rodney – liberation school. Liberation School – Revolutionary Marxism for a new generation of fighters. Retrieved April 24, 2022, from https://www.liberationschool.org/walter-rodney-on-george-jackson/ Turner, Wallace. (1971, September 3). Two desperate hours: How George Jackson died. The New York Times. Retrieved April 26, 2022, from https://www.nytimes.com/1971/09/03/archives/two-desperate-hours-how-george-jack son-died-two-desperate-hours-how.html

MALCOM X Written By, Xavier Rhone THERE IS NO BETTER THAN ADVERSITY.

Malcolm X Born Malcolm Little, Malcolm X was the one of 7 children to Louise and Earl Little. His father was an outspoken Baptist speaker, and both of his parents followed the ideas of Marcus Garvey. Repeated interactions with white supremacists’ groups saw Malcolm and his family move across the country throughout his adolescence. Malcolm was an excellent student until dropping out of high school after being discouraged from pursuing law as a profession by one of his teachers. Malcolm would spend time working between Boston and Michigan until moving to Harlem in 1943. There he would take part in various criminal activity, when he returned to Boston in late 1945, Malcolm was arrested and sentenced to 8-10 years for breaking & entering and larceny. While in prison, Malcolm would expand his vocabulary and his proclivity for reading. Most notably, Malcolm would learn of the Nation of Islam and convert to Islam while in prison and developed the moniker “Malcolm X” and rejected his “slave name.” Upon his parole in 1952, would become an active recruiter for the Nation, and an advocate for black power, nationalism and the self-defense of black people by “any means necessary.” He became an increasingly prominent figure in the popular zeitgeist, often placed in opposition to Martin Luther King Jr due to his criticism of the Civil Rights movement. In March 1964, Malcolm would leave the Nation of Islam in pursuit of working with other civil rights activists and starting a black nationalist organization. He would make the Hajj in April 1964 and travel back and forth between the US and other countries like Egypt, France, and London over the next few months, growing as a leader and changing some of his stances for the freedom of black people, before ultimately being assassinated on February 21, 1965. X, Malcolm, and Alex Haley. The Autobiography of Malcolm X. New York: Grove Press, 1965.

Claudia Jones Written by, Sade Sogunro “THE LADY WITH THE LAMP, THE STATUE OF LIBERTY, STANDS IN NEW YORK HARBOR. HER BACK IS SQUARELY TURNED ON THE USA. IT'S NO WONDER, CONSIDERING WHAT SHE WOULD HAVE TO LOOK UPON. SHE WOULD WEEP, IF SHE HAD TO FACE THIS WAY.”

Claudia Jones Claudia Jones was a feminist, political activist, visionary, and pioneering journalist. Jones was born in Trinidad in 1915. As a committed Communist, Jones believed that socialism represented the sole possibility of liberation for Black women, African Americans in general, and indeed for the multiracial working class Before the Civil Rights Movement, Jones' prominence inside the Communist Party USA set the tone for later rounds of resistance actions in the south. Because of her privileged position, she was able to do research on the particular problems that Black women experienced as a result of their socioeconomic status and gender. She had a powerful influence on many including Angela Davis. When second-wave feminists began pushing for equal rights for women and minorities in the 1970s and beyond, a lot of their ideas were based on hers. Jone’s may have not invented the term intersectionality but she did have some theory of it. She talked about the exploitation of black women in the capitalized system. She was deported from the USA because of her work with the communist party but even though she relocated to the United Kingdom her work still continued. Jones and Amy Garvey founded West Indian Gazette (The WIG). The WIG was essential in the development of Caribbeans’ politics in the United Kingdom. She understood the importance of space in cultivating political ideals, a sense of belonging, and a spirit of resistance.Jones' main focus was on the condition of Black women from disadvantaged backgrounds. In this society, Jones observed a catastrophic example of capitalism. As a leader in the CPUSA, Jones had a profound impact on the party and its members. Her most known achievements may have been when she was deported to the UK her work with WIG personified Black British identity, Carnival was a way for the WIG to challenge British rule and assimilation. Mce, J. H. (2020, June 2). Claudia Jones (1915-1964) •. •. Retrieved April 24, 2022, from https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/jones-claudia-1915-1964/

KWAME TURE & HAMMILTON Written by Mason Hays IT IS A CALL FOR BLACK PEOPLE IN THIS COUNTRY TO UNITE, TO RECOGNIZE THEIR HERITAGE, TO BUILD A SENSE OF COMMUNITY

