Final Report UTLP_30062021

Final Report on Updating the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List of Bangladesh CHAPTER 3 S.l. Site Name State, Province or Region Latitude and Foundation PROPOSED SITES FOR UPDATED (Cumilla, Chattagram Division) Longitude, or Period TENTATIVE LIST OF BANGLADESH 14 Hatigara Mura UTM coordinates 15 Ujirpur Mound Union Sub-district c. 8th century Kalir bazar Cumilla Sadar N 23°26'07.9\" CE (Ujirpur Dhibi) E 91°07'01.4\" c. 11th century 16 Shalban Vihara Kalir bazar Cumilla Sadar N 23°25’43.5” CE 17 Pakka Mura E 91°07’01.9” c. 7-13th 18 Chila Mura Shalmanpur Cumilla Sadar N 23°25’34.4” centuries CE 19 Rupbani Mura E 91°08’16.3” c. 8th century 20 Balagazi Mura Kalir bazar Cumilla Sadar N 23°25'13.1\" CE 21 Chandi Mura E 91°06'49.9\" c. 7th century Bijoypur Cumilla Sadar N 23°24’04.3” CE (Chandi Mura Temple) Bijoypur Dakshin E 91°08’31.9” c. 8th cen. CE Cumilla Sadar N 23°22'58.7\" E 91°07'14.3\" c. 7th century Bara Para Cumilla Sadar N 23°22’20.2” CE Dakshin E 91°07’52.2” c. 8th cen CE Dakshin Barura N 23°21'12.2\" Silmuri E 91°07'55.2\" b. Historical background and geography: The ‘Lalmai-Mainamati’ area was a part of the sub-region of Samatata (flat coastal area), a cultural and political unit between c. 4th and 12th century CE. The area covered the trans-Meghna basin and was adjacent to the region of Harikela (present-day Chittagong). The earliest mention of ‘Samatata’ is found in the Allahabad pillar inscription of Gupta ruler Samudragupta (c. 4th century CE) along with Davaka and Kamrupa (present-day Assam-Meghalaya of India). The mention of this name and other names are more frequent in the textual and epigraphic records after c. 6th century CE. The fame, importance and influence of Samatata as a Mahayana Buddhist religious centre can be found in the travelogue of the renowned Chinese monks Xuanzang in the 7th century CE and Sheng-chi in the second half of the 7th century CE. The dynastic history of this sub-region is well established with the aid of copper plate inscriptions from several dynasties following mainly the Buddhist religious traditions. These are Gupta dynasty (c. 4th – 6th centuries CE), Natha dynasty (early 7th century CE), Rata dynasty (c. 7th century CE), Khadga dynasty (from the latter part of the 7th – 8th century CE), Early Deva dynasty (latter part of the 8th – 9th century CE), Chandra dynasty (latter part of the 9th – 11th century CE), Varman dynasty (latter part – 11th – 12th century CE), and Later Deva dynasty (c. 13th century CE). Based on epigraphic records, the place is identified as Devaparvata (a hill resided by gods), the capital city during the Chandra and Deva Dynasties. The epigraphic records elaborately narrate the sites and surroundings of the vibrant landscape, forest, rivers and the people in and around this crucial centre of Mahayana Buddhism from c. 7th to 13th centuries CE (identified as the early medieval period in the eastern part of South Asia). This place is also associated in these records with lalambi- vana (forest on red soil), the city of Pattikhera and the Lauhitya River (present-day Old Brahmaputra and Jamuna rivers) along with many other place names. c. Excavated archaeological sites and findings: The excavated sites represent seven viharas (Buddhist monasteries), temples, stupas, shrines and immensely significant finds comprising stone and bronze images of different deities of Buddhist and Brahmanical pantheon, copperplate inscriptions, clay votive stupas and inscribed tablets, metal objects like miniate Bronze stupa and Bronze bells, terracotta plaques depicting religious and secular being, coins, pottery and many other artefacts. The brief descriptions of the excavated sites are: c. 1. Ranir Bunglow Temple (Palace and Temple of Queen Mainamati): During archaeological excavation, monumental remains of three construction periods within a heavily fortified enclosure were discovered. Evidence of the earliest architectural period is a basement of a cruciform temple which measures Page 89

Final Report on Updating the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List of Bangladesh CHAPTER 3 44.4m × 44.4m. Terracotta plaques, potteries and other artefacts from the excavation suggest that the temple PROPOSED SITES FOR UPDATED was constructed and used during the 10th - 12th century CE. TENTATIVE LIST OF BANGLADESH c. 2. Char Patra Mura Mound: The excavation revealed a small rectangular Brahmanical temple measuring 45.7m × 16.8m. It evidently belongs to the 10th-11th century CE and later. The remains represent the earliest Brahmanical edifice in this region. The temple has two distinct parts: an open pillared hall to the east and a solid sanctum to the west. The most notable archaeological findings from this site are a bronze relic casket and four copperplate grants. The inscriptions suggest that the temple was dedicated to Ladaha- madhava (the Brahmanical deity - Visnu) and it was in the capital city of Devaparvata. c.3. Kutila Mura: Kutila Mura is an architectural ensemble with a unique layout and morphology, entirely different from the Buddhist remains in Bangladesh and adjoining regions. The lower part of three circular stupas with a frontal rectangular assembly hall and other votive stupas were found during excavation. The three principle stupas represent the three jewels (tri-ratna) of Buddhism: Buddha, Dharma/Dhamma and Samgha. The foundation of the middle stupa was laid in the form of a dharma-chakra (wheel of dharma, a central symbol in Buddhism). The hub of the wheel is represented by a deep shaft, while the spokes were formed by eight box chambers where innumerable tiny terracotta and clay votive stupas and inscribed lay tablet were found together with sculptural fragments, together with large pieces of a class of fine Buddhist sculptures in soft grey shale. Five epigraphic records found from this region mention explicitly or hint at ratna- traya (three jewels) shrines in Devaparvata. c. 4. Ananda Vihara (Ananda Raja’s Palace): It is a large monastery, measuring 198 metres square with 115 cells in four wings. The central shrine of this monastery initially had a cruciform ground plan that was changed into a rectangular plan at a later stage. A life-size broken bronze image of Avalokitesvara, a copperplate inscription, silver coins, numerous miniature bronze images, terracotta plaques were discovered at the site. c.5. Bhoj Vihara (Bhojaraja’s Palace): A square Buddhist monastery (each wing measuring 137.2m) with a large cruciform shrine at the centre of its open courtyard was discovered from the site during an archaeological excavation. The courtyard is crowded with a host of auxiliary buildings of votive stupas, subsidiary shrines and chapels. Images of Amitabha Aksobhya and a giant bronze image of Vajrasattva, probably the largest in South Asia, were found at the site. c.6. Itakhola Mura: This site revealed a grand monastery and stupa complex. The stupa was originally built as a solid 13.1 metres square platform with a small chamber (2.4m × 2.1m) at the eastern or front side. A damaged life-size stucco image of Aksobhya was discovered in situ. This sacred zone is well-defined by a boundary wall (79m × 56m) at the slightly lower second terrace. The Monastery is square in shape with a central hall and 19 cells. Its central hall is a square in shape with 16.2 meters on each side which was built in an open courtyard. Its monumental gateway complex (15.6 meters x 8.5 meters) projecting outwards lies at the center of the eastern wing. A copperplate inscription and gold objects were the primary artefacts along with pottery. The earliest date of the remains can be ascribed to the 7th - 8th centuries CE. c.7. Latikot Mura: This is another Buddhist monastic complex, and it contains 33 cells, an entrance hall and a courtyard. Remains of a temple of the second construction period were exposed at the centre of the eastern part. The construction of this vihara can be dated to the 8th century CE on the basis of architectural style. c.8. Rupban Mura: A cruciform temple and a monastery were discovered at the site by excavations. The cruciform temple was based upon a square platform. It was subsequently converted into a semi-cruciform shrine measuring 28.2m × 28m, probably during the 8th century CE. Its regular entrance is on the east, facing the monastery entrance. The earliest construction period of the site belongs to circa 6th - 7thh century CE. It has a uniqueness in the construction style. Instead of a sanctuary built in each of the long arms of the cross, a group of three long narrow sanctuaries was built in the eastern (frontal) part of the shrine. A colossal stone image of Buddha was discovered from this temple. The monastery is square with 34.1m wings on each side. Page 90

Final Report on Updating the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List of Bangladesh CHAPTER 3 Significant discoveries from the site are a Mahapratisara image, a colossal stone Buddha, a huge bell of bronze PROPOSED SITES FOR UPDATED weighted half metric ton, and five debased gold coins of Balabhatta who was the Khadga ruler. TENTATIVE LIST OF BANGLADESH c.9. Hatigara Mura: A square brick-built base of a stupa with each side measuring 7m was discovered during recent archaeological excavations. The excavation is yet to be completed. c.10. Salban Vihara: This is the second-largest monastery at Lalmai-Mainamati measuring 167.6m on each side and comprised of 115 monk cells. The gateway on the north consists of a projected structure with a 22.2m wide facade. According to epigraphic records, Sri Bhavadeva, the ruler of the Deva Dynasty, built this edifice towards the end of the 7th century CE or early 8th century CE. At that time, it was known as Sri Bhavadeva mahavihara. The artefacts from this site include 7 copper plate inscriptions, more than 350 gold, silver and copper coins, terracotta objects, baked clay seals, many stone and bronze images and terracotta plaques. The central shrine in the courtyard was cruciform in plan. Remains of several subsidiary stupas and shrines were found in well-preserved state in the courtyard and outside the monastic building. The other sites are yet to be excavated. The spatial pattern of the excavated and recorded archaeological mounds suggests that several other Buddhist monasteries and shrines along with valuable artefacts could be unearthed in these sites. Justification of Outstanding Universal Value: The inclusion of the property on the Tentative List can be justified under the following criteria: Criterion (ii): to exhibit an important interchange of human values, over a span of time or within a cultural area of the world, on developments in architecture or technology, monumental arts, town- planning or landscape design; a. These are seven Buddhist monasteries with distinctive forms of temple architecture that have not been found anywhere else in South Asia. These monasteries were constructed on an uplifted hillock by modifying and using the contour of the landscape. The Buddhist establishment developed into an immensely important centre of Buddhist practices and pilgrimage. It continued at least until the 14th century CE or even later within the sub-regions of Samatata and Harikela of the southeastern part of Bangladesh. The enormous and intricately organised architectural remains of Buddhist monasteries, temples, stupas, and shrines of Lalmai-Mainamati Hill with numerous sculptures, coins, terracotta plaques, epigraphic records, metal objects, inscribed votive clay tablets, is recognized as the fourth most impactful centre in the later development of Mahayana and Tantric Buddhism in recent studies. The region covering the north-western part of Bangladesh and Bihar-West Bengal region in India, with Tibetan and Central Asian connections under the patronage of the Pala rulers of northeast India, was the initial centre of the evolution of Tantric Buddhism. Sri Lanka became the centre of a revitalized Theravada Buddhism. Different areas in China emerged as the third centre of Buddhism’s Mahayana sects. Lalmai-Mainamati in the trans-Meghna basin emerged as the fourth centre with connectivity to Southeast Asia and maritime trade routes. The architectural remains, the landscape context and the material culture from different sites of this property undoubtedly demonstrate the interchange of technological, artistic and architectural styles, coinage and many other areas of human creativity, ideas, and religious traditions. b. The centrality of this site in the early medieval Buddhist religious network is attested by the account of the famous Chinese pilgrim Xuan Zang (c. 629-645 CE). He mentioned the influential role of this centre in the region by generating, circulating and appropriating various Buddhist religious and ritualistic traditions and practices. The areas having linkages with this centre and regions mentioned by Xuan Zang can be identified as follows: Shi-li-cha-ta-lo (Srik Shetra in Myanmar), Kia-mo-land-kia (Kamal ka, identified as Pegu and the Irrawaddy delta in Myanmar), To-lo-po-ti (Dv r vat in present Thailand), I-shung-na-pu-lo (Ish apura, to the east of Dv r vat ), Mo-ho-chen-po (Mah champ in Vietnam) and en-nio-na-chen (identification uncertain, Java according to some scholars). Page 91

Final Report on Updating the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List of Bangladesh CHAPTER 3 c. Like many other early Buddhist centres, this dense and unique cluster of monasteries and temples on PROPOSED SITES FOR UPDATED the higher altitude of a hill range (the Buddhist samgha) within a flat, riverine and estuarine landscape had TENTATIVE LIST OF BANGLADESH continuous exchanges and connection with the agrarian communities (the laity) on the floodplain around. d. Buddhist monastic sites and centres have been found along the trade routes. Lalmai-Mainamati was such a centre strongly associated with the trade routes. When Tamralipta declined, the Ganga valley Samatata via Pundravardhana to the west, Kamrupa to the north and South-eastern Asian ports were connected via the port of Samandar in Harikela. Buddhist monks and merchants from Samatata could perhaps use the important maritime port of Samandar in the present-day Chittagong area and finally traverse the Bay of Bengal for the countries of Southeast Asia. The interaction continued even during the medieval period of Bengal. The capital of Samatata, Devaparvata, was an important riverine trade centre of southeastern Bengal and it was connected to Samandar and an extended maritime network. The mention of terms in the epigraphic sources such as Naudandakas (a place where many boats came together) in Chandra copper plate points at the crucial role the centre played in the exchange of ideas, goods and creative technologies. e. The temple architecture of the monasteries of Salban vihara, Ananda vihara, Bhoj vihara and Rupban mura has been influenced by and have made stylistic influence upon the morphology of temple architecture in renowned Buddhist sites in South Asia and Southeast Asia. Popularly known as cruciform temples, these temples represent different phases in the development of Buddhist temple architecture. With a square or rectangular core projected towards each cardinal direction, these temples were approachable initially from four cardinal directions. They are surrounded by pradakshin patha (circumambulatory passages) in multiple vertically receding steps with a conjectured shikhara at the top. The specific temple morphology is influenced by the temples of the famous Buddhist centres to the west like Antichalk (identified as the Vikramshila mahavihara) of Bihar, India, as well as Somapura mahavihara and Bharat Bhaina in Bangladesh. The influence is exemplified by the Lemethna and Myin-Pa-Gu Temples (Myanmar) and Wat Kaew temple (Thailand). f. The discovery of several bronze images and objects from these sites and the images from Bihar and West Bengal (India), Tibet (China), northwestern and central parts of Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Eastern Java (Indonesia) and areas around Isthmus of Kra had developed a common and shared artistic style with regard to bronze images and objects. Stone images made of the stones from the Chhotonagpur plateau (India) were carved and brought to this place by land and riverine routes. The artistic designs from Lalmai-Mainamati had even influenced the textile and wall ornamentations as is attested by the evidence from Pagan (Myanmar). The artistic and trade exchanges continued for more than seven centuries. g. There was a shared coinage tradition in Samatata and Southeast Asia in the early medieval period when there was an absence of metallic currency in other parts of Bangladesh and the eastern part of India. This coinage was developed from the metal imported from Southeast Asia and they were used simultaneously with cowries. This centre is characterized by a dual-monetary system (both metallic and non-metallic currencies) suggesting a complex and multitiered exchange network. Criterion (iv): be an outstanding example of a type of building, architectural or technological ensemble or landscape which illustrates (a) significant stage(s) in the human history; a. The construction of monasteries in a clustered fashion by using the topography and slope of the landscape and by selecting a place with an intimate relationship with agrarian floodplain, riverine routes and networks are exceptional and unparalleled in South Asian and Asian contexts. Although construction of building and monumental architecture on mountains and hills are common in South and Southeast Asia, the architectural forms and styles (particularly of the temples) and the spatial ensemble of monumental remains represent a stage of history in South and Southeast Asia which was vibrant and which was characterized by trans-regional mobility. Another evidence of the exceptional nature of technology and development is the bronze metallurgy depicted in religious objects and sculptures as well as votive objects. Page 92

