The Cambridge Guide to Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages

2 9 0 Index SLA (second language social psychology, discursive 21, speaking rights, in oral acquisition) 37, 87-92, 216, 163 interaction 16 217 social strategies, in language special purpose syllabus 152 and assessment research 141 learning 168-9 specific purposes, English for in classroom settings 87 comprehensible input social stratification, of linguistic see ESP variables 102 speech hypothesis 9, 89-90, 162, 219 socialisation, into English- characteristics of 16-17, 18, comprehensible output medium literacy practices 19 hypothesis 90 by schooling 23 contrastive analysis (CA) comprehension of 81 hypothesis 87-9 societal bilingualism 93, 95 created on-line 49 critical period in 83 language contact effects 96 grammar of 38, 70 equals LI acquisition implicit reference in 16 hypothesis 88-9 Society for Intercultural and inference from context 45 filtering through LI 62 Education, Training and on-line processing 16-17 and grammatical competence Research (SIETAR) 202 pause units of 10 215 roles in 49 grammatical development in socio-affective strategies, and situation of utterance 49 36-7 listening 11 speech acts 15, 104-5, 116, 202, listening in 8-9 morpheme order studies 88-9 sociocognitive approach 31, 226 226 in naturalistic contexts 87 see also expressive approach; speech community 100, 226 and negotiation of meaning process writing; product speech enhancement 13, 64 123 writing speech melody see intonation pedagogy, and pronunciation speech organs 61 61-2 sociocultural theory 158, 163, speech processing 9-10, 226 process-oriented research 176 89-90 constraints 89, 92 product-oriented research and grammar 38 speech production, processes in 88-9 sociolinguistic competence 214 self-monitoring 83 sociolinguistic marker 104, 226 16,82 stages in 88 sociolinguistics 50-1, 100-6, speech rate 56 and task-based syllabus 153 teachability hypothesis 89, 91 203 effect on comprehension 10 turn-taking by learners 122 language variation 101-2, 104 speech recognition 9-10, 13, 64, UG inspired 37 languages in contact 103-4, slang 104 110,142,226 slavery 105 105 speech synthesis, computerised slips of the tongue 82, 85, 226 linguistic relativity 103, 104-5 SL-Lists 109 sociology of language 8, 50-1 13,64 small group writing conferences sociopragmatic failure 103, 226 speech technology, and oral 30 see also pragmalinguistic social class language research 109 and cognitive deficit theory failure spell-checking, in word 102 software 107 in sociolinguistic research 100, processing 111 102 synchronous 208 spoken language 7-8, 215 social constructivism 163 sound contrasts 59 social context, and functional soundfiles,electronic 64 discourse analysis of 49 aspects of language 15 sounds grammar for 40 social distance theory 101, 106 properties of 9 social domain, and language achievability of foreign socially oriented model of 49 awareness 162 language 60 see also listening; speech social identity 100, 106, 226 Spoonerisms 82, 83 social interaction, place of analysis in words or texts 63 Sprachbund 96 grammar in 38 comparison of LI and L2 stakeholders 128, 195-7, 226 social interaction theory, and internal and external 195 classroom interaction 124 systems 63 motives and interests of social learning 167 for meaning contrasts 62 social perception 100 sound-spelling relationships 60 195-6 sound-symbol relations in text needs of 198 and purposes of assessment 23 South African English 3 138 Spanish 3, 9 Standard American English 101 speak-aloud protocols 30 standard dialect 101 speaker's attitude, grammar standards choice and 38 assessment in relation to see speaker's competence 35 criterion-referenced speaking 14-20 assessment in CALL 110 and Englishes 3-4 as a central medium for establishing 194, 198-9 see also national standards learning 15 compensatory strategies 168 as a skill in its own right 15

