FFA Research Digest 2017

48soft, sticky and pasty doughs. Otherwise, for most baked products, breadfruitflour may be best used in composite flours with higher gluten content. 6. Fruit and Seed Yields in Chataigne in Trinidad and Tobago Laura B. Roberts-Nkrumah Department of Food Production, UWIChataigne or breadnut (Artocarpus camansi Blanco) is the putativeancestor of the seedless breadfruit cultivars existing in the Caribbean.It is a very good source of protein and energy but it is underutilised as afood crop. Tree height and lack of basic information on its productivityare constraints to commercial production. This study was conductedover a 6 year period at the University Field Station at Valsayn todetermine fruit yield, seed yield and the effect of pruning on yield.The trees reached maturity three years after planting and yields increasedwith age. Fruit and seed yield on 5 –year old trees were 139.7 kg/tree and 59kg/tree, respectively. The mean fruit number/ tree was 126 and was positivelycorrelated (r = 0.99) with fruit mass/ tree. Both seed mass/fruit and seednumber/fruit were also positively correlated with mean fruit mass. Pruningsignificantly (p<0.001) reduced fruit and seed yields. These results indicatedhigher yields than in limited previous reports and suggested that chataignefruit and seed yield may be much higher in mature trees. However, propertree height management strategies would be necessary for optimise yields.

49FOOD SECURITY

50 Prevalence of Household Food Insecurity and its Determinants among a Multi-ethnic Caribbean Population Isabella Francis-Granderson, Carlisle Pemberton, Hazel Patterson-Andrews, Marquitta Webb, Kern Rocke and Wynelle Archer Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, UWI A purposive/judgmental sample of low-income participants wasselected using data from the Community Health and Nutrition HouseholdSurvey (CHS), conducted under the framework of the CARICOMFood Security Project “From Farm to Fork”, 2014). This research wasconducted in North-East Trinidad. Data on gender, age, level of education,employment, income, marital status, ethnicity, head of the household, totalhousehold income and basic needs were collected through face-to-face homeinterviews by trained data collectors using a semi-structured questionnaire.Participants included 304 adults (30 male, 274 female) chosen based on twomain criteria: low-income households and they were parents or guardians ofprimary-school aged children attending schools in the study area. Data werecollected in two phases, January to July 2012 and October 2013 to January 2014.Food security status was assessed using the 18-item U.S. HouseholdFood Security Survey Module (HFSSM) of the United States Departmentof Agriculture (USDA). A food security status score was calculated.Differences across food security status were assessed using independentt-test and analysis of variance (ANOVA). Multinomial logistic regressionanalysis was used to determine the association between food insecurityand social determinants. Mean age was 37.18 ±9.28 years; Males weremore likely than females to be the head of the household. Mean monthlyincome of respondents (individual) was TT$1127 ±$1883.66, whilemean monthly income per household (total) was US$974.66 ± $2153.49.Fifty six percent of households were classified as food secure while 44%were food-insecure. Among food-insecure households, 28% experiencedfood insecurity without hunger/mild food insecurity; 11% moderate foodinsecurity with hunger and 5% experienced severe food insecurity withhunger. The average food security score was 3.33 ± 3.98, classifying thegeneral study population as moderately food insecure. Age of the respondent,marital status, ethnicity, education and individual income level were found tobe significantly associated with food security status. Lower risk of householdfood insecurity was associated with higher age, East Indian descent and higherindividual income. Higher likelihood was associated with single or divorcedmarital status. Mild food insecurity was associated with being divorced, ofEast Indian descent and currently squatting while higher total household

51income reduced this risk. Predictors of moderate food insecurity includedbeing female, widowed and having leased land. Severe food insecurity wasassociated with being female, residing at a home headed by a female andbeing divorced or widowed. Secondary school education and higher levelsof total household income were associated with a reduced likelihood. Higherage was seen to reduce the risk for both moderate and severe food insecurity.

52De-agriculturalisation in an Energy-Intensive Economy: Contemporary Evidence from Output and Employment Dynamics in a Multi-Sector Model of Trinidad and Tobago Scott Mark Romeo Mahadeo, Sharon Hutchinson and Hazel Juliet Patterson-Andrews Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, UWI De-agriculturalisation refers to the underperformance of key macro-agricultural variables, especially output and employment levels. In the earlyyears of the present century, agriculture in Trinidad and Tobago experiencedseveral episodes of annual slumps and employment in agriculture declinedconsiderably. Such events occurred within a comparatively acceleratedmacroeconomic environment. In economic literature, the Dutch disease is apopularised cause of such de-agriculturalisation in an oil and gas exportingeconomy like Trinidad and Tobago. Essentially, the Dutch disease detailsthe negative side effects a booming tradable resource sector can have on themore traditional industries of an economy. It also documents the potentiallyfavourable effects such a boom can have on the non-tradable servicesector. Using this theory as a point of departure, the central purpose ofthis paper was to empirically determine the impact of an energy productionboom on the agricultural, manufacturing and service sectors. Furthermore,an auxiliary object of this paper was to establish the nature of the linkagesbetween the various economic sectors in the macro economy of Trinidadand Tobago. The estimation procedure made use of a reduced-form vectorautoregression containing seven quarterly macroeconomic variables, from2000Q3 to 2013Q3. The VAR was used to generate generalised impulseresponse functions, forecast-error variance decompositions and Granger-causal connections. Results indicated that an energy boom was adverse for theagricultural sector, but stimulating to the service and manufacturing sectors.There were also strong associations noted between the various economicsectors, but these relationships exhibited harmful effects for agriculture.Source: Tropical Agriculture (Trinidad) Vol, 92, No 4: October 2015, 313-339

53Quality Perception and Willingness to Pay for Lettuce from Controlled Environments in Trinidad and Tobago Jessica Churaman1, Nkosi Felix1, Wendy-Ann Isaac1, Kathiravan Gopalan2 1Department of Food Production, 2Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, UWI Reports show that 24,000 heads of lettuce are sold at supermarketsweekly, while a total of 375,711 heads of lettuce were sold at the mainwholesale market in Trinidad and Tobago in 2015. However, a study in1999 showed organophosphate (OP) use exceeded Maximum Residuelevels (MRLs) in lettuce production. The use of OPs have been shown tonegatively impact human health, and the environment through its movementin the air and water. Various technologies have been developed to improveefficiency in agriculture and reduce pesticide use to provide safer foods toconsumers with the latest addition being plant factories. A plant factory is anindoor system which was developed to offset the effects of unusual weatherconditions and address food shortages. However, this method of productionincreases the capital burden on the grower through equipment requirements.Therefore, will consumers be willing to pay more for lettuce grown under thistechnology, given the ability of these systems to eliminate pesticide damageon the environment and human health? To conduct this analysis, lettuce washarvested from three (3) production systems; (i) Open field (ii) Greenhouseand (iii) Plant Factory with three artificial lights; High-Output florescent(T5), Light Emitting Diodes (LED) and Light Emitting Plasma (LEP).Multistage random sampling was used to identify the supermarkets where asensory evaluation was conducted using organoleptic variables that influenceconsumption and buying behavior. Using this data, willingness to pay wasestimated using the Contingent Valuation method. The relationship betweenorganoleptic factors and willing to pay was estimated using the multipleregression models. The study provided empirical evidence that will influencethe cultivation of lettuce using reduced pesticides since increased control ofclimatic and environmental factors improved lettuce aesthetics and palatability.

54Relative Vulnerability of Selected Caribbean States to Changes in Food Security due to Tropical Storms and Hurricanes Carlisle Pemberton, Hazel Patterson-Andrews and Afiya De Sormeaux Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, UWI The determination of the relative vulnerability of selected CaribbeanStates to changes in their food security status because of the incidence of tropicalstorms and hurricanes, required the aggregation of a composite indicator of thestability of food security and a risk indicator. Linear aggregation was utilizedto derive the composite indicator of the stability of food security and Paretorankings were used to aggregate this composite indicator and the risk indicator(Annual Frequency of Hurricanes and Storms) to assess relative vulnerability.The most vulnerable States were the Small Island Developing States (SIDS):St Kitts and Nevis, St Lucia, Dominica, Grenada and Antigua and Barbuda,supporting the position that SIDS are in a most precarious position. The leastvulnerable States were Belize, Trinidad and Tobago and Jamaica. Paretorankings and linear aggregation produced similar relative vulnerabilityorderings. However, Pareto rankings had the advantage of imposing fewerrestrictions, such as the continuity and linearity of aggregation functions andthey were able to show graphically that several countries may have the samerelative vulnerability status because of the impact of different vulnerabilityfactors, a situation that is lost in the numerical values of linear aggregation.Source: Pemberton, Carlisle, Hazel Patterson-Andrews, and Afiya De Sormeaux.2016. \"Relative Vulnerability of Selected Caribbean States to Changes in FoodSecurity Due to Tropical Storms and Hurricanes.\" International journal of food andagricultural economics 4, no. 1

55The Effects of Trade Liberalization on Dairy Trade and Domestic Milk Production in CARICOM Carlisle A. Pemberton, Hazel Patterson-Andrews, and Afiya De Sormeaux Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, UWI Domestic milk production in the major CARICOM States appears tobe in crisis, with shrinking domestic production and increasing milk imports.This paper therefore investigates the impact of trade liberalization on domesticmilk production and imports in Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago and Barbadosand determines trade factors that influence changes in these variables. Thestudy demonstrates the dominance of dairy imports into CARICOM from NewZealand and the EU and the significant effects of trade liberalization in causingstructural changes in domestic milk production and imports in the cases ofBarbados and Jamaica. Changes in GDP per capita highly influence changes inmilk imports for the three countries and for Jamaica also the price of importedpowdered milk. The Nestle countries; Jamaica, and Trinidad and Tobago,show greater declines in milk production than Barbados. Therefore furtherresearch is recommended on the role of Nestle in the Caribbean milk industry.Source: Pemberton, Carlisle, Hazel Patterson-Andrews, and Afiya De Sormeaux.2016.\"The Effects of Trade Liberalization on Dairy Trade and Domestic MilkProduction in CARICOM.\" International Food and Agribusiness ManagementReview 19, no. B

