techniques-in-language-teaching

dialogue repetition 36–7, 46, 73 dialoguing (Participatory Approach technique) 177 dictation exercises 28, 33, 136 dictogloss exercises 136, 142 digital portfolios 211 Direct Method 25–34, 219 discourse level work 116–17, 120, 124, 126, 136, 138–9 display questions 122–3 distance education 211–12, 225 distributed leadership 190 doubting game 6–8 dramatization and fantasy as aids to learning 74, 77, 82 drills: backward build-up (expansion) drills 36, 42, 47 chain drills 37, 47, 123 defined as focus on forms 151 as key part of Audio-Lingual method 45 repetition drill technique 37, 47 substitution drills 37–9, 43, 45, 47 transformation drills 39, 48, 123 Echevarria, J. 141 Eckerth, J. 160 Edelsky, C. 141 Edge, J. 226 Elbow, P. 7 electronic chatting 212 electronic text corpora 202, 204–5, 212–13 Ellis, R. x, 150, 159, 160, 209, 220, 232 e-mail in language learning 200–1 emergentism 209 empowerment, language learning as 175, 176, 178, 221 endangered languages 165, 212

engineer, teacher as 62 English, politics of teaching/learning 165–70 enjoyment and fun: Desuggestopedia 74 Total Physical Response method 109, 110 environment (classroom), importance of in Desuggestopedia 72, 75, 81 e-pen pals 203, 212 error correction: summary 226 Audio-Lingual method 36, 42, 46 backward build-up (expansion) drills 36, 42, 47 Communicative Language Teaching 117, 120, 122 Content-based Instruction 140 focus on form 157 gentle, in Desuggestopedia 78, 80 Grammar-Translation method 14, 18, 20 importance of errors in learning process 60, 64–5 inevitable in Cognitive Code Approach 51 nonthreatening, in Community Language Learning 93, 97 not a main focus when using online tools 210 peer correction (students helping each other) 59, 60, 63, 66 prevention of errors 42, 46 recasts 97, 151, 155, 156, 157 scaffolding 138, 139 self-correction 27, 29, 32, 65, 66, 99, 177 Silent Way 56–7, 60, 64–5 students developing ‘inner criteria’ 59, 60, 65 Task-based Language Teaching 155 tolerated during fluency-based activities 125 Total Physical Response method 108, 111 European Language Portfolio 211 evaluation: and analytic syllabi 160 fluency 125

integrative tests 97, 125 self-evaluation 97, 175, 177 and standards 224 using technology 210 expansion (backward build-up) drills 36, 42, 47 Facebook 202, 203, 204, 213 facilitator, teacher as 121, 122, 123 Fairclough, N. 167 Fanselow, J. 230 fantasy and dramatization as aids to learning 74, 77, 82 feedback (from students to teachers): Community Language Learning 88, 90, 93, 96 Participatory Approach 174 Silent Way 61, 67 feedback (from teachers on students’ work), see also error correction Communicative Language Teaching 128 Content-based Instruction 143 Task-based Language Teaching 158 Fidel charts 57, 62, 67 fill-in-the-blanks exercises, see also substitution drills Audio-Lingual method 48 Content-based Instruction 135 Direct Method 27, 29, 32 Grammar-Translation method 16, 21 fine arts, use of 17, 20, 22, 28, 71, 73, 76, 80, 225 ‘five minds’ 194 Flores, B. 141 focused tasks 159 focus on form 151, 157, 175, 176, 220 focus on forms 151, 160 form/meaning relationships in Direct Method 29, 30 forms versus functions 120, 122, 124

Freeman, D. xi, xiii, 221, 231, 233 Freire, P. 170, 177 Fried-Booth, D. 157 Fries, C. 35 fun and enjoyment: Desuggestopedia 74 Total Physical Response 109, 110 functions, language in the Communicative Approach 115 games: Audio-Lingual method 41, 48 Communicative Language Teaching 117–18, 120, 127 Content-based Instruction 136 Desuggestopedia 74–5 Garcia, O. 221 Gardner, H. 191, 194 Gass, S. 150 Gatbonton, E. ix Gateva, E. 71 Gattegno, C. 6, 52, 62, 71, 232 Gee, J. 168 generative words 170–1 gestures/actions/demonstrations (teachers’): Desuggestopedia 72–3 Direct Method 37 as method preferred to explanation or translation 29, 30 Silent Way 53, 58, 59, 63, 66 globalization 221 global language, English as 165, 170 Goffney, I. 139 Gomes de Matos, F. 221 Grabe, W. 185 Graddol, D. 165

