Old crafts in Serbia

Old craft s in Serbia MINISTRY OF TRADE, TOURISM AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS REPUBLIC OF SERBIA

REPUBLIC OF SERBIA MINISTRY OF TRADE, TOURISM AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS Old craft s in Serbia BELGRADE ◆ 2016

Publisher GRAFOPRINT d.o.o. Gornji Milanovac For the publisher Tomislav Karadzic Publisher of First Edition in 2009 Th e Etnographic Museum, Belgrade Editor Vesna Duskovic (fi rst edition, 2009) Milojica Popovic (this edition) Project Manager Zeljko Stojanovic, Senior Adviser [email protected] Person responsible for the impementation of the contract with the publisher on behalf of the Ministry of Trade, Tourism and Telecommunications Ana Gemaljevic, Adviser Organizer Sasa Sreckovic (fi rst edition, 2009) Design Zoran Zivkovic (fi rst edition, 2009) Ivana Labovic English translation Zermen Fiipovic Milutin Krasevic (Introduction) Illustrations and photographs Th e Ethnographic Museum in Belgrade, Th e Hristifor Crnilovic Legacy, Th e National Museum Kragujevac, Th e Regional Museum Knjazevac, Th e National Museum Krusevac ијицакилбуп у ајицазиголатаКCIP – даргоеБ, ејибрС акетоилбиб андораН Ranko Barisic, Stanko Kostic, Ivana Masnikovic, M.A., 67/68(497.11)(083.82) Zeljko Stojanovic Printed by доверп; ћивопоП ацијолиМ киндеру/ [ ијибрС у итаназ ИРАТС Grafoprint d.o.o. ћивешарК нитулиМ, ћивопилиФ немреЖ кизеј икселгне ан и… ћишираБ окнаР ејифарготоф и ејицартсули) ; чер андовУ( Gornji Milanovac цавоналиМ ињроГ, 2016 (тнирпофарГ: цавоналиМ ињроГ.]. – рд . ; 24 cmртсули. : ртс). – 99 тнирпофарГ: Printed copies 600 абО: Old Craft s in Serbia. – адоверп гонапматширп. ртс. лсаН ухрв аН. – амиворемс митунрбо онбосуђем у анапматш адар амзирут, енивогрт овтсратсиниМ, ајибрС акилбупеР.: ртс. лсан 600. Th is catalogue is the copyright of the Republic of Serbia жариТ. – ончабутсовд напматш тскеТ. – ајицакинумокелет и – the Ministry of Trade, Tourism and Telecommunications. ISBN 978-86-7432-086-0 © Th is catalogue or any portion of this catalogue may not be reproduced or duplicated in any form, including изолатаК– ајибрС– итанаЗa) COBISS.SR-ID 227320588 electronic transmission.

TABLE OF CONTENTS Zeljko Stojanovic THE RENAISSANCE OF OLD CRAFTS IN SERBIA 5 Vilma Niskanovic ARTISANSHIP IN SERBIA 7 Sasa Sreckovic CRAFTS – CLASSIFICATION AND TYPES 10 Marina Cvetkovic WEAVING 13 Marina Cvetkovic KILIM MAKING 19 Irena Fileki EMBROIDERY 25 Dragana Stojkovic TAILOR’S CRAFT 31 Vilma Niskanovic FURRIERY 37 Vera Momcilovic-Sarac OPANAK-MAKING 41 Jelena Vuletic FILIGREE 47 Ranko Barisic POTTERY 51 Ranko Barisic COOPERAGE 57 Irena Gvozdenovic COPPERSMITHING 63 Marko Stojanovic, M.A. WHEELWRIGHTING 67 Vesna Marjanovic, P.h.D. GINGERBREAD MAKING 73 Velibor Stojakovic FLOUR MILLING AND BAKER’S TRADE 79 Lazar Predrag Markovic ICONOGRAPHY 85 Dimitrije О. Golemovic, P.h.A. THE MAKING OF TRADITIONAL MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS 91 TRADITION AS A SOURCE OF INSPIRATION 97

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THE RENAISSANCE OF OLD CRAFTS IN SERBIA n the past seven years since the fi rst edition of this book and since the Department of Commerce launched a project for preserving and developing old craft s in the IRepublic of Serbia, products and services of old craft s have started to emerge on the market and thus been made increasingly available to Serbian households. Public workshops, specialized fairs and sales exhibitions have become important places for artisans where they can exhibit and place their products. Consumers in Serbia value traditional craft objects made by skilled hands and, appreciating their quality and originality, are prepared to pay more for such artefacts than for industrial mass products. Craft smen in Serbia are increasingly using modern information technologies in order to approach consumers so that they off er folk costumes, opanci (Serbian traditional footwear) and Pirot kilims via internet also to customers abroad. Th e tourism experience in Serbia would be incomplete without old craft products, for which more and more tourists are showing interest demanding a unique souvenir which represents Serbian culture and customs. Minister Rasim Raljic, awarding Only few individuals possess adequate competencies and skills that are required to grants to artisans, Belgrade 2013 create traditional craft products and, unfortunately, their number is gradually decreas- ing. A state that wants to preserve traditional craft s must provide fi nancial support to artisans to increase their chances of survival in a highly competitive market. Th at is why the Ministry of Trade, Tourism and Telecommunications has awarded subsidies totaling 18 million Dinars in the past three years. Government grants ranging from 50,000 to 500,000 Dinars have been awarded to 65 business entities (business com- panies, entrepreneurs and cooperatives) enabling them to renovate their workshops, upgrade equipment or to take part in specialized trade fairs in Serbia and abroad. We are planning to substantially increase our support to traditional craft smen in 2017 to strengthen the trend towards economic recovery and to make this area more attractive for young generations that are supposed to continue the legacy – the knowledge and skills of the old masters. We must not allow craft s businesses to be closed, com- petencies and skills to be forgotten and tradition to be erased. Th e public and artisans are invited to familiarize themselves with all activities within the project “Preservation and Development of Old Craft s in Serbia” via the Old Craft s portal at www.starizanati.gov.rs as well as on the offi cial website of the Ministry of Trade, Tourism and Telecommunications www.mtt.gov.rs. Th e highly attended exhibition of traditional craft s at the Serbian Pavilion during the Expo 2015 in Milan with participants from Pirot Nis, Obrenovac and Belgrade con- fi rmed that traditional craft s are a key element of Serbia’s national brand which makes us attractive both for Europe and the world. Th is is another reason why the preservation and development of old craft s will remain one of the priorities of this Ministry in the years to come. th Bеlgarde, november 9 2016. Th e Ministry of Trade, Tourism and Telecommunications 5

Th e Ethnographic Museum in Belgrade, 2010 Shopping Center Delta City, Belgrade 2011 6

Artisanship in Serbia Vilma Niskanovic he catalogue Old Craft s in Serbia is yet another opportunity for the pro- motion and emphasis on the need for revitalization of traditional craft s. Th is publication was jointly prepared by the Ethnographic Museum in Belgrade and the Ministry of Trade and Services of the Republic of Serbia for the sake of affi rmation and restoration of certain craft s and service trades that are estimated to be commercially attractive. Modern times, which off er greater opportunities for the revitalization of tradi- tional craft skills through the creative economy and the development of the tourist services market in many countries in recent years, has not particularly infl uenced the revitalization of old craft s in Serbia. On the contrary, the impression is that most craft s are on the verge of extinction, and this applies particularly to the tradi- tional rural craft s and service trades in the cities. However, despite the unfavorable legal regulations, fi scal policy and economic conditions for the restoration of old craft s in Serbia, thanks to their vitality, talent and skills, some gift ed individuals or master workshops, though with great diffi culties, still manage to fi nd the way for their products to reach interested customers and the public. Some of them engage in the craft work as a hobby, while others had courage to choose a craft to be their profession and the main source of income. In addition to market attractiveness, the restoration of old craft s has another, more remarkable value, which is the protection of the endangered intangible and material cultural heritage in the sphere of skills associated with traditional craft s. Th e intangible cultural heritage denotes, among other things, practices, knowledge and skills associated with the old craft s, which communities, groups and individ- uals recognize as part of their cultural heritage. It is handed down through gener- ations and, depending on their environment, their interaction with nature and their history, it provides a sense of identity and continuity, thus promoting re- spect for cultural diversity and creativity. (From the “Convention for the Safe- guarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage”) 7