56 Prioritisation of the Objectives of Agricultural Sector and Criteria ofthe Food Supply: A Study of three Caribbean Territories: Trinidad and Tobago, Belize and Barbados Shamin Renwick Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension and Alma Jordan Library, UWI High and fluctuating food prices would have consequences on globalfood and nutrition security with varying impact on individual countries. Thisvulnerability in the Caribbean is, in fact, reflected in the recognition thatnone of the territories are able to produce all the food that is required tofeed their populations and ensure that people lead healthy and productivelives. The extent of this vulnerability is demonstrated in the high food importbills of many Caribbean countries. Is food security the highest priority ofthe various objectives of the agriculture sector? This investigation sought toexamine how decision-makers prioritised food security among the variousobjectives of the agricultural sector in Barbados, Belize and Trinidad andTobago as well as among the different categories of decision-makers devisedfor this study (i.e., policymakers, planners/technocrats and persons whoinfluence policymakers). This study used a multi-criteria decision making(MCDM) analysis method called the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) torank the objectives of agricultural production and criteria of the food supply. In terms of the criteria weightings, sustainability of the food supplywas judged to be far more significant than the level of external dependency.And whereas, economic trade-based food security was scored as themost important objective of agriculture, supporting producers and localagribusiness were rated the second most important, surpassing food self-sufficiency and sustainability of the environment, as well as, maximisingemployment in the agricultural sector and production for the export trade.These results have implications for the plans and policies designed to enhancethe level of food security locally and regionally and as such will affect themotivation for the information-seeking behaviour of decision-makers.Source: Renwick, Shamin. 2015. “Prioritisation of Food Security by Decision-makers in the Caribbean, a Study of Three Caribbean Territories: Trinidad andTobago, Belize and Barbados” In Agribusiness Essential for Food Security:Empowering Youth and Enhancing Quality Products: Proceedings of the 30th WestIndies Agricultural Economics Conference, 30th June – 6th July, 2013, Port of Spain,Trinidad, edited by Hazel Patterson-Andrews, 84-97. St. Augustine, Trinidad andTobago: Caribbean Agri-Economic Society (CAES)

57 Food Security Trends and Issues with Available Information and Data Shamin Renwick Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension and Alma Jordan Library, UWI Agriculture developed thousands of years ago as the notionof food security became a concern for early civilisations. Over theyears, many indicators have been derived to monitor food security.The FAO has proposed that availability, access, utilisation andstability are the pillars to be monitored to assess food security level. The objective of the study was to examine trends in foodsecurity of three CARICOM countries, Trinidad and Tobago, Belize andBarbados over the last 24 years and the accompanying concerns of what isappropriate data to be collected as well as issues in finding relevant datain the information available for such analyses. This investigation used ananalytical framework with 2 variables which included indicators spanningfive criteria of the food supply: stability, sustainability, sufficiency,dependency and equity. A review of secondary data was also undertaken. It was found that Belize appeared to be more food secure from aself-sufficiency point of view; Trinidad and Tobago had some level of foodsecurity as it was able to afford trade-based food security; but Barbados’ foodsecurity level was the most tenuous of the three countries. Criteria such asdependency and sustainability were identified as being highly relevant tothe Caribbean, though were not included in the popular FAO measures offood security. It was confirmed that data relevant to the Caribbean for thiskind of analysis was not always available and even when they were, therewere issues of comparability; a lack of metadata; and consistency. It wasrecommended that specific criteria relevant to the monitoring and necessaryto decision making and planning for food security in CARICOM be identified,and measures be instituted for the collection and analysis of such data.Source: Unpublished PhD Thesis, 2017

58 Food Sovereignty in Rebellion: Building A Moral Economy through Indigenous Knowledge and Gender Equity Levi Gahman Department of Geography, UWI For the last half-decade, annual trips have been made to rural Chiapas,Mexico, to study how the Zapatistas (Indigenous Maya peasant farmers) areconstructing Un Mundo Donde Quepan Muchos Mundos (“A World WhereMany Worlds Fit”). More specifically, the research being conducted isfocused on how the farmers are working towards food sovereignty throughthe exercise of autonomous education, Indigenous self-determination,gender equity, and organic agro-ecology as part of their ongoing rebellionagainst hierarchical state governance and global capitalism. The mostrecent trip, during the months of July and August 2016, was centered onthis concept, as well as a desire to learn more about how the Zapatistasare building a “moral economy.” A moral economy is simply a system ofproduction, distribution, and consumption driven by compassion, care,social justice, and the equitable allocation of resources. For the Zapatistas,their particular version of a moral economy incorporates Indigenouspeople’s traditional ecological knowledge, collective work, land-basededucation, and a committed focus on ensuring that women are treated fairly.The information-gathering efforts were conducted in the autonomousterritories of Chiapas, Mexico on these areas of interest are entering theirseventh year. The research has been inclusive of extensive archival researchon primary and secondary sources that detail the genesis of the uprisingthe Zapatistas led against the Mexican government on January 1, 1994, aswell as how they have structured their communities since. In the region ofZapatista, over a hundred supporters and sympathizers, as well as dozensof students, teachers, organizers, and community members have beeninterviewed on the topics of mitigating gender-based oppression, achievingfood sovereignty, and how to practice sustainable development via bottom-up, community-informed, decision making processes. As part of ongoingstudies, travel to a wide array of Zapatista communities, visits to a handfulof their independent schools, join human rights observation brigades havecontributed to the safety of their bases of support, and have even workedon a few irrigation and organic agro-ecological projects with them. Theresearch is thus engaged, participatory, and applied, as well as is guided bythe invitations, principles, and ethics of the community members themselves.The thrust of this research was to find a concrete example of sustainabledevelopment that provides practical solutions to the problems of food

59insecurity, malnutrition, and exploitation generated by corporate industrialagriculture, free market economics, and the rapidly globalizing food system.In the rural central highlands and remote Lacandon Jungle of southeasternMexico, it was evident that the Zapatistas were able to engage in foodsovereignty and building a moral economy by incorporating Indigenousknowledges, gender equity policies, anti-capitalist teaching and learning, andnon-hierarchical organizational structures into every aspect of day-to-day life.

60 NUTRITION, FOOD SAFETY AND CONSUMER SCIENCE

61 An Examination of Regular Exercise in Relation to Cardiometabolic Risk Factors among Students attending The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Wynelle Archer, Anna-Marie Edwards and Selby Nichols Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, UWI The primary objective of this research was to determine whetherregular exercise is associated with cardiometabolic protection amonghealthy students attending U.W.I, St. Augustine. Secondary objectiveswere to (i) identify commonly reported barriers to exercise (ii) determinewhether more barriers are encountered/perceived within the control groupand (iii) to highlight associations among cardiometabolic risk factors. Thisstudy implemented a case-control research design. Data were collectedusing a convenience sampling technique. Cases consisted of studentsaged 20-30 who participated in moderate-to-high-intensity exercise fouror more days per week (athletic). Controls consisted of persons whoengaged in moderate-to-high-intensity exercise infrequently: once or lessper week (non-athletic). The sample size for the study was 304 students(198 controls and 106 cases). Participants completed a self-administeredquestionnaire consisting of demographic, dietary and physical activityitems. Since the cut-off points determining cardiometabolic risk differbetween males and females, the sample was split according to gender priorto analysis. Independent t-tests, chi-squared and correlation analysis wereconducted to test for the associations highlighted in the objectives. The results of the study showed that in total, 60.9% of the samplewere female and 39.1% male. In the non-athletic group, 65.2% were femaleand 34.8% male. As regards total cardiometabolic risk, statistically significantresults were shown for high body fat percentage, low HDL cholesterol andelevated blood pressure. High body fat percentage and low HDL cholesterolwere more common among females (42.2% and 38.0% respectfully) thanmales (28.7% and 25.2% respectfully). Elevated systolic and diastolic bloodpressure were significantly higher among males (33.1% and 6.8% respectfully)than females (3.3% and 0% respectfully). Statistically significant differenceswere found for large waist circumference, high body fat percentage andlow HDL cholesterol among females. Athletic females were less likely topresent with these risk factors. Athletic males were significantly less likelyto experience low HDL cholesterol and high LDL cholesterol however, theywere more likely to present with elevated systolic blood pressure (SBP).Correlations were found among cardiometabolic risk factors. High waistcircumference was associated with high BMI, high body fat percentage,

62elevated glycated haemoglobin, low HDL and elevated SBP. High BMI wasalso associated with high body fat percentage, low HDL, high triglyceridelevel and elevated SBP. High body fat percentage was additionally associatedwith elevated glycated haemoglobin, low HDL and high triglyceride levels.The non-athletic group reported more perceived barriers to exercise.