‘grammaring’ 201 Grammar-Translation method 13–23, 219 grammatical patterns in Audio-Lingual method 35–50 grammatical rules: deductive approaches 15–16, 18, 19, 21 inductive approaches 29, 30, 40, 43 graphic organizers 136–7, 139, 142–3 group work: cooperative learning 186–90 small group tasks 99–100, 120, 123 habit formation, language learning as 42, 44, 51 habits of mind (five minds) 194 Halliday, M.A.K. 115 Hanks, J. 228, 229, 230 Hatch, E. 191 Hawkins, M. x, 178 Heift, T. 200n hidden curriculum 169 Hinkel, E. xii Holliday, A. 228 Howatt, A.P.R. 131 Human ComputerTM 89–90, 93, 99 Hymes, D. 115 i+1 level of proficiency 103 identity: and the politics of language 165, 167–8, 221 students choosing new 72, 76, 80, 81 idioms 16, 21 immersion programs 133 imperatives, in Total Physical Response method 105–7, 108, 110, 111–12 indirect positive suggestions 76, 80, 81

infantilization 78 information gaps 122–3, 127, 128, 158 initiative, student: Desuggestopedia 79 ‘Heather’ example 2–3 lack of in Grammar-Translation approaches 19 inner criteria, developing 59, 62, 65 input: comprehensible input and the Natural Approach 103 input control 225 input enhancement 150 input flooding 150 input-providing tasks 160 quantity of exposure to 104 intelligences, multiple 191–4 interaction, student–student: Audio-Lingual method 45 Collaborative Learning 186–90, 220 Communicative Language Teaching 123 Cooperative Learning 186–90, 220 Direct Method 31 lack of in Grammar-Translation approaches 19 small group tasks 99–100, 120, 123 students helping each other 59, 60, 63, 93 Task-based Language Teaching 155, 156 via online means 209 internet 199, see also electronic chatting; social networking sites Jacobs, G. 186 Jenkins, J. 167 Johnson, K. x, 122 Kachru, B. 166

Katz, A. xii Kern, R. 200, 201 Klapper, J. 115 Kleifgen, J. 221 Kramsch, C. 201, 221n, 225 Krashen, S. 103 Kumaravadivelu, B. xiii, 131 Kuo, I-C. 167 ‘language across the curriculum’ 132 language counselors, teachers as 85, 94 Language Experience Approach 142, 143 Language Teaching Research x Larsen-Freeman, D. xiii, xiv, xv, 2, 3, 6, 7, 191, 201, 209, 220, 221, 225, 227, 229, 230, 231–2, 233 Lave, J. xii Lazear, D. 191n Learnables, The 104 learner roles, summary 225 learning counselors, teachers as 92 learning, definition of 232 learning strategy training 181–6, 220 learning styles, individual 191–4 learning to teach 231–2 Levin, J. 191 Lewis, M. 104 Lexical Approach 104 Li, D. 220 lingua franca, English as 166–7 linguistics, Audio-Lingual method based on 35 ‘listen-and-do’ tasks 155, 160 listening: Comprehension Approach 103

Direct Method 33 Grammar-Translation method 18 literacies (concept of) 168 literature, foreign: importance of 13, 17, 19 using passages for teaching 13–14, 20–1 Littlewood, W. 122 Long, M. xii, xiii, 150, 151, 153, 157, 191 Lortie, D. ix, xi Loschky, L. 150, 159 Lozanov. G. 71 Luke, A. 168 managers of learning, teachers as 230–1 maps, lesson using 25–8 Marsh, D. 133 McCarthy, M. 213 McNamara, T. 227 meaning, focus on 157, 175 meaning, negotiation of 121, 127, 207 meaningful: language 61, 138, 140, 175, 176, 177, 201, 229 tasks 149, 156, 159 memorization: Audio-Lingual method 35, 46 Grammar-Translation method 18, 19, 22 mental exercise, language learning as 13, 18, 19 metacognitive learning strategies 186 ‘method’, definition of term xvi, 1 methodological change 219–21 methodological innovation 181 methods fatigue 4 methods, study of xi–xii