Th e term “zanat” (craft ) is a Turkish loanword, of Arabic origin, in the Balkan languages and it means a skill or knowledge. Some craft s founded on the ancient experience of the ancient Slavic and Near Eastern culture were an important eco- nomic sector in our old urban settlements or additional employment in rural communities. Th is legacy was passed on from the Middle Ages to the Islamized society and left signifi cant marks on old town guilds. Th e fi rst data on craft s are th found in the 14 century Serbian royal charters, in the censuses of craft smen who, together with villages and farms, were bestowed on certain monasteries such as Studenica, Decani, Banjska, Zica and others. Th e 1455 census of the Brankovic Region mentioned craft smen such as blacksmiths, shoemakers, tailors, sheepskin coat makers, butchers, bakers, potters, stonemasons, wheelwrights, millers, innkeepers and herbalists. With the arrival of the Turks, new craft s of the Oriental origin appeared that were exercised mainly by Muslims and were linked to towns. Th ese included silversmiths, locksmiths, tanners (“tabaci”), sheepskin coat makers, jewelry makers, slipper makers, barbers, soap makers, horseshoers, coppersmiths, sword makers, boza makers, and halva makers. Th e existing craft s also began to apply new, oriental skills, especially in the treatment of leather and metal, so that former goldsmiths and tanners were later called silversmiths and th “tabaci” respectively. In the mid-16 century, there were some fi ft y craft s in Priz- ren and about thirty in Belgrade. Uzice, Nis and Smederevo, as well as all cities in Kosovo and Metohija, were also important artisan centers. Unlike cities, the rural Traditional Serbian Craft s Exhibition – Serbian Pavilion, settlements had a signifi cantly larger number of blacksmiths, millers and potters, EXPO 2015, Milan – Italy as well as other craft smen related to a more primitive lifestyle. Along with the artisanship, thriving commerce developed in the cities. Th e progress was remarkable in the cities that were located along the important roads between the major production areas or that were collection centers of agrarian and livestock products, such as Novi Pazar, for example. In addition to daily busi- ness in shops, artisan products were sold at the weekly bazaars or fairs held in all the cities, and sometimes in rural settlements. In the mid-18 century, the num- th ber of craft smen – Christians, mostly Serbs and Tzintzars, who were bakers, inn- keepers, silversmiths, opanak-makers, sheepskin coat makers, tailors, dye mak- ers, masons, potters and others – gradually increased. Craft smen were organized into associations of artisans of the same or related profession – guilds, or “rufete”, formed on the basis of a social rank, where they functioned under customary norms and the established legal regulations. Guilds looked aft er the education of youth and promotion of craft s, took care of members who could no longer work, and solved disputes in their own ranks; to protect their rights before the authori- ties, they acted as one. Education and training lasted for years; apprentices (stu- dents) and journeymen (assistants) had to pass exams to become journeymen and masters respectively. Journeymen took master’s exams in the guild house, be- fore the commission or the guild administration. An exam taker had to answer 8

three questions pertaining to the production technology of a certain item, and present his works (called “remek”, “kultar”), which were evaluated by the com- mission and a head of the guild – “caja” or “ustabasa”. When a journeyman be- came a master, the head of the guild advised him how to behave, helped him strap on his apron – pestemal – and gave him the master craft sman certifi cate – “pokazanije”. Usually, several journeymen and apprentices were promoted to master craft smen and journeymen respectively, so that they split the cost of lunch or dinner to which members of the guild administration and master craft smen were invited. Such banquets took place in the guild house or at a local resort. In the 19 century, aft er the liberation from the Turkish occupation, the Serbi- th an craft smen took primacy over the old craft s in Belgrade and other Serbian cit- ies. At the same time, the incoming craft smen from Austria-Hungary brought new craft s and elements of the Western European culture. Some craft smen earned an enviable wealth and transformed into merchants, while some of them estab- lished various endowments. th In the late 19 century, the demand for craft products decreased due to the more available semi-industrial and industrial goods. Th e handicraft production th gradually waned and died out, and in the fi rst decades of the 20 century, service activities increasingly became a characteristic of craft smen in cities and towns. Aft er World War Two, social and economic foundations of the craft production disappeared with the propagation of the mass industrial production and the be- littled value of handicraft . Public work shop Traditional Traditional craft tools, semi-fi nished products and inventory of individual Serbian Craft s Exhibition, Knez craft workshops are today greatly valued artifacts in museum collections. Th ey Mihailova Street (Belgrade 2010) are a segment of the material cultural heritage and the testimony of the time that disappeared in the overall modernization and globalization of everyday life. Th anks to the preserved material, literature on craft s and ethnographic artifacts in museum and private collections in Serbia, curators and ethnologists of the Ethnographic Museum in Belgrade, an ethnomusicologist and an iconographer wrote the texts about fi ft een selected craft s that are considered capable of being affi rmed and restored to a certain extent. Fortunately, certain craft s have lately managed to fi nd the way to schools as educa- tional institutions include them in their curricula. Craft skills are recognized and transmitted to some degree through formal and informal education in public and pri- vate sector; in the public sector – within the existing program of studies and in voca- tional schools, and informally – through workshops and training courses for amateurs. Successful forms of cooperation between experts and participants of workshops are the educational program Old craft s and Professions in the Open-Air Museum Old Village in Sirogojno, weaving and ceramics courses in the Ethnographic Museum in Belgrade – Manak’s House, and many organizations and associations that conduct education programs regarding the implementation of old craft techniques. 9

Craft s – Classifi cation and Types Sasa Sreckovic he term „craft “ denotes a skill (generally, manual skill or profi ciency in hand work), but also the profession that involves the entire process of creating unique products, mainly using simple tools. Craft s are usually based on tradi- tional knowledge and technologies, but creativity and innovation of master craft smen are also signifi cant. On the one hand, craft s are characterized by func- tional and utilitarian products, but on the other, by products and practices with- in the framework of decorative arts, as well as those objects that have other sym- bolic, artistic, spiritual functions (iconography, the making of musical instru- ments, etc.). In addition, the particularity of the craft s is the implementation of natural materials in the production process (wood, leather, clay, glass, textiles, metal, etc.). Th e artisanship activities in Serbia can be classifi ed into four main categories in agreement with the categorization of trades outlined in the Regulations on def- inition of jobs that are considered arts and old craft s, i.e. cottage industry jobs (Of- fi cial Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, No. 21/2005): Artistic Craft s Th eir key characteristic is the relatively high aesthetic quality of craft prod- ucts. Most artistic craft s are deeply rooted in tradition or inspired by it. In com- mercial sense, they are still currently today, unlike, for example, the majority of traditional rural craft s. Th ey are mainly related to the urban environment. Th ese craft s implement new technologies to process objects. To a certain extent, they af- fect the quality and scene of contemporary artistic design. Example: painting on glass, ceramics, wood, stone, etc.; artistic making of metal jewelry. 10