63 The Intakes of High-Iron and High-Vitamin C Foods by Students at High Risk for the Development of Iron Deficiency Anaemia S. Bawa, C. Khan, and M. Webb Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, UWI This study assessed the intakes of high-iron and high-vitamin Cfoods among year one students at The University of the West Indies (UWI),St Augustine Campus, who are at high risk for the development of irondeficiency anaemia, stratified by gender, ethnicity and vegetarian status.The sample population represented 170 year one students. The participantswere divided equally based on gender using quota sampling. Frequencyof consumption of high- as well as low-iron foods as well as vitamin Cconsumption was assessed based on a food frequency questionnaire (FFQ). It was found that 48% of the participants declared that theyconsumed vitamin C supplements every day. Through dietary assessment,57% of the students were found to be at risk for the development of irondeficiency anaemia. Only 10% of the participants never consumed any ofthe foods decreasing iron bioavailability listed in the FFQ. Overall, 30%of the participants never consumed high-iron containing foods. Only 36%of the participants consumed foods that increase iron absorption every day,whereas 4% never consumed them. No significant statistical difference wasfound between the risk for the development of iron deficiency anaemiaand the intakes of vitamin C, ethnicity, vegetarian status and gender.Males were found to consume more high-iron containing foods. Femaleswere more at risk for the development of iron deficiency anaemia.Participants of African descents consumed more high-iron containingfoods. Participants of African and mixed raced consumed less foods thatdecrease iron absorption. Control of iron deficiency and anemia within theCaribbean region may require multiple strategies and is context specific.Source: Abstract published in West Indian Medical Journal, 64 (Suppl 2): 79

64The Link Between the Consumption of Sugar Sweetened Beverages andthe Development of Overweight and Obesity Among Selected Students of The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Campus S. Bawa, N. Rupert and M. Webb Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, UWI The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship betweenconsumption of sugar sweetened beverages (SSBs) and the developmentof overweight and obesity among the students of The University of theWest Indies, St. Augustine campus. A cross-sectional study design with aconvenience sampling method was used. The target population was the students of The University of the WestIndies St Augustine aged ≥18 years of age. The research data were collectedthrough the distribution of a self-administered questionnaire to be completedby each participant and anthropometric and clinical measurements to becompleted by the researcher. A total of 161 questionnaires were distributedto the students who participated. Out of 161 questionnaires distributed, 137were collected, but only 133 were fully completed, giving a response rateof 83%. Analyses were conducted using IBM SPSS Statistics 19.0 (IBMCorporation, Chicago, IL, USA). 97.1 % of the participants stated that they consumed SSBs and 2.9%said that they did not. Chi-squared statistic tests showed that, there were noassociations between BMI and gender, age group, ethnicity, and the frequencyof the consumption of SSBs and their quantities. No association betweenthe intakes of SSBs and overweight and/or obesity was found among theparticipants. However, a very high prevalence of the consumption of thesebeverages was observed. These findings about SSBs consumption trendsacross gender, ethnicities and physical activity groups can help guide targetedstrategies to reduce SSBs consumption among high-risk populations. Ideally,a combination of measures including curbing availability, reducing targetedmarketing, increasing SSBs cost, simultaneous reduction in costs of healthieralternatives, educative and informational measures through mass media,school-based policies and interventions targeted at adolescents and parentswill together prove most effective in reducing SSBs consumption.Source: Abstract published in West Indian Medical Journal, 65 (Suppl 3): 66

65 An Assessment of Childhood and Adolescent Obesity and Competitive Food Environments in Primary and Secondary Schools in Trinidad and Tobago Marisa Dowrich, Marquitta Webb, Sa’eed Bawa and Isabella Granderson Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, UWI The prevalence of obesity in children and adolescents in theCaribbean has been on the upsurge. This may be due to increasing preferencesfor energy-dense foods that are high in fat and sugars, but low in vitamins,minerals, and other healthy micronutrients. Since pupils and studentsattend school for approximately 6 or more hours per day, 180 days per year,from ages 5-17, they are exposed to wide arrays of competitive foods dueto accessibility through, vending machines, school stores/cafeterias, andshops around the parameters of the school, classroom parties, fundraisers,and other school events. Competitive foods are defined as all foods andbeverages available or sold in the schools with the exception of items servedthrough the national school lunch and breakfast programmes (Larson andStory 2007). In some cases, these foods compete with or even replace themeals offered by the national school lunch programme. This is a majorconcern since most times these foods are of minimal nutritional value andhigh in energy (FMNV) (Park 2006, Briefel, Wilson, and Gleason 2009). This study will investigate competitive food environments inprimary and secondary schools in Trinidad and Tobago. It will seek toassess the contributions that schools make to the issue of obesity throughthe offerings available at the canteens. The purpose of this study is twofold:(1) to examine the school food environment at primary and secondaryschools in Trinidad and Tobago and (2) to determine if the school foodenvironment is a risk factor for the development of childhood obesity.Random sampling will be utilized and the sample size will be selected fromprimary and secondary schools in St. George East and Tobago EducationalDistricts. A structured questionnaire will be used to collect data from students,school administrators, and cafeteria managers/operators. Anthropometricmeasurements will be conducted among the pupils and students to assessthe prevalence of obesity within the groups. It is expected that the schoolswill become aware of the nutritional status and eating patterns of the schoolpopulation and from the information gained implement changes to improve theschool food environment. Canteen operators will become more knowledgeableas it relates to nutrition practices. Findings obtained from this study will beof use to the Ministries of Health and Education for programme developmentand implementation to assist at risk participants improve their health status.

66 The Nutritional Status and Eating Habits of Hemodialysis Patients at the Queen Elizabeth Hospital Channal Holder, Marquitta Webb and Sa’eed Bawa Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, UWI A structured questionnaire was utilized to determine thenutritional status and eating habits among patients receiving HD at theQueen Elizabeth Hospital (QEH) in Barbados. All stable patients, whowere ≥18 years old and receiving HD at the QEH Dialysis Unit wereeligible to participate in the study. All unstable patients who were not≥18 years old and receiving HD at the QEH Dialysis Unit were excludedfrom the study. Participants were identified from the clinic records andselected as they present themselves to their regular HD appointment.The primary research instrument was a questionnaire divided into fivesections. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, independentT-test, analysis of variance (ANOVA), chi square test correlation, Pearson’scorrelation, and multiple linear regressions. Sixty patients receiving HD atthe QEH Dialysis Unit in Barbados participated in the study. There were no statistical significant differences between pre- andpost- height for males (p = 0.494) and females (p = 0.494). In addition, therewas no statistical significant difference between pre- and post- weight formales (p = 0.117 and females (p = 0.799). There was a statistical significantdifference between the pre- and post- body mass index (BMI) (p = 0.000),but no statistical significance differences between BMI and age (p = 0.105)and BMI and gender (p = 0.125). The mean energy intake was 28 ± 8.0kcal, while protein intake was 0.90 ± 12.3 g, which were all lower than therecommended levels. There were no statistical significant differences betweenmale and female in relation to restricted foods (p = 0.938). Biochemicalparameters, such as albumin, potassium, creatinine, phosphorous andurea recorded abnormal levels were all above the recommended values. From the study, it was concluded that hypertension, diabetesand lupus increased the risk for renal failure. Renal failure was moreprevalent among males than in females. Daily meal consumptionintakes were inconsistent with standard nutritional recommendationsand accounted for low energy and protein intake levels for HD patients.More than 80 percent of patient on HD were at risk of malnutrition.

67Workplace Breastfeeding and Support in the Public and Private Sectors in Trinidad and Tobago Marquitta Webb and Anika Lendor Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, UWI The World Health Organization recommends exclusivebreastfeeding for the first 4-6 months of an infant’s life. Despite thisrecommendation, many mothers do not breastfeed because of constraints,such as returning to work. In that light, this study evaluated theknowledge, attitudes, and perceptions towards breastfeeding support atwork among women in public and private sectors in Trinidad and Tobago.In this cross-sectional study, 338 female employees were surveyed using a16-item structured questionnaire. Data were analyzed using SPSS version21. The mean breastfeeding knowledge score for the entire sample was2.31 ± 0.83, with the public sector employees having a mean score of2.42 ± 0.76, which was statistically different (p = 0.004) when comparedto the private factor score of 2.14 ± 0.91. The mean readiness to utilizebreastfeeding support score for the public and private sectors employeeswere 1.08 ± 0.48 and 1.14 ± 0.53, respectively; however, no significantdifference was observed between the two groups (p = 0.294). The meanperception scores were 1.75 ± 0.99 for the public sector and 1.90 ± 0.95 forthe private sector, with no significant difference between groups (p = 0.184).Respondents had adequate breastfeeding knowledge and a positive attitudeand perception towards breastfeeding at work. The main helpful factor in thecontinuation of breastfeeding after returning to work was suitable facilitiesfor expressing and storing milk. There is limited research describing mothers’perceptions of workplace breastfeeding support in Trinidad and Tobago orthe Caribbean. Hence, the results of this study cannot be directly comparedto published literature in more industrialized countries. Employers andpolicy makers can utilize the information to better understand some of thefactors that influence a mother’s ability to meet her breastfeeding goals.

68 Knowledge and Use of Dietary Supplements among Athletes in Trinidad Kezia Philip, Marquitta Webb and Sa’eed Bawa Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, UWI This study examined the level of nutritional knowledge and use ofdietary supplements among athletes in Trinidad. A structured questionnairewas utilised to assess knowledge and use of dietary supplements. Theinclusion criteria were all adult non-paraplegic athletes, over 18 years old,and a member of an athletic club or any national athletic team. The samplesize was arrived at from sample size determination tables for randomsampling according to Lwanga and Lemeshow. The sample size wascomputed based on the desire to estimate the percentage of athletes who useat least one dietary supplement with a 5% margin of error. The data collectioninstrument was a questionnaire comprising of 16 closed-ended items. The variables measured fell into the following categories: socio-demographic, lifestyle, supplement use, dietary assessment, sourceof information and knowledge. Dietary supplement knowledge levelwas classified based on percentage of total correct score; ‘very good’(85-100%), ‘good’ (70-84%), moderate (55-69%) and weak (≤54).Data were analysed using SPSS version 23.0 to perform descriptivestatistics, regression analysis, ANOVA, and Chi-squared statistical tests.The knowledge of dietary supplement was predominantly weak amongathletes (52.2%) and there were no significant differences with demographicvariables examined and knowledge scores (p≥0.05). Prevalence ofsupplement use among the athletes was 62.8% and dietary supplements wereused throughout the athletic season. A significant association was foundwith age group (p=0.033); highest use were with athletes aged 18-20 years.The most commonly used supplements were multivitamins (71.5%), sportsdrinks (56.9%) and vitamin C (50.4%). Only 9.7% (n=19) of the athletes hadever visited a registered dietitian, of which 13 (68.4%) currently use dietarysupplements. No association was found with training volume and usage ofsupplements (p≥0.05). The most common reason for using supplementswere to improve general health (43.4%), increase energy (29.6%) andimprove athletic performance (20.9%). Of the athletes, who reportedlydid not use supplements, the most common reason was that their diet wasenough (60.3%). The leading source of information was the internet (70.9%). The findings indicate that knowledge of dietary supplementis weak and usage highly prevalent among athletes in Trinidad.

