modul-kk-b1-b-ing-sma-revisi-harris

GURU PEMBELAJAR MODUL Mata Pelajaran Bahasa Inggris Sekolah Menengah Atas/Kejuruan (SMA/K) Kelompok Kompetensi B Profesional: Modality in Context Pedagogik : Teori Dan Prinsip Pembelajaran Penyusun : Aris Supriyanto Dkk Direktorat Jenderal Guru dan Tenaga Kependidikan Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan Tahun 2016

Penyusun: 1. Aris Supriyanto, M.Pd HP: 081219929868 2. Arman Tirtajaya, M.Pd HP: 08216454871 email. [email protected] 3. Ahlis Qoidah Noor, M.Pd HP : 081914494427 email. [email protected] Penelaah: 1. Prof. Dr. Emi Emilia, M.Ed. email [email protected], [email protected] Copyright ©2016 Pusat Pengembangan dan Pemberdayaan Pendidik dan Tenaga Kependidikan Bahasa, Direktorat Jenderal Guru dan Tenaga Kependidikan. Hak Cipta Dilindungi Undang-Undang Dilarang mengopi sebagian atau keseluruhan isi buku ini untuk kepentingan komersial tanpa izin tertulis dari Kementerian Pendidikan Kebudayaan.

Kata Sambutan Peran guru profesional dalam proses pembelajaran sangat penting sebagai kunci keberhasilan belajar siswa. Guru profesional adalah guru yang kompeten membangun proses pembelajaran yang baik sehingga dapat menghasilkan pendidikan yang berkualitas. Hal tersebut menjadikan guru sebagai komponen yang menjadi fokus perhatian pemerintah pusat maupun pemerintah daerah dalam peningkatan mutu pendidikan terutama menyangkut kompetensi guru. Pengembangan profesionalitas guru melalui program Guru Pembelajar merupakan upaya peningkatan kompetensi untuk semua guru. Sejalan dengan hal tersebut, pemetaan kompetensi guru telah dilakukan melalui uji kompetensi guru (UKG) untuk kompetensi pedagogik profesional pada akhir tahun 2015. Hasil UKG menunjukkan peta kekuatan dan kelemahan kompetensi guru dalam penguasaan pengetahuan. Peta kompetensi guru tersebut dikelompokkan menjadi 10 (sepuluh) kelompok kompetensi. Tindak lanjut pelaksanaan UKG diwujudkan dalam bentuk pelatihan guru paska UKG melalui program Guru Pembelajar. Tujuannya untuk meningkatkan kompetensi guru sebagai agen perubahan dan sumber belajar utama bagi peserta didik. Program Guru Pembelajar dilaksanakan melalui pola tatap muka, daring (online), dan kombinasi (blended) tatap muka dengan online. Pusat Pengembangan dan Pemberdayaan Pendidik dan Tenaga Kependidikan (PPPPTK), Lembaga Pengembangan dan Pemberdayaan Pendidik dan Tenaga Kependidikan Kelautan Perikanan Teknologi Informasi danKomunikasi (LP3TK KPTK) dan Lembaga Pengembangan dan Pemberdayaan Kepala Sekolah (LP2KS) merupakan Unit Pelaksanana Teknis di lingkungan Direktorat Jenderal Guru dan Tenaga Kependidikan yang bertanggung jawab dalam mengembangkan perangkat dan melaksanakan peningkatan kompetensi guru sesuai bidangnya. Adapun perangkat pembelajaran yang dikembangkan tersebut adalah modul untuk program Guru Pembelajar tatap muka dan daring untuk semua mata pelajaran dan kelompok kompetensi. Dengan modul ini diharapkan program Guru Pembelajar memberikan sumbangan yang sangat besar dalam peningkatan kualitas kompetensi guru. Mari kita sukseskan program Guru Pembelajar ini untuk mewujudkan Guru Mulia Karena Karya. Jakarta, Maret 2016 Direktur Jenderal Guru dan Tenaga Kependidikan, Sumarna Surapranata, Ph.D. NIP 195908011985031002 i