Traditional Craft s Traditional craft s are predominantly exercised in rural areas, while they were used in urban areas until the last decades of the twentieth century. Th e largest number of those has almost disappeared, because the extent of commercial de- mand for their products is insignifi cant. Such craft s include the traditional pro- duction of objects, the craft s closely related to architectural work, and partly tech- nologies of preparation of certain food products. Examples: pottery, wheelwrighting, quilt making, etc. Cottage Industry In the past, this term pertained more to the production of items for the house- hold, than of those for the market. It primarily implied the textile cottage indus- try handled by female household members. From a commercial standpoint, this activity has lately again become more current mainly through its ties with tourist services. Examples: knitting, crochet, making of traditional costumes Service Industry Services are present in all of the aforementioned categories. Th ey generally in- volve maintenance and repair of previously manufactured items within the same trades. In recent times, artisan services are in much greater demand than artisan products both in our country and worldwide. Th e barber’s craft or well digging, for example, could be classifi ed as true ser- vice activities. Individual craft s rarely belong to only one of these categories and diff erent as- pects of activities within a single craft are usually interconnected. For example, the production of food could partly be a traditional craft , and partly – a service. Th e making of kilims, tapestries and other artistic forms of weaving is partly a traditional craft and partly an artistic craft in the modern sense of the word. On the other hand, the production of individual items and products may in- clude several craft techniques (e.g. production of hemp shirts). 11

Serbia, 1890 12

Weaving RESPINNING OF UNDERDRESSES Marina Cvetkovic T he rich weaving creativity in the territory of Serbia hemp, linen, wool, threads from the silk cocoons, and was formed and developed during the long and cotton, were used for the production of a yarn. stratifi ed cultural past. It can be traced from Neo- Hemp and wool were most frequently used for weav- lithic cultures to modern-day urban communities. ing. Each of these raw materials required a specifi c way Weaving had an important role in the traditional of processing fi bers into a thread. Th e most complicated Serbian society. Th e pillars of domestic weaving were and demanding process was the treatment of hemp, or women. Th ey made textile items for individuals, families, fl ax, which, to mention just the most important facts, broader communities, and oft en also for the market, thus consisted of the cultivation, harvesting, melting (soak- signifi cantly contributing to the economy and progress ing) and rubbing of stalks in crushers or scutchers. Th e of rural households. Th ey made items to equip house- processing of wool started with sheep shearing, washing holds: wool covers (blankets, motley rugs, kilims, etc.), and cleaning of the fl eece from fat and impurities. towels, curtains, straw-mattresses, cradle coverlets, wall Fibers of wool, as well as hemp and fl ax, were separated coverings, bed linen, as well as fabric for clothes - the un- by combing with hand-carders and classifi ed by the qual- derdresses and upper dresses, parts of folk costumes… ity, i.e. length, and then spun into a thread. Along with In addition to their practical functions (protection from recorded archaic ways of spinning without the distaff – the cold, sun, dirt, etc.), these various textiles also had with the help of body parts, or only with a simple spindle a decorative role, and were oft en symbols of many gen- – the most common way was spinning with a distaff and a der, status, religious, ethnic and other meanings. Woven spindle. In terms of shape, as well as decorative, technical handicraft s also had a signifi cant role in the ritual and and visual characteristics, distaff s found in the territory of social-communicative life of individuals and their com- Serbia are typologically highly diverse. Aft er spinning, the munities. wool was rolled into balls of wool and thus straightened Unlike modern-day woven items, weaving was once and prepared for further processing. Textile fi lament was preceded by a long and complex process of the treatment then respun or doubled, depending on the needs. of textile raw materials, which took place at homes. Tex- Th e thus-prepared yarn was then dyed. Parts of plants, tile raw materials of animal and plant origin, including such as roots, trees, leaves and fruits, from the immediate 13

names in Serbian, including razboj, sane, stative, stan, natra, tara…). Although many variations in shape were recorded, its basic components are: sides or frames that house two shaft s, a beater, a reed, heddles (usually two or four), treadles, a seat for weaver and other auxiliary parts. A vertical loom is much less frequent. It was most- ly used for production of kilims in Pirot, from where it spread to other centers of the kilim-making craft in Southwestern Serbia, Montenegro and Bosnia and Her- th zegovina in the 20 century. Textiles were primarily woven on horizontal looms with the smooth-surface, less tuft ed techniques. During the weaving process, two or four fi laments were usual- ly used. Th e weaving with two fi laments, which is now called “prepletaj” (interlacement), is also known as “pret- kivanje”, “lito”, “cuncano”, “nizano”… To make the cloth, heddles and treadles are used to raise half of fi laments in order to form a shed through which the weft yarn, carried by the shuttle, is inserted. Th is technique was performed independently, but it could also accompany decorative techniques. Flax, hemp, cotton and other yarns were used to weave basic materials with the interlacement technique from which garments and bed linen (sheets, pillow cases, etc.), towels, woven diapers and other items were made. Wool yarns were used to weave simple covers using the interlacement technique that were sometimes decorated with various embroidery techniques. Levac, 1911 Levac, 1989 environment were commonly used as dyes, with appro- priate natural acids, bases and metals added to their so- lutions. Dyes were thus provided stability. Aft er dyeing, weaving followed. Th e making of cloth on a primarily horizontal loom was preceded by the preparation of warp yarns: warping, yarn winding and inserting warp in hed- dles and the reed. Th e most frequent weaving device in the cultural re- gion of the Serbs was a horizontal loom (that has many 14

Levac, 1989 Various supplementary techniques such as the tab- woven with the technique of “klecanje”. Th is technique let weaving, and “klecanje” (bound weaving) were ap- was carried out on both vertical and horizontal looms, plied to decorate the woven fabric. By weaving with the primarily for the production of wool items. It is most tablet, ornaments were performed by inserting the tab- frequently found in kilims, but not so much in aprons, let through the raised and counted warp fi laments; the pillows, bags, etc. Th e pattern was obtained by the sort- tablet was lift ed vertically when a pattern was executed, ing of desired warp threads through which wool bundles while a yarn of a desired color was carried by the shuttle were inserted to execute ornaments. Th ese textiles show or a bundle. Th us the front and the back were in contrast a wide variety of color changes in a pattern around the (as in photonegative eff ect). It is believed that the most tissue of warp. Th e strands interlacing technique, also luxuriant and technically most complicated items were called tatting, is performed by pulling the cut strands 15

Nis, 2006 through threads of the warp so that their ends hang for coarser and thicker objects and textiles exposed to freely. Th e best known covers made with this technique, pressure and wear and tear. Four-fi lament woolen items “biljci”, “jambolije”, etc., are later additionally exposed to include various coarse coverings (blankets, tents), bags, water pressure. Knotting is a tuft ed technique where the etc. Th is technique was used to produce the woolen cloth cut yarn threads are wrapped around two or four threads for upper dresses. Aft er weaving, the cloth was treated of the warp, and then, the ends are pulled through the in fulling-mills, thus making the textile structure more center and tightened in a knot. Th e interlacement tech- compact and suitable for protection from the cold. Th e nique is applied with both tatting and knotting, which four-fi lament fl ax or hemp cloth was used for produc- tightens knots and strands. Th e structure of the fabric tion of straw mattresses, back sides of pillows, bags, etc. woven of four fi laments is denser; such fabric was used Diversity of traditional weaving techniques and textile 16

Soko Banja, 2005 handicraft s of various functional and visual characteris- tiles are part of well-designed modern spaces, and cloth- tics points to the old Serbian weaving tradition, created ing made from hand-woven fabrics inspired by tradition- and enriched over the centuries, that can now serve as a al motifs are oft en part of exclusive collections of many model for the modern-day weaving creativity. fashion designers. Traditional weaving techniques have survived despite Generations of weaving course-takers have become well- the modern ways of production. Weaving on horizon- known fabrics manufacturers, and numerous associations tal and vertical looms is transmitted from generation to of weavers sell their products to recognized retail chains. generation, but it is increasingly becoming part of the complementary education of the general population, too. Hand woven shawls, bed covers, curtains and other tex- 17