Kwame Ture and Charles V Hamilton Kwame Ture born Stokely Standiford Churchill Carmichael; (June 29, 1941 – November 15, 1998). Kwame was a prominent civil right movement activist in the United States and the Global Pan African Movement. He was born in Trinidad and grew up in the United States from the age of 11 (Salter 2021). Kwame Ture was arrested during a 1961 Freedom Riders movement and spent 50 days in Jail in Jackson, Mississippi (Editors at Britannica 2020). He was a key leader of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) and then a leader for the Black Power Movement. Kwame had his passport revoked and held for 10 months in 1969 for speaking out about the Vietnam War and would return to Africa with his first wife later that year. Later in life he served as the Honorary Prime Minister of the Black Panther Party (BPP) and finally as a leader of the All-African People’s Revolutionary Party. Charles V Hamilton (October 19,1929-present) is a political science and civil rights leader most notable for his work in the Black Power Movement. Hamilton was born and Muskogee, Oklahoma and Attended firstly Roosevelt University in Chicago. Charles was a participant in the Montgomery Bus Boycotts and the Tuskegee Civil Rights demonstration. Hamilton worked in many prestigious institutions such as Rutgers University, and Columbia. He is credited along with Kwame Ture as being the first to coin the term Institutional racism in a systematic fashion (Rich 2004) Hamilton would go on to right books over racism and urban politics such as, The Politics of Liberation in America (1967), Black Power: The Politics of Liberation in America (1967) And Adam Clayton Powell Jr.: The Political Biography of an American Dilemma (1991) ( American Academy of Arts & Sciences 2022). Charles Hamilton was one of the First black social scientist to visit South Africa during the apartheid era. Charles Now spends his time split between New York and South Africa. Both Kwame Ture and Charles Hamilton were forefathers of the American Civil rights movement, their ideas are to this day used to argue the idea of Black Independence and representation. Salter, Daren. “Stokely Carmichael (Kwame Ture) (1941-1998) •.” •, June 30, 2021. https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/carmichael-stokely-kwame-ture- 1941-1998/.Editors at Britannica. “Stokely Carmichael.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, inc., February 1, 2020. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Stokely-Carmichael. “Charles Vernon Hamilton.” American Academy of Arts & Sciences, April 1, 2022. https://www.amacad.org/person/charles-vernon-hamilton. Rich, Wilber. “From Muskogee to Morningside Heights: Political Scientist Charles V. Hamilton.” Columbia Magazine, April 4, 2004. https://www.magazine.columbia.edu/article/muskogee-morningside-heights-political-scientist-charles-v-hamilton.

ASSATA SHAKUR IT IS OUR DUTY TO FIGHT FOR OUR FREEDOM. IT IS OUR DUTY TO WIN. Written by Ebubechukwu Nwafor

Assata Shakur Born Joanne Deborah Byron, Assata renamed herself Assata Olugbala Shakur, meaning “She who struggles”, “Love for the people” and “the thankful”, respectively. Assata began her political activism as a college student in Manhattan Community College, working to coordinate the Black Studies program. Through this work, she became politicized and later joined the Black Panther Party (BPP), helping to organize the Party’s survival programs. She helped facilitate the free breakfast program as well as the community education program. Assata later began to take issue with the BPP and left to join the more militant Black Liberation Army (BLA). She became a prominent member of the BLA, so much so that she was dubbed the “soul” of the Army. A targeted traffic stop on the New Jersey turnpike in 1973 by the police resulted in Assata’s being shot twice and the death of her comrade Zayd Shakur and a police officer. This incident resulted in Assata being charged for the officer’s killing. What followed was a series of trials after she had already been painted guilty in the public eye through media coverage of her political involvements. Assata was kept as a political prisoner throughout the duration of her trials, being detained in men’s prisons, solitary confinement, and continually facing beatings and harassment by state officials. In 1977, she was given a life sentence. However, she escaped prison on November 2, 1979 and was placed on the FBI’s Most Wanted list, on which she remains today. In 1984, she was granted political asylum in Cuba. She lives in Havana with her daughter Kakuya who was conceived during her mother’s numerous trials. Assata maintains that she is innocent and in 1987, she published an autobiography detailing her experiences while battling persecution. Assata continues to offer political commentaries from Havana and remains a symbol of revolutionary resistance to many in the global African community. https://www.encyclopedia.com/arts/educational-magazines/shakur-assata-1947-joanne-deborah-byron-joanne-chesimard-joanne-deborah-chesimard-joanne- deborah Davis, Angela, and Assata Shakur. Assata: An Autobiography. Zed Books, 2016.

ANGELA DAVIS By PaShioun Young I AM NO LONGER ACCEPTING THE THINGS I CANNOT CHANGE. I AM CHANGING THE THINGS I CANNOT ACCEPT.

