Volume 2 – 2013

The International Journal for Transformative Emotional Intelligence 82 effectively with others” (1999, p. 43). Conversely, more than simply an alternate form of human in his description of intrapersonal knowledge, intelligence. Gardner referred to the “range of emotions, the capacity to make discriminations among these Epstein (1998) operationalized the emotional emotions and eventually to label them and to intelligence perspective of the two minds through draw on them as a means of understanding and his cognitive-experiential self-theory. The theory guiding one’s own behavior” (2006, p. 17). allows for rational intelligence (the rational Finally, Gardner provides a succinct definition of mind), emotional intelligence based on intelligence, as well as clues about societal constructive versus destructive preconscious valuations. Gardner (1999) wrote that intelligence thoughts in the experiential mind, and practical is intelligence. Epstein explained the operation of the two minds as follows: ... a biopsychological potential to process information that can be activated in a cultural We literally operate by two minds, a rational, setting to solve problems or create products conscious mind, which is relatively that are of value in a culture. Intelligences unemotional and which we can normally are not things that can be seen or counted. control, and an automatic, \"experiential\" Instead, they are potentials–presumably, mind, which is intimately associated with neural ones–that will or will not be activated, emotions and past experiences and which depending upon the values of a particular operates at the preconscious level, at the culture, the opportunities available in that fringe of consciousness, and which we cannot culture, and the personal decisions made by as easily control, partly because we are often individuals and/or their families, unaware of its operation. The thoughts that schoolteachers, and others. (p. 33) underlie emotions are preconscious and automatic and therefore not easy to control; Daniel Goleman’s best selling book, and emotional intelligence is based on the Emotional Intelligence (1995), is sold in 50 constructiveness of the underlying thoughts. If countries, has over five million copies in print, your thoughts are constructive and and is translated into 30 different languages (EI appropriate, so too will be your emotions. (p. Hay Group, 2005). The fact that Goleman’s book 6) on emotional intelligence possesses such wide appeal is strong evidence that the skills and A repeating theme of increasing self-efficacy, abilities associated with the affective domain are achievement, and personal fulfilment has been highly valued by many cultures in many settings presented and is graphically highlighted in the throughout the world. Based on Gardner’s four diagrams provided in Figure 2. Each of the definition of intelligence, his identification of scholars who offered theories for improving interpersonal and intrapersonal faculties as individual health and effectiveness have stressed important forms of intelligence, and the the importance of integrating three domains to widespread popularity of Goleman’s landmark achieve one’s best self. Two of the theories, those book of the same name, the affective domain does of Rogers and Epstein, are combined in the same represent a widely and highly valued form of diagram (Panel C). human potential. Interpersonal and Intrapersonal Epstein’s (1998) review of emotional Characteristics of Personal Excellence intelligence is both complementary and critical of the label. His praise of Salovey and Mayer (1990) Howard Gardner (2006) found that for their continuous narrowing and refinement of interpersonal skills and intrapersonal knowledge the construct based on new research findings and comprise important and separate kinds of human theoretical considerations, as well as his criticism intelligence. Others from the field of psychology of Goleman (1995) and Gottman’s (1996) teach that these constructs are important as well. definitions for being too inclusive, serve as an Maslow regarded neurosis as a needs deficiency appropriate backdrop for the diverse influences and wrote, “ . . . since these supplies come from and controversy surrounding the construct. As one other people, ordinary therapy must be reviews the myriad of definitions of emotional interpersonal” (1999, p. 43). Regarding the latter intelligence, one begins to sense that the Maslow wrote, “ . . . many of the tasks of Self- multifaceted concept does signify something actualization are largely intrapersonal, such as the making of plans, the discovery of self, the selection of potentialities to develop, the

Personal Excellence and Emotional Intelligence 83 Figure 2. The integrative nature of healthy growth and development. Adopted from R. Hammett’s Personal Excellence: The Development and Validation of a New Measure of Emotional Intelligence (2007). Reprinted with permission. construction of a life-outlook” (p. 43). As viewed involves the system of Support and is comprised from Maslow’s perspective, the theory of personal of the three emotional intelligence skills of excellence might represent an intrapersonal Assertion, Empathy, and Social Awareness. psychology for improving oneself from within. Relationships and Support The a priori theory of personal excellence is based on five major scales, what Nelson and Low Support contributes to one’s ability to maintain a (2003, 2011) have referred to as systems and variety of strong, healthy, and effective principals, with each scale comprised of three relationships. The ability to manage relationships subscales. The five scales include (a) is one of the four important indicators of personal Relationships, (b) Purpose, (c) Commitment, (d) emotional competence (Nelson & Low, 2003). Change, and (e) Vision. Based on the education model of emotional intelligence and given the Assertion humanistic emphasis on interpersonal relationships for healthy growth and development O'Hair, Friedrich, Wiemann, and Wiemann (1997) (Maslow, 1999; Rogers, 1995), the personal provided a theory for complete communication. excellence principle of Relationships provides an Following their competent communication theory, important bridge and foundation for achieving “Communication competencies are skills and personal excellence. The Relationships principle understandings that enable communication partners to exchange messages appropriately and effectively” (O’Hair et al., p. 21). Accordingly,

The International Journal for Transformative Emotional Intelligence 84 communication effectiveness may be judged similar and different from others, rather than based on the criteria of control, affiliation, and rigidly assuming one or the other” (p. 153). goal achievement. Based on these communication effectiveness criteria, the authors described The researchers found that after accounting competent relationships as those that involve the for gender effects, higher levels of EI were related the three communication qualities of (a) a to greater perspective taking as well as higher distribution of control that is mutually satisfying levels of universal-diverse orientation. Although or mutually agreed to, (b) a level of affiliation that women expressed greater empathic concern is comfortable and expressed by all participants, overall than men, the researchers found that UDO and (c) joint and individual consistency through and EI were also positively related with the constructed relational goals. empathy subscale of concern. Finally, women expressed greater levels of personal distress and The competent communication criteria of the distress subscale was found negatively O’Hair et al. (1997) are similar to the correlated with EI. The authors concluded that communication criteria for effective personal because EI was moderately correlated with three communication under stress provided by Nelson of the scales of empathy, “the ability to monitor and Low (2003). As related to emotional and discriminate the emotions of self and others is intelligence, assertion is a personal associated with the ability to communication skill (Nelson & Low, 2003). empathize . . .” (Miville et al., 2006, p. 161). Alberti and Emmons (2001) agreed that assertiveness is a personal communication skill As expressed in their transformational model and recommended that every person develop the of EI, Nelson and Low (2003) suggested that skill to avoid the one-down feeling that can empathy consists of skills and abilities that accompany a failure to properly express one’s facilitate the accurate understanding and personal desires. Like the communication constructive responding to another person’s competence of O’Hair et al., Alberti and expressed thoughts, feelings, or needs. “Empathy Emmons’ description of assertiveness also is a process of letting a person know that you compliments Nelson and Low’s description of have understood his feelings” (Nelson & Low, interpersonal communication under stress. 2003, p. 67). Empathy is an important EI skill because it encourages straight talk, active Assertive communication is an area of listening, and an appreciation for individual personal excellence. According to Nelson and differences. According to Nelson and Low, Low, “Assertive communication is the ability to learning the empathy skill requires “ . . . learning clearly and honestly communicate your thoughts to listen to and hear others, … feeling better about and feelings to others in a straightforward and accurately understanding others, … [and] direct manner” (p. 36). Developing the assertive choosing better responses to communicate communication skill requires “ . . . learning how understanding” (p. 67). Goleman, Boyatzis, and and when to say what you really think and feel, McKee (2002) contend that empathy is one of … learning how to feel better when nineteen competencies and the foundation skill in communicating with others, … [and] choosing the EI domain of social awareness. how you communicate when under stress” (Nelson & Low, 2003, p. 36). Social Awareness Empathy For Goleman, Boyatzis, and McKee (2002), the EI competency of empathy and the EI domain Miville, Carlozzi, Gushue, Schara, and Ueda of social awareness are very closely related. (2006) conducted research to investigate the Social awareness, one of only four EI domains in relationship between empathy, emotional their model, is needed for achieving emotional intelligence, and the construct of universal- resonance with others. In Primal Leadership: diverse orientation (UDO). UDO is a measure of Learning to Lead with Emotional Intelligence, social attitude, awareness and acceptance of Goleman and colleagues (2002) explained social similarities and differences among people based awareness as follows: on cultural considerations such as race, gender, and abilities (Miville, et al). The authors theorized By being attuned to how others feel in the that UDO was “… a relevant construct for moment, a leader can say and do what’s assessing empathy since it refers to the degree to appropriate, whether that means calming fears, which individuals believe that people are both assuaging anger, or joining in good spirits. This attunement also lets a leader sense the

Personal Excellence and Emotional Intelligence 85 shared values and priorities that can guide the For Nelson and Low (2003), emotional group. (p. 30) intelligence reflects a process of constructive thinking that facilitates human imperfections and Nelson and Low (2003) discussed social allows for positive evaluation of self, even when a awareness in terms of personal comfort when person fails to achieve desired goals. There is dealing with others. They suggested that it comes only a small difference between high achievement with interpersonal awareness and manifests when and failure, and positive self-esteem (clear values) combined with actual appropriate behavior when undergirds achievement (Nelson, 2006). “Your relating with others. The authors characterised level of self-esteem,” according to Nelson and social awareness as a skill needed to form and Low (2003), “is a reflection of your current maintain positive relationships and one of the four assessment of how you are doing in the world” (p. pillars of transformational EI. Developing social 111). While one’s optimism about one’s ability to awareness requires “ . . . learning to listen to and change and improve is basic to positive self- hear others, … learning how to feel more esteem, positive self-esteem is basic to high comfortable relating to others, … and choosing achievement (Nelson & Low, 2003). Self-esteem how to initiate and build comfortable is developed by “ . . . learning to value myself relationships” (Nelson & Low, p. 62). Grouping more, … learning to feel better about myself, … empathy and social awareness in the same system [and] learning to behave in ways that I respect of support to facilitate the principle of and value” (p. 112). According to Low (personal relationships suggests a fundamental agreement communication, March 27, 2007), a good with Goleman, Boyatzis, and McKee (2002) approach for enhancing both self-esteem and about the relationship between the two constructs. stress management would be to develop the other ESAP skills using the ELS. Purpose and Beliefs Self-Confidence The Beliefs system and associated principle of Purpose are at the heart of the a priori theory of People with low self-confidence tend to personal excellence. Beliefs are integral to the emphasize perceived weaknesses while ignoring pursuit of personal excellence because, as stated strengths (Goleman et al., 2002). One of the by Nelson and Low (2003), “Your beliefs dangers of low self-confidence is an influence what you attempt to do, how much you accompanying emphasis on personal weaknesses, do, and how well you do” (p. 140). Current a negative outlook, and patterns of defensiveness. functioning is dependent on clear values, According to Goleman et al. (2002), “… it confidence, and a basic appreciation of self to [defensiveness] typically demotivates rather than succeed. In addition, “optimistic beliefs expand motivates, thereby interrupting, even stopping, your potential to achieve beyond your normal self-directed learning and the likelihood of expectations” (Nelson & Low, 2003, p. 141). The change” (p. 137). A positive outlook and self- Beliefs system is comprised of the important directed learning are important for improving intrapersonal emotional intelligence skills of Self- emotional intelligence under the emotional Esteem, Self-Confidence, and Self-Appreciation. learning system (Nelson & Low, 2003). As seen in the previous section, one’s confidence in one’s Self-Esteem ability to change in positive, self-affirming ways is also important for building positive self-esteem. In a discussion about the evaluation of The accurate knowledge of one’s strengths constructs that constitute measures of emotional facilitates playing to those strengths (Goleman et intelligence, Ciarrochi et al. (2001) suggested that al., 2002). EI measures should provide distinctiveness from other well established constructs. The authors, Self-confidence plays a prominent role in the however, allow for using established measures belief system and purpose principle of the a priori when the measure can be sufficiently justified to theory of personal excellence. It promotes facilitate, or serve as a resource, for emotional personal well-being and is very similar to the intelligence. Self-esteem fits this category. For construct of self-efficacy (Bandura, 2001; example, self-esteem is an important resource for Goleman et al., 2002; Nelson & Low, 2003). managing averse affect and the Bar-On EQ-i “Self-confidence,” according to Nelson and Low, (2004) measures a construct called self-regard, is “ . . . your ability to focus on competence and which is highly correlated with other measures of feel positive about your potential to perform self-esteem (Ciarrochi et al., 2001). effectively” (p. 141). Confidence is what you do,