69 Antecedents of Sodium and Potassium intakes among Adults in Trinidad and Tobago Selby Nichols, Kern Rocke, Nequesha Dalrymple, Patrice Prout, and Anisa Ramcharitar-Bourne Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, UWI Habitual, excessive consumption of salt increases blood pressureand the risk of developing hypertension, the single most importantrisk factor cardiovascular disease. Cardiovascular diseases are majorcontributors to illness and death among adults in the Caribbean.Approximately 60%-80% of foods consumed in the Caribbean areimported at an annual cost of approximately US$ 4 billion. The majorityof these foods are highly processed, containing added sugars, fats and salt. This study, estimated sodium (Na) and potassium (K) intakes andtheir correlates in a multiethnic adult Caribbean population. Participantscompleted a self-administered questionnaire consisting of socio-demographicitems and a food frequency questionnaire. Mean daily Na and K intakes wereestimated using appropriate dietary analysis software. Participation in thestudy was voluntary. The study was approved by the Ethics Committee, TheUniversity of the West Indies. 11783 adults participated in the study. Meandaily Na and K intakes were 2778 mg (7 g sodium chloride) and 3001 mgrespectively. Males had significantly higher mean daily Na and K intakesthan females. 77% of participants had daily intakes of Na ≥ 2300 mg (upperlimit for Na intake) while 95% of participants had daily K intakes lessthan 4,700 mg (recommended level). Highly processed foods accounted forapproximately 80% of Na and 45% of K consumed by participants. Bodymass index (BMI) and age were positively associated with mean daily Naand inversely associated with K intakes. Participants with a family history ofnon-communicable diseases (NCDs) reported lower mean daily sodium andhigher mean potassium intakes than those without a family history of NCDs. Mean daily Na and K intakes were associated with age, sex,family history of disease, and BMI. The high mean Na and low mean Kintakes were due to predominant consumption of highly processed foods.The nature of food importation requires that products have shelf livesthat ensure that they maintain their characteristics by the time they reachmarkets. Processing ensures that desirable characteristics are retained.However, these methods of processing have important health implications.

70 Diet, Nutrient intakes and Associated Factors among Adults in Trinidad and Tobago Selby Nichols, Nequesha Dalrymple, Kern Rocke, Patrice Prout and Anisa Ramcharitar-Bourne Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, UWI The shift in lifestyles and occupation in the post-colonial era in theCaribbean has seen the emergence of chronic non-communicable diseases(NCDs) rather than infectious diseases as the major causes of illness anddeath among adults. This shift has seen labour-intensive occupationsreplaced by more sedentary jobs offering better wages and diets rich inplant-based, unprocessed foods supplanted by ones containing highlyprocessed foods containing higher amounts refined sugars, fats, and salt.Overweight and obesity, consistent risk factors for the development of NCDs,are a direct consequence of over-nutrition coupled with increased sedentaryactivities. Thus, diet and physical activity play important roles regulatingenergy balance and ultimately disease profile. In this study, Diet and diet-related behaviours among adults in Trinidad and Tobago were evaluated.The dietary behaviours of adults 18-65 years old were surveyed from March2013 -March 2016. Participants filled out a self-administered questionnairecomprising socio-demographic items, family history of diseases, physicalactivity questions and a food frequency questionnaire. Anthropometrywas self-reported with 10% of the population having measurements doneaccording to recommended procedures. Dietary data were entered in nutritionanalysis software for evaluation of dietary intake and quality. Foods eatenwere classified as follows: minimally processed/unprocessed, processed andultra-processed. Caloric intakes were evaluated using the Goldberg ratio.A total of 11,675 persons (Females = 6,663, males =5,012) participatedin the study. Based on the Goldberg ratio for plausible reporting ofdietary intakes, males had significantly higher mean intakes of caloriesthan females (2223±652 vs. 1987 ± 594). They were also more likelythan females to over report and under report caloric intake (p< 0.001).Approximately 67% of participants met the Goldberg criteria for plausiblereporting. Overall, ultra-processed accounted for approximately 90% ofmean caloric intake. They provided between 60-80% of dietary intakesof carbohydrates, sugars, fats, vitamin A, calcium, fibre, iron, and sodium.Minimally processed/unprocessed provided between 60-85% of dietaryintakes of vitamin C, protein, cholesterol, and potassium. Approximately36% of participants had nutrient intake profiles that were adequate.Ultra-processed foods are major sources of nourishment in this population.

71The higher levels of sugars, fats, sodium, and calories containedtherein compared to minimally processed/unprocessed foods haveimportant health implications. Reversing this trend in consumptionpattern would require global co-operation involving governmentsand the food industry. It necessitates increasing awareness andempowerment through population-based nutrition education programmes.

72Supermarket and Grocery Foods Supply with Nutritional Implications for Trinidad and Tobago Selby Nichols, Shabana Smith, Patrice Prout and Kern Rocke Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, UWI The annual food import bill of approximately 4.5 billion TT dollarssuggests that imported foods contribute significantly to available dietarynutrients. This increasing demand for these foods and the transit times forthe delivery of imported foods to the market places necessitate industrialprocessing of foods to ensure shelf-life, quality, and safety. Supermarkets andgroceries remain the main avenues for the distribution and purchase of foodslocally. In this survey, the nutritional quality of food products available wasanalysed from a random sample of 30% of supermarkets and groceries locally.Thirty percent (30%) of all registered supermarkets and groceries wererandomly selected from the list provided by the Ministry of Tradewebsite. These were visited during a 2-month period and a record wasmade of all food items available for sale to the public. Food items werecategorized according to the Standard International Trade Classification(STIC) Rev 3. They were also classified in terms of processing asfollows; minimally/unprocessed, processed and ultra-processed. Theseitems were entered into appropriate software for nutrient analyses.4062 food items on sale were recorded and analysed. The levels of foodprocessing were as follows: minimally processed/unprocessed (14.3%),processed (2.6%) and ultra-processed (83.1%). The percentage of itemsfor sale in each class decreased in the following order; namely, Cerealsand cereals preparations (17.1%), Meats and meats products (5.5%), Dairyproducts and birds’ eggs (13.5%), Vegetables and fruits (19.4%), Fish andaquatic invertebrates (3.2%), Beverages (4.8%), Miscellaneous edibleproducts (10.6%), Coffee, tea, cocoa, spices (7.5%), Animal and vegetableoils, fats (2.9%), Sugars, sugar preparations and honey (15.8%). Overall,food items supplied adequate levels of vitamin A, vitamin C, folate, Ca,sodium, fats, and carbohydrates. However they were generally deficientin micronutrients such as potassium, vitamin 12, vitamin E, iron and fibre. Results suggest that the proportion of foods available ongrocery shelves closely matched the proportion of these items imported.The food environment at supermarkets and groceries in Trinidadand Tobago suggest one predominated by ultra-processed foodwith varying levels of nutrients. Optimization of the diet requiresthat the population become more aware of the contents of foodsso that they could add other foods to ensure nutrient adequacy.

73 Leisure-time physical activity (LTPA) among Employees in the Ministry of Health in Trinidad and Tobago M. Webb, A. Gaspard and S. Bawa Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, UWI Physical inactivity is recognized as a risk factor for many chronicnon-communicable diseases. According to the World Health Organization,World Health Report, at least 60% of the world’s population do not meetthe daily recommendation of physical activity. In Trinidad and Tobago,there is no research literature on the leisure-time physical activity levelsof the country. In that context, this study investigated leisure-time physicalactivity among public sector employees in the Ministry of Health.In this cross sectional study, participants were selected via a conveniencesampling method. A 15-item self-administered questionnaire was used tocollect information on demographics, activity at work, travel to and fromdifferent places, leisure time activity, and sedentary behaviour. Data wereanalyzed using SPSS version 21.0. Descriptive statistics were used to compilethe data and analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to test for differencesbetween means for sex, age group, job description, and general income range.A total of 108 individuals participated in the study. Most of the participants(42.6%) were of Afro-Trinidadian descent, in the “25-37” age group(45.4%), permanently employed (42.6%), had a sedentary occupation(63.9%), and had a general income range of less than $10,000 per month(82.4%). The mean LTPA score was 34.89 ± 23.81. Male respondentshad a higher mean LTPA score than female respondents, 42.03 ± 24.49and 30.72 ± 22.56, respectively. A statistically significant differencewas observed between the mean LTPA score and sex (p = 0.019). Therewere no significant differences between LTPA and age group (p =0.889), job description (p = 0.227) or general income range (p = 0.566). Based on the results of the study, it can be said that less than half thesample population participated in LTPA “sometimes” during a typical 7-dayweek. The male employees in the population had higher LTPA scores, andtherefore participated in more LTPAthan their female colleagues at the Ministryof Health. Focus should therefore be placed on increasing participation inLTPA, particularly among the female population. Physical inactivity has amajor health impact on the world. The elimination of physical inactivity wouldlessen the prevalence of the major non-communicable diseases, such as CHD,type 2 diabetes, and breast and colon cancers, and increase life expectancy.Source: Spanish Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics (Rev Esp Nutr HumDiet), 20 (Suppl 1): ISSN (online): 2174-5145. doi revista: 10.14306/renhyd

74 Evaluation of the Processing Protocol Employed at the Sugarcane Feeds Centre in the Production of Tilapia Fish Fillet: Assessment of Household Sanitising Products on Coliforms Roopnarine Siewnarine, Sharianne Suepaul, Neela Badrie and Marsha Singh Department of Food Production, UWI Evaluation of the processing protocol practiced at the SugarcaneFeeds Centre (SFC) for tilapia fillet production was assessed by total coliform(TC) counts. The five points in the processing chain that were evaluatedwere pond water (Spt1), fish before processing (Spt2), unprocessed fish afterchill killed (Spt3), fillet before rinsing with potable water (Spt4) and filletafter rinsing with potable water (Spt5). There was a significant difference(P<0.05) between sampling points (723 ± 205, 642 ± 421, 74 ± 37, 2010 ±940 and 776 ± 581) CFU/g for Spt1, Spt2, Spt3, Spt4 and Spt5 respectively.All sampled points except Spt3 exceeded the acceptable limit of 100 CFU/gfor total coliform. The high TC counts led to the second experiment whichevaluated 3 common sanitizers for their efficacy in reducing the totalcoliform counts in the fillet to an acceptable level. Potable water, householdbeach diluted to 15ml/4l water, vinegar diluted to 1.25% acetic acid werethe treatments that were assessed. Samples were immersed and stirred inseparate treatment for 90 seconds, then individually rinsed in runningpotable water for 30 seconds. There was a significant difference (P<0.05)for all three treatments that reduced the total coliform content within theacceptable limit. Reduction in total coliform was 81%, 99% and 93% to(18 ± 10, 1 ± 1 and 9 ± 8) CFU/g for water, household bleach and vinegar,respectively. There was no significant difference between any two treatments.Tilapia fillet produced at the SFC exceeded the acceptable limit for totalcoliform. Easily accessible potable water, household bleach and vinegarare effective in reducing this bacterial load to within the acceptable limit.