Final Report on Updating the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List of Bangladesh CHAPTER 3 b. Monumental architecture such as the ratna-traya stupa in Lalmai-Mainamati is unique in the sense PROPOSED SITES FOR UPDATED that the central stupa was designed with a core representing the dharmachakra (wheel of dharma) central to TENTATIVE LIST OF BANGLADESH Buddhist religious tradition. The only parallel example could be found in Nagarjonakonda (India). This tri-ratna (representing Budhha, Dharma/Dhamma and Sangha) stupas contained numerous clay votive stupas encasing charred bones and clay tablets engraved with sacred and commemorating verse of Buddhist creed (dharana). These three stupas with other associated chambers and stupas of Kutila mura represent an exceptional sacred space where funerary and non-funerary religious practices prevailed at the same time. Criterion (v): be an outstanding example of a traditional human settlement, land-use, or sea-use which is representative of a culture (or cultures), or human interaction with the environment especially when it has become vulnerable under the impact of irreversible change; a. Justifications of criteria ii and iv clearly demonstrate that Lalmai-Mainamati, as a Buddhist religious as well as a centre for the wide trans-regional exchange of ideas, creativity, religious practices, objects, trade items and technological/architectural style, is a perfect example of the use of landscape on a transitional area. This area of ancient Samatata intersected landscape and waterscape (both riverine and sea). This is a rare example of the embodiment of the interaction among human, land and water for more than seven centuries. Because of the lurking threat of climate change and the increase in sea level, the area with its surrounding trans-Meghan region is in danger of obliteration. The intimate interaction of human and their environment and the impact of the interaction upon the fashioning of religious practices are exemplified by the archaeological sites in their landscape of Lalmai-Mainamati. Criteria met (i) (ii) √ (iii) (iv) √ (v) √ (vi) (vii) (viii) (ix) (x) Statements of authenticity and/or integrity Authenticity: The excavated, conserved and protected archaeological sites and their landscape clearly represent the authentic attestation of human creative and building technologies and their use of the landscape. The property as a complex or cluster of properties were constructed mainly by burnt bricks and slay mortars, with occasional use of stone blocks. The excavations revealed the architectural remains up to the plinth level. The superstructures of the monasteries, temples, stupas, and other architectural assemblages were destroyed during and after the abandonment of the centre. The remains were found incomplete and they have gone through weathering and damage by the passage of time. The remains, nevertheless, have provided evidence based upon which the original characters and layout of the buildings and associated landscape, the traditional construction materials and techniques, and the common regional use of clay for producing bricks as well as for binding the construction material can be inferred with a high degree of precision. In a few cases, relatively climate-sensitive remains, such as stucco made life-size images made of vulnerable materials along with terracotta plaques and ornamentations have been preserved.The present state of the sites and landscape corroborate closely with the Nara Document on Authenticity. Integrity: Despite the recent expansion of developmental and habitational activities, most of the proposed archaeological sites and monumental remains have relatively negligible evidence of human intervention. The impact of natural decay processes has been reduced by the continuous protection and conservation as well as monitoring of the properties. The modification of the landscape is increasing because of the human activities in a densely-populated country like Bangladesh. The continuous monitoring of the Department of Archaeology, Ministry of Cultural Affairs of these sites, protected under the Antiquity Act, 1972, has retained the original nature and character of the sites when they were exposed by excavations. A few sites are under the ownership of the Cumilla Cantonment, but they are conserved and monitored by the Department of Archaeology under the Antiquity Act. The subsequent conservation acts have been regular, systematic and normative. They have followed the international conventions and standards in protection and Page 93

Final Report on Updating the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List of Bangladesh CHAPTER 3 conservation. These sites are major tourist destinations of the region. The touristic activities are controlled and PROPOSED SITES FOR UPDATED managed according to the accepted guidelines and as per the required accountability and community-oriented TENTATIVE LIST OF BANGLADESH engagements. Comparison with other similar properties: The proposed property is comparable to the World Heritage Site of ‘Archaeological Site of Nalanda Mahavihara at Nalanda, Bihar’ (3rd century BCE-13th century CE) in the religious nature and clustered organization of Buddhist monastic complexes. In Nalanda, five monasteries are grouped in a linear fashion with temples outside the monastic complexes. In Lalmai-Mainamati, seven monasteries are clustered in an irregular pattern because of the use of the topography of the Lalmai Hill. As an immensely important centre of learning and interaction and as a vital centre in the early medieval period, Nalanda Mahavihara was contemporary to this centre. Though in textual and other sources, the Nalanda Mahavihara complex was referred to more profusely and with emphasis, this extent, heterogeneity, and connectivity of this centre in a transitional landscape and waterscape are extraordinary and unique in South Asia. The influence generated by this centre is attested more by the portable and tangible archaeological remains. Despite the chronological differences, this property is also comparable to the Buddhist Monuments of Sanchi in Madhya Pradesh, India (2nd century BCE-12th century CE). Composed of stone-built stupas and monasteries, Sanchi represents the exceptional use of the arid landscape with its distinct artistic and technical form and style of North Indian religious art. Many dedicatory inscriptions and auxiliary architectural remains were found at Sanchi. The water management system of the area of Sanchi World Heritage property during the early historical period has been under study for several years. In contrast to Sanchi, the archaeological sites at Lalmai-Mainamati represent different uses of landscape and waterscape because of the difference between the landscape and climate of two regions: the southwestern part of Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna delta for Lalmai-Mainamati and the mountain range for Sanchi. Yet, the long-lasting and continuous influence these two centres of Buddhist religious traditions of different pantheons (one more Theravada and another more Mahayana-Vajrayana) propagated in their contemporary religious universe is analogous. This property is also historically linked to and comparable with the Bagan in Myanmar. Bagan is an ensemble of Buddhist architectural remains in the central dry zone of Myanmar. This World Heritage property is associated with the Ayeyarwady river. The influence of the temple architectural style of Lalmai-Mainamati on some of the temples of Bagan is widely recognized. In contrast to Bagan, the remains of the Buddhist centre of Lalmai-Mainamati are associated with both the lower and active parts of the Meghna River and the Bay of Bengal. References: a. Khan, Dr F.A., Mainamati, 1963, DoA, Dhaka b. Alam, A.K.M. Shamsul, Mainamati, 1976, DoA, Dhaka c. Rashid, Dr M. Harunur, The Early History of South-East Bengal In The Light of Archaeological Material, 2008, Dhaka d. Kasem, Abul, Cumilla Itihas Adi Parba (Bengali), 2008, Dhaka e. Zakariya, Abul Kalam Mohammad, Bangladesher Protnasampad (Bengali), 2010, Dhaka f. Ahmed, Bulbul, BUDDHIST HERITAGE OF BANGLADESH, 2015, Dhaka Page 94

Final Report on Updating the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List of Bangladesh CHAPTER 3 Name of Property: National Assembly Complex of Bangladesh Submission prepared by: PROPOSED SITES FOR UPDATED TENTATIVE LIST OF BANGLADESH Ar. Mohammad Sazzad Hossain, Ar. Sujaul Islam Khan, Ar. Muhtadin Iqbal, Ar. Md. Wahiduzzaman Ratul, Ar. Dr. Kazi Khaleed Ashraf, Ar. Saif Ul Haque, Ar. Dr. Sharif Shams Imon, Ar. Dr. Abu Sayeed. M Ahmed, Ar. Ehsan Khan, Ar. Mamnoon Murshed Chowdhury, and Ar. Jalal Ahmed Institute of Architects Bangladesh (IAB) Address: IAB Centre, Plot-E/11, Sthapattachariya Muzharul Islam Sarak, Agargaon, Sher e Banglanagar, Dhaka 1207, Dhaka. STATE PARTY: Bangladesh Institution: Department of Archaeology State, Province or Region: Dhaka, Bangladesh Latitude and Longitude, or UTM coordinates: 23045’ 45.399” N 90022’ 43.11” E DESCRIPTION: Hailed by architectural historians and critics as one of the twenty best buildings of the 20th century, the Jatiya Sangsad Bhavan or National Assembly Complex (referred to in this document as NAC), also known as the Sher- e-Banglanagar, was designed by Louis Kahn in 1960-64. The construction was completed in 1983. Louis Kahn is regarded as one of the most influential architects of the 20th century. The Jatiya Sangsad Bhavan, regarded as his magnum opus, successfully addresses civic monumentality using the minimalist idiom of 20th- century modernism. Kahn fused the functionalist aesthetic of modern architecture with the timeless aura of ancient antecedents effortlessly. The design, a masterpiece of modernist abstraction also alludes to the local practices of building in the tropical delta landscape. The assembly block, housed in the 41 metre tall central edifice, is a centralised ensemble of multifaceted masses of as-cast concrete rising from the expansive triangular lake and majestic green lawns of the 200-acre site, flanked by the three-storey tall hostels for ministers, members of parliament and officials built with brick. The entire complex evokes a sense of monumental presence through its centralised composition built with rugged, thick walls punctured by huge cut-outs in pure geometric shapes. Page 95

Final Report on Updating the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List of Bangladesh CHAPTER 3 Page 96 PROPOSED SITES FOR UPDATED TENTATIVE LIST OF BANGLADESH

Final Report on Updating the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List of Bangladesh CHAPTER 3 The massive octagonal assembly chamber is 120’ (36.5m) tall with a parasol roof located at the centre of the PROPOSED SITES FOR UPDATED building, surrounded by a ring of hollowed-out shafts to admit sunlight. The central chamber is wrapped with a TENTATIVE LIST OF BANGLADESH multilayered 30m tall ambulatory, which is in turn encircled with smaller blocks which contain the prayer hall, offices, cafeteria, meeting and ceremonial plaza. The sheer mastery of the use of sunlight to evoke a spiritual quality in the interior spaces is quite unprecedented. The entire building complex is framed by the expansive boulevard Manik Mia Avenue to the south, Mirpur Road to the west, Sangsad Avenue to the east and Justice Syed Mahbub Sarani to the North. The area lying north across the Lake Road contains landscapes and buildings designed by Louis Kahn, including the Suhrawardy Hospital and housing for government officials. The vision for this zone can be seen in the master plan Kahn’s office submitted to the Public Works Department, Government of Bangladesh in 1974. The complex celebrates the universal spirit to intend wellness for fellow human beings. Built with impeccable grace and grandeur, its presence is incomparable. Over the years, it has become the indispensable emblem of Bangladesh with its iconic majesty and has been able to capture the popular imagination. Kahn’s masterwork has shaped the course of modern architecture in South Asia, a world far apart from his birthplace in the West. It was awarded the Aga Khan Award for Architecture in 1989. The ‘National Assembly Building and Sher E Bangla Nagar Complex’ was enlisted as a heritage property by RAJUK (Rajdhani Unnayan Kartripakkha or Capital Development Authority, the Government agency responsible for development control, planning and identifying structures of significant historical value of Dhaka) in 2017. Justification of Outstanding Universal Value: (Preliminary identification of the values of the property which merit inscription on the World Heritage List) Criteria (i): Represent a masterpiece of human creative genius. Justification: The NAC is a great architectural work of the 20th century. It represents multiple strands of creativity, both in architectural form and settings. It is regarded as the magnum opus of Louis Kahn, hailed as one of the most original and influential architects of the 20th century. Through his creative genius, Kahn fused the functionalist aesthetic of modern architecture with the timeless aura of ancient antecedents effortlessly and successfully addressed civic monumentality. The design, a masterpiece of modernist abstraction, also contains strong references to the local practices of building in the tropical delta landscape. Criteria (ii): Exhibit an important interchange of human values, over a span of time or within a cultural area of the world, on developments in architecture or technology, monumental arts, town-planning or landscape design. Justification: The NAC embodies the enduring universal values of monumental civic architecture and place-making in an urban context. The design amalgamates modern architecture's functionalist aesthetic with the timeless aura of ancient antecedents and satisfies the need for civic monumentality with unprecedented success. It was built almost solely with a locally available workforce, materials and technology. The making of the assembly complex has shaped the building and construction of the country. The project is indeed a vehicle of interchange between the east and the west on multiple levels. Criteria (vi): Be directly or tangibly associated with events or living traditions, with ideas, or with beliefs, with artistic and literary works of outstanding universal significance. (The Committee considers that this criterion should preferably be used in conjunction with other criteria); Page 97

Final Report on Updating the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List of Bangladesh CHAPTER 3 The design of the National Assembly Building Complex corresponds to the idealogy of the Modern Movement, PROPOSED SITES FOR UPDATED which gained universal acceptance in the 20th century. It further readdresses the issue of monumentality and TENTATIVE LIST OF BANGLADESH aims to provide a continuum between the past, present and future. Criteria met: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii) (viii) (ix) (x) Statements of authenticity and/or integrity: The NAC has been constructed as per the original master plan and design of the architect. Since its completion, the OUV defining attributes are well-maintained and credibly expressed through form & design; materials & substance; use & function; and location & setting. All the original structures still exist today and clearly exhibits the wholeness and intactness of the property in the existing fabric. Comparison with other similar properties: Among the repertoire of epoch-making architectural projects of the 20th century on the World Heritage list, the NAC has certain unique characteristics. Other projects of the WHL include iconic modern masterpieces Villa Savoye, Falling Water, Guggenheim Museum and the Sydney Opera House. All these works express the will of the modern epoch, marked with universal values of architecture as an art form. The NAC however, imparts a sense of timeless monumentality redefining the continuum of past, present and future in a very different socio-economic-political context. It is deeply associated with Bangladesh's nationhood, a country freeing itself from the colonial past as the NAC was being built. It has an iconic presence that boldly represents the hopes and aspirations of a developing nation searching for its own identity. The very fact that it has become a significant symbol of the nation expresses its appropriateness and sensitivity to the material and cultural context of Bangladesh. Examples of modern civic architecture on an urban scale comparable to the NAC include Brasilia, the capital of Brazil built in 1956 by urban planner Lucio Costa and architect Oscar Niemeyer and Chandigarh, as well as the capitol complex of Punjab designed by Le Corbusier in 1951. Both were enlisted as World Heritage sites considering their outstanding universal value. On the one hand, the scope of the vision and outstanding success of the NAC can be regarded as an expression of the triumph of similar universal values. On the other, it is the successful amalgamation of such values with the local context's ethos and aspirations. The latter sets the design of the NAC in a truly unique position. Selected Bibliography: 1. Ronner, Heinz/ Jhaveri, Sharad (1987): Louis I Kahn, Complete Work 1935-1974. Birkhauser, Basel, Boston 2. Latour, Alessandra (1991): Louis I. Kahn Writings, Lectures, Interviews. Rizzoli, New York. 3. Brownlee, David B /De Long, David G (2000): Louis I Kahn In the Realm of Architecture, Rizzoli International Publications, Inc. Hong Kong. 4. Curtis, William (1996): Modern Architecture Since 1900 3rd Edition JR Phaidon London, Paris, New York Paris. 5. McCarter, Robert (2009): Louis I. Kahn Phaidon 6. Colquhoun, Alan (2002): Modern Architecture. Oxford History of Art Series 1st Edition. 7. Frampton, Kenneth (2007): Modern Architecture: A Critical History (Fourth Edition) Thames & Hudson, London 8. Kostof, Spiro (1995) A History of Architecture: Settings and Rituals Revised Edition Oxford University Press; Revised edition . Page 98