‘Michigan Method’, see Audio-Lingual method Miller. A. 71n minimal pair exercises 41, 48 mobile phone-based applications 213 modelling: Audio-Lingual method 37, 44 not used in Silent Way 59 Task-based Language Teaching 155 think-aloud technique 182 Total Physical Response method 109, 110 Mohan, B. 133 Morrow, K. 122, 127 motivation, student: Content-based Instruction 138, 140 Participatory Approach 174 and purposeful communication 123–4 student autonomy 59, 62, 185, 200, 209 Task-based Language Teaching 156–7 and working with technology 206 Mullock, B. ix multicompetence 169 multilingualism 5 multiple intelligences 191–4 multiple-slot substitution drills 38–9, 47 Murphy, D. 150 Murray, D. x music, use of 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 82 native language use in the classroom: summary 5, 225 Audio-Lingual method 35, 42, 46 Communicative Language Teaching 125 Community Language Learning 86, 88, 97

in conjunction with technology 207, 210 Content-based Instruction 140 Desuggestopedia 72, 80 Direct Method 5, 25, 29 Grammar-Translation method 5, 14, 20 Silent Way 57, 59, 64 Total Physical Response method 105, 110 native speakers as teachers 169 Natural Approach 103, 220 ‘natural order’ of language acquisition 45, see also child language acquisition negotiation of meaning 121, 127, 207 newspaper articles, see realia, pictures and objects, use of non-native speakers as teachers 169 nonverbal behavior, starting with 107, 109, see also gestures/actions/demonstrations (teachers’) Norton, B. 178, 221 novelty 77, 93, 106, 108 Nunan, D. x, 132, 230 O’Malley, M. 182n, 186 opinion-gap tasks 158–9 orchestra leader, teacher as 43, 44 Ortega, L. 221 output-promoting tasks 160 ‘overlearning’ 43, 44 Palmer, P. 228 Paradowski, M. 5 paragraph writing exercises 33 Participatory Approach 170–80, 221 pattern practice 43, see also drills peer correction (students helping each other) 59, 60, 63, 66 Pennycook, A. xii, xiv

peripheral learning 75, 79, 81 Phillipson, R. 170 pictures, see also realia, pictures and objects, use of Audio-Lingual method 43 Communicative Language Teaching 117 different inferences from using 3–4 Direct Method 25–8 The Learnables 104 Participatory Approach 172 picture strip stories 118, 127 Pitzl, M-L. 166 pluralism (of method choice) 229 plurilingualism 5, 169, 221 podcasts 213 politics of language 165–70, 178, 221 ‘positive interdependence’ 189 positive reinforcement/praise: Audio-Lingual method 43 cooperative learning 187 not used in Silent Way 60, 64 posters and wallcharts: Desuggestopedia 72 sound–color charts 52–8, 62, 65 PowerPoint presentations 212 Prabhu, N.S. ix, xi, xii, 4, 151, 157, 158, 159, 227, 228, 229, 230 predictions, exercises involving 116–19, 184 principled eclecticism 229 prior knowledge, using as starting point: Community Language Learning 92 Content-based Instruction 138 in learning strategy training 185 Silent Way 58, 59, 61 problem posing 171, 174, 175–6, 177

process writing 143 project work 157–8 pronunciation: Direct Method 27, 29 Grammar-Translation method 18, 20 minimal pair exercises 41, 48 Silent Way 52–8, 60, 62 sound–color chart 52–8, 62, 65 props and objects, use of 74, 77, see also realia, pictures and objects, use of proverbs, used to teach cultural issues 28, 30 psychology: Audio-Lingual method based on 35 psychological barriers to learning 71, 76, 78 purposeful communication, see Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) question-and-answer exercises, see also drills Audio-Lingual method 39, 48 Desuggestopedia 78 Direct Method 26–7 Grammar-Translation method 14 Rajagopalan, K. xii, 4 Rardin, J. 95 reading aloud 25–6, 32 reading comprehension questions 21 realia, pictures and objects, use of, see also pictures Audio-Lingual method 42 Communicative Language Teaching 126 Content-based Instruction 139 Desuggestopedia 74, 77 Direct Method 25–8 reasoning-gap tasks 159 recasts 97, 151, 155

receptive phase 79 Reeder, K. 216 reflection: reflective listening 99 student 92, 95, 99 teacher xi relativism 228 repetition: input flooding 150 lack of in Silent Way 61, 62, 77 necessity of in Audio-Lingual method 42 repetition drill technique 37, 47 Richards, J. x, 224, 233 Riggenbach, H. 150 right brain hemisphere, addressing 107 Rinpoche, S. 7 rods, as tool in Silent Way 54–7, 66 role-playing: Communicative Language Teaching 118–19, 121, 127–8 Desuggestopedia 82 Rubin, J. 181 rule formation, language learning as 51 Samuda, V. 150, 151 Savignon, S. xi, 115 scaffolding 138, 139 Schleppegrell, M. 139 Schulze, M. 200n ‘second language’, non-use of term 13 Seidlhofer, B. 166 self-correction 27, 29, 32, 65, 66, 99, 177 self-evaluation 97, 175, 177 self-expression, language for 61–2