Index 291 stereotypes 101, 202 style shifting 100, 104 systemic approach, to ethnocentric 85 styles educational change 78 gender 102 classroom and natural systemic functional linguistics story-telling 50, 184 communicative 204, 214 36, 134 cultural differences 105, 184, 203 interactional 204 audience 187, 191 intermingling of written and and genre 186, 187, 189 strategic adjustments 9 taboo topics 68 strategies spoken 53 taking and maintaining the floor stylistics 181,226 in CALL 111-12 subject knowledge, in ESP 132 104, 105 of conversational interaction subject matter, and teaching talk 50 53 method 76 at home compared with talk see also language learning subject positions, multiple 105 at school 121 submersion model 96, 226 strategies subordinative bilingualism 97 tape-recording 14, 15, 117 strategy, influences on choice of substitution 52 tapestry approach, to language subtractive bilingualism 95, 226 170-1 successive bilingualism 94, 226 learning 167 strategy chain 166 target language 53, 59, 227 strategy diaries 169 see also SLA (second strategy instruction 12, 32, language acquisition) articulatory settings of 61 gap 37 171-2,214 Suggestopedia 14 for instruction in listening 12 conducting 171 summary 52 target situation 128, 133, 227 evaluation 171 summative assessment 137 task-based approaches 15, 64, formats for 171 summative evaluation 146, 226 in L2 writing 30 supervisors 114, 128, 129 67 research 170 supportive learning 50 task-based language teaching Strategy Inventory for suprasegmentals 59, 61, 227 64,90,91,92,214-15 Language Learning (SILL) see also pitch integration with form-focused 169, 170 surface forms 45 strategy questionnaires 169 surveys, on-line 211 instruction 91 strategy use SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, task-based learning (TBL) 107, assessing 169, 171 and language proficiency opportunities and threats) 173-9 169-70 analysis 196 acceptability of 178 stratificational grammar 34 syllable-timed languages 9, 61 and CLT 174-5, 214 stress 9, 10, 56, 60, 226 syllabus 127, 227 task-based syllabus 153, 154, and unstress 56, 59 characteristics of main types see also suprasegmentals 155 Fig. 22.1 155,156,158,176-7,227 stress-timed languages 9, 61 defined 151 task conditions, longitudinal structural linguistics 138 evaluation for effectiveness structuralism 34, 36, 39, 57, 85 127 studies on effects of 19 structure, and function 164 multi-dimensional 157, 158 task design 177 structured observation, and oral language 18, 19 task difficulty 139 assessment of achievement requirements of a 151 task-planning report cycle 178 142 spiralling the 39 task recycling, and oral student-centred approaches, variations in teacher roles in classroom-based interpretations of a 154 language development 17, evaluation 147 see also task-based syllabus 18 student-computer interaction, in syllabus design 8, 92, 151-9 task repetition, and oral CALL 50 needs-based 2-3 language development 17 student profile questionnaires principles of 151-2 task sequencing 175, 177 59 and SLA research 91 task types 19, 177 students trends in 158 collaborative and competitive analysis of their own texts 52 symbol, and referent 80 19 interaction in group work 50 synchronous computer- convergent and divergent 19 perspectives 128 mediated communication effect on L2 speech 17 preferences in writing 30 207, 227 learner interaction and progress 199 synonyms 52, 168 negotiation of meaning 91, study behaviours, in the Anglo syntactic analysis 48 120,178 tradition 127 syntax 34, 37, 227 and learners' participation study skills 127 and associative learning 122-3 materials on 129 principles 39 longitudinal studies on effects stuttering 83 effects on comprehension 81 of 19 and strategy use 171 in task-based syllabus design 153 task variables, personality and interaction 91

2 9 2 Index tasks 91, 173, 227 to knowledge construction development of own material in CALL 111-12 73-4, 78 129 closed 123, 176 gap with teacher learning 73 in communicative assessments in-service 67, 78 direct influence 115 139 language awareness in 164 indirect influence 115 constraints on 178 on-the-job initiation 73 integration of decontextualised 176 over time 79 differences in first and autobiographies into course subsequent performances postgraduate programmes 76 work 77 178 pre-service 73, 78, 114 and materials development 67 impact on processing skills 19 processes in 72-3, 75 native speaker 4 information exchange 90, 173, and pronunciation pedagogy non-native speakers 4 215 novice and expert 79 information gap 36, 63, 116, 65 observation by novice teacher 177 research-driven 73 in L2 writing 32, 33 role of input in strategies or by colleagues 114 narrative 176 professional life spans 79 nature and content 176 75-7 professional practice and open 123 role of institutional context 78 problem solving 177 role of prior knowledge discourse analysis 53 reasoning gap 177 professionalism 216-17 role allocation within 178 before formal 77-8 relicensure courses 78 time for planning 176 second language 72-9 roles re technology 112-13 two-way 89-90, 123, 176 understanding teaching as selection of syllabus 156 use as 'blind' pedagogy 19 as speech coaches 64 see also activities research basis for 74-5 support for assessment 141 see also