Final Report on Updating the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List of Bangladesh CHAPTER 3 Name of Property: The Architectural Works of Muzharul Islam: an Outstanding Contribution to the Modern PROPOSED SITES FOR UPDATED Movement in South Asia TENTATIVE LIST OF BANGLADESH Submission prepared by: Ar. Mohammad Sazzad Hossain, Ar. Sujaul Islam Khan, Ar. Muhtadin Iqbal, Ar. Md. Wahiduzzaman Ratul, Ar. Dr. Kazi Khaleed Ashraf, Ar. Saif Ul Haque, Ar. Dr. Sharif Shams Imon, Ar. Dr. Abu Sayeed. M Ahmed, Ar. Ehsan Khan, Ar. Mamnoon Murshed Chowdhury, and Ar. Jalal Ahmed Institute of Architects Bangladesh (IAB) Address: IAB Centre, Plot-E/11, Sthapattachariya Muzharul Islam Sarak, Agargaon, Sher e Banglanagar, Dhaka 1207, Dhaka. STATE PARTY: Bangladesh Institution: Department of Archaeology State, Province or Region: Bangladesh, Dhaka, Pabna, Bogura, Barishal, Sylhet, Rangpur, Savar, Chittagong, Jaipurhat. S.l. Name of component site State, Latitude and Longitude, or UTM coordinates Province or 23.735746, 90.395083 Region 23.733433, 90.395260 1. The Faculty of Fine Arts, Dhaka University [1953-1955] Dhaka 23.739555, 90.384875 2. Central Library (Old Building) Dhaka 23.7284196,90.381762 University of Dhaka. [1953-1955] Dhaka 3. Bangladesh Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (BCSIR) [1962] 4. Building 75 and Ladies Club of Azimpur Housing Estate, Dhaka (1962) 5. The Faculty of Business Studies, University of Dhaka Dhaka 23.735175, 90.392394 (Formerly, The National Institute of Public Dhaka 23.786914, 90.356495 Administration or NIPA), [1963] 6. Bangladesh Road Research Laboratories 7. Polytechnic Institutes 7.1. Pabna Polytechnic Institute (1964) Pabna 24.018795, 89.241649 7.2. Bogura Polytechnic Institute (1964) Bogura 24.823490, 89.377032 7.3. Barishal Polytechnic Institute (1964) Barishal 22.6979006,90.361604 7.4. Sylhet Polytechnic Institute (1964) Sylhet 24.8842044,91.855864 7.5. Rangpur Polytechnic Institute (1964) Rangpur 25.7526231,89.258610 8. Jahangirnagar University (1964) Savar 23.879475, 90.268988 9. Bangladesh Agricultural Development Corporation Dhaka 23.726565, 90.417396 (1965) Chittagong 22.471323, 91.787115 Jaipurhat 25.099681, 89.006499 10. Chittagong University (1965) Dhaka 23.775848, 90.374037 11. Joypurhat 'Girls' Cadet College (Formerly Jaipurhat Lime Stone Factory Housing) [1980] 12. National Library (1980) Page 99

Final Report on Updating the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List of Bangladesh CHAPTER 3 Description: PROPOSED SITES FOR UPDATED TENTATIVE LIST OF BANGLADESH In 1965, Otto H. Königsberger, in an article in \"Architectural Review\", proclaimed that Muzharul Islam's works in Bangladesh are of global stature in establishing the systems and principle of Tropical Modern Architecture. This was two decades after independence from the colonial rule of the Indian Subcontinent and the formation of India and Pakistan. Amidst a new spree of nation-building activity, modern buildings started to appear in the region's architectural landscape. In Pakistan, which had two parts, East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) and West Pakistan, this was single-handedly done by architect Muzharul Islam. He was the senior architect of East Pakistan's government (1958 -64) before opening his own practice \"Vastukalabid\" in Dhaka. During his active practice spanning almost four decades from the 1950s to 1990s, Islam had designed and built universities, large-scale housing, government buildings, institutions and numerous residences. His architectural production sought to derive place-oriented architecture through modern tectonics, environmentally-sensitive responses, and formed abstract cultural typologies overlaid with geometric order. His large-scale projects addressed the dichotomy of city and country and suggested alternative ideas of urbanity. The buildings are always in harmony with the natural surroundings while employing subtle abstraction in form and construction details to respond to the functional and social needs. Throughout this journey, the ideals of Bengali Modernism have been the ever-present undercurrent, while oscillating between distinct expressions to establish an architecture for the tropics that transcends local boundaries. Architect Islam attained the position of team leader and became a member of numerous prestigious international design competitions like the Grand Mosque, Islamabad (1970); Master jury of the 1st Aga Khan Awards, Geneva (1980); the Bangladesh National Martyr's Memorial, Savar, Dhaka (1980); the IDB HQ Building, Jeddah (1981); the Saudi Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Riyadh (1981); the National Victory monument, Bangladesh (1987); etc. He received the prestigious Independence Day Medal (1999) of the Government of Bangladesh and the Institute of Architects Bangladesh’s (IAB) Gold Medal (1993). He also received a citation of the Indian Institute of Architects (IIA) West Bengal Chapter as Outstanding Architect of South Asia (1989); J.K Cement Great Masters Award (1999) etc. Justification of Outstanding Universal Value: The architectural works of Muzharul Islam from 1950 to 1990 is a series of buildings that illustrate the fusion of a unique understanding of context and modernist philosophy to create a new architectural language for tropical countries like Bangladesh in the post-colonial era. The components span almost forty years and are situated all over Bangladesh. The projects' chronology demonstrates an evolution of unique architectural solutions to create strong characteristics for the region's institutional buildings. The series showcases the adaptation of an open plan, blurring the boundary between interior and exterior and the use of industrially produced materials, which were not mainstream. The projects took inspiration from the region's cultural heritage and broke free from the colonial hangover to address the modern way of a living solution that influenced this region's architectural practice and which continue to do so to this day. Components of the series include institutional projects of different scales, from the master plan of campuses to individual buildings. The substantial diversity of function, scale and setting in the series underscore both the consistency and the broad applicability of the architect's principles that can be termed as Tropical Bengali Modernism. Criteria met: (vi) (vii) (viii) (ix) (x) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) Page 100

Final Report on Updating the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List of Bangladesh CHAPTER 3 Criterion (ii): Exhibit an important interchange of human values, over a span of time or within a cultural area of PROPOSED SITES FOR UPDATED the world, on developments in architecture or technology, monumental arts, town-planning or landscape TENTATIVE LIST OF BANGLADESH design; Justification: The architectural works of Muzharul Islam created a new way forward for a region that had just gained independence from colonial rule. The nominated components illustrate the evolution of this new approach. The dominant architecture language practised at that time neither had the authenticity of the Western system nor the continuity of Buddhist and Mughal cultural heritage. The work of Muzharul Islam was a fresh departure from this and pioneered a modern architectural style that was not stylistic but rather a derivation from the greater context. The components illustrate a deep understanding of the society, economy, climate, technology and culture while devoid of post-colonial hangover and overtone of regionalism. These ideologies and the resultant architecture attracted attention among the architects and theoreticians. Louis I. Kahn, Paul Rudolph, Kenneth Frampton, William Curtis, BV Doshi are few architects who have at different times recognised the role of the architect for giving the regional architecture scene a global standard. While plenty of characteristics of these series might seem like a direct adaptation of the modernist idioms and style, upon critical analysis and research, they appear that the generative forces of these are much more deep- rooted. The subsequent form or the sequence of space may seem very Western but subtle alteration of well- known building elements makes the building unerringly fit for the sub-continent. The legacy of this approach can be seen as a new school of thought within the discourse of modern architecture. The influence of Islam's architecture is also noticeable in many well-known local and Western architects’ works in the Indian sub- continent afterwards. The 20th-century architecture of Muzharul Islam demonstrates an important interchange in the discourse that remarkably influenced South Asian architecture and are an outstanding example of 20th-century tropical architecture. The design considerations had strong references to the local climate, material, and culture. The buildings illustrate the architect's new approach to architecture, consciously developed a language on Tropical Architecture in the Delta. In their fusion of spirit and form, the resulting buildings evoked emotional responses suitable for the South Asian cultural context but were universal in their appeal. Islam's influence is also noticeable in the works of some important architects in the Indian sub-continent. The architectural work of Muzharul Islam exhibits an unprecedented interchange of human values in South Asia, over half a century, in relation to the South Asian Modern Movement's birth and development. It revolutionized Bengal's architecture by demonstrating, in an exceptional and pioneering manner, the invention of a new architectural language that made a break with the past. Statements of authenticity and/or integrity: Through their chronological development, the selected buildings express the Outstanding Universal Value of Muzharul Islam’s works. The buildings include all the necessary elements to express the characteristics of this sub-genre of modern architectural language. The sensitivity towards the ecology and topography is constant in the master planning of the Faculty of Fine Arts, Dhaka University and in Jahangirnagar University, Chittagong University and Joypurhat Girls' Cadet College (formerly Jaipur Limestone Factory Housing Project). Still, the execution is radically different in terms of geometry and architectural expression. The climate responsive approach of the pavilion form is best demonstrated in the Faculty of Fine Arts, Central Library (Old Building) and the Faculty of Business Studies (formerly the National Institute of Public Administration) at the University of Dhaka, as well as Bangladesh Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (BCSIR) and the Bangladesh Road Research Laboratory. But the climatic adaptations are made through the masterful articulation of form and material in Jahangirnagar University, Joypurhat Girls' Cadet College and the building for National Library. The versatility of the domestic arrangement in large master planning projects caters to the socio-cultural needs and optimum living of the people in this context. Though some master plans were left incomplete, they powerfully demonstrate the salient features' impact and have endured the test of time. Page 101

Final Report on Updating the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List of Bangladesh CHAPTER 3 The OUV-defining attributes of the architectural works of Muzharul Islam remained unaffected. The OUV of PROPOSED SITES FOR UPDATED the Architectural works, as recognized in criteria ii, is credibly expressed through form & design; use & TENTATIVE LIST OF BANGLADESH function; and location & setting. Moreover, the existing structures ensure the complete representation of the features which convey the property’s significance. Comparison with other similar properties: When architect Muzharul Islam came into the scene with the Faculty of Fine Arts building (1953-55) and Central Library of Dhaka University (1953-55), there was hardly any example of modern architecture in South Asia. These buildings, when placed besides the then-under construction works of Le Corbusier in Chandigarh, distinguish themselves as true examples of South Asian modernist architecture. Charles Correa and B.V. Doshi in India came into the scene with their modernist approach a few years later. Even in Sri Lanka, Geoffrey Bawa started his tropical modernism in practice at the end of that decade. Their works were either a direct adaptation of the Western modernist style or not free from regional symbolism and spiritual references. The works of Muzharul Islam also stand apart in their own right from those of notable foreign architects such as Le Corbusier, Louis I Kahn, Paul Rudolph, Constantin Doxiadis and Richard Neutra, who worked on this subcontinent during that time. The works' uniqueness is better understood when they are acknowledged by architects like Paul Rudolph and Luis I Kahn. The architectural expression of modernist philosophy for the Western world was strongly propagated through Le Corbusier's works. His early modern building became a stylistic icon of the modern architectural movement using pilotis, freeform, ribbon window etc. The raised form on pilotis of Villa Savoye was primarily to accommodate the automobile, the emblem of the industrial world. The same strategy of freeing the ground was employed by Muzharul Islam in the Faculty of Fine Arts, Dhaka University, but to create an un-ceremonial barrier-free pedestrian entry of the building, making a subdued but universal statement. Dhaka University Library building became a symbol of tropical modernity using a ramp under the shade in a free space that extends to the surrounding landscape, a proper threshold between indoor and outdoor spaces and sophisticated jali works. Placement of the ramp in the tropics' quintessential space, the semi-open space, makes it even more rooted in its climatic context. The more obvious ramped entry can be found in the Mill Owners Association Building, a work from the same time by Le Corbusier in Ahmedabad. The engagement of people with the building to create a lasting memory was done through the careful placement of artwork throughout the library building which also is a response to the socio-political context. In the later part of modern development in the West, the focus shifted towards the expressive use of the material and the structural optimisation of it, but modernism was also garnering criticism for being ignorant of local culture and memory. The second phase of works by Muzharul Islam addressed these two issues. The striking similarity between the Sodhan House and the Mill Owners Association Building by Le Corbusier in Ahmedabad with that of the NIPA Building, Bangladesh Road Research Laboratory, ends in the Parasol form and use of material. Muzharul Islam's departure from Corbusian Modernism happened in the careful responsiveness towards climatic adaptation and the internal space planning which is the direct expression of Bengali culture. In the NIPA building, the structural and material optimization of the concrete was taken to almost a Miesian sophistication. In contrast, the brutalist expression of concrete was the primary style in the work of Le Corbusier and Paul Rudolf in the subcontinent. Jahangirnagar University, National Library, and the buildings at Jaypurhat, with their stereotomic earth hugging characters, differ sharply from the earlier projects' skeletal quality. Working in parallel with Louis Kahn in this period in Bengal helped Muzharul Islam find himself and understand how to approach architecture with proper language. As Kahn mentioned about 'Architecture of 'Land' for this special landscape through his masterpiece in Dhaka, Muzharul Islam has elaborated this thinking with a more sensitive geometric establishment that highly compliments all-season climatic considerations. And Islam's work was highly admired by Kahn when he encountered a few projects with respect to Western practice. These projects, as well as others from this period, brought a different quality of geometric and spatial complexity. The buildings also Page 102

Final Report on Updating the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List of Bangladesh CHAPTER 3 evoke the age-old tradition of masonry and terracotta work of the great Buddhist viharas and Mughal mosques architecture in an abstract manner, which is a hallmark of a truly modern building. PROPOSED SITES FOR UPDATED Selected Bibliography: TENTATIVE LIST OF BANGLADESH 1. Kazi Khaleed Ashraf / James Belluardo: An Architecture of Independence. The Making of Modern South Asia- Charles Correa, Balkrishna Doshi, Muzharul Islam, Achyut Kanvinde. 2. Kenneth Frampton: Towards A Critical Regionalism: Six Points for An Architecture of Resistance, Post Modern Culture. 3. Kazi Khaleed Ashraf/ Saiful Haque/ Raziul Ahsan: Pundranagar to Sherebanglanagar- Architecture in Bangladesh. 4. Locations: An Anthology of Architecture and Urbanism. Bengal Foundation. Shamsul Wares, Architecture in the '50's and '60's in Bangladesh, Architecture and Planning 1982. BUET. Page 103

Final Report on Updating the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List of Bangladesh CHAPTER 3 Name of Property: Mughal Forts on Fluvial Terrains in Dhaka PROPOSED SITES FOR UPDATED TENTATIVE LIST OF BANGLADESH Submission prepared by: Mohammad Tahajibul Hossain, Lecturer, BUET Khandokar Mahfuz Alam, Assistant Architect, DoA Imamur Hossain, Lecturer, Sonargaon University Dhrubo Alam, Deputy Transport Planner, Dhaka Transport Co-ordination Authority (DTCA) Reviewed and rewritten by: Sharif Shams Imon, PhD STATE PARTY: Bangladesh Institution: Department of Archaeology Description The property Mughal Forts in Fluvial Terrains in Dhaka consists of four sites associated with the Mughal military and administrative establishment in Bengal. The sites include three naval forts in the outskirts of Dhaka City: Hajiganj Fort, Sonakanda Fort and Idrakpur Fort, and one palace fort Lalbagh Fort in Dhaka City. The forts were established by the Mughal Subahdars (Viceroys) appointed to govern Subah-e-Bangla (the Bengal Province), with Dhaka being the capital between 1610 and 1717 CE. The forts’ designs adapted to the deltaic landform of Bengal as contrasted with the mainstream Mughal architecture elsewhere in the Indian Subcontinent. The Hajiganj Fort was built around 1610 CE. According to Bahrishtan-i-Ghaybi, a 17th-century chronicle on the history of Bengal, Cooch Behar, Assam and Bihar by Mirza Nathan, a Mughal general in Bengal, the fort was extensively used by Mughal subahdar Islam Khan as a military base for operations against the Bara Bhuiyans (an alliance of local landlords). Mughal Subahdar Mir Jumla is popularly credited for establishing the Sonakanda Fort and Idrakpur Fort between 1660 and 1663 CE. Together with the Hajiganj Fort, these two forts formed a strategic defence mechanism for protection from the Magh/Arakanese, Portuguese and Dutch pirates coming from the Bay of Bengal via river routes and to suppress local landlords. Although the Mughals military forces predominantly included cavalry, infantry, and artillery divisions, they had to develop a navy to conquer and control the riverine delta of Bengal and to defend the capital where these forts acted as the base for military operations. The Lalbagh Fort, originally called ‘Qila Aurangabad’, is in the capital Dhaka. The fort construction was initiated by Mughal Subahdar Mohammad Azam Shah, the third son of Emperor Aurangzeb, in 1678 CE. This ambitious attempt was undertaken when Dhaka became relatively secured from the previous threats of rebellious landlords and pirates, for which the naval forts played a crucial role. After 15 months of his appointment, the emperor called upon him to suppress the Maratha rebellion. Subahdar Shaista Khan continued the construction but left it incomplete after the death of his daughter Iran Dukht (Pari Bibi) in 1684 CE, who was also the fiancé to Prince Azam. In 1844, an autonomous institution named ‘Dhaka Committee’ started preserving the fort, and since then, it is known as the ‘Lalbagh Fort’. The fort came under the jurisdiction of the Department of Archaeology in 1910 CE. Table 1: Names and locations of the property components: Sl No. Names of Properties/ State, Province or Region Latitude and Longitude or UTM Components Coordinates 1 Hajiganj Fort Narayanganj, Dhaka Division 23°38’00.62” N, 90°30’46.86 E 2 Sonakanda Fort Narayanganj, Dhaka Division 23°36’25.30 N, 90°30’44.11”E 3 Idrakpur Fort Munshiganj, Dhaka Division 23°32’50.93” N, 90°32’02.80” E 4 Lalbagh Fort Dhaka City, Dhaka Division 23°43’07.86” N, 90°23’17.55” E Page 104