The International Journal for Transformative Emotional Intelligence 86 esteem is who you are, and sometimes people correlates with self-actualization (Bernstein- have difficulty with that distinction (D. Nelson, Hyman, 1979; Parkin et al., 1998). In their personal communication, October 17, 2006). introduction of actualizing therapy, Shostrom and Montgomery (2001) characterized Id as follows: Self-Appreciation . . . most people are other-directed rather than Self-appreciation is the third and final inner-directed (Riesman, 1950). They look to construct within the beliefs system. According to the outside—to authorities and people they Nelson and Low (2003), self-appreciation is “ . . . respect—for “shoulds,” “have tos” and your ability to value yourself positively and to be “musts,” not realising that they could better in touch with your strengths as a person” (p. 142). learn to live from within: to trust their own Based on this definition, the scale seems to thoughts, feelings, and bodies. Experiencing combine the intrapersonal skills of self-esteem one’s self within and expressing one’s self and self-confidence. without: This is the process of actualization. (p. 1) Guidance and Vision Bernstein-Hyman (1979) reported the POI’s John Hoyle (2007) used the term Id scale as significantly and positively correlated imagineering to emphasise the unique human with creative motivation and negatively correlated ability to envision exciting futures and work with reliance on external rules or principles for systematically to turn those potentialities into engaging in appropriate behavior. People high on realities. Nelson and Low (2003) provide an EI- the Id scale were process rather than rules- centric approach for developing the skill of authority oriented, they possessed greater imagineering in all of us. Future achievement, complexity and lacked compulsion, they were less growth, and change are facilitated through the dogmatic, and they demonstrated a propensity for personal excellence system of Guidance (Nelson independence from subcultures and social norms. & Low, 2003). Guidance refers to one’s life With its emphasis on creative motivation, direction (Covey, 1992). The guidance system is process-orientation, complexity, and indepen- characterised as a teleological dimension of dence from societal pressures, the POI construct personal excellence that “ . . . lets you anticipate of inner-directedness would seem to play an and plan your future in ways that you choose important role in the personal excellence skill of instead of simply reacting or orienting yourself to goal setting. the demands of the external environ- ment” (Nelson & Low, 2003, p. 140). The system The Tc scale of the POI relates to temporal of Guidance incorporates the Vision principle in qualities of self-actualization (Bernstein-Hyman, the a priori theory of personal excellence, and 1979). Research has linked an over emphasis on they include the skills of Personal Orientation, short-range goals to adolescent maladjustment Goal Setting, and Self-Control. and delinquency (Bernstein-Hyman). Conversely, a temporal orientation of broad time spans versus Personal Orientation time diffusion facilitates the belief that present actions affect future outcomes. An internal locus Nelson and Low’s (2003) theory of personal of control as opposed to an external one, excellence describes personal orientation as the therefore, implies the possibility for positive ability to see oneself as a positive person with change by acknowledging control over one’s potential for life-long learning and continual future (Bernstein-Hyman). The negative effects of change. A positive outlook and desire for time diffusion were further emphasized in Cottle continual improvement are themes that resonate and Klineberg’s (1974) characterization of a strongly with those of Maslow’s (1954) construct psychopath as someone who is “ . . . unable to of self-actualization (Bernstein-Hyman, 1979; organize efforts toward any long-range goals; the Parkin, Gaa, Swank, & Liberman; 1998; moment is a segment in time detached from all Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000; Shostrom & others” (Cottle & Klineberg, 1974, p. 19 in Montgomery, 2001). Beginning in 1962, Everett Bernstein-Hyman). With its emphasis on long- Shostrom joined with Abraham Maslow to create range goals and internal locus of control, the POI the Personal Orientation Inventory (POI) as a way construct of time connectedness would seem to to measure behavior thought to be important in play an important role in the personal excellence self-actualizing persons (Shostrom & skills of goal setting, self-control, and time Montgomery, 2001). Two major scales from the management. POI, inner-directedness (Id) and time competence (Tc), stand prominent in the literature as positive

Personal Excellence and Emotional Intelligence 87 Goal Setting Balance and Change The capacity to set stretching personal goals is The system of Balance enables the one characteristic of achievement-motivated management of positive life change and facilitates people (McClelland, 1961). Goal setting is a personal excellence (Nelson & Low, 2003). The prioritising activity that connects behavior with balance system provides harmony in life. It values and life purpose (Covey, 1989). Covey functions “ . . . to create a confluence of clear characterised unclear goals as inherently goals, important values, expanded beliefs, destabilising. To provide stability and enhance adequate support, and focused energy and performance, Hoyle (2007) suggests the use of power” (Nelson & Low, 2003, p. 141). According simple words for communicating goals. The clear to Covey (1989), balance involves the process of communication of goals is one of three “preserving and enhancing the greatest asset you characteristics that Hoyle attributes to all have—you” (p. 288). Achieving personal visionary leaders (the other two are caring for excellence requires balance in order to help others and a commitment to persist, even under identify and focus on important roles, such as the most difficult circumstances). According to health, family, professional preparation, and Nelson and Low (2003), “Achievable goals personal development (Blanchard, Edington, & provide a focus for personal motivation” (p. 141). Blanchard, 1999; Covey, 1998; Nelson & Low, When used in combination with the ELS, the goal 2003). Success in one area of life, achieved at the setting scale of the PEM provides an EI-centric expense of failure in others, represents neither approach for developing and improving the skill balance (Covey) nor excellence (Nelson & Low). of achievement (Nelson & Low, 2003). Personal and professional development, Self-Control according to Covey (1999), “Requires personal change—not personnel changes” (p. 252). Covey If personal orientation is a reflection of one’s describes a natural rhythm to the process of optimism and desire for learning and positive growth and development wherein required steps change, then self-control may be likened to the are likened to the six days of creation. Each day change agent itself. According to Ciarrochi et al. was important for making the whole earth. Nelson (2001), “… self-control involves the power of the and Low (2003) advocate the emotional learning conscious executive: Can the person change to system as a systematic, stepwise process for become a better person? Self-control is essential developing emotional intelligence. Positive to getting along in life” (p. 14). Goleman (1995) change is facilitated in the emotional learning described self-control as “the ability to modulate system through guided mentoring, positive self- and control one’s own actions in age-appropriate talk, and the use of positive imagery (Nelson & ways; a sense of inner control” (p. 194). Low, 2003) in each of the five separate but Goleman, Boyatzis, and McKee (2002) employed connected steps. The skills of Stress Management, the construct of exceptional leadership in their Decision-Making, and Problem Solving are description of self-control. Exceptional leaders recommended to maintain balance and pursue are able to mange their strong emotions or positive personal change (Nelson & Low). impulses and even channel these energies in useful ways (Goleman et al., 2002). “A hallmark Stress Management of self-control,” according to the authors, “is the leader who stays calm and clear-headed under Stress management is an EI intrapersonal skill high stress or during a crisis—or who remains adapted from the ESAP for the PEI. The ability to unflappable even when confronted by a trying manage stress facilitates both decision-making situation” (Goleman et al., 2002, p. 254). and problem solving. Honing one’s stress management skills requires learning to relax and The personal excellence theory of Nelson and calm oneself in stressful situations. It also Low (2003) echos Goleman, Boyatzis, and requires the ability to “ . . . feel good about being McKee’s (2002) description of self-confidence. important enough to relax … [and] choosing Self-control is key for high achievement and healthy behaviors and responses to serves to keep people centered in their goals. In stress” (Nelson & Low, 2003, p. 119). addition, according to Nelson and Low (2003), self-control reflects “ . . . your ability to exercise Stress adversely impacts one’s ability to learn choice and control over the strength of your and perform at peek levels (Perry, 2006; Zull, emotional response” (p. 141). 2006). In addition, the ability to manage stress appears to play a key role in the development of