Angela Davis Angela Davis is a world-renowned activist, author, and scholar. As a leader within the Communist Party of America in the 1960s, she has taken on many forms and roles in her lifetime to amplify the voices of people who are often overlooked. As an activist, Davis has worked closely with various activist groups, including SNCC and the Black Panther Party. In her fight for Black liberation, she focused on implementing changes within U.S. prisons through a feminist lens. In many of her works, Davis discusses advocacy through intersectional lenses and places emphasis on liberation efforts for the Black woman. At an early age, Davis gained exposure to other countries outside the United States during her time in college. Experiencing different realms of life in a period of extreme racial and sexist tensions, the rising activist began to advocate for the voices of the unheard. In the late year of 1970, Davis was charged for accounts of murder, kidnapping, and criminal conspiracy (“Angela Davis’s Imprisonment Inspired a Movement,” n.d.) These charges resulted in Davis becoming one of the FBI’s most wanted criminals, as well as an arrest where she spent over a year within the prison system. During this time, movements and protests rose across the world in support of acquitting Davis’ crimes. Throughout the duration of Davis’ sentence, she became more exposed to the corrupt systems of prison. This resulted in her life’s work of influencing movements and organizations to work in abolishing prisons. Although Davis is now retired from her profession as a professor, her activism and efforts still live on and continue to impact aspiring activists. Through her journey Davis has influenced more Black people to be politically more aware and engaged in social issues as well as promoted more women to take up spaces in male dominated areas. Davis’ work to abolish prisons as a work that is still being fought for today. Her efforts are continued through the grassroot movement known as Critical Resistance, which she founded (“Critical Resistance” n.d.) Her impact and legacy continues on in fighting to make our world an equitable place for all. “Angela Davis’s Imprisonment Inspired a Movement.” n.d. Because of Her Story. https://womenshistory.si.edu/news/2020/06/angela-daviss-imprisonment- inspired-movement. “Critical Resistance.” n.d. Critical Resistance. Accessed April 24, 2022. https://criticalresistance.org/.

MARCUS AND AMY GARVEY By Jill Owens BE NOT DISCOURAGED BLACK WOMEN OF THE WORLD, BUT PUSH FORWARD, REGARDLESS OF THE LACK OF APPRECIATION SHOWN YOU.

Marcus & Amy Garvey, UNIA The Black Power Movement was heavily Garvey was highly influential in the early 20th century. influenced by the work Universal Negro This quote from one of his 1921 speeches shows his Improvement Association (UNIA) and the philosophy in a nutshell, he says, “If you want liberty you political doctrine of Garveyism. The UNIA yourselves must strike the blow. If you must be free, you was founded by Jamaica native Marcus must become so through your own effort … Until you Garvey in 1914. Disappointed by the lack of produce what the white man has produced you will not a governing body among black people be his equal (HISTORY.com 2009).” The elements of self- across the diaspora, Garvey garnered the reliance in Garvey's philosophy energized working-class motivation to form the UNIA. The black people all over the world. Garvey’s wife, Amy organization began to flourish shortly after Jaques Garvey also yielded an impressive amount of Garvey relocated to Harlem NY. By 1918 influence. She was a journalist and through her UNIA chapters began to pop up in cities newspaper writings was able to get many people to across the county, and by 1920 there were embrace Pan-Africanism (Farmer 2017, 251). almost 1,000 chapters located all over the Unfortunately, Garvey was deported in 1923 the UNIA diaspora (PBS 2001). The UNIA was famous never recovered. Nevertheless, the principles of for promoting “back to Africa” initiatives Garveyism were continually carried out by those who and championed racial pride, economic once followed him. Upon the inception of the Black freedom, and Pan-Africanism. In addition to Power Movement, many organizations and activists were the UNIA Marcus Garvey also founded the once members of the UNIA. author of Remaking Black Black Star Steamship Line, the Negro Power, Ashley D. Farmer notes many women in the black Factory Corporation, and the Negro World power movement were initially politicized by the UNIA which was a black-owned newspaper (Moore 2000 ). “Universal Negro Improvement Association.” PBS, Public Broadcasting Service, https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/garvey-unia/. History.com Editors. “Marcus Garvey.” History.com, A&E Television Networks, 9 Nov. 2009, https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/marcus-garvey. FARMER, ASHLEY D. Remaking Black Power: How Black Women Transformed an Era. UNIV OF NORTH CAROLINA P, 2019.

KATHLEEN CLEAVER By Bryce Butler PEOPLE HAVE BEEN MURDERED FOR LESS THAN WHAT THE BLACK PANTHERS DID, SO THE QUESTION WAS FOR US: 'DO YOU WANT TO LIVE ON YOUR KNEES OR DIE ON YOUR FEET?'.