Final Report on Updating the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List of Bangladesh CHAPTER 3 Bengal is located on the enormous delta of the Ganges-Brahmaputra Rivers, and the geography was quite PROPOSED SITES FOR UPDATED unknown to the Mughals. The imperial armies were also challenged by the annual rain and the abundance of TENTATIVE LIST OF BANGLADESH rivers and canals. The landscape dominated by various shapes and water bodies converts into a continuous water plane during the monsoon. The Mughals struggled and had to adapt themselves to cope up with such conditions. Due to the rivers, rains and flood of this deltaic terrain, the wars became amphibious. During the first two decades of their expedition in Bengal, the Mughals naval warfare technique was inefficient, and their opponents, the local chieftains, had large supplies of war-boats. Although Tanda and Rajmahal in the western Bengal were conquered, the Mughals could not enter the river-infested eastern delta until the appointment of Raja Man Singh as the Mughal Subahdar of Bengal in 1594. Under his supervision, the Mughals started to deploy an increasing number of war-boats. By the time Islam Khan Chisti assumed the leadership of the Mughal expedition in 1607 CE, the Mughals were using hundreds of boats for battle. Islam Khan was further challenged by the Arakan state of coastal Burma and the Portuguese pirates who settled in the coastal area of South-eastern Bengal. The Arakanese rulers considered the advent of the Mughals as a threat and, in response, operated naval expeditions to secure their territory, especially after 1614 CE. By 1620 CE, these attacks were further supplemented by the naval raids by the Portuguese and few Dutch Pirates who came in search of slaves, food-grain, and booty. Several attempts of the Mughals to conquer the Arakan state failed as the opponents were very proficient in naval warfare. Dhaka, being in the centre of eastern Bengal, was able to command all the big river routes. Situated on higher ground in a low-lying region, Dhaka stands on the northern bank of the River Buriganga. This river, about 26 miles in length, takes off from the River Dhaleswari, a little below Savar, and flows down to the north of Narayanganj; and through these two rivers, Dhaka is connected by water with great rivers, namely Ganges (Padma), the Meghna and Brahmaputra. In addition, the network of the river system of Bengal is so extended that through this network the remote parts of the land are accessible. Islam Khan decided to use this advantage to intensify the campaign against the rebellious and independent Bara–Bhuiyans (Zamindars), Afghan kingdoms, and to establish Mughal hegemony in Bengal with Dhaka as the capital. Therefore, he shifted the capital from Rajmahal to Dhaka and Dhaka was renamed as Jahangirnagar after the emperor. Mughals were attracted by the wealth of Bengal, and the shift of capital from Rajmahal to Dhaka was also necessary to secure revenue and operate trade from Bengal. Bengal Subah became the wealthiest province of the Mughal empire. Bengal generated significant percent of the empire’s GDP. It gained global leadership in industries such as textile manufacturing and shipbuilding Dhaka eventually became the empire’s financial capital, with a population exceeding one million. Silk and cotton textiles, steel, saltpetre, and agricultural and industrial products were exported from Dhaka. Previously, Sonargaon, the capital of the Bara-Bhuiyans maintained the dominant position in Bengal in terms of economic prosperity for about two hundred years throughout the independent Sultanate of Bengal (1338- 1538 CE). Sonargaon’s position on the Meghna bank gave it the first importance as an inland port town in the medieval history of Bengal. Sonargaon’s economic importance was destroyed through the defeat of Isa Khan’s son Musa khan by the force of the Mughal Subahdar Islam Khan (1608-1613 CE) in (1611 CE). Sonargaon lost its importance because of the shifting of the course of the river Meghna, although as a place of cotton fabrics production, it managed to retain its own position till the foreign competition ruined its trade. Several items like jute, unrefined sugar, mustard seed, oil, honey, wax, ivory, shell lack, ghee, betel nut, cloths, linseed, cheese, turmeric, mats etc. were imported from different places of Eastern Bengal such as Chandpur, Sylhet, Manikganj, Narayanganj, Bhawal, Kishoreganj, Barisal, Cumilla, Habiganj, Nayarhat, Mymenshing, and Mirzapur. They were mostly exported to Patna, Calcutta, and Murshidabad. A certain amount of the commodities was used for the consumption of the city dwellers, and the remaining amount distributed to other places through the inland markets. All the manufacturers of fine cotton fabrics, particularly ‘muslins’, were positioned within the area Dhaka district, namely at ‘Dhaka city, Sonargaon, Dhamrai, Teetabari (on the left bank of the Shitalakhya river), Page 105

Final Report on Updating the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List of Bangladesh CHAPTER 3 Jangalbari (left bank of the Brahmaputra), Bajitpur (about 18 miles from Jangalbari) and Bikrampur. Bengal’s PROPOSED SITES FOR UPDATED production of fine cotton included muslins, rugs, veils of various colour, gauzes (a thin translucent fabric of silk, TENTATIVE LIST OF BANGLADESH linen, or cotton), and material of turbans, embroidered silk, and brocaded taffetas. Dhaka also had a mint (Takshal) which produced money (coins) from the Mughal period to even first few years of company years (British East India Company). The earliest Dhaka-produced coin found is from 1617 CE. Dhaka gradually achieved great commercial importance and became the most reputed trading centre during this period. As mentioned by A. H. Dani, from an almost insignificant position (a military outpost of the Mughals and the headquarters of their Thanadar) Dhaka, due to its strategic location and the capacity to monopolize the trade and commerce, became the queen of the cities of Eastern India. The Mughals set up their first military force in Dhaka during the reign of Emperor Akbar, but the importance of the area in terms of the naval strategy was only felt during Subahdar Islam Khan’s ‘Bhati Campaign’ against Musa Khan in 1608 CE. The previous capital Rajmahal was abandoned as the change of the course of Ganges made the city inaccessible to war-boats and unsuitable to naval defence. The location of Dhaka was suitable as a base of operation against the Bara-Bhuiyans and also as a convenient base from which a close watch on the usual routes followed by the pirates could be maintained. Various kinds of projectile weapons had been used in amphibious warfare. Apart from archers and matchlock men, a great deal of artillery was deployed by the Mughals; in contrast to the warfare techniques of north India, the river and the canals aided to allow the imperial armies to move around heavy artilleries easily. They also learnt the technique of mounting cannons on big boats such as ghurabs from their local adversaries, boatmen and Portuguese mercenaries. The artillery carrying war-boats were also used for besieging fortified positions on land. In general, matchlock men were predominantly used by the Mughals in the riverine terrain of Bengal rather than the horsemen as projectile weapons deemed useful in this particular geographic condition. The water bodies lowered the possibility of close combat and engaged each other from a distance. By the end of the 16th century, the Portuguese mercenaries and renegades fled from Goa towards the coastal areas of Bengal and took employment in the armies of local and Afghan chieftains and later in the Mughal Navy. The availability of riverine silt and mud drove the Mughal armies to develop a new type of fortress warfare in this region. They observed that the local Afghan and Bengali adversaries used to construct improvised mud fortifications for defence. This phenomenon was quite different from the stone forts that the Mughals used to encounter in North India. These mud forts were very rapidly built by the cheap labour of local boatmen and were placed in strategic locations to command riverine communication in terms of defence. Despite being inexpensive, these forts were remarkably resilient in terms of their purpose. The mud walls used to absorb the force of cannons shells and did not break as opposed to the stone walls of north Indian forts. Even a small mud garrison could perform very well to defend and took a lot of efforts to besiege. The Mughals had to spend a significant amount of resources to subdue the local mud forts in their early campaign during 1608-1612 CE. The naval forts of the Bhuiyans were strongly built and raised at a few kilometres off from the mouth of the confluence of important river routes while maintaining internal links through canals. As soon as the news of the enemy’s arrival reached, the war-boats were pushed down to the main confluence in series through the canals. The Bhuyians also possessed harbours close to their respective capitals for building and repairing boats and impart naval training to the soldiers. Harbours of Dhumghar (of Raja Pratapadiya), Sripur (of Raja Kedar Rai), Sonargaon (of Musa Khan) are noteworthy. Realizing the efficiency and military value of these mud forts considering the geographic features, the Mughal themselves started constructing mud forts for defence and later strengthening the important forts with brick masonry and lime mortar and installing heavy artillery inside them. Among the naval forts, the Hajiganj fort was frequently used by Islam Khan to command military operations against the Bhuyians. The Sonakanda and Idrakpur forts were built after the Hajiganj fort. These forts, together Page 106

Final Report on Updating the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List of Bangladesh CHAPTER 3 with several outposts, performed as a defence centre to protect Dhaka from external enemies. Subahdar Mir PROPOSED SITES FOR UPDATED Jumla extensively used these forts and conducted military expeditions. There were several other smaller forts, TENTATIVE LIST OF BANGLADESH establishments or outposts which supplemented these three forts such as the Afghan fort of Beg Murad, Jinjira fort, Dhapa fort, Katrabhu fort, Old fort at Fatullah, Pagla Bridge and Octagonal structure at Mughlai Char. Most of these establishments have been lost over time and some are in very dilapidated condition. As the Bhuiyans and the pirates possessed strong naval forces and war-boats, the Mughals felt the necessity of navy and naval strategy. Hence, the Mughals had to undertake the task of organizing a naval department (titled Nawara), constructing war-boats, raising naval forces and docks and planning naval expeditions in addition to their well-established infantry and cavalry divisions. The naval strategy in Bengal was developed on the mobility of their war-boats, naval guardhouses at strategic places, the process of sounding the depth of the rivers, the Nawara grants in the coastal region and defensive measures. Amla-e-Nawara was the Mughal naval fleet which had 768 vessels with its headquarter in Dhaka. It had a large army, including 933 Portuguese men. Amla-e-Assam was an army of 8,112 men with artillery to Eastern Frontier Provinces stationed at Dhaka. The flotilla of war-boats rather than cavalry was more effective in the warfare in eastern Bengal. Being aware of this, the Mughals increased their collection of war-boats and also significantly increased their skill in military use of boats. From the narrative of the ‘Review of boats at Shahzadapur’ in Baharistan, it becomes apparent that the fleet of Mughal war-boats comprised various types of boats, such as Katari, Maniki, Bathila, Kusa, Khelna, and Gondola. Large cannons and Zabarzangs (field pieces) were mounted on Katari, Manaki, and Bathila. These boats were quite big, and on the gangway of each boat (a line of), wagons (one kind of trading cargo which was called thattari and which was used as a barrier against enemy attack) were displayed. Furthermore, constructing a temporary bridge via using boats to cross over rivers was a significant move displayed by the Mughals. As narrated in Baharistan, to cross the river Ichamati, Admiral Ihtimum Khan and his son Mirza Nathan constructed a bridge with the boats of the traders. It also suggests that during the raid of the Magh king, two thousand horsemen and four thousand expert men with matchlock were transferred over such a bridge. Boats were also used as the personal transport of the statesmen of Bengal as well as of admiral and other important naval officers. The name of Islam Khan’s boat was ‘Chandni’, which was also called ‘Fath- iDariya’ (Triumph of the sea). The names of the personal boats of Ihtimam Khan and Mirza Nathan were ‘Jal- Tarang’ and ‘Qutb-Asan’ (a kutal suwari kusa), respectively. The Mughals also included war elephants in their campaign to directly assault the mud-forts since artillery fire in general proved to be inefficient against them. The elephants were also used for carrying troops and resources across the rivers. Campaigns against Arakan, Tripura, Bokainagar and Kamrup involved the inclusion of a large number of elephants. The prominence of war elephants in terms of number and tactical importance was greater than most other parts of North India. The Mughal armies enabled them to establish themselves as a dominant power of the Bengal delta by showing remarkable geographical and military adaptability over a period of around 100 years. During its tenure as a provincial capital, Prince Shah Suja, the subahdar, temporarily shifted the capital to Rajmahal in 1639 CE, virtually forfeiting the control over a large portion of southeastern Bengal. Shaista Khan eventually managed to stall the raids from the Portuguese pirates and threatened them into an alliance with the empire and conquered Chatgaon (now Chottogram) with a reorganized war-fleet in 1666 CE. After conquering Chatgaon and bringing the Portuguese as well as several other European traders on board in terms of trade and commerce, Dhaka became the financial capital of the Mughal Empire. The phenomenon can be reflected in the appointment of Prince Azam as the subahdar of Bengal and eventually the initiation of Qila Aurangabad/ Lalbagh Fort as his residence, administrative centre, and fortified defence. The fort’s location by the river Buriganga further reinforced the previous mechanism of naval defence of the city. The spatially elaborate organization of various functions was an ambitious attempt by the Mughals in Dhaka. Although this Page 107

Final Report on Updating the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List of Bangladesh CHAPTER 3 fort was not completed, it remains as the largest and enthusiastic venture taken up by the Mughals in the PROPOSED SITES FOR UPDATED Bengal and can be associated as an iconic landmark of Dhaka. TENTATIVE LIST OF BANGLADESH 1. Hajiganj Fort Location Located in Narayanganj Sadar Upazilla, Narayanganj District, Dhaka Division. The fort is situated on the western bank of the river Shitalakhya. The location was a previous discharge point of river Buriganga. The area, as well as the fort, was formerly known as Khizirpur. The fort is about 15 kilometres from Dhaka city. Description The fort was originally built on a riverbank; however, the channel shifted its course towards the east over time. The fort has a non-symmetric hexagonal plan. The platform of the entire fort is elevated approximately 1.5m from the ground level. The fort covers an area of almost 250m x 250m and is elongated in the east-west direction. The surrounding walls are about 0.91m thick and almost 1.83m high. There is a 1.22m high and 0.61m wide rampart walkway on the inner side of the fortified wall for operating muskets against the enemy. There are six circular bastions at each corner, among which the three located on the southern and eastern side measures 9.04m in diameter and the three located on the northern and western side measures 3.95m in diameter. The southern bastion’s seven-step pyramidal artillery platform suggests that the gun platforms at Hajiganj fort aimed south (presumably over the river’s former course) cut across from the Sitalakhya to the Buriganga). The north wall possesses the only gateway, which is a four-centred archway placed within a rectangular frame. There are several plastered panels on both sides of the gateway. The top of the gateway is decorated with merlons. The gateway comprises an inner and an outer staircase. The outer staircase has a flight of eighteen steps, measuring 5.07m wide (provided with two wide sidewalls), while the inner staircase has a flight of eight steps, measuring 3.4m wide, and the interior archway is 19.16m high and 15.92m wide. The arched gateway is embellished with rectangular niches. There is a barren, locus standi and grandiloquent tower with spiral stairs of brickwork in the eastern corner of the fort ground. This is the only internal structure within the fort area. Construction of a large plinth with three pillars and a staircase has been found alongside the north and northeast side of the fort. The entire fortification wall and bastions are crowned by numerous big merlons perforated with varying loopholes for muskets. The loopholes are not uniform in size or number. Both the merlons and loopholes were used for operational purpose rather than decorative reason. The Hajiganj fort is entirely constructed with brick and covered with plaster. 2. Sonakanda Fort Location The Sonakanda Fort is located in the Enayetnagar village of Kolagachchia union under Narayanganj Bandar Upazila in Narayanganj district. The fort stands on the eastern bank of the river Shitalakhya just at the point where formerly it met the river Brahmaputra. It has been placed to the south of the point where the Triveni Khal (Canal) takes off from the Sitalakhya, which flows along the fort’s western side. It is almost 17km away from the capital, Dhaka. Description The fort has a quadrangular rampart wall with a central courtyard in the east and a raised artillery platform on the west overlooking the river shaped like a round drum with a considerably large diameter. Large cannons were mounted in this strategic position. Page 108