75Indigenous Novel Bacillus Amyloliquefaciens as Biocontrol for Management of Vegetable Diseases Duraisamy SaravanakumarDepartment of Food Production, UWI The focus of this research is to develop a novel Bacillusamyloliquefaciens which could be used as a biocontrol suited to tropicalconditions, to reduce the use of chemical application in managing plant health. Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) are beneficialbacteria resides around root region of plants. PGPR exhibits several plantbeneficial characters such as plant growth promotion, reduce abiotic stress(drought, flooding, saline), antagonize plant pathogens and induce diseaseresistance. It promotes plant growth by producing auxins and an enzyme,1-Aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid deaminase (ACCD) whichreduces stress ethylene in plants exposed to flooding and drought. ThePGPR has potential to fix the atmospheric nitrogen in non-leguminousplants. It controls plant diseases by production of lipopeptides throughantagonism. It induces the resistance of plants against diseases throughactivation of pathogenesis related proteins and defense metabolic pathways.Diseases are one of the major constrains in vegetable production of theCaribbean and viewed as the vital challenges to be addressed to ensure foodsecurity of the region. The menace of plants diseases considered serious dueto the tropical weather condition, which are very much conducive for the rapidmultiplication and spread of diseases and yield losses ranging from 40 to 60percent. An indiscriminate and intensive use of chemical pesticides to controldiseases in the region have revealed the great concerns over environmentaland human health hazards posing serious threats to safe food especiallyin vegetables where most of them consumed without processing and orconsumed as salads. In search of suitable alternatives to pesticides, the currentstudy was carried out. The research dealt with isolation and identificationof indigenous rhizobacteria followed by the study of antagonistic activityand its connection to antibiotic lipopeptide genes and biocontrol potential. Intensive research experiments are expected to reveal the biocontrolpotential of novel indigenous Bacillus amyloliquefaciens strains.

76 Correlates of Health-Related Quality of Life among Persons on Haemodialysis in Trinidad and Tobago Patrice Prout and Selby Nichols Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, UWI Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is an increasingly important globalpublic problem. CKD refers to a progressive decline in glomerular filtrationrate. This may leads to kidney failure (end-stage kidney or renal disease)requiring dialysis or kidney transplant. Currently, Trinidad and Tobago hasthe highest rates of mortality from CKD (29.2 per 100 000) in the Caribbeanand Latin America. Diabetes mellitus (DM) and hypertension (HTN) areamong the most important risk factors for CKD. CKD is associated withpoorer health-related quality-of-life, especially when complicated bykidney failure. In this study we investigated the health-related quality oflife (HRQOL) and its associated factors among persons on hemodialysis. A case-control design was used. Cases were persons receivinghemodialysis. Controls were hypertensive and diabetes clients attendingclinics at the same institution. Face-to-face interviews were conductedusing a standardized questionnaire consisting of food frequency,HRQOL (SF12), physical activity and socio-demographic items. SF12items were used to compute physical component (PCS <40) and mentalcomponent (MCS <40) summary scores. The risk of malnutrition wasevaluated using the mini-nutritional assessment (MNA <12) instrument.Anthropometry was assessed using standard procedures. The study wasapproved by the Ethics Committee, The University of the West Indies. Four Hundred and Seventy-Three persons (cases = 150; controlsDM =162, HTN=161) participated in the study. There were no significantdifferences in the age, BMI and gender between cases and controls. Caseswere at greater risk for poorer HRQOL (PCS; odds ratio (OR) = 3.4, 95% CI:2.2, 5.3): MCS; OR= 8.06, 95% CI: 3.4, 19.1) and malnutrition (OR = 3.4,95% CI: 1.9, 6.7) than controls. PCS was inversely associated with numberof medications in cases while MCS (r = -0.23; p < 0.001) was inverselyassociated with medication use in controls. CKD is associated with a poorerquality-of-life and increased risk of malnutrition. Evaluation of quality-of-life is recommended as part of the services offered to persons on hemodialysis.

77 Freedom and Conformity in Dress among Adolescents in Trinidad Margaret Gordon Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, UWI 376 secondary school students from Trinidad were surveyed. Twofocus groups were conducted; a total of 10 boys, 12 girls and 8 parentsparticipated in this qualitative phase. The results revealed that adolescents’behaviours in purchasing and wearing clothing differ at different stages ofadolescent development. During Early Adolescents (11-13 years): Peers have a great influenceon their dress choices and there is a tendency to be more conforming becausethere is the need for positive reinforcement gained through their dress.During Middle Adolescents (14-16 years): They dress to project their ownimage, have the ability to purchase clothing that they deem suitable for theirown style, not influenced by peers and parents, however media influence theirclothing choices, more experimental with clothing, demonstrating a high levelof freedom when purchasing clothing, and they are early adopters of fashion.During Late Adolescents (17-19 years):They are less antagonistic to parentalinfluence in their choice of dress, better able to internalize values, standardsand social norms and more conforming in their choices, when purchasingand wearing clothing. Adolescent males purchase clothing to conform totheir social network, dress for acceptance, and are more conforming thanfemales when purchasing and wearing clothing. Adolescent Femalespurchase clothing to enforce their individuality, dress to project their ownimage and use more freedom when purchasing and wearing clothing. With respect to religion, Christian, Muslim, Hindu and Anglicanadolescents are conforming in their purchasing and wearing clothingbehaviours; they do not believe that they can purchase clothing to suit theirown style. However, adolescents who are Roman Catholics, as well asthose who described themselves as belonging to religions other than thosedetailed in the demographic, perceive that they have the ability to do so. Itwas found that Roman Catholic adolescents dress to project their own image. Household income afforded adolescents the opportunity to purchaseand wear clothing that is in style, and as the household income increasesthe clothing they purchase and wear are more trendy and fashionable. Thehousehold income is also contingent on the ability of adolescents to chooseto dress to project their own image. This study also revealed that adolescentsclothing purchases are dependent on familial purchasing clothing decisions.Source: Gordon, Margaret. \"Freedom and conformity in dress among adolescentsin Trinidad.\" PhD Thesis, 2017

78 Use of Food Label Information by Trinidad Consumers and Implications for National Health Wayne Ganpat, Kathiravan Gopalan and Joel Dalrymple Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, UWI Food labels carry information that helps consumers makepurchasing decisions. Thus, with the food label being a primary source ofsuch information from the food manufacturer, it is important that modernconsumers fully understand what they are purchasing if they are to makehealthy choices. Food product labeling, as a policy tool for ensuring theprovision of nutrition and health information to the consumer, has gainedimportance in the last decade across the globe. Trends toward healthierand wellness food have also led to consumer demand for “more detailed,accurate, and accessible” nutritional information on the packaged foodproduct. This study assessed the knowledge and perceptions that Trinidadconsumers have of the various components of a typical food label and thesocio demographic factors that impact their knowledge level and perceptions. The target population for this study was final consumers of non-specific packaged food products. To assess perceptions of importance of foodlabel components, respondents were asked how important they perceived 26components of a typical label. The sample was 302 consumers over the ageof 18 years residing in Trinidad. The study found that, although there wasfairly high reading of food label information, fats and sodium informationwere not given the required attention. “Use by date”, “Ingredients listing”,“Sugar content”, “Total fat”, “Cholesterol content” and “Calorie content”were perceived to be the most important information of a typical food labelcomponents as regarded by consumers. Six variables (i) diabetes; (ii) allergies;(iii) gender; (iv) level of schooling; (v) fast food consumption and (vi) fiberconsumption, significantly impacted the use of food label information.There is some evidence that Trinidad consumers have an appreciationfor the information provided on food labels. However, the rate ofobesity and number of persons in the population who are overweightmay suggest that they lack the incentive to actually incorporate labelreading into their daily lives. This is recommended as a focus of furtherstudy. Health education, however, may help to fill knowledge gaps by re-emphasizing the value of food label information to healthy lifestyles anddemonstrating ways that food labels can be more easily interpreted andhabitually incorporated into decisions about choice among food products.Source: Journal and Agricultural Information, published online 2017

79Street Foods and Doubles consumption: Is there a link to Gastroenteritis in Trinidad and Tobago? Christopher Seedarnee1 and Kern Rocke2 1Department of Chemical Engineering2Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, UWI A cross-sectional study was conducted to determine the prevalenceof symptoms related to gastroenteritis, caused by the consumption ofstreet foods and doubles among adults in Trinidad. Furthermore, the studysought to investigate if knowledge, behaviour and attitudes are contributorsof suspected gastroenteritis after consuming street foods and doubles inTrinidad. A convenience sample of 800 participants was used for the studyand data were collected using a questionnaire to assess gastroenteritis risk,perception, attitudes and behaviour related to food safety. Suspected cases ofgastroenteritis were determined by the show of symptoms after consumptionof doubles and street foods. These symptoms include vomiting, diarrhoea,fever and loss of appetite. Results showed that 29.8% had suspect gastroenteritis fromconsuming street foods, whereas 10.4% of the population had suspectgastroenteritis after consuming doubles. Participants were asked what werethe symptoms they experienced after the consumption of street foods. It wasfound that 22.6% experienced diarrhoea; 18.7% experienced vomiting; 5.5%experienced fever; 13.5% experienced abdominal pains; 12.0% experiencednausea; 6.7% experienced loss of appetite; 0.4% experienced bloody stools;9.3% experienced gas; 8.4% experienced headache; 1.1% experiencedbackache and 1.9% experienced lethargy. However after eating doubles, itwas found that 28.2% experienced diarrhoea; 13.8 experienced vomiting;5.2% experienced fever; 14.8% experienced abdominal pains; 5.9%experienced nausea; 11.0% experienced loss of appetite; 1.4% experiencedbloody stools; 11.5% experienced gas; 4.7% experienced headache; 1.2%experienced backache; 2.5% experienced lethargy. It was found that females of Indo-Trinidadian descent were more likelyto develop suspected gastroenteritis (p<0.05). Consuming french fries as astreet food increases the susceptibility of contracting gastroenteritis (p=0.015).Perceptions, attitudes and behaviour did not show a significant relationshipwith the likelihood of developing gastroenteritis after consuming street foodsand doubles. However, consuming doubles only increased the likelihood ofdeveloping gasteroenteritis by 3%.