Kathleen Cleaver A major figure in the Black Power Movement, Kathleen Cleaver’s contributions to the Black Panther Party and the idea, image of women in the Black Power Movement were extremely paramount. Joining the Black Panther Party in 1967, she rose to glory in the Black Power Movement following the arrest of Huey Newton. In addition to other arrests of Panther members, the arrest of Newton led to disorder within the Black Panther Party. Fortunately, Cleaver began to put in work around the Bay Area, reporting on court hearings, organizing demonstrations, curating leaflets, and delivering major contributions to the Free Huey campaign. The Free Huey Campaign became a nationwide movement, much like the recent Free Julius Jones movement; this helped Cleaver become an important figure as this led to her becoming the first woman to sit on the Party’s Central Committee. Along with other national and organizational events, this propelled her to icon status within the Black Power Movement, and she became embodiment of what the Black Revolutionary Woman was. The Black Revolutionary Woman is the term used to describe a Black woman centered on ideals of self-determination, community control, self-defense, and militancy. Cleaver’s iconic image, embracing Blackness through a natural afro, self-love, and self-defense, became an important reflection of the Black Power Movement; her image populated publications then and can be still seen in murals like the Our Mighty Contribution in Los Angeles, California. Kathleen Cleaver’s contributions are still very relevant as Black women continue to struggle amid racism, sexism, and classism. In the modern-day era of Black women activists, organizations and movements like Black Lives Matter and the Free Julius Campaign are heavily supported and led on the backs of Black women. Black women’s vital role and leadership in today’s time are guided by the blueprint Kathleen Cleaver left and continues to leave. The New York Review. “The Years of Rage.” Accessed April 24, 2022. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/2015/09/24/black- panthers-years-rage/ Farmer, Ashley D. (2019). Remaking Black Power: How Black women transformed an era. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: Univ of North Carolina P.

FANNIE LOU HAMMER By Jamelia Reed SOMETIMES IT SEEM LIKE TO TELL THE TRUTH TODAY IS TO RUN THE RISK OF BEING KILLED. BUT IF I FALL, I'LL FALL FIVE FEET FOUR INCHES FORWARD IN THE FIGHT FOR FREEDOM. I'M NOT BACKING OFF

Fannie Lou Hammer Fannie Lou Townsend Hamer was one of the Her speech to the Credentials most influential and powerful civil and Committee, for mandatory integrated delegations would become integral in the voting rights movement leaders. Born in 1917 fight for Voting Rights in the south. Her Mississippi, the youngest of 20 would fight for Voter Rights did not end there, in 1964 she assisted in the organization of become instrumental in the movements to Freedom Summer and announced her come. Hamer received a hysterectomy in candidacy for the Mississippi House of 1961, without prior knowledge while having Representatives and became one of the a uterine tumor removed (this was legal due first black women to stand in the U.S. Congress. In 1968, MFDP fight for equal to Mississippi law; please see more racial representation in delegations was information here ). Later that year, Hamer won as Hamer was a member of attended a meeting led by civil rights Mississippi’s first integrated delegation. activists James Forman with the Student In addition, that same year she founded Non-Violent Coordinating Committee the Freedom Farm Cooperative (FFC), (SNCC) and James Bevel and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). which founded a pig bank to educate Inspired and dedicated to the fight for voting poor farm workers and made it rights she became a SNCC organizer. Having led many voter registration programs across affordable to farm and eat. As Fannie Lou the South, some resulting in lifelong injuries, Hamer's health declined so did her she became a recognizable leader in the fight efforts but her impacts, vision and against Voter Suppression. In 1964, she co- inspiration can still be seen today. At her founded the Mississippi Freedom funeral, the Ambassador to the United Democratic Party (MFDP) to combat the Nations Andrew Young said, \"Not one of local Democratic Party’s efforts to block us would be where we are now had she not been there then.\" Black Voters involvement. The MFDP attended the Democratic National Convention, arguing to be recognized as the official delegation. Michals, Debra. “Day 17: Mississippi Appendectomies and Reproductive Justice.” MSNBC, NBCUniversal News Group, 27 Mar. 2014, https://www.msnbc.com/msnbc/day-17- mississippi-appendectomies-msna293361

Colin Kaepernick By Samayia Stone HOW CAN YOU STAND FOR THE NATIONAL ANTHEM OF A NATION THAT PREACHES AND PROPAGATES FREEDOM AND JUSTICE FOR ALL, THAT’S SO UNJUST TO THE PEOPLE LIVING THERE