Pirot, 1956 18

Kilim making SMOOTH-SURFACE “KLECANJE” WITH “GUZENKA” Marina Cvetkovic T he kilim making represents the most signifi cant chrome compositions made from the best wool with segment of the textile creativity in Serbia. th delicate techniques. In the 19 century, the craft produc- Th e word kilim itself means a wool carpet with tion of kilims commenced, thus expanding the market a hemp, cotton or wool warp, made mostly with the for such wool fabrics. Women wove kilims for customers smooth-surface technique – “klecanje” (bound weaving). or merchants who provided the required woolen yarn. Th e kilim was used to cover beds, sofas, walls and to a With the help of middlemen and a network of dealers, lesser extent as a fl oor covering, as well as a drape, table items were off ered at the domestic and broader foreign cloth … It represented a highly valued part of decora- markets. tive interior textiles. Th e kilim also had an important role Th e most signifi cant kilim-making center in Serbia in social life. Th us, it was the most luxurious part of the was located in Pirot. Th e kilim making constituted the dowry in the wedding rituals, and it was used as a valu- most important business activity in this city in the latter th th able gift as well as for the decoration of horses, houses, part of the 19 century, and partly in the 20 century. tents … As for the customs related to death, it was used in Up to two thirds of working-age women participated in burials. Th us, the marital partners were oft en buried each the production of kilims. Th ese textiles were not pro- with a half of the same carpet. Th e kilim was donated duced in specialized workshops, but within certain to the church - for well-being of the living or in mem- households. Th e kilims, depending on the size, were th ory of the dead. In the late 19 and early 20 century, woven by two to ten kilim-makers in a synchronized th kilims were oft en used in public political events and this way on vertical looms set in the courtyard under the is where they took on the meaning of national symbols. eaves or other places suitable for work. Th ese textiles Th e kilim was oft en given as a gift to senior statesmen were made from fi ne, thin, and evenly spun wool, which th and prominent individuals. was until the eighties of 19 century processed exclu- In the past, kilims were produced exclusively by wom- sively in the local arts and craft s, and later in specialized en for their own households. Th ey diff ered in terms of spinning mills. A woolen thread was pile, soft , shiny art, functional and technical specifi cations – from solid- and elastic. Th e warp was made by spinning the long- colored, made of natural color wool, to complex, poly- est wool fi bers that were then respun or doubled. Th e 19

Kilims were woven on vertical looms with the “kle- canje” technique, undoubtedly the most beautiful and most perfect smooth-surface technique. “Klecanje” is performed with weft coiled up with fi ngers in the so- called bundles or “guzenke”, as called in Pirot. Th ey come in as many colors as needed to carry out the patterns. Dexterity of fi ngers pulling warp yarns through which the weft of the appropriate color is inserted and then pro- ceed with a diff erently colored bundle, is very important for the weaving. Th e pattern is compressed with “tupi- ca”, a wooden comb. Th e shed is obtained on the verti- cal loom by means of “obnitelnik”, a wooden stick. If the ornament is carried out in the direction of the warp, the so-called “resme”, slits, appear. If the pattern is set at an oblique angle, diagonally crossing the warp, the holes are imperceptible. A wide variety of geometric patterns includes numer- ous variations of stylized representations of a tree of life with fruits, birds, then “mihrabs” (niches), “sofras”, (din- ing tables), etc. Kilim-makers worked on commission, and their goods were usually off ered in the market through mid- dlemen and networks of merchants. Th e fi rst commercial companies specializing in the sale of kilims were estab- Pirot, 1956 Leskovac, 1950 quality of the fi nal product – kilim – depended on the quality of the warp. Wool was dyed by dyers, who, until the end of the th 19 century, used herbal raw materials to produce dyes. To accomplish that, they used roots, leaves and fruits of plants: kermes (Cochineal) brazilin (brazilwood), tur- meric (Curcuma longa), madder (Rubia tinctorum) and indigo (Isatis tinctoria). During the dyeing process, nec- essary acids, bases or metals were added. Colors obtained in such a fashion were red, maroon, coff ee color, sour cherry red, indigo blue, light blue, and dark blue. Th e colors were consistent and soft . Dyers introduced aniline dyes at the end of the century. 20

Pirot, 1956 th lished in Pirot in the latter part of the 19 century. Under even beyond. Th ese kilims, whose visual eff ects oft en re- the infl uence of the Pirot kilim-making, the production fl ected the infl uence of Western styles, were produced on of kilims also commenced in Knjazevac and other cent- a technically improved, broad horizontal loom. Th e most th ers in Serbia. In the 20 century, kilims were also made important kilim-making centers in Vojvodina were: Sta- on vertical looms in Sjenica, Nova Varos, Prijepolje, etc. par, Kumane, Melenci, Elemir, Taras, Veliki Beckerek, etc. th In the 19 century, kilims were also made in an or- Although kilims represented a status symbol, adorned ganized fashion in some places in Vojvodina. Th ese were courts of the Obrenovic and Karadjordjevic dynasties, off ered in the German and Austria-Hungarian markets, and and shared the same place in urban households with the 21

Pirot kilim Pirot kilim, detail famous Oriental rugs in the 19th and the early part of the 20 century, decades of modern design and artifi cial ma- th terials superseded them. Th e fact that during World War Two, occupiers confi scated thousands of the Pirot kilims from apartments in Belgrade only that may still adorn the German homes testifi es to their value. Observation of the modern interior design trends in the world points to the possibility that the rugs may again have the impor- tant place in our homes bringing warmth and color into the coldness of our apartments that abound with metal and glass. Motifs from carpets or woven items with reduced patterns can be used in countless ways as decorative ele- ments on chairs, pillows, bags, wallets and many other objects. 22

Pirot kilims 23

Spining a Th read, Vladislav Titelbah, 1879 24

Embroidery PRICK-AND-POUNCE AND WHITEWORK EMBROIDERY Irena Fileki E mbroidery is a way of decorating textile or leather and it was used to decorate church vestments and mis- foundation with needle and most frequently textile cellaneous silk items required for religious ceremonies. or metal, or leather thread. Th e resulting motifs Both nuns an monks engaged in this type of embroidery. represented very important decorations on clothes and Apart from monasteries, embroidery was done by girls household textiles in the traditional culture of Serbia. and ladies at the courts of Serbian rulers and nobles. It Th e history of embroidery goes back to ancient past was an integral part of education of prominent women and is mentioned as part of the heritage of the major in the Middle Ages. Materials that embroideresses used world cultures, such as Assyrian, Egyptian, Greek and at the time were the same as at the Byzantine courts and Roman. Th e art of embroidery was exceptionally devel- monasteries, including silk fabric, silk thread and silver oped and appreciated in Byzantium; embroidery with or gold-plated threads. Embroidery themes were drawn silk, gold and silver threads was especially raised to a from iconography. high level. Th is method of work and these materials were Besides church embroidery and embroidery at courts, related to higher layers of society and the clergy. In Me- folk embroidery was done and cherished among the Ser- dieval Europe, embroidery was the art practiced by pro- bian common people. Our oral folk creativity as well as fessional embroideresses and craft smen in the church, many textile items, which are kept in the Ethnographic as well as at courts in the high-level feudal society. Over Museum in Belgrade, speak of this particularly appreci- time, embroidery changed in accordance with the lead- ated art. Our folk poems mention the beauty of embroi- th ing styles in art, and as of the mid-19 century, and in dery, devices and materials for embroidery, tambour, our country as well though later, it gradually died out. needle, “ibrisim” (silk thread), gold, and great respect Embroidery was very important among our people for a good embroideress and feelings she poured into her and it represented a common way of decorating clothes work. Th ere is a very interesting legend saying that there and household textiles. Going further into the past, it is was an endowment of embroideress Milja near Vezicevo thought that the Serbs were familiar with embroidery be- in the vicinity of Pozarevac; she remained single until the fore the settlement of the Balkans. Embroidery was es- end of her days as she did not want to marry the suitor pecially cherished in the medieval Serbian monasteries of her father’s choice, so she made embroideries that she 25