Final Report on Updating the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List of Bangladesh CHAPTER 3 The quadrangular portion covers an area of 86.56m x 57.0m, and the only entrance is located to the north. The PROPOSED SITES FOR UPDATED fort is built with brick and covered with plaster. The brick size is 19.05 x 9.89 x 3.81cm. The entrance gateway TENTATIVE LIST OF BANGLADESH is placed within a rectangular frame with rosette engraved spandrel and several plastered panels in its inner and outer walls. The façade of the gateway is projected within a semi-octagonal shape. The gateway is topped by merlons. The surrounding wall is 3.39m high and 1.06m thick. The merlons have loopholes placed 0.91m from the top, 1m high on an average, and the bottom is built solid, and those are envisaged to have been used to put guns aiming at the enemies through their loopholes. The rectangular portion of the Sonakanda fort has four octagonal corner bastions crowned with merlons containing loopholes. The northwest and south-west bastions facing the river have a diameter of 6.85m and are 3.39m high, including the crenulation. The northeast and southeast bastions have a diameter of 4.26m and are 3.39m high. All the circular bastions are linked by a 2.5-meter narrow walkway from inside. The bastions are capped with loopholes and several open and closed arches, but the arrangement and number of loopholes are not similar. A staircase on the west side leads up to the circular raised platform entered by a cinquefoil archway with a flight of 25 steps up from the courtyard. The three-stage staircase is 16.15m long in plan. The artillery platform is 6.09m high from the ground level. It comprises two circles: the inner circle is 15.24m in diameter, and the outer circle is 21.75m in diameter. The thickness of the surrounding wall of the platform is 0.91m. The platform is surmounted by 32 merlons (five cusped) with loopholes that are 0.97m thick and 1.91m high. 3. Idrakpur Fort Location The Idrakpur fort was positioned on the north bank of the river Ichamati in the Idrakpur region of Munshiganj district, about 24 km from Dhaka. The river has shifted its course over the years and is currently flowing about 1.6 km away from the fort. Description The fort has two parts separated by a screen wall. The western part covers an open area measuring 97m x 51.80m internally and surrounded by a wall with four similar corner bastions with 6.09m diameter and 4.6m height. The bastions have loopholes. The eastern part measures 77m x 44m and includes a solid circular platform in the middle and a small bastion at its north-eastern corner. The circular platform is 32.9m in diameter and is placed at 24m above the ground level. The platform is accessed through a 1.9m wide flight of steps across the eastern side of the defence wall, which is 18.26m long in plan. Another 9-step staircase leads down into the basement chamber at the foot of the staircase. The fort walls are perforated with numerous loopholes of different sizes to place heavy cannons. The parapet walls are crowned with merlons. The gateway is 2.1m wide and placed within a rectangle frame with a single turret with both outer sides on the north wall of the fort. It is set through a four-centred pointed archway and capped with merlons. The exterior of the gateway has panel decorations, and the interior has a plastered surface. The fort is entirely built with brick and mortar. 4. Lalbagh Fort Location The Lalbagh fort (originally termed as Quilla/ Fort Aurangabad) is located in the southern part of Dhaka city by the river Buriganga. The river has moved towards the south and now flows at quite a distance from the fort. The paintings of Charles D’Oily’s (1809-11) show that more than half of the south and southeastern façade of the fort touched the river. Page 109

Final Report on Updating the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List of Bangladesh CHAPTER 3 Description PROPOSED SITES FOR UPDATED TENTATIVE LIST OF BANGLADESH The fort area covers 18 acres (73,00 sqm approximately) of land area. The fort principally contains three buildings within its premises: the mosque, the tomb of Iran Dukht (Bibi Pari), and the Dewan-i-Aam. Recent excavations have revealed the remains of several structures with elaborate arrangements for water supply, sewage, roof gardens and fountains. Among the three surviving gateways, the southern one is the most impressive. The exterior provides the impression of a three-storied built form, whereas inside, it seems like a two-storied building. The gateway is bordered with slender minarets. The central area of the fort comprises The Diwan-I Aam and the Hammam on the east, the mosque on the west and the tomb of Iran Dukht in between. All these buildings are placed within an axis, although not maintaining an equal distance. Water channels in both north-south and east-west direction with fountains placed at regular intervals connect the buildings, and a large square water tank at the west having 71.63m arms. The tank can be descended by four corner stairs. The Diwan-i-Aam is a double-storeyed building with a single-storeyed Hammam attached to it on the west. The Hammam complex comprises an open platform, a small kitchen, an oven, water storage area, a masonry brick bathtub, a toilet, a dressing room and an extra room. The hammam also has an underground room for boiling water and a passage for sweepers. The tomb of Bibi Pari consists of eight rooms surrounding a central square chamber containing the cenotaph of Iran Dukht. The chamber is roofed with a false octagonal dome wrapped in brass plate. The inner wall of the central room is finished entirely with white marble. The wall of the four corner rooms were skirted with glazed floral tiles of which only few original remains. The southeastern corner room contains a small grave of Shamsad Begum, possibly a relative of Bibi Pari. The mosque is a three-domed structure with a water tank on the eastern side for ablution. The fortification wall on the south originally had five bastions at regular intervals, and the western wall had two bastions. The largest bastions among these seven is the one near the southern gateway at the back of the stable, which also has an underground tunnel. The central bastion of the southern wall is single-storeyed, and the rest are double-storeyed structures. The central one contains an underground room with verandah on three sides and can be approached either from the riverside or from its roof. The southwestern double- storeyed bastion was possibly a ‘Hawakhana’ with a water reservoir on its roof. All the establishments of the fort are connected with this reservoir using two terra-cotta pipes. A more robust terra-cotta dual terra-cotta pipeline, one inside the other, has been discovered in the area between the hammam and the tomb of Bibi Pari. The northern side of the southern fortification used to have utility buildings such as the stable and the administrative block, whereas the western part accommodated a beautiful roof garden with arrangements for a fountain and a water reservoir. The residential part was located on the eastern side of the western fortification, mainly to the south-west of the mosque, where the remains of a sewerage line have been found. The southern fortification is a dual wall; the inner one is 13.72m high and 1.37m thick, and the outer wall is 6.10m high with the same thickness. There are openings at regular interval. Justification of Outstanding Universal Value: Despite the geographic challenges of a riverine delta, the Mughals were adamant to conquer Bengal for its strategic and economic importance. In addition, they also had to develop naval forces to conduct an amphibious warfare against the local chieftains and pirates from Arakanese, Dutch and Portuguese origin. The Mughals struggled in their initial campaigns and eventually entered the Bengal only after adapting naval forces after being inspired from the local naval warfare techniques. After becoming the capital of Bengal Subah in Page 110

Final Report on Updating the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List of Bangladesh CHAPTER 3 1610 CE, Dhaka still needed naval protection from the local adversaries and pirates until Shaista Khan PROPOSED SITES FOR UPDATED conquered Chatgaon (Chottogram) in 1666 CE. Dhaka eventually became a major source of revenue for the TENTATIVE LIST OF BANGLADESH Mughal empire as the capital of Bengal Subah and operational base for military campaigns in Assam region. The city became the trade centre for exporting various of local agricultural and craft products including the Muslin and virtually became the financial capital with a mint for producing coins. The adjacent river courses enabled Dhaka to command all the major river routes of Bengal. The previous capital, Sonargaon lost its importance due the change of course of the surrounding rivers. Also, Islam Khan shifted the capital from Rajmahal to Dhaka, considering the strategic importance. Eventually, Dhaka replaced Sonargaon and Rajmahal in the process of becoming the capital of Bengal Subah for the next hundred years. The formation of forts at the key points of river routes to protect Dhaka thus signifies the value of the geographic location of the city. The Mughals had to adapt with the riverine context for conducting warfare. From their adversaries, they learnt to mount the cannons on war-boats along with archers and matchlock men. Pirates from European origin were among one of the major foes of the Mughals. However, Portuguese men joined the Mughal Navy (Nawara) during the reign of Shaista Khan. The Mughal naval fleets Amla-e-Nawara and Amla-e-Assam were both based in Dhaka. They also adapted the local technique of reserving war-boats in canals adjacent to the important river confluences and deploying them in the river course for attacking after receiving signal from watch towers. The Mughals developed various kinds of war-boats using local ship building techniques and successfully engaged them against their enemies. They also found war-elephants to be effective in this climatic condition. Although, the Mughals used to establish gigantic stone forts in the north-western part of Indian subcontinent, they found the Bengal delta devoid of stone as building material. The local adversaries on the other hand, used to rapidly construct smaller mud forts and engaged local boatmen to execute the construction in an inexpensive manner. Located strategically at important river confluences, these forts were significantly resilient against cannon shells and formed a combined defence instrument with the war-boats. The Mughals faced great difficulties in capturing these mud forts. Highly influenced by these mud forts, the Mughals also placed their naval forts at important river confluences for defending Dhaka. Apart from being individually significant, the strategic location of the the Hajiganj fort, Sonakanda fort and Idrakpur fort along with their supportive establishments formed an integrated naval defence mechanism. Although, they constructed their forts and outposts with burnt brick and lime plaster, the platform of these forts, especially the artillery bases are elevated by filling up mud. The burnt bricks were also locally produced as stone was not readily available and would have involved greater expense and time. The mud artillery bases were also very effective for absorbing the reactive force of the cannons. The architectural details like bastions, gateways, archways, crenulations, merlon with loopholes etc. resembles Mughal character despite being smaller in size and scale. After being secured by the naval forts, Dhaka became a major financial centre for Mughal economy. After the conquest of Chatgaon, Dhaka became secure from the Arakanese and Portuguese pirates. As a result, a palace fort complex was considered for the Subahdar of Bengal. Qila Aurangabad/ Lalbagh fort thus resembles all the constructional features of the previously built naval forts with some luxurious elements like marble and glazed floral tiles. The fort was also situated by the river Buriganga and although incomplete, contained a much complex layout than the naval forts. It also displays a compound water supply and sanitation layout. Therefore, the Mughal forts of Dhaka can be attributed as the result of adaptation or reconfiguration in terms of architectural style to complement the fluvial terrain and landscape of Bengal and were crucial to secure the Provincial as well as the financial capital from which they generated almost half of their GDP. Although not very massive in size, the strategic placement considering the riverine landscape and the unique but hybrid characteristics coupled with distinctive naval forces made them very crucial for Dhaka for its inception as a capital city. Page 111

Final Report on Updating the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List of Bangladesh CHAPTER 3 Criteria met : (iii) (iv)  (v) (vi) (vii) (viii) (ix) (x) PROPOSED SITES FOR UPDATED (i) (ii)  TENTATIVE LIST OF BANGLADESH Criteria (ii) to exhibit an important interchange of human values, over a span of time or within a cultural area of the world, on developments in architecture or technology, monumental arts, town-planning or landscape design Although Bengal was prosperous with her various agricultural as well as crafts resources, Dhaka gained its first status as a provincial capital during the Mughal regime by a decree issued by emperor Jahangir and was given the name Jahangirnagar. The change of course of the river Meghna reduced the importance of the previous capital Sonargaon which also aided to select Dhaka as a strategically profound location by the Mughal rulers. Although it lost its status to Murshidabad in 1717 CE, the importance of its strategic advantage in terms of geopolitical and economic aspects was again felt in the event of dividing Bengal in 1905 CE during the British colonial period and was declared as the capital of Bengal and Assam. The status was again taken away in 1911 CE. After the independence from the British regime, Dhaka became the provincial capital of East Bengal, later renamed East Pakistan. After the independence of Bangladesh in 1971 CE from Pakistan, Dhaka became the capital city. The Mughal subahdars operated their campaign against the local landlords, chieftains, Arakanese invaders, Portuguese pirates and later advanced towards Chatgaon and Ahom kingdom basing their centre on Dhaka. During the Mughal regime, Dhaka virtually became the financial capital of the empire producing a significant amount of per annum GDP even on a global scale. The window of trade and commerce for the European traders became open, and the exquisite products of Bengal began to be exported to the west. The naval forts played a crucial role in establishing the Mughal regime in Bengal. They had to reconfigure their architectural and military knowledge to adapt to a relatively unknown fluvial network and deltaic landform. In appreciation of the efficiency of the local mud forts, which were very effective against artillery aggression and could be rapidly built by local people, they started to develop a unique type of naval forts which can be attributed as very endemic. The Mughals determined very strategic locations at the confluence of rivers also internally connected by numerous canals to establish the forts and erected naval forts. The forts at the key locations, which are the Hajiganj fort, the Sonakanda fort and the Idrakpur fort, were built with burnt brick and finished with lime plaster. The size and scale of the forts represents the key module which is burnt brick. As limestone or marble was not locally available, the Mughals selected relatively smaller burnt brick which was readily available due to the abundance of mud. The platforms of the forts, especially the artillery base were elevated with earth fill. Although, the key module for construction had to be adapted considering local context, the architectural features like walls, bastions, gateways, arches, merlons with loopholes, crenulations represent the Mughal architectural character. The use of plaster provides a monolithic texture to the overall form and the colour resembles the tone of red sandstone which was commonly used by the Mughals in Northern India. The forts acted as a combined defence mechanism along with the Mughal Navy comprised of war-boats and matchlock men, which is also a unique phenomenon in the history of Mughal military strategy. The navy also included Portuguese mercenaries. The Naval force, along with infantry and cavalry, enabled the Mughals to develop an amphibian military force that eventually helped them command the Bengal delta and secure Dhaka, the capital of Subah-e-Bangla. In contrast to the naval forts solely developed for defence, the Lalbagh fort was conceived as an administrative and residence for the subahdar of Bengal as well as a defence centre. However, the construction method followed the adaptive characteristics of the naval forts using the same materials and features. The arrangement was quite elaborate, which initially included the audience hall, a bathing facility, Page 112