Colin Kaepernick Colin Kaepernick is classified as an American activist. Kaepernick, a former quarterback for the 49er’s, got his start as an activist in 2016. In today’s modern day Black Power Movement, Kaepernick, along with many other athletes took a knee during the national anthem. The original intent was to spotlight social injustice but many people and organizations thought that the act was disrespectful, including President Donald Trump. Twisting the intentions of the gesture with patriotism, Kaepernick’s career ended . To this day Colin remains unsigned and unwilling to play in the NFL. This is not the first time professional athletes’ careers have ended over being a civil rights activist. Tommie Smith and John Carlos raised their black-gloved fist into the air in the Black Power salute while “The Star-Spangled Banner” played in honor of their athletic achievement at the Mexico Olympics in 1968. The images taken during that precious moment became some of the most iconic pictures in sports history but the reality was way different. When the athletes that took stand and the President of The United States twisted their intentions, not fully understanding why they felt the need to take a knee, it ignited a rage in many other politicians and athletes that eventually joined in on the protest. One reason that many athletes join in on these protests, despite the repercussions that they may face, is the fact that there’s safety in numbers. “There’s safety in being with people from all walks of life.” (M.Levinstein 2018). Present Day, professional athletes from all different sports have started advocating for the social injustices all around the nation and the world. Social media platforms make it really easy for them to make an impact quickly. Krasnoff, Lindsay Sarah. “From the Black Power Salute to Colin Kaepernick: What's Changed?” CNN, Cable News Network, 16 Oct. 2018, https://www.cnn.com/2018/10/16/sport/black-power-salute-olympics-colin-kaepernick-50th-anniversary-spt-intl/index.html.

UNITED THROUGH STRUGGLE

NAACP By Samayia Stone WE WORK TO DISRUPT INEQUALITY, DISMANTLE RACISM, AND ACCELERATE CHANGE IN KEY AREAS

NAACP The National Association of the Advancement The NAACP actually held hostility towards the of Colored People (NAACP) is a nonprofit “Black Power Movement” during 1966-1967, organization that was created in the year which stemmed from concerns over an image rather than disputes over “ideology.” Before 1909.The NAACP is the largest and the oldest the hostility, in the 1930’s, the NAACP organization that grew conservative in the attempted to dissociate from more radical civil years following World War II. The organization rights groups and accept the domestic and was created by multiple civil rights activists. foreign tenets of anti-communism. The NAACP’S response to the “Black Power W.E.B. Dubois, Mary White Ovington, Moorfield Storey, Ida B. Wells, Thurgood Marshall and Movement” was far from one dimensional. The many more who were at the forefront of the organization expected 500,000 members with civil rights movement. The organization’s main Roy Wilkins criticisms of the movement goal when being formed was and still is to drawing rebuke as well as praise. Roy was appointed assistant secretary in 1931 where he ensure that every individual has equal rights. advocated for indigenous black leadership and Along with ensuring equal rights, the local African Americans. organization sought to remove racial barriers The “Black Power Movement” was militant, in society, inform the public of the adverse effects of racial discrimination, along with uncompromising, and sometimes anti- enforcement of civil rights and educating the American rhetoric. The early civil rights public on them. movement had essentially helped orchestrate Historians have always struggled to form a definition of “Black Power.” Most of the the symbolism of black protest. definitions don’t satisfy the public without reflecting contemporary confusion and disagreement. Johnson@DerrickNAACP, Derrick. NAACP, 14 July 1970, https://naacp.org/. Hall, Simon. “The NAACP, Black Power, and the ... - Wiley Online Library.” Wiley Online Library, 2007, https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1540-6563.2007.00174.x.

BLACK LIVES MATTER By Micaela Gomez BY COMBATING AND COUNTERING ACTS OF VIOLENCE, CREATING SPACE FOR BLACK IMAGINATION AND INNOVATION, AND CENTERING BLACK JOY, WE ARE WINNING IMMEDIATE IMPROVEMENTS IN OUR LIVES.

Black Lives Matter The Black Lives Matter The BLM Movement strives to organization began as a political be inclusive by creating a space movement all started by a Twitter where all discriminated/ thread. In 2013 Alicia Garza marginalized groups can posted on Twitter that “our lives resonate with and help each matter” following the acquittal of other side by side. It has shown George Zimmerman (Howard just how well communities can University Law). The Twitter come together by having the thread caught exposure fairly largest protest a movement has quickly and out of it came the ever experienced following the hashtag “Black Lives Matter”. This death of George Floyd movement has since spread (Buchanan, Bui & Patel, 2020). globally and has now created As of today, BLM has seven over 40 chapters full of members demands that they deem to “build local power to intervene necessary to cultivate freedom, in violence inflicted on Black liberation, and justice. The list communities by the state and is as follows: convict and ban vigilantes” (blacklivesmatter). Its Trump from future political overall goal is to end white offices, remove all congress supremacy and encourage a members who instigated the world where systematic racism is capitol attack, investigate no longer a factor for Black possible ties of law enforcers people. Black Lives Matter has and military to the capitol been able to organize many attack, ban Trump from all protests, educate their social media, protect people of surrounding communities, create color’s rights to protest, and funds to help those with financial pass the BREATH act hardship, and create a platform (blacklivesmatter). Black Lives to have conversations about the Matter will continue to systemic racism that exists. politically intervene in matters of systemic racism and targeted “A Brief History of Civil Rights in the United States: The Black Lives Matter Movement.” demise. HUSL Library. Accessed April 24, 2022. https://library.law.howard.edu/civilrightshistory/BLM. “BLM Demands.” Black Lives Matter, February 12, 2021. https://blacklivesmatter.com/blm-demands/. Buchanan, Larry, Quoctrung Bui, and Jugal K. Patel. “Black Lives Matter May Be the Largest Movement in U.S. History.” The New York Times. The New York Times, July 3, 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/07/03/us/george-floyd-protests-crowd- size.html.