The International Journal for Transformative Emotional Intelligence 88 the learning organ (Cozolino & Sprokay, 2006; new, separate scale in the PEI. When a person Perry; Vyas, Mitra, Shankaranarayan-Rao, & feels like there are only two choices in a situation Chattarji, 2002; Zull). Stress management also and both are bad, this is an emotional clue that plays a key role in one’s ability to model wise and additional options need to be explored in order to appropriate behavior in stressful situations obtain a good resolution. Creativity and the (Goleman, Boyatzis, & McKee, 2002; Nelson & ability to generate alternative solutions in difficult Low, 2003). That portion of the brain known as situations is an important aspect of good problem the amygdala is central in the production of solving (Nelson, 2006). The importance of emotion in human beings (Cozolino & Sprokay; generating creative alternatives for effective Goleman, 1995; Nelson & Low, 2003; Vyas et al., problem solving was reiterated in the famous 2002), while the portion of the brain called the word of Albert Einstein who said, “The hippocampus is thought to be crucial in the significant problems we have cannot be solved at development of rational thought and the the same level of thinking with which we created mitigation of the negative affects of stress (Vyas them” (The Quotations Page, 2007). The need for et al.). The researchers concluded that higher a different kind of thinking in effective problem levels and increased frequency of stress solving was further endorsed by Covey (1989), contributed to the development of the parts of the who suggested a deeper level of thinking was brain responsible for creating stress. “ . . . a principle-centered, character-based, ‘inside-out’ approach to personal and Decision Making interpersonal effectiveness” (p. 42). There is a story of Sigmund Freud being Covey (1992) seems to interpret organiza- approached, following an address, by an admirer tional problems from a humanistic perspective. who said, “Dr. Freud, it must be wonderful to He discussed seven organizational challenges that have your insights. They must make your he referred to as chronic. His sixth and seventh decisions so much easier.” Freud pondered the challenges seem best addressed directly using the implied question and replied, “There are two transformational model of emotional intelligence. kinds of decisions in life. For the frequent daily Covey’s challenge number six speaks to a low ones, I simply list the pros and cons and follow level of trust that develops as emotional reserves the guidance of whichever is the longer list. But are depleted. Low trust results in closed then, there are those difficult, life-changing communication, poor cooperation, and little decisions. These I make first and then list the pros teamwork. His seventh challenge speaks to the and cons.” (Goodlad, 2004, p. 190) issue of degrading integrity and is indicated when “ . . . values do not equal habits; there is no Decision-making is an EI leadership skill correlation between what I value and believe and adapted from the ESAP for the PEI. According to what I do” (p. 171). Aligning behavior with Nelson and Low (2003), “Decision Making is the thoughts, beliefs, and values is a hallmark of the ability to use effective problem-solving and transformational model of emotional intelligence conflict resolution strategies to resolve issues. It (Nelson & Low, 2003). requires using a systematic model to approach the problems that occur daily” (p. 73). The greater the Power and Commitment support (not control) of the emotional (experiential) mind, the more likely quick One national best seller claimed that one of decisions will be insightful, creative, good, and the 48 laws for gaining and maintaining power is appropriate. Learning the skill of good decision- “get others to do the work for you, but always making requires honing one’s ability to take the credit yourself” (Greene, 1998, p. 56). appropriately address problems and resolve Such self-serving strategies seem to suggest conflict using a proactive strategy while at the categorical and destructive thinking (Epstein, same time feeling good about one’s personal 1998), directly violate the power principle of choices (Nelson & Low, 2003). integrity (Covey, 1992), and operate from deficit orientations (personal communication with Problem Solving G. Low, 2006). Rather than building quality from within, such behavior weakens the personal The skill of problem solving reflects one’s “… excellence system by violating its principles. ability to confront and resolve problem Such self-centeredness contributes to the situations” (Nelson & Low, 2003, p. 141). organizational calamities described by Covey Although addressed as part of the decision- making skill in the ESAP, problem solving is a

Personal Excellence and Emotional Intelligence 89 (1992) as chronic and is neither principle-centered references to consolidating discretionary time, (Covey) nor wise (Nelson & Low, 2003). demands on executives, the need for time in large chunks, pruning time-wasters, and the recording Principle-centered power, according to Covey of time. In actuality, the term self-management is (1992), is based on honour and sustained through probably a better term than time management proactive influence in ten key areas. Covey’s ten because the former more accurately captures the areas of personal power include: (a) persuasion proactive course required to manage ourselves in (assertive communication), (b) patience (keeping the time that we have allotted to us (Covey, 1992; a long-term perspective), (c) gentleness (a growth Nelson & Low, 2003). The following passage perspective that respects the shortcomings in self provides an emotionally intelligent way of and others), (d) teachableness (operating from the conceptualizing time management. Covey wrote: perspective that others might be right), (e) acceptance (giving benefit of the doubt and The essence of time management is to set “requiring no evidence or specific performance as priorities and then to organize and execute a condition for sustaining high self-worth” (p. around them. Setting priorities requires us to 107)), (f) kindness (remembering the little things think carefully and clearly about values, about in relationships), (g) openness, (h) compassionate ultimate concerns. These then have to be confrontation (“making it safe for followers to translated into long- and short-term goals and take risks” (p. 108)), (i) consistency (fairness), plans and translated once more into schedules and (j) integrity (putting the good of others first or time slots. Then, unless something more and matching thoughts, feelings and actions with important—not something more urgent— that principle, as well as “… constantly reviewing comes along, we must discipline ourselves to your own intent as you strive for congruence” (p. do as we planned. (p. 138) 108)). Internal power is increased when people work to expand their beliefs and set value Nelson and Low’s (2003) view of time congruent goals (Nelson & Low, 2003). management reflected the “ . . . ability to manage your life and responsibilities proactively” (p. Personal excellence requires high levels of 142). Learning better time management requires energy focused on the achievement of personal that people choose better ways to manage goals. The principle of Commitment supplies and themselves, it requires that people feel good about directs the energy needed for high achievement. how they use their time, and it requires that The key skills of commitment include Time people accomplish things that are personally Management, Commitment Ethic, and Drive important to them (Nelson & Low). Strength (Nelson & Low, 2003). Drive Strength Time Management Emotional intelligence is an integrative rather Time management is an EI self-management than divisive theory of human existence and skill adapted from the ESAP for the PEI. As enterprise (Low, 2006; Nelson, 2006). It discussed in the previous section on personal manifests when the two minds (emotional and orientation, the way one relates to time rational) are integrated (Nelson & Low, 2003) and experientially is important for the development of is lacking in overly judgmental or categorical healthy life patterns. In short, an overemphasis of thinking patterns (Epstein, 1998). The integrating short-range goals, especially when combined with theme is present throughout Nelson and Low’s’ EI an external locus of control, may be linked to theory. For example, integrating themes from maladjustment, delinquency, and substance abuse previous sections included (a) better decisions (Bernstein-Hyman, 1979). made when the rational mind is supported by the emotional mind, (b) linking personal values to set The skill of time management seems to relate priorities is important in time (and self) as much to the management of life as it does to management, and (c) a healthy personal the management of time. According to Covey orientation that is time-integrated rather than (1998), “We all have exactly the same amount of time-diffused. Once again, it seems that highly time, although some accomplish several times as functioning individuals practice integrating ways much as others do with their time” (p. 137). of being (Figure 2.3). Drucker (2006) devoted an entire volume to getting the right things done, yet the term time The literature suggests that higher levels of management is not even listed in the subject functioning in drive strength and commitment index. Listed there under time one finds ethic are also associated with increased

The International Journal for Transformative Emotional Intelligence 90 integration. As noted by Rummel (1975), “The reactive learning drive, (c) the ability to self- basic connection between drives, urges, needs, regulate, and (d) reading avidity. Based on the and behavior is a person’s intentionality” (p. 1). role and importance of emotion in adult learning Based on Rummel, it seems that EI would be (Johnson & Taylor, 2006; Vyas et al., 2002), incomprehensible without personal intent. however, attempts to develop self-directed Similarly, Nelson and Low (2003) seem to stress learning while ignoring the affective domain may that actions reflect a lack of wisdom when result in frustration for both teachers and students. behavior takes place independent of personal values. Perspectives from Organizational Behaviour Drive strength is an EI self-management skill A review of the literature on excellence in adapted from the ESAP for the PEI. In personal professional and adult populations would be excellence, drive strength is evident when people incomplete without at least mentioning the “ . . . accomplish important goals that are important contributions of key scholars and meaningful and satisfying” (Nelson & Low, 2003, researchers who have provided other models for p. 142). The authors suggest that choosing goals explaining worker motivation and achievement in fitting of one’s personal values aids in the organizational environments. Among those development of drive strength. As value-derived frequently cited include Vroom’s Expectancy goals are achieved, personal satisfaction and theory (Vroom, 1964); Hertzberg’s Two Factor positive feelings result, provide more energy, and theory (Herzberg, 1968); Alderfer’s Existence, facilitate higher achievement (Nelson & Low). Relatedness, and Growth (ERG) theory (Alderfer, Improving one’s ability to achieve personally 1969); and McClelland’s Acquired Needs theory meaningful goals also “ . . . involves learning a (McClelland, 1961). Each theory adds its own specific process called action goal setting that you unique contributions and insights into worker can apply and practice on a daily basis (Nelson & motivation and behavior. Indeed, organizational Low, p. 88). behavior texts frequently make comparisons between these theories and highlight how they Commitment Ethic differ from that of Maslow’s (1954) seminal theory and model of human motivation. The most Commitment ethic is an EI self-management distinguishing factor, however, may be the one skill adapted from the ESAP for the PEI. One most often omitted. While the models from manifestation of EI is reflected in one’s ability to organizational behavior seem most heavily persist and complete professional assignments influenced by the behavioral perspective, (whether work or school related) and personal Maslow’s and the other humanistic theories were responsibilities, especially in difficult situations, fundamentally different approaches for explaining all while maintaining good feelings toward self human behavior. They were humanistic and not and others (Nelson & Low, 2003). High behavioral. commitment ethic is self-directed, inner- motivated, and very persistent. Commitment ethic Methodology and Design helps produce positive energy that contributes to task accomplishment. “Commitment Ethic is a The purpose of the study was to develop, dedication to task completion that produces norm, and validate a new measure of high excitement and pride, not fatigue and achieving professional adults based on the sacrifice” (Nelson & Low, p. 94). education model of emotional intelligence (Nelson & Low, 2003). The study utilized the According to Brockett and Hiemstra, “Self- Personal Excellence Inventory (PEI) (Nelson & direction can be seen as both an instructional Low) for the initial pool of items for the new method (self-directed learning) and a personality measure. The resulting measure is referred to as characteristic (learner self-direction)” (1991, p. the Personal Excellence Map (PEM). 1). In practice, self-directed learning is an instructional method that attempts to teach people Three general approaches for conducting to “ . . . take the initiative and responsibility for research include quantitative methods, qualitative what occurs” (SDL.com, 2006, p. 1). The methods, and mixed methods (Creswell, 2005). research findings of Harvey, Rothman and In education research, the methodology is Frecker (2006) suggested that self-direction can expected to reflect the researcher’s “differing be enhanced in adult populations by emphasizing epistemological assumptions about the nature of four specific skill areas including (a) an openness the scientific knowledge and how to acquire and commitment to learning, (b) a proactive/ it” (Gall, Gall, & Borg, 2003, p. 23). Often,