Kata Pengantar Puji dan syukur kami panjatkan ke hadirat Allah SWT atas selesainya Modul Pendidikan dan Pelatihan (diklat) Guru Pembelajar Bahasa Indonesia SMP dan SMA/K, Bahasa Inggris SMP dan SMA/K, Bahasa Arab SMA/K, Bahasa Jerman SMA/K, Bahasa Perancis SMA/K, Bahasa Jepang SMA/K, dan Bahasa Mandarin SMA/K. Modul ini merupakan dokumen wajib untuk kegiatan diklat bagi guru pembelajar. Program diklat guru pembelajar merupakan tindak lanjut dari hasil Uji Kompetensi Guru (UKG) dan bertujuan meningkatkan kompetensi guru dalam melaksanakan tugasnya sesuai dengan mata pelajaran yang diampunya. Sebagai salah satu upaya untuk mendukung keberhasilan suatu program diklat, Pusat Pengembangan dan Pemberdayaan Pendidik dan Tenaga Kependidikan (PPPPTK) Bahasa pada tahun 2015 melaksanakan pengembangan modul yang berisi materi-materi pembelajaran yang akan dipelajari oleh para peserta selama mengikuti program diklat tersebut. Modul diklat guru pembelajar bahasa ini diharapkan dapat menjadi bahan bacaan wajib bagi para peserta diklat untuk dapat meningkatkan pemahaman tentang kompetensi pedagogik dan profesional terkait dengan tugas pokok dan fungsinya. Saya menyampaikan ucapan terima kasih dan penghargaan yang tinggi kepada para pejabat, widyaiswara di PPPPTK Bahasa, dosen perguruan tinggi, dan guru yang terlibat di dalam penyusunan modul ini. Jakarta, Februari 2016 Kepala PPPPTK Bahasa, Dr. Luizah F. Saidi, M.Pd. NIP 196312191986012002 ii

KOMPETENSI PROFESIONAL MODALITY IN CONTEXT Direktorat Jenderal Guru dan Tenaga Kependidikan Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan Tahun 2016

DAFTAR ISI i 1 Kata Sambutan 1 Kata Pengantar 1 Daftar Isi 2 Pendahuluan 2 A. Latar Belakang 2 B. Tujuan C. Peta Kompetensi Modul 4 D. Ruang Lingkup 4 E. Saran Penggunaan Modul 4 4 Kegiatan Pembelajaran 1 Core Modals and Semi Modals 57 A.Tujuan 57 B.Indikator Pencapaian Kompetensi 67 C.Uraian Materi 69 D.Aktivitas Pembelajaran 69 E.Latihan F.Rangkuman 72 G.Umpan Balik dan Tindak Lanjut 72 H.Kunci Jawaban 72 72 Kegiatan Pembelajaran 2 82 Other Modal Expressions (Tags, Commands and Conditionals) 82 A.Tujuan 83 B.Indikator Pencapaian Kompetensi 85 C.Uraian Materi D.Aktivitas Pembelajaran E.Latihan F.Rangkuman G.Umpan Balik dan Tindak Lanjut i

H.Kunci Jawaban 85 Kegiatan Pembelajaran 3 The Use of Modals in Texts 86 A.Tujuan B.Indikator Pencapaian Kompetensi 86 C.Uraian Materi 86 D.Aktivitas Pembelajaran 86 E.Latihan 94 F.Rangkuman 95 G.Umpan Balik dan Tindak Lanjut 96 H.Kunci Jawaban 97 97 Kegiatan Pembelajaran 4 Explanation Text A.Tujuan 98 B.Indikator Pencapaian Kompetensi 98 C.Uraian Materi 98 D.Aktivitas Pembelajaran 99 E.Latihan 115 F.Rangkuman 115 G.Umpan Balik dan Tindak Lanjut 119 H.Kunci Jawaban 121 121 Penutup Daftar Pustaka 122 Tautan Sumber Internet 123 Glosarium 124 125