Krusevac, 1930 Soko Banja, 2005 sold and used the money to build the church called Crk- va Vezilja (Church Embroideress), which was destroyed during the Turkish rule. Embroidery was considered primarily a women’s work in rural communities. During their childhood, girls were instructed in embroidery so to enable them to prepare their trousseau as one of the indispensable elements of wedding customs. In addition to clothing and household textiles needed in the future household, a girl had to pro- vide the textile items – and gift s for her in-laws, towels to adorn wedding guests, horses and carriages at the wed- ding, all of that being part of a bride’s trousseau. In these activities, the girl had a help from her mother, grand- mother, and sometimes friends, while wealthier families at times engaged a woman from the village known to be skilled in embroidery and she would prepare a bride’s trousseau. 26

Embroidery was primarily used for decoration of traditional clothes, especially women’s. Besides being a decoration on clothes, embroidery was an indicator of the social status, fi nancial status, age, regional and na- tional affi liation. Embroidery varied from region to re- gion, so that in some parts of Serbia it was richer and more diverse and therefore more renowned. Kosovo and Metohija stand out for their richly embroidered women’s shirts, while in regard to other regions, noteworthy are th the 19 -century embroidered women’s shirts from the vicinity of Nis and Vlasine. All these embroideries were mostly made with wool thread in several colors, while metal threads, sequins and beads were also used in some regions. Th e foundation for this type of embroidery was oakum, fl ax, and, less frequently, cotton cloth from which the shirts were made. Ornaments were geometric and geometrized fl oral. In view of a method of work, these embroideries belong to the counted-thread embroi- dery type, where weft and warp threads of the fabric are counted before the actual embroidering starts. Some types of embroidery were more oft en done in cities of Serbia and in Vojvodina, and the most popular was “slinga” or “slingeraj” – whitework. It was used to em- bellish clothing, table cloths, bedding, towels. As of the th mid-19 century, whitework gradually spread from Cen- tral Europe into our regions. Motifs were most frequently fl oral, made based on designs; and this is the so-called free embroidery. Designs were mainly obtained from “trukeri”, craft smen who were engaged in procurement or production of designs and who transferred those onto fabric, which is called “trukovanje” (prick-and-pounce method). Another way of making whitework was count- ed-thread embroidery because all precise embroidery techniques with holes obtained in various ways were car- ried out by counting threads. Colored threads were also used for embroidery creat- ed based on designs transferred onto fabric by the prick- th and-pounce method, and in the early part of the 20 century pieces of fabric were purchased and embroidered with designs for household textiles. Th ese items had both practical and decorative functions, so in addition to in- dispensable objects such as bedding, curtains and table- cloths, items such as holders for combs and matches, dec- orative strips of embroidered fabric for shelves, samplers Embroideresses from Nis, Vladislav Titelbah, 1879 27

Wall hangers, National Museum Kragujevac with embroidered texts and various scenes from daily life ence, and that some elements of the work and decora- that protected the wall above the stove from spattering. tions were introduced thanks to great migrations of Th ese objects were most frequently made from ready- people from southern regions in the late 17 and in the th made cotton fabric and embroidered with red or blue 18 century, which is shown by old techniques of gold- th cotton thread, or in diff erent colors. work and motifs. Tulip is a frequent motif, as well as oth- Another type of embroidery characteristic for cities in er Oriental ornaments. Gold-coated and silver wires used Serbia and for Vojvodina was goldwork. Embroidery was for goldwork were obtained from metal strips formed done with metal threads that could be of silver or gold on into threads, and threads of yellow silk or cotton inter- canvas and silk clothing and decorative parts of textile items, mostly towels and handkerchiefs. Th e most luxuri- twined with metal ones were used as well. Two basic ous goldwork was done in Vojvodina, and it decorated goldwork methods were direct embroidery with wire women’s shirts, aprons, scarves and head towels, hats, as worked through the fabric as if it were thread, and under- well as men’s shirts. It is believed that goldwork in Vojvo- side couching, where threads are laid on the surface and dina is a result of the Central European Baroque infl u- fastened in place on the back. Goldwork was made by 28

Wall hangers, National Museum Kragujevac women for their own needs, but also semi-professionally cherish the tradition within their means and in accord- or professionally. Some elements, such as applied metal ance with their goals. cords, were made by professional artisans - men. Fashion trends periodically require peeking into th Female children of the late 19 century acquired chests and closets of our grandmothers and bringing knowledge and skills of embroidery fi rst as a part of their out a diverse range of embroidered tablecloth, curtains, bedding, samplers and many other textiles that were in- primary education and later of the secondary and profes- evitable decorations of every household. Parts of sheets sional education. Aft er World War Two, handwork and were mercilessly cut off by scissors to decorate a dress or knowledge of embroidery were reduced to classes of a shirt with embroidery. A bit of skill, some thread, and home economics. patterns from the old and new magazines will make our Today, women engaged in embroidery practice this clothing unique and attractive, and sewing machines and art individually, and as of recently, non-governmental pieces of linen can turn our home into a real showroom humanitarian associations or associations that produce or museum. and decorate textile items, are being established, trying to 29

Obrenovac, 1984 30

Tailor’s craft LJUBA FROM DIVOSTINA – THE FIRST SERBIAN FASHION DESIGNER Dragana Stojkovic C raft smen who engaged in tailoring, sewing and (type of caft an) (men’s); “libade” or “libada” (short jacket), decoration of the urban traditional costumes “salta“ (embroidered jacket), “curdija“ (sleeveless dress) were called “terzije” (tailors). Th e tailor’s craft in the cities, as claimed in Prizren, included three trades – (women’s); “jecerma“ (short vest), “curce“ (long sleeved outer garment), “fermen“ (sleeveless garment), “anterija“ making of felt, kaft ans and loden fabric and respective (long-sleeved overdress), “dzube” (sleeveless coat) (men’s garments – as well as some craft s similar to these and and women’s). Fabrics that „terzije” used for costumes some other arising from them. Felt makers were craft s- were only partially been made traditionally. Usually, men who made wool clothes embroidered with “srma” those were industrial and handicraft goods from the East, (gold and silver threads) or silk “bucma” (bikma). Skilled or later factory-made products from the West: felt, vel- masters who embroidered clothes exclusively with “srma” vet, atlas, damask, “citabija“, etc. Usually, the “cova” (felt) stood out among felt makers and were called “srmadzije”. and “srma” were supplied from Vienna, silk cords from “Terzije” had their own guild, with strictly defi ned or- Skadar and Djakovo, and gold and silver threads fi rst ganization rules. Th us, “srmadzije” had to know all kinds from Constantinople and later from Austria. Th e tailors’ of work, while workers and journeymen handled only handicraft s, mostly made from felt, silk and velvet, were certain stages of the work. In smaller places where there of diff erent types and quality. Various garments were was less work, a single craft sman performed all actions. decorated with assorted types of cords (made of wool, Th e tailor’s work developed in the following order: he silk, gold and silver), “bikma” (silk and of gold and silver fi rst had to draw ornaments using soap on the fabric (be- threads), sequins, and various types of braids that were fore embroidery), sew paper onto the back of the fabric to made by craft smen called “kazasi”. In addition to cords be embroidered, then embroider and fi nally iron and add of silver and gold threads, red, green and blue cords were the lining onto the back of the fabric. prevailing. “Terzije” were believed to produce some fi ft y diff erent It is quite safe to say that tailor’s craft and other afore- garments. Following are some of the most popular items: mentioned craft s, excluding loden fabric making, origi- “caksire” (Jodhpur type trousers), “gunj” (long jacket), nated in the Orient. Th e Turks brought them to the Bal- “dzamadan” (sleeveless embroidered jacket), “dolama” kan Peninsula, where they continued to develop. Th eir 31