Personal Excellence and Emotional Intelligence 91 however, methodology is directed by the research and the PEI total score (scale-to-total purpose itself. For example, historical trends correlations). indicate that quantitative research methods are used to evaluate test and measurement practices H04. There is no statistically significant (Creswell). Since the purpose of the research was relationship between achievement of career to construct and validate an instrument that goals and personal excellence. assesses cognitive functioning in the cognitive- affective domain, quantitative methods were used. H05. There is a no statistically significant relationship between overall career satisfaction Research Questions and personal excellence. The following research questions were created to H06. There is no statistically significant guide the study. relationship between satisfaction with career progression and personal excellence. RQ1. What are the psychometric properties of the PEI, an a priori self-report instrument intended H07. There is no statistically significant to extend the education model of emotional relationship between satisfaction with income intelligence for adult learning? and personal excellence. RQ2. What is the latent factor structure of the H08. There is no statistically significant PEI? relationship between satisfaction with professional development and personal RQ3. What is the internal reliability of the PEM, a excellence. self-report instrument designed to assess EI- centric personal excellence skills in H09. There is no statistically significant professional adult populations? relationship between satisfaction with levels of spirituality and personal excellence. RQ4. To what extent does the PEM demonstrate evidence of empirical validity when compared H010. There is no statistically significant with other items that theoretically reflect relationship between feelings of having career satisfaction and achievement in adults? followed one’s professional calling and personal excellence. RQ5. Does the empirically derived factor structure of personal excellence fit the data better or H011. There is no statistically significant worse than the theoretical structure? relationship between satisfaction with level of blessings and salvation and personal excellence. RQ6. Is there a general factor of EI underlying the personal excellence scales? H012. There is no statistically significant relationship between deeper personal meaning Null Hypotheses found through professional pursuits and personal excellence. The null hypothesis states the opposite of what is believed to be true by the researcher; it is H013. There is no statistically significant the null of the alternative hypothesis (Norusis, relationship between level of education 2004). Subjecting the null hypothesis to statistical and personal excellence. difference tests supports the alternative hypothesis when significant relationships are H014. There is no statistically significant found to exist. The null hypothesis must be stated relationship between level of income such that it accurately describes a single situation and personal excellence. (Norusis). The following null hypotheses were tto be evaluated by statistical analyses. Figure 3. depicts the phased flow of the data analysis and helps connect the research questions H01. There is no statistically significant to the statistical procedures necessary for the relationship between each item of the PEI and research. The phased flow approach provided a the item’s major scale (item-to-scale conceptual framework for pursuing and correlations). presenting the study. The primary concerns of the research included the psychometric qualities and H02. There is no statistically significant factorial structure of the personal excellence items relationship between each item of the PEI and and scales. A cross-sectional non-experimental the PEI total score (item-to-total correlations). research design was employed in the study (Seo, 2004). The phases of analysis included (a) the H03. There is no statistically significant internal consistency and correlational properties relationship between the five scales of the PEI

The International Journal for Transformative Emotional Intelligence 92 of the PEI items and scales, (b) exploratory factor compared with items to assess career satisfaction analysis of the PEI, (c) internal consistency of the and achievement in the ministerial profession. resulting PEM, and (d) convergent validity as ! Figure 3. Phases of research analysis by research question. Osborne (2005) reported, “Strict rules regarding Population and Sample sample size for exploratory factor analysis have mostly disappeared” (p. 4). Based on the criteria The state of Michigan (2007) suggested that provided by Hair et al., with five theorized scales professional classifications have as essential consisting of 30 items each, between 150 and 300 features the application of theory, concepts, cases were desired for the factor analysis portion principles and methodologies normally obtained of the study. A total of 239 cases were collected through a bachelor or post-bachelor degree program. Accordingly, if a student is to be from the three samples (UMC1 = 142, UMC2 = 31, and 2007 EI conference participants = 66). classified as a professional, they should be studying at the post-bachelor level. In addition, Instrumentation professional work was distinguished from non- The study began with an examination of the professional work through research, analysis, and psychometric properties and factor structure of interpretation, as well as the development and the PEI. At the time of the study, the PEI was the application of non-routine criteria in non- latest inventory created by Nelson and Low mechanical processes (State Of Michigan). Three (2003). Permission from the authors was granted groups of professionals were sampled for the to use the PEI for the expressed purpose of study. The groups included (a) the clergy and validating and creating a new measure of EI. The seminarians of a southern United Methodist PEI used in the study included all 150 items in the Council, (b) the clergy and seminarians of a original inventory. western United Methodist Council, and (c) the The authors have worked since 1977 participants of the 2007 Institute for Emotional researching and developing a person-centered Intelligence, a professional education and approach for enhancing achievement and personal business conference that was held on the campus well being (Low & Nelson, 2000). The first of of Texas A&M University-Kingsville. their instruments, the Personal Skills Map© The second phase of the study required a (PSM) (Nelson & Low, 1979), is well researched sufficient number of cases to perform exploratory in doctoral dissertations (including Goodwin, factor analysis. While Hair et al. (2006) suggested 1990; Kostoch, 1981; Link, 1982; Nelson, 1981; a sample size between five and ten times the Pope, 1982; Rice, 2006; Rodgers, 1990; Smith, number items to be factor analyzed, Costello and 1983; Thomas, 1988; Walker, 1982; Welsh, 1985)

Personal Excellence and Emotional Intelligence 93 and remains a key assessment tool used in both Phase I: Psychometric Properties of the PEI business consulting and mentoring environments (The Managers’ Mentors, Inc., n.d.), as well as The first research question (RQ1) sought to training and education environments (The determine the psychometric properties of the PEI. Conover Company, n.d.). The authors’ most The psychometric qualities of measures are recent instrument, the Emotional Skills evaluated using scaling procedures to examine Assessment Process (ESAP), is currently “relationships among scales, items, and other emphasized and is particularly well suited for evaluation instruments ….” (Green & Salkind, academic environments (Nelson & Low, 2003), 2005, p. 31). Initially, the PEI was analyzed using where it has a strong and growing research base the internal consistency estimates of reliability (including Antosh, 2006; Chao, 2003; Low & procedure to evaluate the consistency of scores Nelson, 2005; Nelson & Low, 2003; Stottlemyer, across administrations. When coefficient alpha is 2002; Vela, 2003; and Williams, 2004). found to be low using consistency estimates, additional analysis using the reliability procedure A plan was devised to validate the PEM using to improve item fit may be indicated. Item a new scale related to professional career analysis using the reliability procedure is satisfaction using a sample of participants from sometimes used as an alternative statistical the United Methodist Council. Perhaps the first approach to factor analysis (Green & Salkind). instrument to measure a similar construct was the The reliability procedure was used in the Phase I 25-item Ministerial Job Satisfaction Scale (MJSS) analysis to provide insights about the (Glass, 1976). The 23-item revised MJSS was psychometric properties of the PEI. Higher created in order to more accurately “ . . . cover all coefficient alphas reflect greater consistency in the aspects of the minister’s job” (Turton & responses among the items (Green & Salkind, Francis, 2002, p. 169). In another study 2005). Although reliability coefficients of .80 are questioning the impact of socio-cultural desired (Gall et al., 2003), the lower limit is marginalization of the pastoral profession on generally considered .70, and even .60 may be pastoral awareness and satisfaction, Zondag considered acceptable in exploratory research (2004) created a new instrument to assess a more (Hair et al., 2006). complete range of attributes of professional satisfaction among clergy. The 51-item instrument All the PEI’s item scales demonstrated split- focused on (a) Self-Actualization, (b) Respect half correlations and Cronbach’s coefficient from Others, (c) Self-Respect (d) Physical Strain, alphas of .80 or higher, indicating satisfactory (e) Work Significance, (f) Results Awareness, (g) internal reliability of the items to the theorized Christian Way of Life, (h) Anthropocentric item scales (Gall et al., 2003). Based on the Egoism, (i) Anthropocentric Altruism, (j) internal consistency estimates of reliability, it Theocentric Egoism, (k) Competence, and (l) appears that the PEI items are strongly related to Amount of Time Spent on Work (Zondag). The their item scales and may perform reasonably CSCA items used in the present study were well in estimating a person’s true score in each of incorporated by a retired United Methodist the PEI’s fifteen areas of personal excellence. Minister serving on the graduate faculty at the University of Arkansas-Fayetteville (personal To provide additional insights about the PEI communication with W. Bailey, 2007). Standard items, three correlations were computed to type demographic items were also asked of the evaluate the first, second, and third null UMC participants. The data for the eleven hypotheses. The degree to which the PEI items variables of analysis used in the evaluation of H04 are correlated with the theorized intermediate through H014 were taken from CSCA items 2.a scales (H01) was evaluated using the Spearman’s through 2.h, 2.j, 10, and 17 (respectively). The rho procedure. Spearman’s rho was also CSCA items were asked of the clergy participants employed to evaluate the degree to which the only. items correlated with the PEI summated total score (H02). Finally, the Pearson product moment Analysis and Results correlation coefficient was utilized to evaluate the hypothesis regarding intermediate scale-to-total The Statistical Package for Social Sciences correlations (H03). (SPSS) was used for all statistical analyses. Item-to-scale correlations were computed using the non-parametric Spearman’s rho (rs) procedure to further evaluate the relationship between the 150 items and the major scales they