Final Report on Updating the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List of Bangladesh CHAPTER 3 a mosque, and stables and barracks. The construction was held twice as Prince Azam had to go back to the PROPOSED SITES FOR UPDATED Mughal capital Delhi to address the Maratha rebellion, and when Bibi Pari, the daughter of Subahdar TENTATIVE LIST OF BANGLADESH Shaista Khan died in an untimely manner. Although incomplete, the Lalbagh fort represents the significance of Dhaka as the Mughal provincial capital. Criteria (iv) to be an outstanding example of a type of building, architectural or technological ensemble or landscape which illustrates (a) significant stage(s) in human history. The naval forts were solely built for protection, accumulation, dispersion, and mobilization of the military forces; hence, they did not contain any residential or recreational functions. To ensure proper surveillance, the bastions within the fortified walls, especially the ones facing the riverside became very prominent. The fortified walls, as well as the bastions, were not very high compared to the North Indian Mughal forts. The artillery base with storage facilities for gun powder is also a focal feature within the naval forts, especially in Sonakanda and Idrakpur fort. The loopholes at the merlons also accommodated the matchlock men to fire towards the river. Red sandstone and white marble, the traditional Mughal building materials, were not available in Bengal for which, they had to adapt Brick masonry along with lime mortar and plaster. The local construction technique with elevating the base with mud was adapted to build the fort rapidly. The doorways of the fort and to the artillery platforms display Mughal style archway. Lalbagh Fort carries out a similar technique of fortification and construction technique, although the spatial arrangement was quite elaborate. The fort had various types of functions for the viceroy and the soldiers and included gardens at grade and rooftop decorated with water fountains. While the fortified wall at the south was built with the similar architectural features of the previously built naval forts, the rest of the fort had to incorporate a complex water supply infrastructure for the hammam (bath), the fountains and the roof garden using terra-cotta pipes. The sewage and drainage system are also very elaborate. The gateways represented several features of the Mughal architectural style. The tomb of Bibi Pari has limited use of marble stone finish and glazed coloured tiles that were profoundly used in North Indian Mughal buildings. The Mughals essentially had to understand the nature of geography and landscape of the fluvial network and deltaic landform and eventually adapted with the local materials and techniques for warfare, financial venture and architecture. Although their venture in Bengal changed the course of Dhaka towards financial prosperity, which was ensured by securing the city from external enemies by means of these naval and administrative forts, the Mughals had to configure their style and practice according to the necessity of the nature of Bengal. The forts are the outcome of their struggle to conquer this unknown land for nearly two decades. The noteworthy feature is that these forts together formed a combined fortification which is unprecedented. Statements of authenticity and/or integrity: Although temporarily used for various government organizations after the Mughal period, all the forts have been restored by the Department of Archaeology. Among the forts, only Idrakpur fort has several public residences within its boundary. All the forts are currently under the jurisdiction of Department of Archaeology, Ministry of Cultural Affairs, Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh. As the rivers of Bengal continuously change their courses, currently, none of the forts has a river within its proximity. Due to siltation over a period of about 400 years, the rivers have shifted for about 1-2 km from its previous course during the Mughal period. The generated land around the fort is currently occupied with dense urban fabric. Although the view and landscape has been compromised, the forts can be perceived and identified as a heritage entity both from exterior and interior. The architectural remains have been very well preserved in terms of plan, form, material, and functional use. Page 113

Final Report on Updating the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List of Bangladesh CHAPTER 3 Comparison with other similar properties: PROPOSED SITES FOR UPDATED TENTATIVE LIST OF BANGLADESH The Mughals developed a distinct Indo-Islamic architectural characteristic which can be described as an amalgamation of Islamic Persian, Turkic, and Indian traditions. The most notable Mughal buildings are in their capitals Delhi, Lahore, and Agra. Mughal buildings follow a very uniform pattern of structure and character, including large bulbous domes often surrounded by four smaller domes, slender minarets at the corners, massive halls, large, vaulted gateways and very delicate ornamentation. The buildings in these regions were mostly made with red sandstone and white marble. The components of large building complexes were planned following axial symmetry in an irregular manner. The precincts accommodated gardens and water bodies within them. The Agra fort by the river Yamuna was built by Akbar the Great during 1564-1573 CE occupies an area of 94 acres (380,000 sqm) of land and has a semi-circular plan. The fort has double ramparts with massive circular bastions at intervals, battlements, embrasures, machicolations and string courses. The fortified wall was almost seventy feet (21m) high. Four gates were provided on its four sides, one Khizri gate opening on to the river. The Agra fort was built over the ruins of a brick-built fort called Badalgarh. The fort was built with bricks in the inner core with sandstone on external surfaces. According to Abul Fazl, the fort contained five hundred buildings in the beautiful designs of Bengal and Gujarat. Some of them were demolished by Shah Jahan to replace them with his white marble palaces. The British troops of East India Company destroyed most of the others between 1803 and 1862 for raising barracks. The Red fort was constructed by Mughal emperor Shah Jahan in 1639 CE as his fortified capital in Shahjahanabad. Occupying an area of 254.67 acres (1,030,611 sqm), the fort represents the supreme display of Mughal architecture which became very much refined under the supervision of Shah Jahan. The defensive walls have turrets and bastions at regular interval, and the height varies from 18m in the riverside to 33m in the cityside. The fort contained imperial apartments with a row of pavilions connected by a water channel known as the ‘stream of paradise’. The architectural details reflect a hybrid character of Islamic, Persian, Timurid and Hindu traditions. The innovative design of buildings and gardens within the fort influenced later architecture and landscape design in other regions. The marble, floral decoration, detailed screens and double domes display the pinnacle of Mughal architectural excellence. Apart from these forts, Fatehpur Sikri and Lahore fort may also be mentioned to represent the imperial fortifications built in the North Indian region. The forts occupied a relatively large area and could function as a city. The strategy for fortification mainly addressed land-based aggressions despite being located by a river. Compared to these forts located at the empire’s capital, the Mughal forts of Dhaka stand in quite a contrast. Red sandstone and white marble, the signature materials of Mughal architecture, had to be replaced with brick, lime mortar and lime plaster due to the unavailability of the stones in this region. Taking advantage of naturally higher terrain and the practice of building grand scale fortification to defend against attack from the land-based army became obsolete in the riverine delta. The Mughals had to focus on functionality and effectiveness rather than achieving precisions in terms of architectural marvels. In fact, the revenues from Subah-e-Bangla and the exquisite muslins contributed to the Mughal Empire to have the luxury to focus on architectural marvels, especially during the reign of Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb. The graceful ornamentation and decoration of the North Indian forts are absent. The Mughals had to adapt to the local geographic and landscape features along with naval warfare techniques of the local adversaries to operate warfare in both land and water. The naval fort and later on the Lalbagh fort, are thus a result of a reconfiguration of architectural characters considering the deltaic nature of the landscape and waterscape. Compared to the North Indian forts, the size of the naval forts as well as the Lalbagh Fort is quite small. Still, these forts were different in the sense that they worked holistically as a single system rather than being a single entity, which is unique. The Lalbagh fort displays the attempt to provide gardens and water channels representing paradise following the style of Shah Jahan. However, the construction technique for building and infrastructure follows the local tradition. The mosques, caravanserais and other buildings established by the Mughals in Dhaka and Page 114

Final Report on Updating the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List of Bangladesh CHAPTER 3 Bengal follow the same building materials as the forts, and the scale was not monumental as their North Indian counterparts. PROPOSED SITES FOR UPDATED References: TENTATIVE LIST OF BANGLADESH Khondker, K. N., (2012), Mughal River Forts in Bangladesh (1575-1688): An Archaeological Appraisal, Unpublished M.Phil Thesis Dissertation, School Of History, Archaeology And Religion, Cardiff University Rahman, H., (2015), Lalbagh Fort, available at: http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Lalbagh_Fort [accessed on: 05 November 2020] Rashid, M. M., (2011), Lalbagh Rethought Exploring the incomplete Mughal fortress in Dhaka, Bangladesh, International Conference on Universal Design in Built Environment ( ICUDBE 2011) Nath, P. (2019), Climate of Conquest, Oxford University Press Roy, A. (1961). Naval Strategy of the Mughals in Bengal. Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, 24, 170- 175. Ray, I., (2009). “Identifying the woes of the cotton textile industry in Bengal: Tales of the nineteenth century”. The Economic History Page 115

Final Report on Updating the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List of Bangladesh CHAPTER 3 Name of Property: Mughal and Colonial Temples of Bangladesh PROPOSED SITES FOR UPDATED TENTATIVE LIST OF BANGLADESH Submission prepared by: Md. Shahin Alam, Field Officer, DoA Md. Amiruzzaman, PhD, Deputy Director, DoA Md Khairul Bashar Swapan, Field Officer, DoA Reviewed and rewritten by: Professor Swadhin Sen, PhD STATE PARTY: Bangladesh Institution: Department of Archaeology DESCRIPTION: a. Historical background of temples in Bangladesh Temples are not only monuments or monumental remains in the context of the history of society, cultures, religions and regions in Bangladesh (and in South Asia). Brahmanical (or Hindu), Buddhist, Jain, and various other religious traditions have manifested their heterogeneity and ritualistic performances through temples for the last two millennia. Temple-building activities and specific temple architectural styles along with canonical texts (shilpasastras) began to take a discernable pattern from the 2nd-3rd century CE under the ruling and patronage of the Gupta dynasty with a centralised empire. In the northern and southern part of the Indian subcontinent (comprising the present-day countries of Bangladesh, India and Pakistan), two distinct styles developed. The northern one is known as the Nagara style and the southern one is recognised as the Dravida style. Subsequently, many regions and historical period-specific sub-styles came into being. The present-day Indian state of Odisha witnessed the development of the Kalinga style of temple architecture in c. 6th-7th centuries CE. Bangladesh and the current state of West Bengal, India (making a distinct cultural region around 7th-8th century CE) were dotted with temples – Brahmanical, Buddhist and Jain – after the initiation in this period. The temples were both brick and stone-built, with an influence of Nagara or Kalinga style. The temples were lofty with a curvilinear shikhara (tower-like superstructure) or with a low shikhara. Many temples were built during this period under the patronage of the ruling dynasties or the intermediary landlords in Bangladesh. The remains of these temples are being exposed by archaeological excavations with their high, imposing and decorated superstructure missing because of the vagaries of time. Most of these temples of Bangladesh, characterised by a riverine alluvial floodplain, were marked with terracotta plaques. This distinct form of clay art manifested various carved, moulded and incised figures (both religious divinities and secular beings). Manufactured by clay processing and figure making, these artistic traditions gave rise to a regional style of artistic medium, form and contents. Usually, they were attached to the façade or the visible external surfaces of the Hindu, Buddhist and Jain temples or shrines or monasteries. Art historians and experts on the evolution of temple architecture have suggested that these temples were not simply a religious built space. According to the canonical texts and other sources, these monuments were perceived as the earthly abode of divinities. Various idols, made of stone, stucco, metal, wood and clay, were worshipped in these temples which structurally consisted mainly of two parts. The chamber in which the idols of deities was kept and worshipped is known as garbhagriha (an abode like the womb) and the chamber where the worshippers gathered and performed their rituals to the specific deity to which the temple was dedicated is known as mandapa (assembly hall). Idols of deities, floral, geometric and other decorative motifs were used with the main construction materials on the external and also often on the internal surface, and the corbelled roofs or vaults of these two parts. These temples, according to the scholars, also represent the social stratifications, patronage pattern and political authority and power of the patrons. On predominantly flat terrain, the superstructures were visible from a distance and the mere viewing of the temple was considered to be an act of gaining merit. The temples and their building activities saw a detectable decline during the 14th-15th centuries, mainly because of the change in the political and religious affiliation of the rulers. Page 116

Final Report on Updating the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List of Bangladesh CHAPTER 3 a. The historical context of the second surge of temple building PROPOSED SITES FOR UPDATED TENTATIVE LIST OF BANGLADESH During the 16th century CE, known as the Sultanate period in Bengal, a distinct set of temple building activities with an ensemble of many new forms developed in Bangladesh (and West Bengal, India). Most of the scholars point at the rise and development of a new bhakti (devotional) movement as a distinct tradition under Hinduism in Bangladesh and in West Bengal, India. This movement’s central figures were Sri Chaitanyadeva and Sri Nityanandadeva. Under the implicit or direct patronage of rulers, or in the contestation of the oppressive social inequality in the name of the caste system and religious dominance of the authorities who were adherent to Islam, this movement swayed various parts of Bengal. Popularly known as new Vaisnavism or Gaudiya Vaisnavism, this movement developed around love and devotion for the Hindu deities Krishna (considered to be an incarnation of the Hindu god Vishnu) and Radha. The duality and unity of the masculine and the feminine were celebrated through the love and devotion that were not sanctioned by the established Brahmana (higher caste) controlled religious practices. The impact of this movement was huge in the society, culture and religious geography of the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent and it extended to Orissa and also to north India. This religious movement had a public manifestation of devotionalism in the ways of gathering, dance, singing and chanting. After the demise of two of the central figures among whom Chaitanyadeva was perceived as an incarnation of the Hindu deity Krishna, the movement was divided into different sects. The main protagonists and organizers moved to North India and built Vrindaban as a new centre of authority. In Bengal, the movement continued with differences and reconfigurations. This is the time when Mughal rulers from north India conquered parts of Bengal. In different studies, the scholars like Tarapada Satra, Hiteshranjan Sanyal and others have contended that the temple building activities extended well into the other social, religious and economic groups. Gradually, various religious sects and caste- occupation-professional groups with the aim of social mobility began to construct temples to assert their authority and identity in the 18th-19th centuries CE. This is also the period when commercial contact and activities with the European powers intensified and the European countries began to compete with each other to take control of the land and maritime trade routes and products. The rural commercialisation, increasing financial capacities of different earlier lower occupational groups and intensifying contestations among various religious traditions conditioned a historical context which created a religious and social environment where construction of temples was perceived and represented as power, authority and legitimisation of new status. Under these, religious, political and economic circumstances, the temples in Bangladesh saw the second stage of proliferation after the first stage (c. 8th-13th century CE). b. Development of an extraordinary architectural style through synthesis and change The temples, mostly constructed with bricks, were different in many ways from the early Nagara or Kalinga styles. Entirely new morphological styles and articulations of the built space were attained in the temple architecture of Bangladesh (and West Bengal, India). These temples have been studied in detail by David J. McCutchion and he published an elaborate classification of them in his pioneering book: Late medieval temples in Bengal: Origins and Classification (1972). Later pioneering scholars and researchers, like Tarapada Santra, Hiteshranjan Sanyal, and George Michell, followed the scheme of his classification with minor modifications. The influence of Islamic architecture on these temples is evident in their construction technique, treatment of superstructure and elaborate application of the arcuate method of vaulting. For the purpose of introducing the classification nomenclature, the primary and fundamental categories of the temples are briefly described below: C1. Rekha Temple: Rekha is a Sanskrit word, meaning line. Rekha in Oriya means a straight line. Rekha Temple is a tall building with a shape of a curvilinear or straight sikhara (or temple top). It looks like a spire, covering and protecting the sanctum (garbhagriha). This type can be morphologically connected to the Rekha deuls of Nagara or Kalinga style of temples from the pre-13th century northern and eastern parts of India. In many cases, the erection of this type of temple was associated with the commemoration of the dead and popularly identified as math. The following types of Rekha temple are noticed in Bangladesh: Page 117