Pendahuluan A. Latar Belakang Kegiatan Pengembangan Keprofesian Berkelanjutan menurut Peraturan Menteri Negara Pendayagunaan Aparatur Negara dan Reformasi Birokrasi Nomor 16 Tahun 2009 tentang Jabatan Fungsional Guru dan Angka Kreditnya terdiri dari 3 (tiga) kegiatan yaitu: (1) Kegiatan Pengembangan Diri; (2) Karya Ilmiah; (3) Karya Inovatif. Kegiatan Pengembangan Diri meliputi kegiatan diklat dan kegiatan kolektif guru. Kegiatan pengembangan diri dibagi ke dalam 4 (empat) Tingkatan Diklat baik yang dilakukan melalui diklat oleh lembaga pelatihan tertentu maupun melalui kegiatan kolektif guru, yaitu (1) Diklat Tingkat Dasar, (2) Dikat Tingkat Lanjut, (3) Diklat Tingkat Menengah, dan (4) Diklat Tingkat Tinggi. Modul ini adalah bahan ajar untuk Program Guru Pembelajar Kelompok Kompetensi B yang dirancang untuk dapat dipelajari secara mandiri oleh peserta diklat berisi materi, metode, batasan-batasan, dan cara mengevaluasi yang disajikan secara sistematis dan menarik untuk mencapai tingkatan kompetensi yang diharapkan sesuai dengan tingkat kompleksitasnya. Bahan ajar pelatihan ini disusun menjadi dua bagian yaitu bahan ajar Kompetensi Profesional. dan Kompetensi Pedagogis. Bagian Pertama berupa Kompetensi Profesional membahas mata diklat Penggunaan Berbagai Aspek Kebahasaan (linguistik, wacana, sosiolinguistik, dan strategis); dan Modality dalam Konteks. Bagian kedua membahas Kompetensi Pedagogis membahas Teori Belajar dan Prinsip-Prinsip Pembelajaran. B. Tujuan Setelah peserta diklat mempelajari modul ini, peserta dapat menunjukkan peningkatan penguasaan pengetahuan dan keterampilan yang terkait dengan kompetensi profesional secara mandiri dan berkelanjutan tentang penggunaan Modality dalam berbagai aspek kebahasaan dan konteks yang berterima dalam rangka Program Guru Pembelajar Modul Guru Pembelajar Bahasa Inggris Kelompok Kompetensi Profesional B 1

C. Peta Kompetensi Kompetensi yang dikembangkan dalam modul diklat ini digambarkan dalam Tabel berikut ini: Tabel 1 Peta Kompetensi Profesional Guru Pembelajar Bahasa Inggris SMA/K Kompetensi B Kompetensi Kompetensi Guru Mapel Indikator Inti Pencapaian memahami penggunaan Kompetensi Menguasai modality dalam aspek Menggunakan materi, kebahasaan baik modality dalam struktur, linguistik; wacana, berbagai kompetensi konsep dan sosiolinguistik maupun kebahasaan pola pikir strategis) (linguistik, wacana, keilmuan yang sosiolinguistik, dan mendukung strategis). mata pelajaran Menentukan modality yang diampu yang tepat sesuai konteks D. Ruang Lingkup Modul Bahasa Inggris SMA/K Kelompok Kompetensi B untuk kompetensi profesional mencakup Penggunaan Modality Dalam Berbagai Aspek Kebahasaan (linguistik, wacana, sosiolinguistik, dan strategis) & Dalam Berbagai Konteks. E. Saran Penggunaan Modul Untuk mempelajari modul ini Anda disarankan mulai membaca dari kegiatan pendahuluan yang di dalamnya ada latar belakang. Dari latar belakang ini Anda akan mengetahui mengapa Anda mempelajari modul ini, selanjutnya pelajari pula tujuan mempelajari modul ini agar Anda segera mengetahui tujuan belajar Anda. Selanjutnya pelajari peta konsep agar Anda memperoleh gambaran menyeluruh tentang modul ini. Setelah Anda memperoleh gambaran menyeluruh modul ini, Anda bisa memulai membaca kegiatan demi kegiatan dalam modul ini. Pada setiap kegiatan Anda akan mempelajari materi yang berbeda. Setiap materi dilengkapi dengan detail Modul Guru Pembelajar Bahasa Inggris Kelompok Kompetensi Profesional B 2

tentang tujuan, indikator pencapaian, uraian materi, aktifitas pembelajaran, latihan, rangkuman, umpan balik dan kunci jawaban. Pada kegiatan pembelajaran anda memperoleh gambaran, bagaimana kegiatan penyampaian materi pada kegiatan tersebut kepada peserta didik. Anda sangat disarankan untuk mengerjakan soal soal latihan, agar Anda memiliki pengalaman pada materi tersebut. Modul Guru Pembelajar Bahasa Inggris Kelompok Kompetensi Profesional B 3