The International Journal for Transformative Emotional Intelligence 94 were intended to measure. The PEI’s five major less- and one-more-than approach described by scales include (a) Purpose, (b) Relationships, (c) Costello et al. (2005), oblique rotations (direct Vision, (d) Commitment, and (e) Change. All oblimin, ∆ = 0) for factors were computed and items were significantly correlated with their evaluated for best fit. At .94, the KMO measure intended scales (p < .001) and every other major of sampling adequacies was very strong scale. Therefore, the first null hypothesis was (Sidanius, 2007), and the Bartlett’s test of rejected. There is a statistically significant sphericity was significant (p = .000), indicating relationship between each item of the PEI and its sufficient correlations within the factor matrices intended scale. to conduct factor analysis on the measure (Hair et al., 2006). Item-total correlations were computed using the Spearman non-parametric procedure to Purpose and Beliefs examine each item’s relationship with the PEI total score. All 150 items correlated significantly The rotated four interpretable solution (p < .05) with PEI total score and the second null included Self-Esteem, (SE) Congruence (Co), hypothesis was rejected. The a priori items were Self-Appreciation (SA), and Self-Confidence significantly related to the total PEI score. (SC). The SE factor accounted for 38.42% of the item variance, Co accounted for 3.78% of the To evaluate the third null hypothesis that there item variance, SA accounted for 3.30% of the was no statistically significant relationship item variance, and SC accounted for 2.33% of the between each scale of the PEI and the PEI total item variance. score, scale-to-total correlations were computed. The Pearson product-moment correlation Relationships and Support coefficient (r) was used because the summation of Likert-scored answers produces scale and the total The four-factor solution provided the best scores that are best represented as interval-ratio balance between factor criteria, communality of values (Green & Salkind, 2005; Plonsky, 2006). items, variance explained by the factors, and All scales were highly correlated with the PEI interpretability. Compared with the three-factor total score and all correlations were statistically solution, the four-factor solution provided significant (p < .001). Therefore, the third null improved interpretability but suffered the same hypothesis was rejected. There is a statistically stability issue with the last unstable dimension. significant relationship between each of the PEI’s The fourth factor had only two items, both five scales and the PEI total score. In addition, the loading weakly on the factor, as well as correlations were very strong, ranging in crossloading on one item, which was magnitude from a low of r = .91 for Relationships significantly (.54) loaded with the first dimension. to high of r = .95 for both Vision and Purpose. The best overall fit, therefore, seemed to be the four-factor solution with the fourth dimension Phase II - Exploratory Factor Analysis ignored. Exploratory factor Analysis (EFA) was The rotated four-factor solution yielded three conducted to investigate the latent factor structure interpretable factors. Discarding the last unstable of the PEI. The EFA focused on the five factor, the three interpretable factors included composite and fifteen subscale measures Empathy (Em), Assertion (As), and Team theorized to comprise the a priori construct of Building (TB). The Em dimension accounted for personal excellence. As suggested by Costello et 33.04% of the item variance, As accounted for al. (2005), the dimensionality of the variables 6.48% of the item variance, and TB accounted for comprising each measure was analyzed using 4.89% of the item variance. principal axis (common) factoring. Although the primary rotation method utilized was direct Vision and Guidance oblimin (oblique) with a delta of zero (Costello et al.), other rotation methods were also utilized in The three interpretable factors included search of the cleanest possible factor solutions Personal Orientation (PO), Self-Control (SC), and (Hair et al., 2006). Goal Setting (GS). The PO measure accounted for 32.74% of the item variance, SC accounted for A principal axis factor analysis was computed 8.11% of item variance, and Goal Setting for the personal excellence measures on all five accounted for 5.68% of the item variance. Based dimensions. The composite scales were on the criterion of a minimum of five items per comprised of the a priori scales. Using the one- scale, loading at levels exceeding |.50| for factor stability, it appeared that a 21-item measure

Personal Excellence and Emotional Intelligence 95 would provide a stable summated three scale estimates of reliability for each of the newly score for this dimension of the PEM. constructed subscales, as well as for the overall instrument. Reliability coefficients of .80 or Commitment and Power higher are desired because these are levels generally considered sufficient for most research The two interpretable factors included Drive purposes (Gall et al., 2003). The PEM was Strength (DS) and Self-Management (SM). The examined using a series of twenty-eight internal DS measure accounted for 35.21% of the item consistency checks, two for each of the variance, while SM accounted for 6.46% of the instrument’s fourteen subscales. The two internal item variance. Twelve of the 17 DS items and 7 of consistency estimates of reliability included a the 11 SM items loaded at levels above |.50|. split-half coefficient expressed as a Spearman- Based on the criterion of a minimum of five items Brown corrected correlation and Cronbach’s per dimension with factor loading above |.50|, it coefficient alpha (Green & Salkind, 2005). To appeared that the 28-item Commitment measure make the two halves as equivalent as possible, the should provide a very stable summated scale same every-other-item procedure for splitting score for the PEM. halves was followed for each subscale. Change and Balance All but one of the PEM’s new subscales returned Cronbach’s coefficient alphas near or The five rotations resulted in a two-factor above the .80 level. Of the four measures that fell solution providing the best overall fit. The below, three were only slightly below (.77 - .79) percentage of variance explained by the sum of and still well above the generally accepted lower squared loadings was 43.01%. Of the 28 items limit of .70 (Hair et al., 2006). Even the smallest retained with loadings above |.35|, 27 loaded on coefficient (.63) may be considered acceptable in their respective factors at values exceeding |.50|. exploratory research (Hair et al.). Twelve of the items exceeded .40 in communality and only one item was crossloaded. It was determined that the SA measure would provide the least factor stability because it had The two interpretable factors included only three items and only one of the items loaded Decision-Making (DM) and Stress Management above the |.50| criterion suggested by Costello and (STM). The DM measure accounted for 39.00% Osborne (2005). The factor instability suggested of the item variance, while the STM measure by the factor analysis for the SA dimension was accounted for 7.70% of the item variance. Twelve confirmed by the test of internal reliability. of the 17 DM items and 7 of the 11 STM items loaded at levels above |.50|. Based on the Phase IV - Validation of the PEM as criterion of a minimum of five items per a Measure of Excellence dimension loading at levels exceeding |.50|, it appeared that the new 29-item Change dimension If the new PEM instrument truly measured a should provide a very stable summated scale construct similar to that defined here as personal score for the PEM. excellence, then its summated total score should be positively correlated with high levels of career Summary satisfaction and achievement as assessed using a separate but concurrently administered instrument The results of the factor analysis revealed a (Seo, 2004). The fourth research question (RQ4) latent factor structure that was different from that and last eleven null hypotheses (H04 – H014) were suggested in the a priori model. The resulting written to address and evaluate the construct structure and new measure contained one less validity of the new instrument. The PEM’s subscale. In addition, one other subscale changed validation was conducted using a series of significantly enough to be renamed (Social Spearman’s rho correlation coefficients (rs) to Awareness became Team Building). There was investigate the relationship between PEM one new subscale added (Congruence), and two summated score and the self-report items believed subscales were omitted (Commitment Ethic and to reflect professional career satisfaction and Problem Solving). The new measure retained 87 achievement in the ministry (Glass, 1976; Turton of the original 150 items. & Francis, 2002; Zondag, 2004). For the correlations in this section, Green and Salkind Phase III - PEM Internal Consistency Estimates (2005) provided criteria for judging the of Reliability magnitude of correlation coefficients for the behavioral sciences in the intervals of .10 The purpose of the Phase III analysis was to investigate the reliability of the new PEM instrument by computing internal consistency

The International Journal for Transformative Emotional Intelligence 96 (small), .30 (medium), and .50 (large), regardless reduced from three dimensions each to only two. of sign. The results of the statistical correlations While the net difference in the number of for construct validity are provided as follows: subscales between the two models was only one, the difference in the number of items, as well as • Total personal excellence was significantly the item and subscale distribution, was related to satisfaction with meeting overall substantial. Based on the exploratory factor career goals (N=165, rs = .42, p = .000). analysis, the new instrument seemed to fit the data better than the original (RQ5). • Total personal excellence was significantly related to satisfaction with career success According to The Standards (1985), (N=161, rs = .34, p = .000). “Intercorrelations among items may be used to support the assertion that a test measures • Total personal excellence was significantly primarily a single construct” (p. 10). When related to satisfaction with meeting goals for combined with the sufficient reliability income (N=165, rs = .27, p = .000). coefficients found for the individual scales, the total reliability coefficients (all items included) • Total personal excellence was significantly of .97 (PEM) and .98 (PEI) provided strong related to satisfaction with goals for evidence that both instruments may be reliable developing career skills (N=165, rs = .49, p = . measures of personal excellence when used with 000). professional adult populations. • Total personal excellence was significantly In addition, by correlating with many of the related to satisfaction with career for meeting CSCA items, the PEM demonstrated evidence of existential needs, such as deepening one’s content validity of a kind similar to that described spirituality (N=166, rs = .34, p = .000). in the operational definition of personal excellence. Also, regarding the lineage of the • Total personal excellence was significantly personal excellence theory, it is important to note related to satisfaction with career for meeting that the operational definition provided in this existential needs, such following one’s true study was based on Nelson and Low’s (2003) calling (N=166, rs = .32, p = .000). theory of EI. From a preponderance of all the literature and evidence provided in the study, it • Total personal excellence was significantly seems that the PEM does assess and support a related to satisfaction with career for meeting general underlying factor of EI (RQ6). Further existential needs, such as congruence and evidence of this thread of validity may be support of religious values (N=166, rs = .34, supported by the findings of Tulsi and Walia in p = .000). the previous article (pp. 63-76) indicating that their measure of EI was similarly found to be • Total personal excellence was not related to related to job satisfaction in college teachers in level of income (N = 160, rs = .01, p = .93) India. nor level of education (N=168, rs=.02, p=.80). Conclusions Based on these results, the PEM total summated score did appear to be related to a form In keeping with Daniel’s (1996) guidance for of personal excellence that was related to career the rationale and purpose of educational research satisfaction in the population studied. as the advancement of theory, the present study was significant for its development and extension Finally, the last two research questions sought of the education model of emotional intelligence to determine (a) wether the a priori dimensional (Nelson & Low, 2003) beyond the student structure fit the resulting instrument better or populations that dominated previous studies with worse than that resulting in the factor analysis, the ESAP. By extending the positive EI and (b) whether there was a general underlying assessment approach to adult populations, the factor of EI related to personal excellence. study also extends the ELS process. Through the extension of the assessment and learning system Only one of the five major scales (Vision) processes, the research provides new retained its original three dimensions. One other opportunities for helping adults navigate and scale (Relationships) retained three dimensions, pursue meaningful development throughout the but one of the dimensions seemed better challenges and transitions of life. explained using a different name (Team Building versus Social Awareness). The Purpose scale retained its original three dimensions, and received an additional new subscale named Congruence. The two remaining scales were