Final Report on Updating the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List of Bangladesh CHAPTER 3 Ridged Curvilinear type: The shikhara or superstructure of this type display deep ridges on their external PROPOSED SITES FOR UPDATED surface and they are interrupted by niches at the centre of each side. TENTATIVE LIST OF BANGLADESH Straight-Edged Pyramidal type: The temples of this type contain a straight-edged pyramidal roof. The external side of the superstructure displays shallow ridges. C2. Bangla Temple: One of the most innovative, common and differentiated temple types of late medieval Bangladesh. The basic layout and form of this category are derived from the traditional thatched huts of rural Bangladesh (and Bengal). This derivation was not uncommon in the Islamic architecture of this part of Bengal when domes of the mosques or tombs were built with the roofs like the huts. The simplest form of the domestic hut is built on an extended base with two or four sides the roof is sloping down towards the cardinal directions. The curvilinear edge and the gable end of the roof are also translated into the brick-built temple forms. They may have a single or triple-arched entrance with a profusely terracotta-decorated façade marked with two octagonal pillars and two octagonal pilasters. The top of the roof is curved and decorated with three to six finials. They are often found in association with the other types, as an entrance, as a superstructure or as garbhagriha. The subcategories of this type, proposed in this property, are as follows: Ek-Bangla/Do-chala: These temples represent the simplest form of the domestic hut with two sides to the sloping roof, the curvilinear edge and the gable end of the roof. The Ek-Bangla/Do-chala temple is also called the `single hut-type temple’. Twin Ek-Bangla/Jor-Bangla: Two hut or Ek-Bangla/Do-chala in a conjoined form is called Jor-Bangla temple. These temples represent a unique creation and fusion of vaulting with triple-arched entrances into the frontal chamber. C3. Ratna Temples: Ratna can be literally translated as ‘jewel’ in English and this type of temple is recognized in reference to the number of towers, small or large, of a temple. This type has various subtypes. The main shikhara or tower of the temple is constructed on the top of the sanctum. Often, the temple vertically ascended in tiered steps with the towers on four corners built through the installation of pinnacles (tower/turret/peak) on the roof of the temple. It is important to note that a pinnacle (tower/turret/peak) on the roof of the temple is called a ‘Ratna’ (jewel/gem). The temple with only a pinnacle on the centre of its roof is called Ek-ratna (one jewel) temple. The Pancharatna (five jewels) temple is built with four pinnacles at the four corners and the central pinnacle on its roof. In this way, by increasing the number of pinnacles, Navaratna (nine jewels), Triodasharatna (thirteen jewels), Saptadasaratna (seventeen jewels), Ekbingsatiratna (twenty- one jewels) and Panchabingsatiratna (twenty-five jewels) temples were named. C4. Chala Temples: Although they shared features with Bangla temples, this category includes various composites and often elaborations on the simple thatched hut of the rural Bengal temple. Chau-Chala/Char-Chala: This sub-type is built following the simplest form of the domestic hut with four sides sloping to the cardinal directions, the curvilinear edge and the gable end of the roof. The Char-Chala temple is also called the `single hut-type temple’. Do-chala between Char-Chala: This style in brick temple architectures is built as a building covered by a Ek- Bangla/Do-chala acting as the roof between two char-chala buildings. Aat-Chala: This type is characterized by two vertically separate tiered roofs with chau-chala varieties. Sometimes these Chala temples are fused with Ratnas or flat-roofed ones. C5. Dolmancha/Rashmancha: The layout and vertical design of these two types are often similar, with the former type smaller than the latter one. They have receding stepped or tiered vertical extensions and they can be approached from four cardinal directions. They can be solid and decorated with various motifs like blind arches, turrets and curved cornices and may have a square ortho octagonal ground plan. Often, these types of temples are built upon a high plinth with arched openings in all directions. ‘Mancha’ can be loosely translated as a podium and dol and rash are two sacred festive rituals associated with the devotional love story between Page 118

Final Report on Updating the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List of Bangladesh CHAPTER 3 the Hindu God Krishna and Goddess Radha. The superstructure of this type follows the other temple forms of PROPOSED SITES FOR UPDATED Rekha, Chala and Ratna. The style of vertical accretion of the space with receding tiers can be traced back to TENTATIVE LIST OF BANGLADESH the cruciform Buddhist temples of pre-13th century CE Bengal. C6. Domed Temple: This style of brick temple architectures has octagonal lower parts and upper portions beginning with inverted lotuses, over which eight-sided pointed domes are placed on short drums, which are surrounded by rows of slightly curved lotus petals or curved merlon decorations. The following type of domed temples is noticed in Bengal as well as in Bangladesh: Inverted Lotus Domed Temple: The temples are very small and octagonal lower parts and upper portions begin with inverted lotuses, over which eight-sided pointed domes are placed on short drums, which are surrounded by rows of slightly curved lotus petals. Each side of the octagonal shaft of the temple contains ornamental blind arches except the entrance arch. These temples were commonly built in Bangladesh during the 18th – 19th Century CE. C6. Flat-roofed Temple: This style of the temple is rectangular or square in plan and covered by a flat roof supported on iron or wood girders. There is also a verandah with doorways in front of this type of temple. The flat-roofed temples were commonly built in Bangladesh during the 19th – 20th century CE. C7. Groupings: This type displays the assembling of similar types of separate built-edifices (e.g. Chala or Bangla types) with a common courtyard. They can be arranged on three sides of a square or rectangular courtyard. Proposed components of the property: This proposed property is a thematic selection for a specific type of religious architecture which represents the social, economic, religious and artistic uniqueness as an ensemble and as a representation of the development of architectural style in a specific spatiotemporal segment. A table of thirty temples or group of temples, along with their tentative chronology based upon dedicatory inscriptions and stylistic dating is given below: Basic Serial Name of the State, Province or Latitude and Construc Serial Type code Sub-type code temple Region Longitude, or tion A Rekha Straight-Edged number UTM coordinates Period Pyramidal A1 Handial Handial village, N 24°18'55.2\" 16th Jagannath Chatmohar Upazila, E 89°21'32\" Cen. CE Temple Pabna district Ridge A2 Mathurapur Deul Mathurapur village, N 23°33'42\" 16th Curvilinear Baliakandi Upazila, E 89°37'41\" Cen. CE Faridpur district A3 Kodla math Kodla village, N 22°44'31.3\" 16th Bagerhat Sador E 89°46'20.7\" Cen. CE Upazila, Bagerhat district B Bangla Ek-Bangla B1 Hatikumrul Hatikumrul village, N 24°25'54.9\" 18th Bangla Ghara Ullapara Upazila, E 89°33'06.6\" Cen. CE Temple Sirajgonj District B2 Puthia Chota Krishnapur village, N 24°21'40.8'' 19th Annik Temple Puthia Upazila, E 88°50'12.4'' Cen. CE Rajshahi District Ek-Bangla B3 Puthia Bara Krishnapur village, N 23°12'56.7\" 18th between two char-chala Annik Temple Puthia Upazila, E 89°35'09.5\" Cen. CE Rajshahi District B4 Raja Ram Temple Khalia village, Rajoir N 23°13'23.5\" 17th Upazila, Madaripur E 90°00'15.8\" Cen. CE Page 119

Final Report on Updating the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List of Bangladesh CHAPTER 3 Basic Serial Name of the State, Province or Latitude and Construc PROPOSED SITES FOR UPDATED Serial Type code temple TENTATIVE LIST OF BANGLADESH code Sub-type number Region Longitude, or tion UTM coordinates Period District Jor-Bangla B5 Gopinath Jor- Kalachandpur N 24°00'05.4\" 18th C Ratna Pancharatna Bangla Temple village, Pabna Sadar E 89°14'42.2\" Cen. CE Navaratna Upazila, Pabna District B6 Chaklanabish Jor- Shalnagar village, N 24°21'40.8'' 18th bangla Temple Lohagara Upazila, E 88°50'12.4'' Cen. CE Narail District B7 Kotakol Jor- Kotakol village, N 23°07'28.1\" 18th bangla Temple Lohagara Upazila, E 89°40'08.7\" Cen. CE Narail District C1 Puthia Govinda Krishnapur village, N 24°21'41.8\" 19th Temple Puthia Upazila, E 88°50'13.4\" Cen. CE Rajshahi District C2 Puthia Bara Siva Krishnapur village, N 24°21'50.4\" 1823 CE Temple Puthia Upazila, E 88°50'13.3\" Rajshahi District C3 Kantajee Temple Kantanagar village, N 23°05'12.9\" 18th Kaharol Upazila, E 89°44'20.1\" Cen. CE Dinajpur district C4 Hatikumrul Hatikumrul village, N 24°25'58.5\" 18th Navaratna Ullapara Upazila, E 89°33'10.7\" Cen. CE Temple Sirajgonj District C5 Teota Navaratna Teota village, N 23°51'30.9\" 19th E 89°46'41.1\" Cen. CE Temple Shibaloya Upazila, Manikgonj district C6 Annapurna Asashuni village, N 22°42'14.2\" 19th Temple Sador Upazila, E 89°05'17.3\" Cen. CE Satkhira district C7 Shamsundar Kalaroya Upazila, N 22°52'35.2\" 1767 CE Temple Satkhira district E 88°59'07.4\" Saptadashratna C8 Sateraratna Jagannathpur N 23°27'44.1\" 1686- D Chala Char-Chala Temple village, Sador E 91°12'39.1\" 1715 CE Upazila, Cumilla district D1 Puthia Gopala Krishnapur village, N 24°21'44.6\" 18th Temple Puthia Upazila, E 88°50'05.5\" Cen. CE Rajshahi District D2 Puthia Chota Siva Krishnapur village, N 24°21'39.7\" 19th Temple Puthia Upazila, E 88°50'09.2\" Cen. CE Rajshahi District D3 Chaklanabish Shalnagar village, N 23°16'32.7\" 18th Siva Temple Lohagara Upazila, E 89°38'14.0\" Cen. CE Narail District D4 Hatikumrul Bara Hatikumrul village, N 24°25'54.9\" 18th Siva Temple Ullapara Upazila, E 89°33'06.6\" Cen. CE Sirajgonj District, Rajshahi Division Aat-Chala D5 Chaklanabish Shalnagar village, N 23°16'32.3\" 18th Bhairaba Temple Lohagara Upazila, E 89°38'14.1\" Cen. CE Narail District Page 120

Final Report on Updating the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List of Bangladesh CHAPTER 3 Basic Serial Name of the State, Province or Latitude and Construc PROPOSED SITES FOR UPDATED Serial Type Sub-type TENTATIVE LIST OF BANGLADESH code code temple Region Longitude, or tion E Dolma Dolmancha number UTM coordinates Period ncha/ Rashm E1 Chaklanabish Shalnagar village, N 23°16'32.7\" 18th ancha Dola Temple Lohagara Upazila, E 89°38'14.4\" Cen. CE Rashmancha Narail District F Domed Inverted Lotus Domed E2 Puthia Dola Krishnapur village, N 24°21'46.6\" 19th G Flat- With Chala Temple Puthia Upazila, E 88°50'14.3\" Cen. CE Roofed Superstructure Rajshahi District H Groupi Char-Chala ngs E3 Puthia Ratha Krishnapur village, N 24°21'49.9\" 19th Temple Puthia Upazila, E 88°50'14.4\" Cen. CE Rajshahi District F1 Hatikumrul Chota Hatikumrul village, N 24°25'59.5\" 18th Siva Temple Ullapara Upazila, E 89°33'10.5\" Cen. CE Sirajgonj District G1 Khalaram Datar Kalakopa village, N 23°39'35.6\" 19th Temple Nawabgonj Upazila, E 90°08'45.4\" Cen. CE Dhaka district H1 Eleven Siva Abhayanagar N 24°26'00.6\" 1745- Temples village, E 89°33'10.4\" 1764 Abhayanagar Upazila, Jashore District d. The morphology, articulation of artistic style and storytelling through terracotta art One of the most outstanding features of the temples belonging to these periods is the profuse and planned articulation of their external surface, and sometimes their internal surface, with terracotta plaques depicting themes and stories of both secular and religious types. The narratives of the epics, like the Ramayana and Mahabharata, and the stories from the life of Radha-Krishna or incarnations of the Hindu god Vishnu were told by the medium of terracotta plaques. Contemporary characters, features and stories like the merchant boats, naval fleets, foreign traders, lives of the landlords or zaminders, along with erotic scenes were represented in these narratives. Temples like Kantajee (C3), Hatikamrul Navaratna Temple (C4) and the temples of the Puthia cluster (C1, B2, B3, E3) have elaborate tales told through the terracotta plaques on their facades from the plinth level up to the cornice. Many other temples like the Jorbangla and Chala types have terracotta plaques depicting religious and secular themes on their arched entrances, pillars and corner pilasters. Because of the entwinement of terracotta plaques and bricks in the temples, many art historians identify these temples as terracotta temples despite the fact that not all of them have similar usages of terracotta decorations. The terracotta plaques with their narratives, stylistic attributes, spatial patterns and the subjects they portray in the plastic medium are the focus of the interest of many studies. Their styles reflect different schools of clay artists during this period and their mobilities. They often signify the contemporary social and economic lifeways, and the relationship between patrons of the temple building and the worshippers. Along with terracotta plaques and terracotta ornamentation through replicating various floral motifs, stucco plasters were widely used in many of these temples for representing figures and themes on external and internal surfaces. The extensive use of terracotta and stucco plasters have rendered these temples very rare artistic characters in addition to their socio-religious and economic significance. Justification of Outstanding Universal Value: The brick temples of the late medieval and colonial period in Bangladesh often occur in a clustered spatial group within a specific locality suggesting the centrality of the space for the patrons. Many temples, besides, Page 121

Final Report on Updating the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List of Bangladesh CHAPTER 3 have isolated or discrete existences. The outstanding universal values of this property, proposed as a serial PROPOSED SITES FOR UPDATED nomination, are justified as follows: TENTATIVE LIST OF BANGLADESH Criteria (ii): to exhibit an important interchange of human values, over a span of time or within a cultural area of the world, on developments in architecture or technology, monumental arts, town-planning or landscape design; The components of this property represent a period of Bangladesh (and West Bengal, India), known popularly as ‘Bengal’ during the Mughal and colonial period, which witnessed transformation, evolution and continuity in various aspects of society, culture, religion and economic life. The origin of this genre of temple architecture intimately connected to the terracotta art was conditioned by these transformations which were, partially, a result of the exchange of artistic ideas, technique and forms over a wide region. The abundant clay, as construction material in the form of bricks and as a plastic medium of artistic expression and style, gave rise to specific architectural morphology and style along with plastic art. The origin of these formal and stylistic traditions can be traced back to the 3rd- 4th century BCE. These ensembles of the temple, both as a built space and as artistic expressions, had certain features which were distinct from the antecedent traditions. The techniques and formal attributes of Muslim architecture, especially the arcuate system of vaulting and the domes, inspired the overall humble external outlook of these temples. Unlike, North and South Indian counterparts of this period, these temples were not vertically extended. Construction material had a role to play in the demeanour of these built forms. The humble and populist Vaisnavite movement, which sought to bring changes in the contemporary caste-based hierarchical society dominated by the Brahmins, and celebrated bhakti or devotion in more democratic participation from all spheres of the society, have had implications upon the visually not conspicuous and more mundane representation of these temples. The interchange among various traditions, religious, architectural and artistic, made this extraordinary innovation of form and style possible. The Ratna type of temples assimilated the corner towers and small kiosks from Muslim religious architecture. The replication of traditional thatched huts of the region was also initiated by the Muslim patrons in this region of Bengal. The temple builders and the patrons were influenced by this successful improvisation and they gave the replication of traditional Bengali hut a more heterogeneous form and meaning by creating a variety of Chala types and by mixing them with other types also. The Jor-Bangla type of temples deserves special mention, in this exceptionally innovative and exquisitely creative enterprise of the temple builders and clay artists. By joining two huts and by using their surfaces for articulating and representing the sacred and mundane world of being, the Bengali clay artists not only showed their highest imaginative capabilities, they also transformed the temple into a space of collective celebration of the indivisibility of the divine and the mundane, according to the Gaudiya Vaisnavite philosophy. The performative aspect of this devotional tradition by kirton (a genre of singing and dancing by uttering the names of Radha-Krishna) was reflected in the content of the terracotta plaques as well as in the open space in front of the façade that was meticulously ornamented with the stories and narratives. Other varieties, such as the inverted lotus domed temples, are a vivid signature of the development of specific monumental forms with the syncretic and mutual exchange between various creative traditions – Muslim style, which brought central Asian, Persian and even, European styles, techniques and forms during the Mughal period in Bengal; Hindu-Buddhist styles from the pre-medieval period; and various components and styles from the colonial period. The alluvial and riverine landscape of Bengal witnessed the rise of this ensemble suggesting a distinctive regional style of creative fusions and innovations of artistic content and form in constructing narratives from the epics, local purana, popular narratives of the lives of Radha-Krisna as well as the subjects and events happening in and around the region. Many of these forms, like the Bangla or Chala style built spaces, made a significant influence upon the Imperial and regional architectural development during the Mughal period in north and central India. The movement of the artists and artisans was coincidental to the dynamic and changing social and economic mobilities of various groups in an inter and supra-regional context. Page 122