self-reliance 62 Sheen, R. 150 Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol (SIOP) 141 sheltered-language instruction 141 Sherris, A. 134 Short, D. 141 Shulman, L. xi silence, as a tool 59, 60, 63, 66 Silent Way 6, 51–69, 220 Sinclair, J. 213 single-slot substitution drills 37, 47 Skehan, P. 132, 157 skim reading 183–4 Skinner, B. 35 Skype 212 sleep, learning during 63, 77, 79 Snow, M.A. 131, 132 social/affective learning strategies 186 social context of language: Audio-Lingual method 42 Communicative Language Teaching 115–30 Community Language Learning 85–102 via technology 200 Vygotskian principles 142 social networking sites 201–2, 203, 213–14 social skills, teaching 186–90 songs, use of 74, 78 sound-color charts 52–8, 62, 65 speaking: coming after listening 103 in Grammar-Translation method 18 primacy of speech in Audio-Lingual Method 44 primacy of speech in Direct Method 28, 29, 31

speaking when ready 110, 112 specific purposes, language for 132, see also Content-based Instruction standards, calls for more 224, 228 Stevick, E. 2, 3, 226 Stoller, F. 185 student–student interaction: Audio-Lingual method 45 Collaborative Learning 186–90, 220 Communicative Language Teaching 123 Cooperative Learning 186–90, 220 Direct Method 31 lack of in Grammar-Translation approaches 19 small group tasks 99–100, 120, 123 students helping each other 59, 60, 63, 93 Task-based Language Teaching 155, 156 via online means 209 subconscious plane, accessing 77 substitution drills 37–9, 43, 45, 47 suggestion in teaching, see Desuggestopedia suprasentential (discourse) level work 116–17, 120, 124, 126, 136 Swain, M. 124 Swan, M. 150 syllabi, analytic 149, 160, 177, 224 ‘syllabus’ created by students 93 ‘syllabus types’, approaches seen as 131, 150 synthetic syllabi 149 ‘target language’, definition of term xvi, 13 target language used as vehicle for classroom communication 120, see also native language use in the classroom Task-based Language Teaching 149–63 ‘task’, definition of 131 teacher learning x–xi

teacher preparation 140–1, 224 teacher, role of: summary 225 co-communicator 122, 123 engineer 62 facilitator 121, 122, 123 language counselor 85, 94 learning counselor 92 manager of learning 230–1 orchestra leader 43, 44 partner with student 30 technician 62 ‘traditional’ teacher role 19 teachers, native/non-native speakers as teachers 169 teaching, subordinate to learning 52 team teaching 141 technology, use of 199–218, 220 Terrell, T. 103 text messaging 213 think-aloud technique 182 Thorne, S. 200, 201 thought-in-action links 1–2 top-down approaches, defined 141–2 topics, focus on instead of linguistic structures 30 Total Physical Response method 103–14, 220 transformation drills 39, 48, 123 translation: Community Language Learning 5, 86, 88, 92, 94, 97 Desuggestopedia 73, 74, 76 as goal, see Grammar-Translation method not allowed in Direct Method 25 not used in Silent Way 60 trust, students and teachers’ 78, 96 Tudor, I. x Twitter 213

unfocused tasks 159 Ur, P. 167 van Lier, L. 216, 231 varieties of English 166 virtual communities 200 vocabulary: cognates 15, 21 Direct Method 31 as emphasis for Desuggestopedia 80 Grammar-Translation method 14–15, 21 idioms 16, 21 Vygotsky, L. 142, 200 Wajnryb, R. 142 Walker, R. 167 wallcharts and posters: Desuggestopedia 72 sound–color charts 52–8, 62, 65 Wallerstein, N. 171 Wenden, A. 182 Wenger, E. xii Wesche, M. 132, 141 Whole Language approach (WL) 141–2 whole-person learning 85, 91, 94 Widdowson, H.G. xiii, xiv, 115, 126n, 166, 225 wikis 202, 203, 206, 214–15 Wilkins, D. 115, 149 Willis, J. 151 Winitz, H. 104 Wisniewska, I. 150 Woods, D. xi

word charts 66 words in sentences exercises 22, see also fill-in-the-blanks exercises workplace literacy programs 132 World Englishes 166 world wide web 199 YouTube 202, 205–6 zone of proximal development (ZPD) 142