sonal work and made “clothes” for peasants. Some of the well known among them were the Mijaks from Smiljevo who worked throughout southern Macedonia, tailors from Kolasin that went to Kosovo, as well as tailors from Sirinicka Zupa who, during the season, made clothes for diff erent ethnic groups in Kosovo and Macedonia. Tai- lor’s craft in the third decade of the 19 century can be th reviewed based on the correspondence between Prince Milos and Belgrade artisans that he contacted for the production and supply of clothing material. Th ese orders were usually sent to tailors Atanasko Nikolic and Jovanca Markovic. Costumes of the urban population were simi- lar and Orient-infl uenced in all the cities in Serbia in the th fi rst three decades of the 19 century. Th e Oriental style clothing was followed by craft s such as tailor’s, leather clothing maker’s and slipper maker’s. In the opinion of experts, Oriental garments were partly worn almost to th the mid-19 century and served as a precursor and a base for urban costumes that will be called “Serbian” in the following period. At the time of the Principality of Serbia, famous master Ljuba Terzija (Ljuba, the Tailor, originally from a nearby village of Divostina, worked in Kragujevac. He designed and made men’s and women’s costumes of that time in his workshop in Kragujevac. Ljuba trained a whole generation Gruza, 1928 Nis, 2007 names and terminology testify to this. For example, word “terzija” is derived from the Persian word “derzi” and the Turkish word “terzi” and it means tailor. During the Ot- toman rule, tailor’s craft was one of more numerous and important trades in towns. A multitude of data corrobo- rates the fact that it existed in the Balkan Peninsula for a long time, and, according to documents from Sarajevo, Muslim tailors were more numerous, which is explained by the fact that they were particularly numerous in towns. Th ere were Muslim tailors who mostly worked for the Muslim population whereas Christian tailors worked for the Christian population. In the vicinity of Tetovo, Macedonia, “skopska vezma” was produced, which was in high demand in the Otto- man Empire. Migrant tailors left their homes for sea- 32

Patterns of Nikola Arsenovic, 1887 of young and excellent tailors, who later developed this Serbia, Kosovo and Macedonia, where changes were also artistic craft in Serbian towns. Prince Milos did a lot for noted aft er 1912. the development of the tailor’s craft in Serbia because However, these changes did not take place abruptly, these masters designed and made clothes for his family, but rather gradually in the form of the rejection of certain as well as for the richest people in Serbia. Also, the fi rst garments and their replacement with European ones. uniform of the Serbian cavalry was designed by tailors Changes in clothing also led to the disappearance of cer- from Kragujevac. tain trades, instead of which others began to develop re- Th e “terzija’s” craft declined and gradually died out lated to the upcoming innovations in clothing. Modern th th th in the late 19 and early 20 century, with the accept- tailors appeared, and in the early 20 century – the fi rst ance of European dress code and changes that aff ected sewing machines. the appearance of urban costumes. Oriental costumes re- While “terzija’s” handicraft s were expensive and in- mained longest in the southern and southeastern parts of tended mostly for richer strata of the population, there 33

Nis, 2007 Belgrade, 2007 were “abadzije” who made simple clothes from loden appreciated in Belgrade. Th ey were local craft smen, usu- fabric. Th e rural costumes, which were diff erent from ally originating from Serbia, but also from Bosnia. the urban ones in style and quality, were homemade, and Many local and international designers have admired some items were the work of rural tailors – “abadzije” the rich variety of ornaments and styles of our tradi- (or earlier “klasnjedzije”, loden fabric makers), who were tional and urban costumes and found them inexhaust- both Christians and Turks. Th ese craft smen were highly ible sources of inspiration. Aleksandar Joksimovic and 34

Džube, Pec, Second half of 19 century th Jean Paul Gaultier have been left speechless by colors and as there is an increased demand for these products. It has harmony of garments worn by our ancestors. Although become fashionable to get married in folk or urban cos- the tailoring trade has been entirely forgotten for many tumes and wear “libade” or some other part of the tradi- decades, it has sporadically survived to the present day tional clothing on festive occasions. 35

Medvedja, 1957 36

Furriery SHEEPSKIN CLOAKS OF ST. ELIAS Vilma Niskanovic K ozuhari” or “curcije” (furriers) made winter mentioned “gunj” (long jacket) and “kozuh” (sheepskin th garments from leather and fur, such as sheep- coat). In the early 15 century, Despot Stefan Lazarevic skin and lambskin coats or jerkins. Th ey also processed skins for fur hats, full length sheepskin cloaks issued the Code on Mines, wherein Article 15 mentions “kozuhareh”. Some craft smen, furriers among them, were and fur coats. mentioned in Banat in the 13 century already, and in the th A sheepskin or lambskin coat belongs to a group of 17 century, except in the Banat, furriers were mentioned th winter clothes. It is made from lamb or sheep skin with in Lower Backa and Srem. Th e oldest types of sheepskin the fl eece, which covers the inside of the coat. It is one coats from the Serbian territory were white, simply tai- of the oldest garments, and its originally simple produc- lored, and without ornaments, as originally they served tion and accessible materials have made it widely used by only for protection from the cold. Dyed sheepskin coats th many peoples. came into use in the latter part of the 19 century, and Th e term “kozuh” is derived from the word “koža” especially at the very end of the century. Th e same period (skin), which is a Proto- Slavic derivative formed of the was characterized by rich decoration of the entire sur- word “koza” (goat) and it is a pure Slavic creation. Th e face of the sheepskin coat, especially in Vojvodina, from Old Slavonic word “kozuh” exists in the modern language where the same fashion was subsequently transferred of many Slavic nations, including the Russians, Czechs, into the regions south of the Sava and Danube. Slovaks, Poles and Bulgarians. And, of course, the Serbs. Each furriery center in Serbia had a guild of the furri- One type of simple sheepskin coats was used in medi- ers that encompassed all the masters with their journey- eval Serbia. According to the Studenica Typikon, it was men and apprentices. Guilds had their own fl ag and seal worn by monks, and the Munich Psalter shows a plow- with the fi gure of St. Elias, the patron saint of furriers. man wearing a huge sheepskin coat. Th e Chrysobull of Furrier’s guilds also celebrated St. Elias Day. It is believed the Monastery of St. Stephen in Banjska, the endowment that St. Elias was a furrier and his sheepskin coats were of King Milutin, mentions “savci kozusni i skornjani” in best tanned. He did not share his knowledge of the craft th the fi rst decades of the 14 century. Several decades later, with anyone, but when he died, he left a legacy of one Tsar Dusan wrote to the cell of St. Sava in Kareya and sheepskin coat to furriers. A legend says that the coat 37

Pec, 1956 did not have a foul smell and that the furriers struggled was prepared from dried morels grown near mulberry, to discover the tanning ooze and method to make their walnut, elm and apple trees. Aft er being crushed in a coats durable and without that foul smell so characteris- wooden mortar, morels were then cooked, and the length tic to all sheepskin coats. Th at was the reason why they of cooking depended on a desired shade. Namely, morels chose St. Elias to be their protector and, why they cel- required longer cooking for a dark brown, and shorter ebrated St. Elias’ Day. for a lighter color. Th e cooked dye was then fi ltered and Urban and rural artisans, the furriers purchase hides applied by rags to the skin, affi xed to a counter so that it for processing from the city and village butchers. Th ey would not be moved during operation. Wet skins were prepared it for tailoring in their shops. Th e procedure re- dried on a rope, while trying not to have them exposed quired that they scrape the hide to remove fl esh, soak it in to direct sunlight. At the end of the procedure, skins were the tanning ooze (a mixture of water, salt, bran and corn cut, sewn and decorated using specifi c tools: knives, scis- fl our) and leave it for two weeks immersed in a vat with sors, needles, thimble, cutting patterns and fur hat molds. the tanning ooze. Th en, the skin was dried, stretched, Th e decoration of this type of garments was known whipped with a thin rod (“cukanje”) and dyed. Th e dye under the name “cifranje” and it was especially applied 38