Final Report on Updating the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List of Bangladesh CHAPTER 3 Criteria (iii): bear a unique or at least exceptional testimony to a cultural tradition or to a civilization which PROPOSED SITES FOR UPDATED is living or which has disappeared; TENTATIVE LIST OF BANGLADESH Interestingly, many of the proposed components of this property are living religious monuments. They are being worshipped by the local Hindu communities. Several temples are considered as important pilgrimage destinations during specific sacred occasions. For example, temples of Putia or Kantajee temple become centres of pilgrimage and worship during the celebration of events that are considered very significant in the life of Radha-Krisna. The temples with Shiva lingams are visited by the devotees during the auspicious occasions of the worship of Shiva. Simultaneously, some temples are regarded as the abode of local Hindu deities, contributing to the preservation and continuity of the ritualistic traditions pertaining to the local Hindu deities. Criterion (iv): to be an outstanding example of a type of building, architectural or technological ensemble or landscape which illustrates (a) significant stage(s) in human history; As has been pointed above, this ensemble of temples illustrates a type of monuments and architectural style which born out of specific social, religious and regional context. Evidence of assimilation and fusion of various elements, forms and styles are explicit in this property. The ornamentation and storytelling through the plastic artistic medium such as terracotta and stucco were inseparable from the architectural form and style. The incorporation of plastic and locally available clay and stucco as an essential part of brick-built monumental unity with lucid, humble and exquisite intricacy of symbolic space gave birth to an ensemble of buildings that became centres of power, devotion and celebration of the love of the divine in the earthly world. The outstanding multilayered functional and symbolic aspects of these buildings deserve a unique status on a global scale. Criteria met (iii) √ (iv) √ (v) (vi) (vii) (viii) (ix) (x) (i) (ii) √ Statements of authenticity and/or integrity Authenticity: All the proposed components for serial nomination under this property have maintained their original character to a certain extent. Most of them are listed as protected monuments under the Antiquity Act of Bangladesh. The main construction materials – bricks and lime-surki mortar – have been kept untouched in most cases. As many of these temples are living religious monuments and community participation is inevitable in the process of performing religious rituals, a few temples have faced intervention with later additions of extensions and auxiliary buildings in adjacent areas in the late 19th or early 20th century CE. According to the Nara Document, these renewals and renovations must be accepted as authentic as they were performed during the living periods of these monuments. Because of the population growth and scarcity of lands, several mosques have been encroached by the locals and some parts have been damaged or left uncared. The authenticity of the monuments along with their substance, function and primary purpose have largely remained unaltered. Integrity: A few buildings on the coastal belts are threatened by the effect of salinity and by the weathering of clay made bricks. The superstructures, especially the domes are prone to damage. For a few temples, the terracotta plaques have been stolen or have been weathered because of salinity and Page 123

Final Report on Updating the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List of Bangladesh CHAPTER 3 bioturbation. The growth of plants has affected the solidity and endurance of superstructures and external PROPOSED SITES FOR UPDATED surfaces in several cases. The intervention by the local community for the restoration and renovation in the TENTATIVE LIST OF BANGLADESH manner of putting plasters or colours over the surfaces have had an impact on the integrity of the mosques. The boundary walls and auxiliary structures in several cases have been damaged. Nevertheless, these protected and state-owned buildings, as well as the temples under continuous use by the local Hindu communities, still have integrity in terms of their architectural traditions’ distinctiveness and exceptional characteristics. They, besides, are testimony to a period of transformation and synthesis in the social and religious sphere of Bengal. Comparison with other similar properties: This property is comparable to the Khajuraho Group of Monuments in India. Like Khajuraho, these temples represent a harmonious blending of the sculptural portrayals of both religious and non-religious contents and the morphology of the monuments. These temples are distributed over a wide area and rely heavily on locally available material for construction and the medium of artistic innovation. In the case of Khajuraho, the material was stone, while in this case the material was clay. In a similar way, the components of this property are comparable to the Group of Monuments of Hampi, representing the medieval Vijaynagara Empire in India. With the synchronised use of surfaces, both vertically and horizontally, in accordance to the landscape, the temples of various sizes, forms and styles were blended to display the highest development of the South Indian temple architectural style in Karnataka, India. These brick temples bear the testimony of the artistic creativity and socio-political effloresce of the late medieval period of Bengal and continued till the colonial period in the 19th century. References: 1. Ahmed, Dr Nazimuddin, Discover the Monuments of Bangladesh, 1984, UNESCO 2. Ahmed, Babu and Chowdhury, Nazly, Selected Hindu Temples of Bangladesh, 2005, UNESCO 3. Brick Temples of Bengal, From the archive of David McCutchion, edited by George Mitchell, 1984, Princeton University Press 4. McCutchion, David, Late Mediaeval Temple of Bengal, 1972, The Asiatic Society, 5. Banglapedia (http://en.banglapedia.org) Page 124

CHAPTER 4 CONCLUDING REMARKS Atia Mosque,Tangail- © DoA

Final Report on Updating the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List of Bangladesh CHAPTER 4 Updating the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List of Bangladesh project was a timely and CONCLUDING REMARKS effective collaboration between UNESCO and DoA to update Bangladesh’s Tentative List as well as train the DoA officials along with heritage experts and researchers in a very effective manner. The variety of activities involved in this project enabled great community participation and involvement with the UNESCO World Heritage Convention. Completing the project during the pandemic situation was a huge challenge for DoA. But with the kind help and Cooperation of MoCA, UNESCO Dhaka Office, researchers and focal points of the project the project activities was completed successfully. The project was started in January 2021 and concluded in February 2021. Throughout the time DoA got all kinds of support and help from different organizations and stakeholders. With the recommendation from UNESCO Dhaka Office DoA introduced a specialized wing naming Heritage Cell for this type of works. That was really a noteworthy recommendation. This project was managed and coordinated by Heritage Cell of DoA. DoA plans to execute more projects like this through this specialized wing to make a well-trained team of officials for the future. Number of local and international level heritage experts and researchers gave valuable comments time to time. Those comments were very crucial for the proper output of the project. The experts of this project were very through in their work and put their highest level of effort with this project. This may be concluded by mentioning that the tentative list updating process is a continuous process. Bangladesh was lag behind in this area comparing with the other country. Through this project, the whole country is thoroughly examined for possible future World Heritage Site. The draft list an outcome from the first-level evaluation. It will be re- examined and refined in the coming days. The International Assistance (IA) project was an excellent opportunity for DoA to update the tentative list. If we can overcome some challenges for several sites, it will be very helpful for DoA to make the future Nomination Dossier of the tentative list sites to enlist them as World Heritage Site which will enrich the pride of our country. Page 126

Final Report on Updating the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List of Bangladesh CHAPTER 4 At last, some recommendations can be given from this project. Which are- CONCLUDING REMARKS 1. DoA should take regular initiatives to update the Tentative List. 2. The final list of eight properties were selected from a short list of 16 sites. Insufficient data or weak comparative analysis was a common reason for excluding the other eight proposals. These proposals may be reassessed if new research on them becomes available in future. 3. For properties that have stronger justification for inscription as a Transboundary or Transnational property, consultations with relevant state parties should be initiated for future TL updating process. 4. As per Article 67 of the Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention, DoA should take necessary actions to send the prepared Tentative list to UNESCO World Heritage Centre. 5. DoA should identify the priority properties for preparing nomination dossiers and that are take necessary actions, including Upstream Process, to prepare the dossiers from this updated Tentative List. 6. Separate Upstream Process should be initiated to develop themes such as the Martyr Monument of Language Movement in Dhaka and Sites of the Bangladesh Liberation Movement in Dhaka City for future inclusion on the Tentative List of Bangladesh. 7. Temporarily established specialized wing, the present Heritage Cell, should be made permanent and be legalized by proper legal framework along with included in the organogram of DoA. DoA should utilize the expertise and experience of Heritage Cell in future assignments related to the implementation of the World Heritage Convention in Bangladesh. This way, there will be a consistent capacity building of this specialized wing. Page 127

Kantajee Temple, Dinajpur- © DoA

Annexure 01: Detailed Work Plan ANNEXURE -01

Final Report on Updating the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List of Bangladesh Page 129

Annexure 02: Review of Thematic Studies Carried Out by Advis Prepared by: Dr Sharif Shams Imon Title Theme Year Geograph 2019 Scope 1. Rock art in East Asia (2019) Rock Art 2017 2. Cultural Heritages of Water: The Asia Heritage of Water cultural heritages of water in the Industrial (overlaps with Arab States Middle East and Maghreb / Les Industrial Heritage, Canals Middle Eas patrimoines culturels de l’eau : and Bridges) Les patrimoines culturels de Second study on the same l’eau au Moyen-Orient et au theme. Maghreb. Thematic study 2nd ed. / Étude thématique 2e éd. The focus is on fresh water and inland water. 3. Heritage sites of astronomy and Astronomy and 2017 Global archaeoastronomy in the Archaeoastronomy context of the UNESCO World Heritage Convention. Thematic study No. 2. ANNEXURE -02

Final Report on Updating the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List of Bangladesh sory Bodies hic Relevance for Bangladesh No rock art sites have been discovered in Bangladesh so far. s, It is the second edition of a study on the same theme. st It is very relevant as a theme for cultural heritage in Bangladesh, although the geographic scope of the study is different. The study identifies the following six typologies of the cultural heritage of water: 1. The acquisition, management and control of water to make it available for purposes of human use 2. Hydraulic techniques, and their architectures and management 3. The management of constraints and the control of natural water 4. Water and health, water quality and the associated representations 5. Water, and water-related knowledge, knowhow, myths and symbols 6. Cultural landscapes of water Of the six typologies (with some overlaps between them), “cultural landscapes of water in its functional associations with its tangible cultural environment” could be particularly helpful in analyzing the heritage values of several sites that are/were directly linked to water (e.g., Mughal water forts, Mahasthan, Sonargaon). The study, especially “water, and water-related knowledge, knowhow, myths and symbols”, could offer a good framework for the identification and assessment of potential cultural heritage in Bangladesh. It is the second study on the same theme, a subset of Science Heritage. The previous study was carried out in 2010. The study identified the following seven principal types of tangible astronomical heritage: 1. Observatories as ‘scientific monuments’. 2. Fixed and moveable instruments. 3. Material representations of the results of astronomical observations and cognitive understanding. 4. The material products of the application of astronomy. 5. Properties whose design and/or landscape setting have significance in relation to celestial objects or events. 6. Cultural landscapes related to the history of astronomy and/or human cultural practices related to astronomy. Page 130

Title Theme Year Geograph Scope 4. The Cultural Heritages of Heritage of Water 2015 Arab States Water in the Middle East and the Industrial (overlaps with Middle Eas Maghreb Industrial Heritage, Canals and Bridges) 2014 Global 5. The Silk Roads: an ICOMOS Routes Thematic Study ANNEXURE -02 6. Rock art in Central Asia: a Rock Art 2011 Central Asi thematic study Human Migration 2010 Pacific Islan 7. Early Human Expansion and Innovation in the Pacific

Final Report on Updating the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List of Bangladesh hic Relevance for Bangladesh 7. Dark night sky areas where the ability to see natural starlight preserves the visual links to the sky that have connected humankind to the cosmos throughout history. Types 5 and 6 could be of some relevance for religious sites in Bangladesh since celestial events and certain practices related to major religions in the country are often intertwined. A detailed study on this is necessary for drawing any meaningful conclusions on this. s, Covered in the 2nd edition above (2. Cultural Heritage of Water) st The types of monuments, sites and cultural landscapes found along the Silk Roads could be categorized under: 1. Infrastructure - facilitating trade and transportation (including caravanserais and inns; military posts, garrison stations and fortifications; bridges; irrigation systems; natural and cultural landmarks). 2. Production - of trading goods (including mining, metal working, manufacturing and handicrafts, and other industrial and production sites). 3. Outcomes - such as cities, art, knowledge as a result of contact and exchange (including trade cities, urban centres and settlements; religious, spiritual and ceremonial sites (including shrines, caves, tombs, sites of pilgrimage); and places of associations with political events, transfer of ideas, language, music, dance, poetry, etc.). Bangladesh was a part of the extensive Silk Route network, and the Old World Trade Routes (OWTRAD) project identifies the existence of at least 10 caravanserais in Bangladesh territory. The study recommends more research on Bangladesh’s connections to the Silk Route, especially on the outcomes of the connections in the form of urban centres and settlements, religious, spiritual and ceremonial sites. ia No rock art sites have been discovered in Bangladesh so far. nds Not relevant for Bangladesh. Page 131

Title Theme Year Geograph 2010 Scope 8. Heritage Sites of Astronomy and Astronomy and Archaeoastronomy in the Archaeoastronomy Global context of the UNESCO World Heritage Convention (by ICOMOS and IAU) 9. Cultural landscapes of the Pacific Cultural Landscapes 2007 Pacific Islan Islands 10. Rock Art of Sahara and North Rock Art 2007 Sahara and Africa Rock Art 2006 North Afric Wine Cultural Landscapes 2004 11. Rock Art of Latin America and Latin Amer the Caribbean and the Caribbean 12. Les paysages culturels viticoles Global ANNEXURE -02 13. Les Monastères orthodoxes dans Orthodox Monasteries 2003 Balkans, les Balkans 2003 Europe Coal mining-related 14. The International Collieries establishments and Global equipment (Overlaps with

Final Report on Updating the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List of Bangladesh hic Relevance for Bangladesh Covered in the 2nd study on the theme above (3. Heritage sites of astronomy and archaeoastronomy in the context of the UNESCO World Heritage Convention ). nds While the geographic scope not directly relevant for Bangladesh, the categorisation of cultural landscapes, especially the following ones, can be a good reference. - Colonization of the region and the development of societies - The “transported landscapes” - Principal factors contributing to the diversity of cultural - Systems of horticulture - Change through time in horticultural systems - Relict horticultural and agricultural cultural landscapes - Arboriculture in the region - Land tenure and settlement patterns - Social systems and village structures - Social, ceremonial and burial places - Relict landscapes of war in the region - Organically evolved cultural landscapes in the region - Storied landscapes and seascapes - Traditional knowledge: associations with the land and sea d No rock art sites have been discovered in Bangladesh so far. ca rica No rock art sites have been discovered in Bangladesh so far. In French. Could not be reviewed in detail. However, the theme is not relevant for Bangladesh. In French. Could not be reviewed in detail. However, the theme is not relevant for Bangladesh. According to the study, “collieries might be considered for World Heritage Status by conforming to one of four types: - Individual or groups of significant structures or monuments on colliery sites and Page 132

Title Theme Year Geograph Industrial Heritage) Scope Study 15. Southern African Rock-Art Sites Rock Art 2002 Southern 2002 Africa 16. L'Art rupestre Rock Art Global 17. Les villages ouvriers comme Workers’ villages as Industrial 2001 Global éléments du patrimoine de Heritage (Overlaps with l'industrie industrial heritage) 18. Railways as World Heritage Sites Railways (Overlaps with 1999 Global Industrial Heritage) ANNEXURE -02 19. Les Théâtres et les Ancient Theatres and 1999 Global Amphithéâtres antiques Amphitheatres 1998 Latin Amer 20. The Urban Architectural Heritage Architectural Heritage of Latin America

Final Report on Updating the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List of Bangladesh hic Relevance for Bangladesh adjoining colliery settlements. - Large colliery complexes and adjoining coalminers’ settlements. - Integrated industrial areas, either manufacturing or extractive, which contain collieries as an essential part of the industrial landscape. - Colliery landscapes, some with associated by-product processing and colliery housing and worker settlement institutions.” The study also identifies areas and values of significance in terms of technology, social factors, landscapes and documentation. Such categorisation can be a useful reference for the identification of potential sites associated with industrial heritage in Bangladesh. No rock art sites have been discovered in Bangladesh so far. No rock art sites have been discovered in Bangladesh so far. In French. Could not be reviewed in detail. However, the theme could be relevant in analysing workers’ settlements such as railway colonies or workers settlements in Tea Gardens in Bangladesh. The study proposes the following four criteria for internationally significant railways as a socio-technical system: 1. A creative work indicative of genius 2. The influence of, and on, innovative technology 3. Outstanding and typical example 4. Illustrative of economic or social development This theme is applicable to Greek and Roman theatres and amphitheatres, and thus not relevant for Bangladesh. rica This thematic study lacks depth and breadth of analysis. Focussed on Latin American historic towns and settlements, it provides descriptions of potential sites for World Heritage inscription. Page 133