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Personal Excellence and Emotional Intelligence 99 Johnson,+S.,+&+Taylor,+K.+(2006).+Editor's+notes.+In+ work.+New+York:+American+Management+ S.+Johnson+&+K.+Taylor+(Eds.),+New+directions+ Association.+ for+adult+and+continuing+education:+The+ neuroscience+of+adult+learning+(pp.+1X2).+San+ Maslow,+A.+H.+(1954).+Motivation+and+personality.+ Francisco:+JosseyXBass.+ New+York:+Harper+&+Brothers.+ Kostoch,+A.+J.+(1981).+An+analysis+of+personal+skills+ Maslow,+A.+H.+(1970).+Motivation+and+personality+ and+clinical+performance+evaluation+of+ (3rd+ed.).+New+York:+Longman.+ associate+degree+nursing+students.+ Unpublished+doctoral+dissertation,+The+ Maslow,+A.+H.+(1999).+Toward+a+psychology+of+ University+of+Texas+at+Austin. being+(3rd+ed.).+New+York:+John+Wiley+&+Sons.++ Lam,+L.+T.,+&+Kirby,+S.+L.+(2002).+Is+emotional+ Mayer,+J.D.,+Ciarrochi,+J.,+&+Forgas,+J.P.+(2001).+ intelligence+an+advantage?+An+exploration+of+ Emotional+intelligence+in+everyday+life:+A+ the+impact+of+emotional+and+general+ scientiEic+inquiry.+New+York:+Psychology+Press+ intelligence+on+individual+performance.+The+ Inc.+ Journal+of+Social+Psychology,+142(1),+133X143.+ McClelland,+D.+C.+(1961).+The+achieving+society.+ Lefton,+L.,+&+Brannon,+L.+(2006).+Psychology+(9th+ New+York:+The+Free+Press.+ ed.).+New+York,+NY:+Allyn+&+Bacon.+ Miville,+M.+L.,+Carlozzi,+A.+F.,+Gushue,+G.+V.,+Schara,+ Link,+S.+W.+(1982).+Factors+associated+with+ S.+L.,+&+Ueda,+M.+(2006).+Mental+health+ academic+performance+of+community+college+ counselor+qualities+for+a+divers+clientele:+ students.+Unpublished+doctoral+dissertation,+ Linking+empathy,+universalXdiverse+ North+Texas+State+University. orientation,+and+emotional+intelligence.+ Journal+of+Mental+Health+Counseling,+28(2),+ Locke,+E.+A.+(2005).+Why+emotional+intelligence+is+ 151X165.+ an+invalid+concept.+Journal+of+Organizational+ Behavior,+26(4),+425X431.+ Nelson+,+D.+B.,+&+Low,+G.+R.+(1979).+Personal+skills+ map:+A+positive+assessment+of+career/life+ Low,+G.+R.+(2006).+Emotional+intelligence,+college+ effectiveness+Skills+Manual+[Assessment].+ success,+and+educational+accountability.+Paper+ Corpus+Christi,+TX:+Institute+for+the+ presented+at+the+meeting+of+the+2006+Institute+ Development+of+Human+Resources.+ for+Emotional+Intelligence.+Retrieved+February+ 20,+2006,+from+http://http:// Nelson,+D.+B.+(2006+January+26).+Experiential+and+ education.tamuk.edu/eiconf/ selfXdirected+process+to+develop+emotional+ 2006_Program_Topics.htm+ intelligence+and+reElective/constructive+ thinking.+Paper+presented+at+the+meeting+of+ Low,+G.+R.,+&+Nelson,+D.+B.+(2000).+Quantifying+ the+Doctoral+Course+(EDCG+6301)+Emotional+ emotional+intelligence:+Positive+contributions+ Intelligence:+An+Integrated+Model+for+ of+the+emotional+mind.+Paper+presented+at+the+ Counseling+and+Educational+Leadership.+ meeting+of+the+Texas+A&M+UniversityX Kingsville,+TX.+ Kingsville:+20th+Annual+Faculty+Lecture.+ Retrieved+January+9,+2007+from+ttp:// Nelson,+D.+B,+&+Low,+G.+R.+(1998).+Exploring+&+ xxx.tamuk.edu/edu/kwei000/Research/ developing+emotional+intelligence+skills+ Articles/Article_Eiles/20th [Assessment].+Corpus+Christi,+TX:+EI+Learning+ Systems.+ Low,+G.+R.,+&+Nelson,+D.+B.+(2005).+Emotional+ intelligence:+The+role+of+transformative+ Nelson,+D.+B.,+&+Low,+G.+R.+(2003).+Emotional+ learning+in+academic+excellence.+The+Texas+ intelligence:+Achieving+academic+and+career+ Magazine+for+Secondary+Education.+ excellence.+Upper+Saddle+River,+NJ:+Prentice+ Hall.+ Low,+G.,+&+Nelson,+D.+(2006).+2006+Institute+for+ emotional+intelligence+certiEication+workshop.+ Nelson,+D.+B.,+&+Low,+G.+R.+(2003).+Personal+ Paper+presented+at+the+meeting+of+the+2006+ excellence:+building+quality+from+within+ Institute+for+emotional+intelligence:+Catch+the+ [Assessment].+Corpus+Christi,+TX:+EI+Learning+ wave.+Galveston,+TX.+ Systems.+ Lynn,+A.B.+(2005).+The+EQ+difference:+A+powerful+ plan+for+putting+emotional+intelligence+to+

The International Journal for Transformative Emotional Intelligence 100 Nelson,+D.+B.,+Low,+G.+R.,+&+Vela,+R.+(2003).+ Unpublished+doctoral+dissertation,+The+Ohio+ Emotional+skills+assessment+process+ State+University. interpretation+and+intervention+guide+(Fall+ 2003).+Kingsville,+TX:+Texas+A&M+UniversityX Rogers,+C.+R.+(1980).+A+way+of+being.+New+York:+ Kingsville.+ Houghton+MifElin+Company.+ Nelson,+E.+K.+(1981).+A+comparison+of+levels+of+ Rogers,+C.+R.+(1995).+Introduction.+In+I.+Yalom+ personal+skills+in+distressed+and+nonX (Ed.),+A+way+of+being+(pp.+viiXxiii).+New+York:+ distressed+marriages.+Unpublished+doctoral+ Houghton+MifElin+Company.+ dissertation,+East+Texas+State+University. Rummel,+R.+J.+(1975).+Motivational+explanation.+In+ Norusis,+M.+J.+(2004).+SPSS+12.0+guide+to+data+ (Ed.),+Understanding+conElict+and+war:+Vol.+I:+ analysis.+Chicago:+Prentice+Hall.+ the+dynamic+psychological+Eield+(p.+).+Beverly+ Hills:+Sage+Publishing.+Retrieved+January+7,+ O'Hair,+D.,+Friedrich,+G.W.,+Wiemann,+J.+M.,+&+ 2007,+from+The+University+of+Hawaii+Web+Site:+ Wiemann,+M.+O.+(1997).+Competent+ http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/ Communication+(2nd+ed.).+New+York:+St.+ NOTE10.HTM Martin's+Press.+ Salovey,+P.,+&+Mayer,+J.+D.+(1990).+Emotional+ Ornstein,+R.+(1997).+The+right+mind:+making+sense+ intelligence.+Imagination,+Cognition,+and+ of+the+hemispheres.+San+Diego:+Harvest+Books.+ Personality,+9(1990),+185X211.+ Parkin,+G.,+Gaa,+J.,+Swank,+P.,+&+Liberman,+D.+(1998,+ Schlechty,+P.+C.+(2002).+Working+on+the+work:+an+ April).+Psychological+development+and+selfX action+plan+for+teachers,+principals,+and+ actualization+across+age+groups:+MiddleXaged+ superintendents.+Los+Angeles:+JosseyXBass.+ and+senior+adults+compared+developmentally.+ Paper+presented+at+the+meeting+of+the+Annual+ SDL.+(n.d.).+SelfXdirected+learning.+Retrieved+July+ Meeting+of+the+American+Educational+Research+ 12,+2006,+from+http:// Association.+San+Diego.+ www.selfdirectedlearning.com/ Perry,+B.+D.+(2006).+Fear+and+learning:+TraumaX Seligman,+M.+E.,+&+Csikszentmihalyi,+M.+(2000).+ related+factors+in+the+adult+education+process.+ Positive+psychology:+An+introduction.+ In+S.+Johnson+&+K.+Taylor+(Eds.),+New+ American+Psychologist,+55(1),+5X14.+ directions+for+adult+and+continuing+education:+ The+neuroscience+of+adult+learning+(pp.+ Seo,+D.+(2004).+Development+and+testing+of+a+ 21X27).+San+Francisco:+JosseyXBass.+ model+that+explains+contributing+factors+to+ unsafe+work+behavior.+Unpublished+doctoral+ Perry,+W.+G.+(1999).+Forms+of+ethical+and+ dissertation,+Indiana+University. intellectual+development+in+the+college+years.+ San+Francisco:+JosseyXBass.+ Shostrom,+E.+L.+(1966).+Personal+orientation+ inventory+manual.+San+Diego,+CA:+EdITS.+ Plonsky,+M.+(2006).+Psychological+Statistics.+ Retrieved+June+21,+2007,+from+University+of+ Shostrom,+E.+L.,+&+Montgomery,+D.+(2001).+ WisconsinXStevens+Point+Web+Site:+http:// Actualizing+therapy.+In+Raymond+Corsini+(Ed.),+ www.uwsp.edu/psych/stat/7/correlat.htm Handbook+of+innovative+therapy+(2nd+ed.,+pp.+ 1X12).+New+York:+John+Wiley+&+Sons.+ Pope,+P.+A.+(1982).+The+relationship+of+selected+ intrapersonal,+interpersonal,+and+life+ Sidanius,+J.+(2007).+Annotated+SPSS+output+for+ management+skills+to+academic+achievement+ factor+analysis.+Retrieved+July+21,+2007,+from+ among+secondary+school+students.+ University+of+California+Web+Site:+http:// Unpublished+doctoral+dissertation,+East+Texas+ www.ats.ucla.edu/STAT/spss/output/ State+University. factor1.htm Rice,+D.+M.+(2006).+An+examination+of+emotional+ Smith,+B.+S.+(1983).+A+comparison+of+trained+and+ intelligence:+Its+relationship+to+academic+ nonXtrained+academically+deEicient+students+ achievement+in+Army+JROTC+and+the+ taught+by+peer+counselors+using+the+ implications+for+education.+Unpublished+ microcounseling+model+in+an+urban+university.+ doctoral+dissertation,+Capella+University. Unpublished+doctoral+dissertation,+Texas+ Southern+University. Rodgers,+R.+F.+(1990).+Personal+and+moral+ development:+A+developmental+curriculum+ intervention+for+liberal+arts+freshmen.+