Kegiatan Pembelajaran 1 CORE MODALS AND SEMI MODALS A. Tujuan Setelah pelatihan, peserta mampu memahami penggunaan modality dalam aspek kebahasaan baik linguistik; wacana, sosiolinguistik maupun strategis) B. Indikator Pencapaian Kompetensi 1. Menggunakan modality (Core Modals dan Semi Modals) dalam berbagai kompetensi kebahasaan (linguistik, wacana, sosiolinguistik, dan strategis). 2. Menentukan modality (Core Modals dan Semi Modals) yang tepat sesuai konteks C. Uraian Materi : CORE MODALS AND SEMI MODALS A. INTRODUCTION: Modal verbs (can, could, must, should, ought to, may, might, will, would, shall) are modal auxiliary verbs that express ability, necessity, obligation, duty, request, permission, advice, desire, probability, possibility, etc. Modal verbs express the speaker's attitude to the action indicated by the main verb.  She can drive. (ability)  I must go. (strong necessity)  You should call him. (advice)  Could you help me with this report, please? (request)  You may stay here. (permission)  I would like to see her. (desire)  He might leave soon. (possibility) B. TYPES OF MODALS Modals include core modal verbs, semi-modal verbs (also called marginal modals) and other modal expressions. They combine main verbs and modify their meanings. A modal may have several different meanings, while similar meanings may be expressed by using different modals:  He can't be at home; I've just met him. (deduction) Modul Guru Pembelajar Bahasa Inggris Kelompok Kompetensi Profesional B 4

 Unless you finish your homework, you can't go to the cinema. (prohibition)  Can I help you? (offer)  May I help you? (offer) 1. CORE MODAL VERBS The modal verbs (or modal auxiliary verbs) are: can, could, may, might, will, shall, would, should and must.  Modal verbs always come first in a verb phrase and are followed by a bare infinitive. When used with a perfect infinitive, modal verbs usually refer to past time:  I could hear the dog barking outside. (modal + simple bare infinitive)  You must be joking. (modal + continuous bare infinitive)  He may have caught the train. (modal + perfect bare infinitive)  You must have been waiting for hours. (modal + perfect continuous bare infinitive) Contracted forms of will and would are often used in spoken and in informal written language ('ll and 'd):  I'd tell you if I knew.  They'll be here soon.  Modal verbs take no -s in the third person singular:  He might be at the office.  Modal verbs form their negative and interrogative like other auxiliaries and not with do: i  I can't swim.  Can you swim? The following contracted negative forms are often used in spoken and in informal written language: cannot » can't could not » couldn't might not » mightn't will not » won't shall not » shan't Modul Guru Pembelajar Bahasa Inggris Kelompok Kompetensi Profesional B 5

would not » wouldn't should not » shouldn't must not » mustn't  Modal verbs have no proper past tense; however, could, would, might and should may be used to refer to past time:  I could swim when I was five.  Modal verbs have no infinitive, -ing or past participle forms and cannot be followed by other modal verbs. When necessary, modal idioms or other expressions are used instead of them:  If you want to be a sailor, you must can swim. If you want to be a sailor, you must be able to swim.  I have canned swim since the age of five. I have been able to swim since the age of five. 2. SEMI-MODAL VERBS The semi-modal verbs (or marginal modals) are: dare, need, used to and ought to. They behave similarly to modal verbs but also share some characteristics with main verbs:  How dare she criticise us? (as a modal verb, the interrogative formed without do)  He didn't dare to look back. (as a main verb, followed by a to-infinitive and the negative formed with do)  Need you make so much noise? (as a modal verb, the interrogative formed without do)  You needn't have been so rude. (as a modal verb, the perfect infinitive used to refer to past time)  Do you need to use the hairdryer? (as a main verb, followed by a to-infinitive and the interrogative formed with do)  They used to live by the sea. (unlike a modal verb, followed by a to-infinitive)  You ought to know that by now. (unlike a modal verb, followed by a to-infinitive) Modul Guru Pembelajar Bahasa Inggris Kelompok Kompetensi Profesional B 6

3. OTHER MODAL EXPRESSIONS Besides modal verbs and semi-modal verbs, there are other expressions which can express modal meanings. Some of these are formed with be: be able to be allowed to be about to be bound to be going to be likely to be obliged to be supposed to etc. Other expressions that carry modal meanings are: be to, had better, have (got) to, would rather. Sumber: (http://www.grammaring.com/types-of-modals) C. MODAL VERBS MEANING We often use modal verbs or other modal expressions when we want to express an opinion or attitude about a possible fact or to control a possible action. All modal expressions are about the speaker‘s or writer‘s view of the world. Table 2 Meaning & Modality in a sentence He is HHe is her brother, She told me. I know this fact for certain. I am not expressing an opinion about it. I am stating it as a fact. He must be her brother. They I am expressing an opinion about a fact because of the look so much alike. evidence that I have. Jan always goes with us. I‘m not expressing an attitude or opinion about this action. OK. Jan can go if she’s I‘m controlling a possible action. I‘m giving Jan finished. permission. Modul Guru Pembelajar Bahasa Inggris Kelompok Kompetensi Profesional B 7