80 Investigation of the Food Safety Management System (FSMS) of a Tilapia (Oreochromis sp) Processing Facility for Controlling Microbiological Hazards Vivian Randy Henry, Neela Badrie and Marsha Singh The Department of Food Production, UWI There are microbiological hazards in the production of tilapia(Oreochromis sp) and some tend to pose health risks to consumers. Theobjective of this research was to investigate the Food Safety ManagementSystem (FSMS) of a known Tilapia processing facility for controllingmicrobiological hazards. The instruments utilized to collect data were:checklist, questionnaire, an evaluation score sheet and camera. An evaluationwas also conducted for Microbiological Total Plate Count and Presumptivetest for presence of Escherichia coli in a number of samples of fresh,processed Tilapia, processing and storage unit surfaces, and water from thefacility. The findings of the investigations showed a number of inadequaciesin the FSMS of the facility. These included non-compliance to a HACCPbased FSMS and pre-requisite programs; Sanitation Standard OperatingProcedures (SSOP) and Good Hygiene Practices (GHP), demonstrated by:An evaluation score (51%) below the passing score (60%) for compliance toa HACCP based FSMS; Microbiological Total Plate Count for many of thesamples evaluated to be above the accepted limits; lack of actual documentedHACCP, SSOP and GHP, and photographic evidence of poor practices. Themean Total Plate Count for fresh Tilapia muscle and guts (5.40E+05 CFU/gand 5.77E+06 CFU/g respectively), which represented the microbiologicalloads to be controlled, was above the accepted limits of 1E+05 CFU/g butthe facility processing method did not limit, but instead potentially elevatedany risk associated with that high count. This is seen from the results ofthe Total Plate Count for the processed fish (1.14E+07 CFU/g) and all theenvironmental monitoring Total Plate Counts being above the acceptedlimit of 1E+02 CFU/g. The presence of Escherichia coli was observed inonly the fresh Tilapia samples. Addressing many of the areas of weaknessin the FSMS of the facility highlighted in the research such as inadequatedocumentation, recording and verification of processes, procedures, locationfor processing, process design and flow would tremendously improvethe effectiveness of the FSMS to minimise microbiological hazards.

81 Assessment of the Sensory Characteristics and Acceptability of Breadfruit Flours in Quick and Yeast Breads Lania Jn. Pierre1, Isabella Francis-Granderson1, Laura Roberts-Nkrumah2, Gail Baccus-Taylor3 and Janelle Yarde-Blackman1 1Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension 2Department of Food Production 3Food Technology Unit, Department of Chemical Engineering, UWI The nutritive value of breadfruit and its potential contribution tothe management of non-communicable diseases justify efforts to encourageincreased consumption by providing attractive products for children andadults. A preliminary study was conducted to determine the preferredbreadfruit flour composite blend and to investigate the sensory acceptanceof the preferred breadfruit blend in quick and yeast bread formulations,among adults and primary school age children. In a pilot study, threebreadfruit cultivars ‘‘Aveloloa’’, ‘Pii Piia’ and ‘Ulu Tala’ were utilized for theformulation of muffins, buns and pizza bases. Composite flours consistingof 15%, 25% and 35% breadfruit flour (BF) were utilized for muffins, whileblends consisting of 25%, 35% and 45% breadfruit flour were utilized forthe buns and pizzas. These were compared to controls using 100% wheatflour (WF). The performance of the breadfruit flour blends (BW-WF) inmuffins, buns and pizza bases were evaluated based on appearance, colour,taste, flavour, texture and overall acceptability. Untrained adult panellistsevaluated the sensory characteristics of the products and three (3) focusgroups of primary school children assessed the sensory properties of thepreferred BF_WF formulation. The mean scores of the attributes of thethree products suggested preference for the wheat flour products overthose made with the BF-WF blends. The most acceptable breadfruit flourblends were those of ‘Aveloloa’ at 15% and 25% and the muffin and pizzawere the preferred formulations. The acceptability of the muffin and pizzasuggests these products can be considered as potential meal items for theschool feeding programme which can boost year round breadfruit utilisation.However, a larger sample size is required to evaluate the acceptability ofthese products and further product development is needed for the bun.Source: \"In Commercializing Breadfruit for Food and Nutrition Security\"-Proceedings of the International Breadfruit Conference, 5-10 July, 2015, edited byL. B. Roberts-Nkrumah and E. J. Duncan, 175-182. Port of Spain, Trinidad

82 CLIMATE CHANGE

83 Farmers’ Needs and Extension Readiness to Respond Post-disaster in the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) Wayne Ganpat and Tessa Barry Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, UWI Amy Harder, University of Florida This study sought to assess the readiness of the various extensiondivisions in the OECS to deliver on the expressed needs of vulnerablefarming communities post-disaster. Seventy one extension officers and 458farmers participated in this study. Farmers were chosen proportionately fromthe agricultural districts of six OECS islands, Grenada (n=99), St. Vincent(n=95), St. Lucia (n=64), Dominica (n = 101), St. Kitts (n = 50) and Antigua(n =49). Since there are no formal lists of farmers in any country, a 15%sample was selected from each district based on the extension officer’sestimate of the number of farmers in the district. It was found that farmers immediate needs after a hurricane were;financial assistance (95%), planting material (89%), and fertilizers andpesticides (90%). They reported that these same needs continued to existat similar levels six months after experiencing the disaster. Most farmersindicated they received assistance for their physical needs (73%) andwere aware that the majority of assistance given came from the Ministryof Agriculture through extension; however, 66% indicated they were notsatisfied with the response time. Farmers identified unavailability of resources(76%) and political affiliation (78%) as major barriers in accessing resourcesafter a disaster. Significantly, the majority of farmers (96%) reported thatthey got no support for their emotional needs. Additionally, 56% indicatedthey were not aware as to whether the Extension Division had a plan and50% indicated extension had not provided any sort of training for farmers indisaster management. Most extension officers reported that they had no support for theirphysical needs and similar to the farmers, the majority (73%) indicated nosupport for their emotional needs. Officers reported transportation as theirgreatest need (53%) to respond to farmers in a professional manner, supportingthe slow response time reported by the farmers. While 67% responded ashaving had training in disaster management, the majority identified theirgreatest professional development needs were in the areas of hurricanedisaster recovery efforts (53%) and helping farmers cope with stress (47%).Such training is a prerequisite for any disaster management plan.

84 The Impact of Climate Change on Small Ruminant Performance in Caribbean Communities Cicero H. O. Lallo1, Audley Facey2, Sebrena Smalling1 and Martin Hughes 1Department of Food Production, UWI 2Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Jamaica Many Caribbean small ruminant management systems andforage-based, relying on rain to sustain pastures for feed. Animalperformance is thus heavily dependent on forage availability.The nutrition value of pasture was highest during the intermediate season andlowest during the dry season, leading to under nutrition, and declined flockperformance in the dry season. Climate change will therefore seriously hamperpasture availability and nutritive value. Hair sheep on pasture, without shadeor water, experienced increased respiration rate; they were under chronic heatstress. However, where adequate shade and water were provided, heat stresswas reduced. The current system of small ruminant production is prone tothe negative impacts of climate change events due to its effect on nutrition,growth and reproduction. Immediate actions are needed to prepare farmers torespond by mitigation methods, to maintain and enhance animal productivityif the envisaged protein security goals set for this sector are to be realized.Source: Lallo, C.H., Smalling, S., Facey, A. and Hughes, M., 2016. \"The Impactof Climate Change on Small Ruminant Performance in Caribbean Communities.Environmental Sustainability and Climate Change Adaptation Strategies\", inEnvironmental Sustainability and Climate Change Adaptation Strategies edited byWayne Ganpat and Wendy-Ann Isaac, 296-321. IGI Publications. PennsylvaniaUSA.