teacher development; use of classroom observation taster courses, in foreign teacher training 114 languages 160 teacher educators, observation see also professional teachability hypothesis, in of pre-service teachers 114 development second language teacher engagement, in teaching acquisition 89, 91 teachability-learnability scale 64 collaborative curriculum/ computer-enhanced 112 teacher action research see programme evaluation 146, impact of testing on 139 147 interface with assessment 142 action research teacher feedback 153 of listening 11-12, 13 teacher assessment, and teacher teacher knowledge 123 professionalisation 73 teacher-learners 72, 73-4, 75 responsibilities 199 response 31 teacher modelling 153 standards 199 teacher awareness, of L2 teacher perspectives, in teacher Teaching of English as a learning 125 education 75 Foreign Language see teacher behaviour teacher-pupil interaction TEFL Teaching of English as a Second interaction analysis of 114 exchanges 50 in L2 classroom research 123 IRF sequence model 50 Language see TESL teacher cognition 75 moves 50 Teaching English to Speakers of pre-active and interactive transactions 50 Other Languages see decisions 75 teacher questions 120, 121, 122 TESOL and role of the school 78 closed 122 teaching input 53, 64 teacher competence, kinds of 62 display or pseudo 122 teaching language through teacher decision-making 123 open 122 literature, evaluation and teacher-developed tasks, and referential or genuine 122 testing of 183 teaching of literature, defining assessment of achievement teacher responses 181-2 142 and teacher assessment 31 teaching method teacher development 72, 75, 76, to writing 30 and integration of four skills 54 and subject matter 76 162-3 teacher speech, modified 121 teaching team, management of compared with teacher teacher study group 76 199 teacher training 72, 75, 76 TEAP (Test of English for training 76-7 Fig. 10.1 Academic Purposes) 128, teacher-driven evaluation 149 activities 217 129 teacher education 72, 75 compared with teacher technology 14, 214 as an environment 108 activities 217 development 76-7 Fig. 10.1 in L2 writing 32 and classroom interaction 124 strategies 79 listening 13 content 72, 73, 75 teacher workshops 78 and teachers 112-13 debates in 74 teachers from knowledge transmission attrition rates among new 78 conceptions of grammar 40 and development of bilingual competencies 97-8

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2 9 4 Index variation studies 94, 101-2 Wernicke's aphasia 84 world Englishes 3 videotape observation 115, 116, while-reading tasks 26 world language, English as a see whilst-use evaluation see 117,204 EWL virtual reality 32, 111 -12 materials evaluation World Wide Web 207, 208 visual perception, universals in whole class work, and learners' writer-based writing 29, 225 writing 28-33 human 203 participation 122 vocabulary 42-7, 215 whole language curriculum 'best' 180-1 in CALL 111 acquisition 42-3, 44-5 158 in CALL 111 whole language movement 160, compensatory strategies 168 computer-driven descriptions created off-line 49 164 cross-genre 30 of 42 whole-word methods 22, 227 cultural differences in 30 development and inferential current traditional approach see also phonics strategies 45 women to 29 and lexical syllabus 156 genre-based approach to tests for 139 speech stereotypes 102 see also explicit vocabulary use of hedges 102 teaching 187 use of tag questions 101-2 on-line 209-10 learning word families 47 purpose of 29 vocational English 133 word frequency 46, 47 and rhetorical structure voice quality 56, 227 word games 163 word lists 42, 43 analysis 52 see also suprasegmentals word patterns 45-6 and strategy instruction 170 voice wave forms 110 word processing 32 student 189 voicing 227 teacher-centred approaches to vowel 227 and composition 108-9, 111 word recognition 9-10 29 wait time, in L2 production 85, see also composition;; reader- 124 and reading comprehension 27 based writing; writer-based washback 139 writing web pages 112 word units 47 writing conferences 148 web projects 112 words writing down responses, in L2 web search activities 71 learning 124 websites 71, 107 graphological and phonetic writing modes 228 shapes 45 writing system, English 27 of poets and fiction writers written language 111 memory for real or invented analysis of 49 85 as resource material 112 international varieties of the 3 teachers' 111 phonic and morphological and spoken language in US educational 71 analysis of 25 well-formedness 48 discourse analysis 53 processing at different levels 42-3 in relation 45, 47