young men’s branch, wreath, heavenly garden, big heart, drawers, etc. Th e territorial distribution of sheepskin coats can be followed throughout Vojvodina, Posavina, Macva, the Belgrade area, Sumadija, Valjevska Kolubara, Tamnava, Valjevski Podgor, Radjevina, Jadar, Eastern Serbia (from the Danube along the Morava and Timok all the way to Pirot and Vranje) and , although less frequently, around Bajina Basta, Uzice, Kosjeric and Trstenik. Th e oldest dated sheepskin coats in collections of the Ethnographic Museum in Belgrade come from the late th 19 century, and the more recent ones – from the 1980s. All sheepskin coats belonged to rural population and were equally worn by men, women and children. Th ey are products of urban and rural artisans, the furriers, who made their goods to order or to stock, without meas- ure, for the selling season at the markets and fairs. drawings by Milicа Matlas Nis, 1952 to beautify girls’ and young men’s sheepskin coats. Coats were primarily decorated with multicolored leather, oil- cloth, thread, silk, wool, fi ne fur, faux fur, little mirrors, sequins, “gold” and “silver” threads, felt, plush, paper, and leather and metal buttons. Using such diverse materials, masters made a variety of ornaments, mostly vegetative, less geometric and zoo- morphic, and rarely heraldic and alphabetical. Flower was a widely used motif, either individually or as a de- tail in fl oral compositions, and was oft en combined with other elements, such as heart, small vine and circles. Th e arrangement of the composition and its position on the sheepskin coats led to a variety of terms for vegetative ornaments on sheepskin coats: black branch, girls’ and 39

Cacak, 1935 40

Opanak-making * PRESNJACI PROTECTED BY LAW Vera Sarac-Momcilovic T he purpose of the opanak-making is production of makers were, along with tailors, considered the most simple leather footwear, primarily intended for the important artisans in the then Serbian bazaars. Records rural population. Roots of this craft date back to the about the existence of numerous opanak-shops where medieval (Byzantine and European) cultural tradition. several types of opanci and their numerous local varia- According to the socio-historical circumstances, con- tions were made, testify to this. Th e evidence about de- tinuing and inheriting ancient Balkan, Slavic, Oriental velopment of the craft of opanak-making can also be and European cultural tradition, its development started found in the opanak samples kept in museum collec- in the territory of the Republic of Serbia in the latter part tions, including many that represent masterpieces of folk of the 19 century and lasted until mid-20 century, art and the top level of craft smanship skills. th th when it gradually disappeared. Maintaining expressions of In addition to the true urban artisan opanak-making, the traditional folk creativity, the craft of opanak-making there were individuals throughout the countryside who is classifi ed in the category of old craft s that are protected engaged in the craft of opanak-making semiprofession- by law based on the Rules of the Ministry of Economy of ally, mainly self-taught, and considering such work as a the Republic of Serbia as of 2005. supplementary activity. Th e complex historical and cultural situation in the Th e industrial (cheaper) production of footwear, Balkans in the fi eld of handicraft s, including opanak- which commenced in Serbia in the nineteen twenties, making, are manifested in the existence of cultural ele- contributed to the gradual disappearance of the opanak- ments of the indigenous ancient Balkan, Slavic, Oriental making craft . Th e fact that opanak-makers included new and European origin that are recognized primarily in the materials in their work speaks of the adjustment to new process of work, names of tools, as well as in appearance conditions. First, they started using rubber, and later on, and function of its main product – opanak. even nylon – polyvinyl – following the example of rubber Th e craft of opanak-making reached its peak in the factory-made opanci. Opanak-makers, masters of rubber th twenties and thirties of the 20 century, when opanak- opanci, made opanci from outer automobile tires. In the * Opanak (pl. opanci) Serbian traditional light footwear. 41

10 in Krusevac, 5 in Prokuplje, 3 in Kursumlija as well as in Aleksinac, and 9 in Raska. Numerous opanakmak- ers also had their shops in Krupanj, Bajina Basta, Kos- jeric, Cajetina, Arilje, Ivanjica and Brus. Th e craft was launched in Vranje aft er World War Two. In the eastern parts of Serbia, Kladovo and Sokobanja each had one opanak-maker, while Negotin, Zajecar, Knjazevac and Bela Palanka each had three. Th ere were seven artisans in Nis, fi ve in Pirot, six in Paracin and Cuprija and Batocina each had four, and there were two in Petrovac. From 1887 until 1900, one master in Arandjelovac taught 30 future opanak-makers about secrets of this old craft . Aft er 1910, Arandjelovac was the center that supplied the Kraguje- vac, Rudnik, Kosmaj, Lepenica, Gruza and partially Kol- ubara regions with opanci. Opanak-makers also worked in Kragujevac, Mladenovac and the village of Natalinci. Th e craft developed in Smederevo and Grocka as of 1915. Most opanak-makers were located in the Sabac, Valje- vo, Uzice, Kragujevac and Cacak regions. Products of the opanak-making craft , which are rooted in the indigenous, ancient Balkan and Oriental environ- ment, are the “vrncani” opanci (made of thin, specially treated leather straps) and “presni” opanci (made of raw, untanned hide). Th ey were made and worn in the south- ern and southwestern parts of Serbia (regions of Raska and Metohija, southeastern and eastern Serbia), while, in accordance with European craft traditions, “djonovs- ki” opanci (with outsoles) and opanci “kapicari” (with Trnovce, 1999 a vamp made of a single piece of leather) were made in central, eastern and northern Serbia. late nineteen forties, the nylon opanci were made, with Opanak-makers used fi rst crude, then trade and facto- the vamp of polyvinyl ribbons. ry-processed cowhide and calfskin as basic raw materials, Aft er World War Two and fi nally the nineteen fi ft ies and to a lesser extent, horsehide and pigskin. Th e sim- or sixties, this craft almost completely disappeared. plest technological process for treatment of leather (salt- In our recent history, beginnings of the opanak-mak- ing, drying or using alum) provided the raw material for th ing craft date back to the latter part of the 19 century “presni” opanci. Leather processed with a technologically when fi rst in Uzice (1850), Pozarevac (1862) and Sa- more complex treatment provided the raw material for bac (1870), and then in Knjazevac (1876) and Leskovac “djonovski” opanci. Such footwear made from processed (1880), local artisans started to produce opanci. Th e craft leather was preceded by the production of the so-called spread very quickly from these centers into other parts “crvenjasi”, the red opanci of half-tanned hide. Th e hide of Serbia – from Arandjelovac, Loznica, Obrenovac to for the red opanci was prepared in a technologically sim- Valjevo and Uzice. In 1920, there were fi ft y opanak-mak- pler process. Th e hide was treated in the solution of lime, ers in Uzice. At the same time, there were 20 in Cacak, 25 ash and water with the crushed dry alder and birch bark. in Kragujevac, 12 in Pozega, 20 in Kraljevo, 6 in Trstenik, Th e raw material for “djonovski” opanci was obtained 42

Trnovce, 1999 through a more complex and lasting process using oak leg in part, with a leather belt or rope – “oputa” – to form cones, smoke tree and spruce bark. Following World War leather into a desired shape. Two, opanak-makers started using factory-tanned hide Until World War Two, in addition to making opanci more frequently. by hand, opanak-makers tanned leather by themselves, In Serbia, there were two basic types of opanci: “vrn- using boilers, barrels, molds, wooden grapples, poles and cani” and “presnjaci” – “presni” opanci. “Vrncani” opan- wooden boxes, and crushers for cones. In the process of ci have a vamp made of a “vrncanice” - twisted narrow making opanci, opanak-makers used two “counters” – a strips of soft lamb hide or kidskin, or of a thicker cot- larger and a smaller board where tools were placed and ton thread or rope, which links the left and right sides of where he tailored and sewed opanci. Opanak-makers opanak from fi ngers to the opening of an opanak, run- used the board to prick opanci, awl, various types of goug- ning in parallel lines spaced out evenly. Th e middle of es and punch. Th e process of making “djonovski” opanci such strips is then interwoven with “preplet” (interlace- is more complex and requires great endurance, dexterity, ment) in several rows. Opanak-makers produced those skill and craft smanship. For the fi nest opanci, they used in wooden molds, using just several simple tools. “Presn- even dog skin, though sheepskin and goatskin most fre- jaci” are low-top footwear covering the whole foot and quently, to make the uppers, while outsole was made of 43