85 Thermoregulation and Performance of Holstein Cattle in a Modern Dairy Cattle Facility in Barbados Dewyn Phillips and Cicero H. O. Lallo Department of Food Production, UWI The main dairy breeds used in Barbados is the Holstein Friesian breedor cross breeds, like other areas in CARICOM with the exception of Jamaica,which has developed the Jamaica Hope. The Holstein breed is a non-adaptedclimate sensitive genotype not noted for its thermo-tolerance which becomesa main challenge that can alter the body temperature from its resting positionand negatively impact productivity under tropical conditions. This studyevaluated the performance and thermoregulation of Holstein dairy cattle ina modern dairy cattle facility that modified the environment of the animal.Differences existed between AM and PM in rectal temperatures, respiratoryrates and milk yield, (p<0.05). The mean rectal temperature and respiratoryrates in the morning were 38.94(±0.05) and 62.52(±0.42) 0C, and afternoonwere 39.25(±0.06) and 65.58(±0.44) br/ min, respectively. A significantdifference was found between mean morning and evening milk yield; AMbeing 11.26(±0.31), and PM 10.3(±0.26) kg/day; a difference of 0.96 kg.There was no significant difference between lactation yields or peak yieldsfor wet and dry seasons. There was however an increase in mean (305-day)milk yield from 6182.42 kg in 2008 to 7254.88 kg in 2010. Calving intervaldecreased from 497.80(±14.75) in the first parity to 440.83(±8.50) in the thirdparity. AI per conception ranged from 2.00 to 2.68 over the three years and 2.33to 2.35 for dry and wet season, respectively. It was concluded that althoughthe Holstein breed is not as well adapted to the tropical climatic region asother breeds, the housing and management employed in the study kept theHolsteins thermostable based on rectal temperature, respiratory rates and milkproduction levels that were comparable to results from some temperate areas.Source: Trop. Agric. (Trinidad) Vol. 94 No. 4 October 2017

86 Characterizing Heat Stress on Livestock using the Temperature Humidity Index (THI)-Prospects for a warmer Caribbean 1Cicero H. O. Lallo, 2Jane Cohen, Dale Rankine3, Michael Taylor3­, Jayaka Campbell3 and Tannecia Stephenson3 1Department of Food Production, UWI, St Augustine 2Department of Life Sciences, UWI, Mona 3Department of Physics, UWI, Mona The temperature humidity index (THI) is used to assess heat stresson four types of livestock (broiler and layer chickens, pigs and ruminants) forthree different agro-ecological locations in Jamaica. The THI is formulatedspecific to each livestock type and is examined for 2001-2012 to suggestseasonal and annual patterns of THI variability across the three locations.Future patterns of heat stress relative to a 1961-1990 baseline are gleaned froma regional climate model for periods when global temperature increases are1.5, 2.0 and 2.5 °C above pre-industrial levels. Pronounced differences in THIare observed between summer (July to September) and winter (December toFebruary) with some moderation due to agro-ecological location. THI valuessuggest that animals in ambient field conditions in Jamaica already experienceconsiderable periods of heat stress even during relatively cooler winter months.As global mean surface temperatures rise to 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels,marked increases are noted in THI. As such, 1.5 °C seemingly represents athreshold, above which almost persistent heat stress will likely be experiencedby livestock. Conditions will be exacerbated with further temperatureincrease. Possible response strategies are also discussed in the paper.

87Comparison of two Models for Estimating the Probabilities of Tropical Storms and Hurricanes over and around Trinidad and Tobago Reynold J. Stone Department of Food Production, UWI Tropical cyclones (tropical storms and hurricanes) are among the mostdevastating natural disasters in the Caribbean region causing huge infrastruc-tural damage resulting in the loss of lives, humans and animals, and unspeak-able misery and suffering. Estimating the probabilities of occurrence of tropicalcyclones is an important step in assessing risk with a view towards mitigatingtheir adverse impacts. Two popular models were therefore assessed, namely,the Poisson and negative binomial models, for estimating the probabilities ofoccurrence of tropical cyclones within Trinidad and Tobago’s area of influ-ence (9ºN to 13ºN latitude; 59ºW to 63ºW longitude) using annual count dataobtained from the HURDAT2 database for the period 1851 to 2016. The dataseries was first tested for serial correlation using the autocorrelation functionof the standardised annual counts and the residuals of Poisson-based and neg-ative binomial-based regression analyses of annual counts versus time. Bothtests confirmed the absence of trends or cycles (p > 0.05) thereby indicatingthat the data series is random. The two models were subsequently fitted to thedata using the method of maximum likelihood and their goodness of fit as-sessed using the likelihood ratio test. Both models were found to be adequate(p > 0.05). However, the Poisson model provided a better fit (AIC = 252.5,BIC = 255.6) than the negative binomial model (AIC = 254.4, BIC = 260.6). It is thus concluded that there has been no increasing or decreas-ing trend in the frequency of tropical cyclones over and around Trini-dad and Tobago during the period 1851-2016. It is important to notethat this conclusion is consistent with that drawn for the entire North At-lantic Basin in the peer-reviewed literature. The Poisson model (μ =0.3434) is recommended for estimating the probabilities of occurrenceof tropical cyclones within Trinidad and Tobago’s area of influence.

88 Assessing the Potential Effects of Global Warming on Rainfall in Trinidad and Tobago using Correlation Analyses of Rainfall and Surface Air Temperature Data Reynold J. Stone Department of Food Production, UWI Rainfall and surface air temperature are two major factors that havea strong influence on agricultural production. Global warming is projectedto have significant impacts on these two weather variables thereby adverselyaffecting the conditions necessary for maximum agricultural production. Theexistence of strong statistically significant correlations could yield insightsinto the physical processes connecting the two variables as well as the potentialeffects of global warming on rainfall. This knowledge would be useful toproperly anticipate future local climate changes so that farming methodscould be adapted to maximise agricultural production. The correlation ofrainfall and surface air temperature in Trinidad (1946-2016) and Tobago(1973-2016) was therefore investigated at the annual, seasonal, and sub-seasonal time scales using the Pearson product-moment and Spearman rankcorrelation coefficients to determine the nature and strength of the relationshipbetween these two weather variables. No statistically significant correlationswere found between rainfall and surface air temperature thereby ruling outthe existence of any significant relationship between the two variables. Theseresults are in stark contrast to the statistically significant (P < 0.05) correlationsthat have been found in many other parts of the world. Consequently, inTrinidad and Tobago, hotter years, seasons, or sub-seasons are just as likely tobe wet as they are to be dry unlike the reported hotter and drier, and colder andwetter relationships found elsewhere. Moreover, the lack of any significantrelationship between rainfall and surface air temperature casts doubt onclimate model projections of decreasing (or increasing) rainfall in Trinidadand Tobago due to the higher surface air temperatures expected from globalwarming. Ergo, there is a need to reexamine how the physical processesconnecting rainfall and surface air temperature are represented in the computermodels used for long-term climate projections for Trinidad and Tobago.

89 Investigating the ‘Dry gets Drier and Wet gets Wetter’ Paradigm in Trinidad and Tobago Reynold J. Stone Department of Food Production, UWI The amount, timing and distribution of rainfall have far-reachinghydrologic, economic, societal, and environmental consequences thatdirectly impact water resources management, agriculture, forestry, tourism,sports, recreation, the construction industry, and ecological systems. In recenttimes, there have been numerous reports in the peer-reviewed literature thatthe hydrological cycle has intensified over the last several decades causedby global warming resulting in the so-called “dry gets drier and wet getswetter” (DGDWGW) paradigm. According to this paradigm, dry seasons andwet seasons become drier and wetter respectively leading to an increase inthe range between wet-season and dry-season rainfall as well as an increasein the frequency of droughts and floods. The validity of this paradigm inTrinidad and Tobago was investigated using the sample autocorrelationfunction and ordinary least squares regression to analyse two seasonal rainfalldata series (Piarco, Trinidad, 1946-2015; Crown Point, Tobago, 1971-2015).In Trinidad, it was found that the trends in dry-season and wet-season rainfallwere not statistically significant (P > 0.05). These results suggest that thedry season and wet seasons are not getting drier and wetter respectively.Similarly, the trend in the range between wet-season and dry-season rainfallwas not statistically insignificant (P > 0.05). In Tobago, however, there was astatistically significant (P < 0.05) increasing trend in the dry-season rainfall. Incontrast, the trend in the wet-season rainfall was not statistically significant (P>0.05). Interestingly, the trend in the range between wet-season and dry-seasonrainfall was found not to be statistically significant (P > 0.05). These resultsare all inconsistent with what is expected under the DGDWGW paradigm. It is therefore concluded that the DGDWGW paradigm is not valid inTrinidad and Tobago. This finding has practical implications for the planningand implementation of appropriate operational strategies in the rainfall-sensitive sectors of the country.

90Mitigation Priorities in theAgriculture Sector of Some Caribbean Nations Gregory Gouveia Department of Food Production, UWI Greenhouse gas emissions (GHGE) from the agriculture sector forthe period 1990-2011 were downloaded from the FAOSTAT website for theCaribbean region and other major geographical regions in the world. The datawas reviewed in a range of emission metrics including absolute emissionsin Gg and as emissions relative to human population, agricultural and totalland area, and in a separate analysis, emissions from rice cultivation wereevaluated relative to paddy production (a GHGE performance metric; WRI andWBCSD, 2014) for a few major rice producers in the Caribbean and comparedwith major producers globally. Twenty-four countries in the Caribbean,including Antigua/Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, BVI, CaymanIslands, Cuba, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Grenada, Guadeloupe,Guyana, Haiti, Jamaica, Martinique, Montserrat, Netherland Antilles, PuertoRico, St. Kitts/Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent/Grenadines, Suriname, Trinidadand USVI were selected in this study and the six largest and lowest emitterswere identified in each of four emission metrics: total emissions in CO2eq;kg CO2eq/capita; kg CO2eq/ha of agricultural land and; kg CO2eq/ha of totalcountry area. The mitigation priorities by eight countries that ranked as someof the highest emitters across all four emission metrics were then reviewedfrom their most recent National Communications (http://unfccc.int/national_reports/items/1408.php) submitted to the United Nations FrameworkConvention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and other sources in the caseof Guadeloupe (Colomb et al., 2014) and Puerto Rico (Gould et al., 2015). The Caribbean’s GHGE from the agriculture sector is relativelyvery small compared to other major regions in the world representing onlyabout 0.47% of the world average for agriculture over the period 1990-2011. Table 1 provides a ranking of Caribbean nations with respect to thefour GHG metrics calculated, with the larger, more populated nations,expectedly, having the highest absolute emissions. However, when emissionsare considered relative to human population, agricultural land area andtotal country area, some of the smaller nations ranked amongst the highestemitters. Montserrat ranked the highest on a per capita basis and based ontotal country area, with Suriname being the highest based on agriculturalland area. The lowest emitter based on all four GHG metrics was theCayman Islands. Of the eight nations ranked among the highest emittersbased on the four metrics used, only Guadeloupe, Guyana and Puerto Ricoprovided any substantial proposals to reduce GHGE in the agriculture sector.