SNNC Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee By Kayla Jenkins RAISED IMPORTANT ISSUES WITH UNITED STATE’S DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN POLICY AND PUSHED THE DISCOURSE OF THE CIVIL RIGHT MOVEMENT IN A MORE RADICAL DIRECTION

SNCC By the mid 1960’s SNCC began to shift in The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee terms of strategies and basic ideals. The (SNCC) was founded in April of 1960 (SNCC Digital). At events of and following 1964 resulted in the time, Black college students across the United States more radical sentiments. Disappointed with the lack of results, SNCC looked to were staging sit-ins to protest against segregation, originating with four students in Greensboro, NC Black Power under the leadership of (History 2009). Leaders of the Civil Rights Movement Kwame Ture, formerly known as Stokely saw the value in engaging with these students. Thus Ella Baker, then executive director of the Southern Christian Carmichael (Holliman 2006). In their Leadership Conference (SCLC), organized a gathering at steps toward “radicalism” SNCC began Shaw University for student leaders from numerous working with the Black Panther Party and schools and organizations. It was from this meeting that changed their name by replacing SNCC was born (Cobb,; SNCC Digital) nonviolent with national (Davis 1974, In the beginning, SNCC was based out of an SCLC office 135-139; History 2009). Unfortunately, and worked closely with the Civil Rights Movement, the the organization was weakening due to NAACP, and other groups (Holliman 2006; History internal disagreements and had 2009). The work they did was, as their name suggests, completely diminished by 1973 (National nonviolent—not to underplay the extreme violence they Archives, n.d.). Despite its faults, SNCC’s ability to organize, educate, and reach the were met with. The committee conducted voter masses had a considerable impact on the registration drives, participated in the Freedom Rides, sit-ins, and other types of direct-action protests (History Black Power Movement and it laid the 2009; National Archives; Ture and Hamilton 1967, 68). As foundation for Black liberation they continued to develop, SNCC garnered respect for movements today their consistent ability to organize people and effect change (Davis 1974, 136). The SNCC brought new views to activism by including youthful perspectives in their work. . Cobb, Charlie. n.d. “Birth of SNCC.” SNCC Digital Gateway. Accessed April 24, 2022. https://snccdigital.org/inside-sncc/the-story-of-sncc/birth-of-sncc/. Davis, Angela Y. (1974) 2008. Angela Davis: An Autobiography. New York: International Publishers. “Founding of SNCC.” n.d. SNCC Digital Gateway. Accessed April 24, 2022. https://snccdigital.org/events/founding-of-sncc/. Holliman, Irene. 2006. “Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee.” New Georgia Encyclopedia. July 14, 2006. https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/history-archaeology/student- nonviolent-coordinating-committee-sncc/#:~:text=SNCC%20sought%20to%20coordinate%20youth. “SNCC.” 2009. History.com. November 12, 2009. https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/sncc. “The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC).” 2016. National Archives. October 19, 2016. https://www.archives.gov/research/african-americans/black-power/sncc. Ture, Kwame, and Charles V Hamilton. (1967) 1992. Black Power : The Politics of Liberation in America. New York: Vintage Books.

Nation Of Islam By Xavier Rhode RAISED IMPORTANT ISSUES WITH UNITED STATE’S DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN POLICY AND PUSHED THE DISCOURSE OF THE CIVIL RIGHT MOVEMENT IN A MORE RADICAL DIRECTION

Nation of Islam Founded by Wallace Fard Muhammad in 1930, the Nation of Islam is a black nationalist organization that promotes a version of Islam. The tenants of the Nation of Islam center around African Americans and their return to the diaspora, with explicit focus on self- reliance being the avenue to being free of white, European oppression. The Nation of Islam grew in prominence with their second leader, Elijah Muhammed, where he espoused “the moral and cultural superiority of Africans over whites and urged African Americans to renounce Christianity as a tool of the oppressors. His teachings also included the traditional Islamic tenets of monotheism, submission to God, and strong family life (Britannica). Reaching its highest heights in the late 1950s and early 1960s with their association with Malcolm X, and having other prominent members like Muhammed Ali. The nation provided structure, identity and belonging for African Americans at a crucial moment of the civil rights movement. Although not without controversy, as the Southern Poverty Law Center has labeled the organization a hate group due to the “theology of innate black superiority over whites and the deeply racist, antisemitic and anti-LGBT rhetoric of its leaders have earned the NOI a prominent position in the ranks of organized hate” (SPLC). However, despite the harmful rhetoric of the groups leaders, the Nation of Islam has undoubtedly influenced a generation of activists with the ideals of black nationalism and is an instrumental part of the black power movement in the 1960s. “Nation of Islam.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., https://www.britannica.com/topic/Nation-of-Islam. “Nation of Islam.” Southern Poverty Law Center, https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/extremist-files/group/nation-islam.