Belgrade, 2007 cowhide. Th e quality of opanci was evaluated based on cleaver and a small wooden mallet, pliers and “natra” – a the quality of leather and quality of workmanship. Opan- device for separating sheets of automobile tires. th ci with uppers knitted from narrow leather strips were Since the latter part of the 20 century, opanci have considered better, and the number and width of strips been primarily made for folk dance groups, as souvenirs interwoven into the upper was taken into consideration. and for the poorest rural population. Today, addresses of Th e fi nest young men’s opanci had up to a hundred strips craft shops that sell various types of opanci via web por- in the interlacement, and they were called woven opanci. tals can be found on the internet. Rubber opanci do not diff er from the leather ones in Th e secret of leather tanning, according to the popu- terms of tailoring as much as in the method of manufac- lar legend, was revealed to opanak-makers by St. Sava. ture. Th ey were made by means of a small number of tools. Opanak-makers believed him to be their patron and Masters of rubber opanci used curved and straight knives, therefore, celebrated St. Sava’s Day on January 27. Th eir 44

Topola, 2008 regular participation in international fairs, held in Paris, fact that opanak became one of the symbols of the Ser- th London, Vienna and Budapest in the late 19 and early bian national identity. th 20 century, testifi es to success of Serbian opanak-mak- Th e opanak-making trade will continue to survive ers. Th ey used to return to Serbia with silver and gold because this type of footwear is always in demand. It is medals. Th e opanak-maker’s shop, owned by Drag. L. not only dancers in the cultural and artistic societies that Milosavljevic from Knjazevac and founded in 1903, won purchase “opanci”, but many tourists gladly buy them the gold medal in London in 1907. Great Serbian mer- as well. Modern means of communication has enabled chant and endower Nikola Spasic began to acquire his people around the globe to learn more at the websites of capital as an opanakmaker. Opanci were also the princi- craft smen, such as www.starizanati.gov.rs, and place their pal type of footwear of the Serbian Army in World War orders by email, and the products will be delivered even One. Opanak-makers most certainly contributed to the to the most distant of destinations. 45

Serbia, 1930 46

Filigree FLOATING FLORAL ORNAMENTS Jelena Vuletic T he terms goldsmith’s and jeweler’s shops are today port he wrote to a French king while passing through generally known, but few are familiar with the term the Serbian lands in 1332, Frenchman Guillaume Adam goldsmith’s workshop. To understand the essence of wrote: “Serbia owns fi ve gold and fi ve silver mines, where the term, one would need to start from the Egyptian miners constantly work. In diff erent places, there are also goldsmiths’ workshops in Luxor and Karnak, then the mines of both gold and silver. Whoever wins this land, Roman tombstones, workshops of the Renaissance, Ba- they will have beautiful jewelry, the most precious of this roque, all the way to the contemporary, simplifi ed gold- century.” Speaking about Serbia in the period from 1454- smiths’ workshops. Th e modern way of life generally 1455, Kritovoulos, a Greek and the author of a book does not leave one time to think beyond the visual im- about Mehmed II, the conqueror of Constantinople and pression left by the fi nished product. A beautiful item Serbia, says amongst other things: “Its greatest advantage, will catch one’s eye through the show-case of a jewelry in which it surpasses other countries, is that it abounds shop. And it ends there – the item is bought, and one is in gold and silver as springs do in water. Th ey are mined bought by its beauty. At this point, it does not strike one everywhere in that region, which has rich veins of both that the item is made through a number of goldsmith’s gold and silver, more abundant and better than those of operations and fi ne points, some of which are achieve- India.” ments of certain periods of time, brought down through One of the oldest as well as the most beautiful metal generations, or forever lost in the past. processing techniques is certainly fi ligree. With this tech- Th e Serbian goldsmithing fl ourished at the same time nique, over the centuries, beautiful jewelry was made as as the development of Serbian medieval mines, especially well as decorative objects which are still admired today. mines of silver, lead, zinc, copper and other metals. In Th e fi ligree technique is found on the objects of the My- addition to Kopaonik, Trepca, Vranje, Rudnik, the fa- cenaean culture, those from Troy, Rhodes and Ephesus, mous silver mines were Novo Brdo and Janjevo, which and in the earliest Etruscan jewelry. Th e peak in the de- th provided the most wanted argentum glame, silver with a velopment of fi ligree was reached by Greece from the 5 rd considerable percentage of gold. Th e wealth of gold and to the 3 century BC, but this technique was also repre- silver mines was noted by many travel writers. In the re- sented later, in the early Christian period, Middle Ages, 47

a shape of square cross section so to be easily drawn. Th e thus-prepared wire is then placed in the vise with the notched top and a semi-circular profi le. Th en it is drawn through a prepared metal rectangular plate with holes of specifi c dimensions as required; the process is repeated several times until the desired thickness is achieved. Machine-made wires were introduced to the fi ligree craft th in the late 19 century. Depending on the use, it was either single or twisted and composed of two or more wires. Two variants could be distinguished – true and pseudo-fi ligree, or false fi ligree. Th e true fi ligree implies the free composing of wires into various motifs (circles, little fl owers, geometric patterns) within the contours of an object, which is the so-called airy or fl oating fi ligree. Patterns for production of motifs generally did not exist. Each master combined patterns using his imagination, and good fi ligree masters were well known and well paid for their work. Th e other variant of the true fi ligree in- volves the plate base onto which the ornament made of wires is soldered. Th e pseudo-fi ligree or false fi ligree was made in such a way that the object was fi rst molten and then fi nalized with techniques such as embossing, punching, scraping, and engraving. Unlike the true fi ligree, objects made with the technique of false fi ligree are considerably less delicate. Nis, 1900 To make an object or jewelry with the fi ligree tech- nique, its basic contours must be shaped fi rst because throughout the Turkish period, and it would survive un- of its very sensitive and delicate structure. Such base is til today. Filigree was also very popular in the old Serbian gold- Mould for cigarette holders, Belgrade, Second half of the 19 century th smithing and it represented the Serbian medieval her- itage that in the Turkish time became one of the most frequent techniques of the silver and gold jewelry pro- cessing. Filigree was usually craft ed out of a thin silver or gold twisted wire, requiring special tools, which con- sisted of: a draw plate, pliers with fl at massive mouth and bent handle, a tin vise which held the wire and supported the pressure while guiding the wire through the plate and the necessary solder point which attached drawings com- posed of wire. Wire Drawing Th e process begins with the casting of metal rods with diameter as small as possible. Rods are then reforged into 48

Prizren, 1900 formed of a stouter wire or tape on a charred tablet that with constant stirring, thus creating minute globules, the gives fi rmness to an object. Once the base is formed, the granules. Th e granules were then soldered onto the sur- so-called “fi lling” is carried out, i.e. the fi lling of gaps face or the fi ligree wire. with small spirals of the thinnest wires. Nowadays, these techniques, and especially masters Aft er joining (soldering) of all the details, additional who execute such work successfully, are very rare. And decoration is performed, without which the fi ligree is perhaps people are diff erent. It is more fascinating today unthinkable. First, the granules were added, small sil- how a lump of gold is turned into a ring by means of la- ver beads, and then smaller and larger rhomboid plates, strips, or hemispheres. Sometimes the fi ligree items were ser based on a digital photography, or when a 3D scan- encrusted with decorative stones. ner scans an object and then prints its exact image on a Most frequently, fi ligree is combined with the granu- 3D printer. Time passes, technology is progressing, but lation. Th is technique implied the melting of gold, sil- certainly nothing can replace the imagination, love and ver and copper in the pot for casting. Th e liquid metal spirit that master goldsmiths and fi ligree craft smen used was poured from the pot into a vessel fi lled with water, to bring to their products. 49