Personal Excellence and Emotional Intelligence 101 Smith,+M.E.+(2004).+A+mixed+paradigm:+Study+of+a+ Thomas,+C.+P.+(1988).+A+comparison+of+personal+ transformational+learning+program+for+atXrisk+ skills+of+select+psychologically+\"androgynous\"+ high+school+students.+Unpublished+doctoral+ and+\"masculine\"+males+during+mid+life.+ dissertation,+Texas+A&M+UniversityXCorpus+ Unpublished+doctoral+dissertation,+East+Texas+ Christi. State+University. State+Of+Michigan.+(1998).+Michigan.gov.+Retrieved+ Turton,+D.+W.,+&+Francis,+L.+J.+(2002).+Assessing+ February+4,+2007,+from+MDCS+department+of+ ministerial+job+satisfaction:+the+reliability+of+ civil+service+Web+Site:+http:// the+revised+MJSS+among+male+Anglican+clergy.+ www.state.mi.us/mdcs/Advisories/ Review+of+Religious+Research,+44(2),+169X172.+ adv98/486X98a.htm Vela,+R.H.,+Jr.+(2003).+The+role+of+emotional+ Sternberg,+R.+J.+(1985).+Beyond+IQ:+A+triarchic+ intelligence+in+the+academic+achievement+of+ theory+of+human+intelligence.+Cambridge:+ Eirst+year+college+students.+Unpublished+ Cambridge+University+Press.+ doctoral+dissertation,+Texas+A&M+UniversityX Kingsville. Sternberg,+R.+J.+(2003).+Wisdom,+intelligence,+and+ creativity+synthesized.+Cambridge:+Cambridge+ Vroom,+V.+H.+(1964).+Work+and+Motivation.+New+ University+Press.+ York:+Wiley.+ Stottlemyer,+B.G.+(2002).+An+examination+of+ Vyas,+A.,+Mitra,+R.,+ShankaranarayanXRao,+B.+S.,+&+ emotional+intelligence:+Its+relationship+to+ Chattarji,+S.+(2002).+Chronic+stress+induces+ academic+achievement+and+the+implications+ contrasting+patterns+of+dendritic+remodeling+ for+education.+Unpublished+doctoral+ in+hipocampal+and+amygdaloid+neurons.+The+ dissertation,+Texas+A&M+UniversityXKingsville. Journal+of+Neuroscience,+22(15),+6810X6818.+ Taylor,+K.+(2006).+Brain+function+and+adult+ Walker,+M.+R.+(1982).+Relationships+among+family+ learning:+Implications+for+practice.+In+S.+ of+origin,+personal+skills,+and+selected+ Johnson+&+K.+Taylor+(Eds.),+New+directions+for+ interpersonal+facilitative+skills.+Unpublished+ adult+and+continuing+education:+The+ doctoral+dissertation,+East+Texas+State+ neuroscience+of+adult+learning+(pp.+71X85).+San+ University. Francisco:+JosseyXBass.+ Welsh,+S.+F.+(1985).+Can+the+academic+probation+ The+Alfred+Adler+Institute+of+New+York.+(2005,+ student+be+salvaged?+A+retention+strategy.+ November+9).+About+Alfred+Adler.+Retrieved+ Unpublished+doctoral+dissertation,+Kansas+ August+9,+2006,+from+http://www.alfredadlerX State+University. ny.org/alfred_adler.htm Williams,+M.+H.+(2004).+Achievement+and+retention+ The+Conover+Company.+(n.d.).+Oakwood+Solutions+ patterns+in+a+predominantly+Hispanic+serving+ L.C.C.+Retrieved+January+9,+2007,+from+http:// institutions+of+higher+education.+Unpublished+ www.conovercompany.com/Products/ doctoral+dissertation,+Texas+A&M+UniversityX EQProEile/EQProEile.htm Kingsville. The+Managers'+Mentors,+Inc.+().+Hugh+OakleyX Zondag,+H.+J.+(2004).+Knowing+you+make+a+ Browne+Discusses+merits+of+Personal+Skills+ difference:+result+awareness+and+satisfaction+ Map.+Retrieved+January+9,+2007,+from+http:// in+the+pastoral+profession.+Review+of+Religious+ www.mentorsXmmha.com Research,+43(3),+254X269.+ The+Quotations+Page.+(n.d.).++Retrieved+January+5,+ Zull,+J.+E.+(2006).+Key+aspects+of+how+the+brain+ 2007,+from+http://www.quotationspage.com/ learns.+In+S.+Johnson+&+K.+Taylor+(Eds.),+New+ quotes/Albert_Einstein/31 directions+for+adult+and+continuing+education:+ The+neuroscience+of+adult+learning+(pp.+3X9).+ The+State+Of+Michigan.+(2007).+Michigan+ San+Francisco:+JosseyXBass.+ department+of+civil+service+glossary+of+ classiEication+and+selection+terminology.+ Retrieved+February+4,+2007,+from+ Michigan.gov+Web+Site:+http:// www.michigan.gov/documents/ Glossary_104294_7.pdf +

The International Journal for Transformative Emotional Intelligence 102 Author Note Richard (Rick) Hammett, Ed.D., supervises doctoral research for Walden University, teaches the graduate sequence in EI-centric professional coaching for The University of Houston-Victoria, and teaches master’s and doctoral level courses in adult education and educational leadership for Texas A&M University-Kingsville. Rick is a founding faculty member of the Emotional Intelligence Training & Research Institute (EITRI) and principal of Emotional Intelligence Learning Systems, Inc. Correspondence regarding this article may be forwarded to [email protected]

Bibliography of Related Works 103 Bibliography of Related Works The following bibliography is offered as listing of completed works related to the transformative models created by Nelson, Low, and their students and colleagues. The first section contains works in the form of books, articles, and papers. Doctoral dissertations and significant master’s theses are contained in the second of two sections. It is our intention to maintain the bibliography related to this EI theory and work on our our website at www.eilearningsys.com/?page_id=65. We will also include updated versions of the bibliography in future volumes of The International Journal of Transformative Emotional Intelligence. Books, Articles, and Papers Cox, J. E. (2013). Quantifying emotional intelligence: Validating the Relationship Skills Map (RSM). The International Journal of Transformative Emotional Intelligence, 2, 7-20. Cox, J. E. & Nelson, D. B. (Spring 2008). Quantifying emotional intelligence: The relationship between thinking patterns and emotional skills. The Journal of Humanistic Counseling, Education, and Development, 47(1), 9-25. Dockrat, S. Y. (2012). The standardization of the Emotional Skills Assessment Process (ESAP) for South African students of higher education. The International Journal of Transformative Emotional Intelligence, 1, 61-72. Farnia, F. (2012). Emotional intelligence and foreign language proficiency: Relating and comparing ESAP and TOEFL performance. The International Journal of Transformative Emotional Intelligence, 1, 51-60. Gammill, B. (2013). Improving learning environments for students. The International Journal of Transformative Emotional Intelligence, 2, 57-62. Hammett, R. D. (2013). Personal excellence and emotional Intelligence: Creating and validating the Personal Excellence Map (PEM). The International Journal of Transformative Emotional Intelligence, 2, 77-102. Hammett, R., Hollon, C., & Maggard, P. (2012). Professional military education (PME) in the USAF SOS leadership course: Incorporating emotional intelligence. The International Journal of Transformative Emotional Intelligence, 1, 73-96. Hammett, R.D., Nelson, D. B., & Low, G. R. (2007). Personal excellence map (PEM) interpretation and intervention guide. [Technical Manual]. Corpus Christi, TX: Emotional Intelligence Learning Systems, Inc. Hills, F., Cano, A, & Illich, P. (2013). Taking the LEAP: Integrating EI to positively affect college culture. The International Journal of Transformative Emotional Intelligence, 2, 35-46. Justice, M., Espinoza, S., Veitch, B.L., & Lin, M. (2012). Emotional intelligence, teacher education, and future studies. The International Journal of Transformative Emotional Intelligence, 1, 39-50. Low, G.R. & Hammett, R.D. (2012). The transformational model of emotional intelligence: Improving student access and success. The International Journal of Transformative Emotional Intelligence, 1, 21-38. Low, G. R. (2000). Quantifying emotional intelligence: Positive contributions of the emotional mind. Annual faculty lecture. Texas A&M University-Kingsville. Low, G. R. & Nelson, D. B. (Spring 2004). Emotional intelligence: Effectively bridging the gap between high school and college. Texas Study of Secondary Education, 13(2). The Texas Association of Secondary School Principals. Low, G. R. & Nelson, D. B. (Spring 2005). Emotional intelligence: The role of transformative learning in academic excellence. Texas Study of Secondary Education, 14(2). The Texas Association of Secondary School Principals. Miller, T. (2013). Transformative emotional intelligence in transforming education. The International Journal of Transformative Emotional Intelligence, 2, 47-49.

The International Journal for Transformative Emotional Intelligence 104 Muñoz, M. E., Potter, G., & Chavez, M. R (2013). A pilot study of empathy and counselor self-efficacy among graduate students in a predominantly hispanic counseling psychology program. The International Journal of Transformative Emotional Intelligence, 2, 51-56. Nelson, D. B & Low, G. R. (2006). Emotional intelligence and college success: A research-based assessment and intervention model. In J. Cassidy, A.Martinez, & C. Swift (Eds.), Supporting Student Success (4, pp. 237-247). Corpus Christi, TX: Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi. Nelson, D. B. & Low, G. R. (Spring 2008). Helping at-risk adolescents succeed: An EI Centric Model. Texas Study of Secondary Education, 17(2). The Texas Association of Secondary School Principals. Nelson, D. (2006). Personal excellence: A new paradigm for gifted education. In Y. S. Freeman, D. E. Freeman, & R. Ramirez (Eds.), Diverse learners in the mainstream classroom: Strategies for supporting all students across content areas. (1, pp. 101-117). Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Nelson, D. (2012). Liberating and actualizing human potential. The International Journal of Transformative Emotional Intelligence, 1, 15-20. Nelson, D. & Low, G. & Ellis, R. (Winter 2007). Emotional intelligence: A transformative theory and applied model of positive personal change. Annals of the American Psychotherapy Association, 10(4), 30-35. Nelson, D., Low, G., & Hammett, R. (2012). Emotionally intelligent teaching: Mentoring and teaching excellence using a transformative learning model. In S. Myers & C. Anderson (Eds.), Dimensions in mentoring: A continuum of practice from beginning teachers to teacher leaders (243-255). Boston: Sense Publishers. Nelson, D., Low, G., & Vela, R. (2003). Emotional skills assessment process (ESAP) interpretation and intervention guide. [Technical Manual]. Corpus Christi, TX: Emotional Intelligence Learning Systems, Inc. Nelson, D. B. & Low, G. R. (2011). Emotional intelligence: Achieving academic and career excellence (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. Nelson, D. B. & Low, G. R. (2011). Emotional intelligence: Achieving academic and career excellence (2nd ed.). Instructor's Guide. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. Also available online <http://www.tamuk.edu/edu/kwei000/>. Nelson, D., & Nelson, K., & Trent, M. (Spring 2012). Developing resiliency skills: Using the Relationship Skills Map® (RSM®) with military couples in high stress environments. Annals Psychotherapy and Integrative Health, 14–25. Ramos-Villarreal, J. & Holland, G. (2011). University students' development of emotional intelligence skills for leadership. American Journal Of Business Education (AJBE), 4(3), 47-54. Reyes-Dominguez, P. (2011). The power of emotional intelligence in transforming lives: Voices from higher education. The International Journal of Transformative Emotional Intelligence, 1, 97-108. Rude, D. A. (2013). Developing emotional intelligence in leaders: A qualitative approach. The International Journal of Transformative Emotional Intelligence, 2, 21-34. Sen, A. & Khandagle, S. (2013). Emotional choices: Pathway to intrinsic motivation. The International Journal of Transformative Emotional Intelligence, 2, 1-6. Sen, A., Nelson, D., & Surya, R.A. (2009). Fuelling Success: How emotional intelligence helped HPCL and its employees to grow. Book World Enterprises: Mumbai, India. Tang, H.W., Yin, M.S., & Nelson, D.B. (2010). The relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership practices: A Cross-cultural study of academic leaders in Taiwan and the USA. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 25(8), 899-926. Tulsi, P.K. & Walia, P. (2013). Emotional intelligence and job satisfaction related to gender and experience. The International Journal of Transformative Emotional Intelligence, 2, 1-6.