BLACK LIBERATION ARMY By, Victoria Marshall HE ORGANIZATION'S PROGRAM WAS ONE OF 'ARMED STRUGGLE' AND ITS STATED GOAL WAS TO 'TAKE UP ARMS FOR THE LIBERATION AND SELF-DETERMINATION OF BLACK PEOPLE IN THE UNITED STATES

Black Liberation army Shortly after the criminalization of the Black Panther Party due to pressure from the FBI and the federal government, members were searching for somewhere new to vent their frustrations with the local and federal governments (Archives Unbound 1970-1983). During the early 70s, the Black Liberation Movement began to ban and take their turn in dismantling white supremacy through militant and violent acts that would soon cause a lot of national attention throughout the 1970s and into the 1980s. The Black Liberation Army led dozens of attacks on law enforcement in the name of anti-capitalism, anti-imperialism, anti-racism, anti-sexism, and Black nationalism (Military-History.com, N.D).  There are cases that range from bombings to shootouts with law enforcement. On July 31, 1972, five members of the Black Liberation Army led a hijack of a plane with a ransom of $1 million dollars. Another case that sparked my eye was the 1970 bombing of St. Brendan's Church in San Francisco which was holding a funeral of a local policeman that was shot and killed while responding to a bank robbery. (Burrough, 2015) Assassinations were commonly executed by members of the Black Liberation Army in retaliation to poverty, poor housing, unemployment, inadequate medical care, and unequal education. The Black Liberation Movement led to upwards of 60 incidents and 13 murders of law enforcement agents. Many members, including Assata Shakur, are still serving their time for manslaughter.  The sepratist and militant strategies that the Black Liberation Army used to fight for liberation is reflective of the roots of the Black Power Movement and the influencial members of the movement that came before the BLA, such as Marcus Garvy and Malcom X. While murder is never an ideal means to the end, we have to consider the message that the Black liberation army sent. That message was one that made it clear that White men in Blue uniforms are not the only ones who can be violent. It was argued that the violence that caused the death of 13 policemen was the same violence that has murdered hundreds and thousands of Black men, women, and children.  Archives Unbound. 1970-1983. “Black Liberation Army | Military Wiki | Fandom.” Military Wiki. https://military-history.fandom.com/wiki/Black_Liberation_Army. “Black Liberation Army and the Program of Armed Struggle.” n.d. Gale. Accessed April 24, 2022. https://www.gale.com/binaries/content/assets/gale-us-en/primary- sources/archives-unbound/primary-sources_archives-unbound_black-liberation-army-and-the-program-of-armed-struggle.pdf. Burrough, Bryan, Jeremy B. White, Sam Sutton, Carly Sitrin, Bill Mahoney, and Josh Gerstein. 2015. “The Untold Story Behind New York's Most Brutal Cop Killings.” Politico. https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2015/04/the-untold-story-behind-new-yorks-most-brutal-cop-killing-117207/.

BLACK PANTHER PARTY By, Ebubechukwu Nwafor “WE'VE GOT TO FACE THE FACT THAT SOME PEOPLE SAY YOU FIGHT FIRE BEST WITH FIRE, BUT WE SAY YOU PUT FIRE OUT BEST WITH WATER. WE SAY YOU DON'T FIGHT RACISM WITH RACISM. WE'RE GONNA FIGHT RACISM WITH SOLIDARITY.” ― FRED HAMPTON