91Emission from rice cultivation shows that among some of thelargest producers in the world, GHGE relative to human population,agricultural land area and production for the Caribbean nations are morecomparable. Relative to production, all three Caribbean nations hadmuch higher emissions than Brazil, China and India, and suggest theneed to improve on productivity to reduce these values. Conclusions are:• GHGE statistics vary greatly depending on the emission metric used andwhile absolute emissions are extremely low in the Caribbean, values arecomparable with even the largest, most populated regions/nations in theworld when GHGE are considered relative to human population, agricultureland area and total country area.• Of the eight countries selected at the second stage of analysis, onlyGuadeloupe, Guyana and Puerto Rico showed any evidence of seriouslyconsidering GHGE reduction.• Mitigation in Agriculture must not lead to a decline in production to reduceGHGE so priority should be on implementing mitigation strategies thatreduce GHGE relative to production (emission/production ratio) or some ofthe other performance-based metrics as there are limitations.• The emission/production ratio methodology needs to be tested in the region(and likewise some of the other performance-based metrics as well) at thelocal and national levels to determine its value in prioritizing mitigationin agriculture while simultaneously pursuing a path of food security andimproved climate change adaptability.Table 1. Ranking among Caribbean Countries in relation to a number of variables onemissions of GHG in CO2 eq.Emissions Emissions Emissions Emissions (kg/ha total area)(Gg) (kg/capita) (kg/ha agric area) Montserrat - 2036 Largest Barbados - 1364 Haiti - 1289Cuba - 10602 Montserrat - 3360 Suriname - 9357 DR - 1289 Cuba - 965DR - 6274 Guyana - 2132 Montserrat - 6785 Puerto Rico - 964Haiti - 3578 Suriname - 1647 Antigua - 4136 Cayman - 16 Bahamas - 20Guyana - 1573 Cuba - 960 Trinidad - 3805 Suriname - 47 Guyana - 73Jamaica - 917 Belize - 930 Puerto Rico - 3385 NA - 96 Belize - 101Puerto Rico - 855 DR - 727 Guadeloupe - 3087 LowestCayman - 0.43 Cayman - 10 Cayman - 158 NA - 7.6 NA - 41 Guyana - 920 BVI - 7.9 Bahamas - 92 NA - 958 SKN - 8.7 Grenada - 139 SKN - 1052 Grenada - 14 USVI - 175 BVI - 1070 USVI - 19 SVG and SKN - 193 Grenada - 1216

92 EXTENSION AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT

93 Preparedness of Extension Advisory Services to Support Women Involved in Agricultural Entrepreneurship: A Study in three Caribbean Islands Tessa Barry1, Wayne Ganpat1, Levi Gahman2 1Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension 2Department of Geography, UWI Agricultural Extension Services (AES) have been evolvingand can perform intermediating and facilitating roles among serviceproviders, farmers, researchers, policy makers and market actors. This study sought to determine the extent of consideration givenby AES of selected Caribbean islands to important factors in enhancing anenabling environment for women entrepreneurs. The study utilized a surveyinstrument adapted from the International Labour Organization (ILO) and theAfrican Development Bank (AfDB) to survey 52 frontline extension officersfrom St. Lucia, St. Vincent and Grenada. Respondents rated ten questions on a4-point scale. Some 30.8% indicated AES considered utilizing a demographicprofile of women entrepreneurs for training purposes to a medium extent;38% believed AES considered playing a role in entrepreneurial developmentfor women to a medium extent; while 30.8% indicated to limited extent.Fifty-percent of the respondents believed providing a dedicated businesssupport system for women entrepreneurs is not considered by AES. Mostof the respondents stated that AES considered providing technical resourcepersonnel in entrepreneurial development to a medium extent 38.5% or toa limited extent 36.5%. Some 44.2% believed that AES considered havingspecialist training in agri-entrepreneurship development to a limitedextent, while 46.2% stated that AES considered specifically targetingwomen entrepreneurs to a limited extent. Most (32.7%) indicated limitedconsideration was given to development training in gender analysis forstaff. Limited consideration (30.8%) or no consideration (21.2%) wasgiven to differences that exists in the experiences of men and womenin accessing resources to start a business. Some 53.8% highlightedthey never had training in entrepreneurship or business development. The recommendations included: (i) Gender sensitive businesstraining opportunities for extension staff, (ii) Capacity building programmesto mobilize and strengthen existing women’s entrepreneurship groups andassociations, (iii) A dedicated business support system and training for womenagri-entrepreneurs and (iv) Ongoing workshops and seminars in businessdevelopment and training for extension staff in gender analysis planning.

94 Characterizing Farmers Based on their Willingness to Pay for Agricultural Extension Services in Trinidad Asisha Patterson and Wayne Ganpat Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, UWI Cash-strapped governments in the region are finding it increasinglydifficult to provide key agricultural services to farmers. One such service thatis experiencing diminished attention is agricultural extension; fewer resourcesare being provided. While extension is entirely state-funded in the Caribbean,worldwide, governments have embraced other approaches to extensiondelivery such as privatization of extension, commodity based advisorysystems and fee for service extension, among other cost-recovery methods. This study sought to explore whether Trinidad farmers were willingto pay for extension services, to characterize those willing to pay and those notwilling to pay, as well as the services for which payment may be considered. A convenience sample of 90 crop-based farmers was surveyed usinga structured survey instrument and multiple discriminant analysis was used toidentify farmers’ characteristics; those willing to pay and those who were not. Findings showed that45% of farmers sampled were willing to pay someamount for extension services. Farmers were willing to pay for services suchas pest and disease diagnosis, postharvest storage, marketing, subsidy adviceand technical assistance aimed at increasing production. Based on the deriveddiscriminant function coefficients, those who were willing to pay were thosewith higher income levels, who had greater access to information and weremore satisfied with the time spent on the farm by the extension officer. Those notwilling to pay were farmers who were not owners of the land that they farmedon, were part-time farmers and possessed a smaller acreage of land. Results suggested some scope for government to vigorously pursuepayment for some extension services. A dedicated extension service forcommercially – oriented farmers could be the entry point. Similar studies in other Caribbean islands could inform the reformof Agricultural Extension Services particularly to reduce the financial burdenof Governments.Source: Presented at the 53rd Annual Caribbean Food Crops Society Conference,San Juan, Puerto Rico, August 2017

95 Factors affecting Profitability of Small Scale Farming In Southern Trinidad and Tobago Hazel Patterson-Andrews and Carlisle Pemberton Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, UWI This study examined several possible factors determining theprofitability of small scale crop farmers in Trinidad and Tobago. Industrial/urbaninfluence on profit efficiency was tested by the creation of a special variable(IFOUR). This variable along with farming and socio-economic variableswere incorporated into a translog augmented stochastic profit frontier. Thesignificance of coefficients was tested as well as the calculation of the elasticityof profit with respect to the wage rate. The study found a significant negativeimpact of wage rates on profitability. Also, the age of the farmer negativelyaffected profitability, while the number of years farming had a positiveeffect. This latter variable also significantly influenced both the one-sidederror and idiosyncratic error terms. However, IFOUR measuring industrial/urban influence did not significantly affect the profitability. The farmers had amean profit efficiency of 48.4%, which was low in international comparisons. The results of this study suggests that education and skill acquisitionprogrammes in agriculture should be organized in the study area, especiallyfor young people to become involved in agriculture, to enable them tomaximize the use of modern technology to increase profit levels in cropfarming in the study area. The age of the farmer significantly affectedprofitability with increasing age reducing profitability. Since the averageage of farmers in the study was 53.36 years, policy measures shouldbe implemented geared at increasing the level of youths entering theagricultural field and specifically crop production in Trinidad and Tobago.Source: International Journal of Food and Agricultural Economics Vol. 2 No. 32014 pp. 1-18

96Characterising Members of a Small Community Willing to Support an Integrated Micro-Watershed Management Plan Carlisle Pemberton, Simone Phillip and Hazel Patterson-Andrews Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, UWI This research sought to devise and test a methodology to characterizethe members of a small community who were likely to support activitiesassociated with the implementation of an integrated micro-watershedmanagement plan (IMWMP). It was proposed that the supporting memberswould perceive that they would receive ecological benefits which wouldincrease their utility. Thus a methodology was devised and tested to identifyand characterize these individuals. The proposed methodology was tested ina micro-watershed in the Caribbean island of Trinidad. Contingent valuationwas used to identify the supporting individuals by their willingness to pay(WTP) to improve the ecosystem by contributing to a fund to undertakerestorative activities. A Heckman selection model was then used to determinethe characteristics of these individuals. These were younger members ofthe small community, male, individuals with higher levels of income andeducation, and who were not the heads of the households. Age was the onlyfactor found to determine the level of WTP, with the younger villagers statinghigher levels of WTP. The implementation of an IMWMP requires the support and activeparticipation of community residents since it is through the actions ofstakeholders such as villagers and farmers that important water and land usedevelopment take place. This study then in devising and demonstrating aprocedure for the a priori characterization of supporting sub-groups is a usefulone for policy makers and implementers, since such characterization can allowthe targeting of those individuals for cooperation and special assistance, whichwould increase the likelihood of success of the implementation of an IMWMP.Source: Tropical Agriculture Volume 94, Number 1, 2017. Pp. 59-73

97Innovativeness and Success Among Vegetable Farmers in Trinidad, West Indies Sarojini Ragbir, Wayne G. Ganpat and Lendel K. NarineDepartment of Agricultural Economics and Extension, UWI This study investigated the innovativeness among vegetable farmersas it contributed to successful farming in Trinidad. Two hundred farmers fromthe main vegetable growing areas in Trinidad were surveyed. Personal, farmand farmer-related factors were assessed and used to examine relationshipwith innovativeness, operationalized in this study as the extent of sustainabletechnology use, the extent of adoption of modern marketing practices and theextent of use of modern information sources. Statistical techniques includeddescriptive and ANOVA. The main findings were that innovativeness isrelated to: farmers’ education level, number of training courses attended, thetype of crops produced, the number of parcels of land farmed, the amount ofhired labour, the business orientation of farmers, records keeping behavior(p<.01 level); whether the operator is a full time or part time operator (p<.01level); and age, the ownership status of land, and type of training pursued(p<.05 level). The study concluded that to ensure greater success in farming,and subsequent improved rural development, improved education/training offarmers as well as redesigned policies for Extension need to be put in place.Source: Tropical Agriculture Volume 91, Number 1, 2014. Pp. 47-57