Bibliography of Related Works 105 Doctoral Dissertations & Selected Master’s Theses Abney, B. C. (1984). The effects of behavior-control-perception (BCP) training upon select graduate students emphasizing business management or human resources development (Doctoral dissertation). East Texas State University, Commerce. Bradshaw, S. (1981). PSM scale differences of successful and unsuccessful CETA training (Doctoral dissertation). John Wood College, Quincy, IL. Branaman, T. (1981). Multiple correlational analysis of quantity and frequency of alcohol use, problem drinking and personal life skills by ninth and twelfth grade students (Doctoral dissertation). East Texas State University, Commerce. Castro, V. (2005). The efficacy of an emotional intelligence based program: Resilient behaviors of seventh and eighth grade students. Dissertation Abstracts International 66 (5). (UMI NO. 3175019) Ceasar, P. (1989). A comparison of personal skills of select psychologically \"androgynous\" and \"masculine\" males during mid-life (Doctoral dissertation). East Texas State University, Commerce. Chancler, J. (2012). A comparison of emotional intelligence and leadership styles among Texas Public School Principals (Doctoral dissertation). Texas A&M University-Kingsville. Chao, C. T. (2003). Foreign language anxiety and emotional intelligence: A study of EFL students in Taiwan (Doctoral dissertation). Texas A&M University-Kingsville. Cox, J. E. (2010). Quantifying emotional intelligence in relationships: The validation of the Relationship Skills Map (Doctoral dissertation). Texas A&M University-Kingsville. Cox, S. J. (2012). A study of personality, emotional intelligence, social maturity, and job performance among nurses in rural East Texas (Doctoral dissertation). Texas A&M University-Commerce. Deatley, M. (1986). The effects of interpersonal skills training (IPST) upon communication, discrimination, interpersonal, and leadership skills in business (Doctoral dissertation). East Texas State University, Commerce. Ellis, C. N. (2004). A study of emotional intelligence indicators in continuation and comprehensive high school students. Dissertation Abstract International, 65 (8). (UMI NO. 3142248) Farnia, F. (2007). The relationship between emotional intelligence skills and foreign language proficiency (Master's thesis). Allameh Tabatabaei University, Tehran, Iran. Fernandez, A. (2007). Attitudinal, behavioral, and emotional intelligence skill characteristics of college student-parents (Doctoral dissertation). Texas A&M University-Kingsville. Fry, L. (1990). An evaluation of Mississippi State University's summer scholar's program (Doctoral dissertation). Mississippi State University, Mississippi State. Hale, K. D. (1986). The effects of behavior-control-perception (BCP) training upon focus-of-control and personal skills of selected high-risk community college students (Doctoral dissertation). East Texas State University, Commerce. Hammett, R. D. (2007). Personal excellence: The development and validation of a new measure of emotional intelligence (Doctoral dissertation). Texas A&M University-Kingsville. Harville, P. C. (2012). The role of emotional intelligence skills in teaching excellence: The validation of a behavioral skills checklist (Doctoral dissertation). Texas A&M University-Kingsville. Hwang, F.-F. (2007). The relationship between emotional intelligence and teaching effectiveness (Doctoral dissertation). Texas A&M University-Kingsville. Jagers, J. L. (1987). Interpersonal and intrapersonal attributes of never-married singles (Doctoral dissertation). University of North Texas, Denton. Jobe, T. D. (2010). A study regarding the influence of emotional intelligence on adult self directed learning (Master's thesis). Texas A&M University-Kingsville. Josefowitz, A. J. (1984). The effects of management development training on organizational climate (Doctoral dissertation). University of Minnesota, St. Paul.

The International Journal for Transformative Emotional Intelligence 106 Kenney-Wallace, P. (2013). An analysis of the relationship between emotional intelligence and constructive thinking, and student achievement in developmental mathematics. (Doctoral dissertation). Texas A&M University-Kingsville, Texas. Kostock, A. (1981). An analysis of personal skills and clinical performance evaluation of associate degree nursing students (Doctoral dissertation). University of Texas at Austin. Leaseburg, M. G. (1990). Validity and reliability study of an instrument for identifying educationally at- risk junior high school students (Doctoral dissertation). Oklahoma State University, Stillwater. Liang, Y. H. (2007). The relationship between personality type and emotional intelligence in a sample of college and university faculty in Taiwan (Doctoral dissertation). Texas A&M University-Kingsville. Link, S. W. (1982). Factors associated with academic performance of community college students (Doctoral dissertation). University of North Texas, Denton. Lu, S.-C. (2008). Validation of a measure of emotional intelligence for first year college students in a Hispanic serving institution (Doctoral dissertation). Texas A&M University-Kingsville. Madina, A. A. Saucedo (2010). Exploratory study about the relationship between emotional intelligence and speaking anxiety among normalistas students (Doctoral dissertation). Texas A&M University- Kingsville. Martinez, M. R. (2007). An evaluation study of a college success course as a counseling intervention at a South Texas institution of higher education (Doctoral dissertation). Texas A&M University- Kingsville. Mead, A. M. (1985). The ABC program and its impact on Columbus, Ohio students: A follow-up study for the compensatory, minority education, academically talented, scholarship programs (Doctoral dissertation). Ohio State University, Columbus. Mejia, J. E. (2012). A comparative analysis of personal skills profiles among administrators, department chairs, and faculty at a college in South Texas (Doctoral dissertation). Texas A&M University- Kingsville. Millan, R. O. (2008). Examining emotional intelligence differences among nursing students at a college in South Texas (Doctoral dissertation). Texas A&M University-Kingsville. Nelson, K. (1981). A comparison of levels of personal skills in distressed and non-distressed marriages (Doctoral dissertation). East Texas State University, Commerce. Pope, P. (1981). The relationship of selected intrapersonal, interpersonal, and life management skills to academic achievement among secondary school students (Doctoral dissertation). East Texas State University, Commerce. Potter, G. (2005). The impact of an emotional intelligence intervention program on freshman students at a South Texas higher education institution (Doctoral dissertation). Texas A&M University-Kingsville. Quintanilla, M. C. (1998). The effects of a stress intervention strategy in residential treatment staff: The PACE program (Doctoral dissertation). St. Mary's University, San Antonio, TX. Reyes-Dominguez, P. (2008). The relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership on organizational excellence(Doctoral dissertation). Texas A&M University-Kingsville. Rice, D. M. (2006). An examination of emotional intelligence: Its relationship to academic achievement in army JROTC and the implications for education. Dissertation Abstracts International. (UMI NO. 3240023) Rude, D. A. (2013). Leadership and emotional intelligence: A phenomenological study on developmental experiences of effective federal government leaders. (Doctoral dissertation). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses. (UMI NO. 1346226922). Saenz, T. (2009). An exploratory study of the relationship between emotional intelligence and IQ: Implications for students with learning disabilities (Doctoral dissertation). Texas A&M University- Kingsville.

Bibliography of Related Works 107 Smith, B. (1983). A comparison of trained and non-trained academically deficient students taught by peer counselors using the microcounseling model in an urban university (Doctoral dissertation). Texas Southern University, Houston. Smith, G. M. (2006). A study of the emotional intelligence skills of resident advisors at two South Texas universities (Master's thesis). Texas A&M University-Kingsville. Smith, M. E. (2004). A mixed paradigm: Study of a transformational learning program for at-risk high school students. Dissertation Abstract International, 65 (11). (UMI No. 3152489) Solis, V. R. (2007). A comparison of personal inventories between speakers of two languages (Doctoral dissertation). Texas A&M University-Kingsville. Stottlemyer, B. G. (2002). A conceptual framework for emotional intelligence in education: Factors affecting student achievement (Doctoral dissertation). Texas A&M University-Kingsville. Suudimenlakki, P. (1985). A study of Finnish and American managers (Doctoral dissertation). University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland. Tang, H.-W. (2007). A cross-cultural investigation of academic leaders' emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness in Taiwan and the United States (Doctoral dissertation). Texas A&M University-Kingsville. Teliz Triujeque, R. (2009). Validation of the Spanish version of the emotional skills assessment process (ESAP) with college students in Mexico (Doctoral dissertation). Texas A&M University-Kingsville. Tennant, S. (1990). Personal and moral development curriculum intervention for liberal arts freshmen: A personal development program (Doctoral dissertation). Ohio State University, Columbus. Titus, J. (1980). The effects of a human communications workshop on the self-actualization and interpersonal skills of United States Air Force and Civil Service personnel (Doctoral dissertation). Abilene Christian University, Abilene, TX. Trapp, C. S. (2010). The association among emotional intelligence, resilience, and academic performance of preservice teachers (Doctoral dissertation). University of Pheonix. Turnquist, R. (1980). Assessing the personal skills development of incarcerated juvenile delinquents (Doctoral dissertation). Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, TX. Veitch, B. L. (2011). Developmental education and emotional intelligence in three rural east Texas community colleges (Doctoral dissertation). Texas A&M University-Commerce. Vela, R. H., Jr. (2003). The role of emotional intelligence in the academic achievement of first year college students (Doctoral dissertation). Texas A&M University-Kingsville. Villarreal, J.R. (2010). Exploring university students' development of emotional intelligence skills for leadership (Doctoral dissertation). Texas A&M University-Kingsville. Walker, M. (1982). Relationships among family of origin, personal skills, and selected interpersonal facilitative skills (Doctoral dissertation). East Texas State University, Commerce. Webb, J. (1991). Patterns of social skills in a typology of marital systems(Doctoral dissertation). The Fielding Institute, Santa Barbara, CA. Welsh, S. (1985). Can the academic probation student be salvaged? A retention strategy (Doctoral dissertation). Kansas State University, Manhattan. White, F. (1981). Affective vocabulary and personal adjustment of deaf and hearing adolescent populations (Doctoral dissertation). East Texas State University, Commerce. Wilkins, D. D. (2004). The relationship between emotional intelligence and enrollment retention in online instruction (Doctoral dissertation). Walden University, Minneapolis, MN. Williams, M. H. (2004). Achievement and retention patterns in a predominantly Hispanic serving institution of higher education (Doctoral dissertation). Texas A&M University-Kingsville. Yin, M. S. (2007). Grey system theory and multiple attribute decision making: An innovative approach to educational research (Doctoral dissertation). Texas A&M University-Kingsville.

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