Black Panther Party The Black Panther Party (BPP), initially the Black Panther Party for Self-Defense, was a revolutionary Black nationalist Marxist-Leninist organization founded by Huey P. Newton and Bobby Seale in Oakland, California in 1966. The BPP’s Ten-Point Program not only outlined the demands they made from the U.S. government, it also reflected their ideological position. Influenced by the teachings of revolutionaries like Malcolm X, Marcus Garvey, Robin F. Williams, Franz Fanon, Che Guevara, Mao Tse Tung and countless others, and organizations such as the Universal Negro Improvement Association, the Nation of Islam, the Organization of Afro-American Unity and numerous others, the BPP’s political education sessions with their members sought to reflect the ideological position developed from their studies of the works of the aforementioned individuals and organizations in an attempt to organize the masses of Africans in the U.S. towards the overthrow of capitalism and U.S. and European imperialism globally. The BPP became renowned for its armed police patrols in response to police terrorism against Black communities in Oakland and, later, for their survival programs such as the free breakfast programs and free health clinics which helped to detect sickle cell anemia, prevalent in Black communities in the U.S. These programs later led J. Edgar Hoover, FBI director and Counter-Intelligence Program (COINTELPRO) orchestrator to label the BPP “the greatest threat to internal security” in the country. Mass repression as a result of COINTELPRO activities led to the persecution of BPP members, from the Panther 21 in New York to Fred Hampton in Chicago, to Assata Shakur in New Jersey to George Jackson in California. Many of those targeted were either murdered, imprisoned or exiled, with numerous BPP political prisoners still being held in prisons across the country and Assata Shakur remaining in exile in Cuba. Brown, Elaine. A Taste of Power: A Black Woman's Story. New York, New York: DOUBLEDAY, ANCHOR Books, 1994. Basgen, Brian. “The Black Panther Party.” Black Panther Party. Accessed April 23, 2022. https://www.marxists.org/history/usa/workers/black-panthers/. Cleaver, Eldridge. On the Ideology of the Black Panther Party. Oakland, California: Black Panther Party Newspaper, 1970.

AFAM 4970 WRITERS Austin Bullock Bryce Butler Micaela Gomez Mason Hays Kayla Jenkins Victoria Marshall Ebubechukwu Nwafor Jillian Owens Jamelia Reed Xavier Rhone Sade Sogunro Samayia Stone Jalynn Winrow PaShioun Young

Jill Owens UNIA, Marcus & Amy Garvey Sade Sogunro (CO-Creative Director) George Jackson / Claudia Jones Micaela Gomez Black Lives Matter

PaShioun Young- Angela Davis Jamelia Reed - Fannie Lou Hammer Mason Hays- (CO- Creative Director) Kwame Ture and Charles V Hamilton

Kayla Jenkins SNCC (Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee) Bryce Butler- Kathleen Cleaver Ebubechukwu Nwafor- Assata Shakur/ Black Panther Party

Xavier Rhone- Malcom X / Nation of Islam Jalynn Winrow- Ella Baker Victoria Marshall- Black Liberation Army

Austin Bullock Samayia Stone- NACCP (National Association of the Advancement of Colored People)

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES Eyes of the Rainbow- Assata Shakur documentary: https://youtu.be/rfXGIS3EKxs https://www.biography.com/activist/stokely-carmichael https://aaprp-intl.org/kwame-ture-speeches-and-interviews/ https://youtu.be/5dk7grsdmR0 QUOTE: “I'm no longer accepting the things I cannot change... I'm changing the things I cannot accept.” – Angela Davis (2016) “40th Anniversary Tape of SNCC Conference” https://repository.duke.edu/dc/snccanniversarytapes/rl10136mdv0001 Fundi: The Story of Ella Baker https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0080679/ Hall, Simon. “The NAACP, Black Power, and the ... - Wiley Online Library.” Wiley Online Library, 2007, https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1540-6563.2007.00174.x. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CRNciryImqg (The Ballot or The Bullet) “Fannie Lou Hamer Founds Freedom Farm Cooperative.” SNCC Digital Gateway, SNCC Legacy Project, 24 Sept. 2021, https://snccdigital.org/events/fannie-lou-hamer-founds-freedom-farm- cooperative/. “Freedom Summer.” SNCC Digital Gateway, SNCC Legacy Project, 24 Sept. 2021, https://snccdigital.org/events/freedom-summer/. Kugler, Sara. “Day 17: Mississippi Appendectomies and Reproductive Justice.” MSNBC, NBCUniversal News Group, 27 Mar. 2014, https://www.msnbc.com/msnbc/day-17-mississippi- appendectomies-msna293361. “Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP).” SNCC Digital Gateway, SNCC Legacy Project, 25 Sept. 2021, https://snccdigital.org/inside-sncc/alliances-relationships/mfdp/. “SCLC History.” The All-New National SCLC, Southern Christian Leadership, 3 Oct. 2018, https://nationalsclc.org/about/history/. SNCC Digital Gateway, The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, https://snccdigital.org/. http://www.shoppbs.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/garvey/filmmore/ps_tuskegee.html Black Power’ Playlist: https://youtube.com/playlist?list=PLWjTO3njK2faXpYKydAlrNdtpj--Nx6ev https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/sekou-odinga-on-political-prisoners-the- black/id1292638162?i=1000473836594 “Judy Richardson: Women in SNCC.” 2016. SNCC Digital Gateway. 2016. https://snccdigital.org/our-voices/women-in-sncc/. “CNN: SNCC’s Legacy: A Civil Rights History.” 2010. Www.youtube.com. August 27, 2010. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QZE0a5-p9pg.