We can divide most modal words and expressions into two types of meaning:  The speaker or writer decides how certain something is, either in the present, future or past. They predict or speculate about a fact. We see this type of meaning when we talk about degrees of certainty, possibility, likelihood, doubt:  Paula can’t be home yet. It’s impossible. She left 10 minutes after us. [The speaker hears the phone ring and predicts who is ringing.]  There’s the phone. That’ll be Mum.  I may go. I haven’t decided yet.  The speaker or writer wants to control or ‗direct‘ the action. They give and refuse permission. They talk about obligation and necessity. They talk about how they would like the world to be: [parent says to child]  You can come if you’re good.  He should take more care.  Tell Jen she needn’t bother about the washing up.  You mustn’t worry so much about her.  You may go now. (formal) Often the same modal verb is used to express different meanings. Table 3 Modality in the sentence Meaning Which Verb? Example really Will My birthday will be on a Monday this year. certain won’t I won’t have a party. very likely shall I shall have plenty to tell you when I see you. possible shan’t I shan’t ask you to come again. The cakes must be ready soon. They’ve been in the oven for an must hour. can’t You can’t be hungry. You had a huge lunch. should The traffic isn’t heavy. We should be there in an hour. ought to The traffic isn’t heavy. We ought to be there in an hour. may She may be a friend of Richard’s. Modul Guru Pembelajar Bahasa Inggris Kelompok Kompetensi Profesional B 8

Meaning Which Verb? Example strong might She might be a friend of Richard’s. obligation could She could be a friend of Richard’s. weak obligation must You must arrive at 6 to pick up the tickets. no obligation have to I have to go up to the hospital twice a week. need to We need to win this game to get into the final. should Children should look after their parents in old age. ought to Children ought to look after their parents in old age. needn’t I needn’t do it now. I’ll do it later. don’t need to I don’t need to do it now. I’ll do it later. don’t have to I don’t have to do it now. I’ll do it later. Can we go out now? Can You can go now if you’ve finished. permission may You may go now if you’ve finished. May I borrow a chair? could Could we borrow the car? might Might we have a little more time to finish the exam? no can’t You can’t go in without a ticket. permission You may not enter while the exam is in progress. (formal) may not You must not leave your bike in front of the fire exit. I’ll get it. You stay there. must not Shall I go and make dinner? Will you close that door? offer Will Would you close that door? shall Could you help me with this? I’ll come back before 6. will I think I’ll eat later. I’m not hungry now. request would You should apply for that job. could Can you swim underwater? I could play much better ten years ago. promise will Too much exercise can be bad for you. A list of verbs may be found at the back of the book. decision will advice and should suggestion ability can could general can truth may Sumber: http://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/modality-meanings-and- uses Modul Guru Pembelajar Bahasa Inggris Kelompok Kompetensi Profesional B 9

D. CORE MODAL VERBS IN CONTEXT: Core modal verbs have only one form. They have no to-infinitive form, -ing form, past form or -ed form. We have to reword what we want to say by using other expressions:  I’d love to be able to see the Taj Mahal one day. Not: I‘d love to can see the Taj Mahal one day.  They had to sell their house. Not: They musted sell their house. 1. AFFIRMATIVE (+) FORMS Modal verbs are placed first in the verb phrase (after the subject) and are followed by a verb in the base form. The next verb may be a main verb or an auxiliary verb (be, have): Modal verbs do not change form for tense or person. Modal verbs can be followed by the substitute verb do: A: We thought he might sell the house B: Yes, he could do. Modal verbs cannot be used with another modal verb:  Windsurfing can be difficult. Not: Windsurfing can might be difficult. or Windsurfing might can be difficult. Modal verbs always go before other verbs in a verb phrase: [in a restaurant after a meal]  I think the bill could be expensive. Not: I think the bill could expensive.  You can go swimming, go for a long walk or visit the exhibition. Not: You can swimming, go for a long walk or visit the exhibition. Modul Guru Pembelajar Bahasa Inggris Kelompok Kompetensi Profesional B 10

Modal verbs can only be used alone when the main verb is clearly understood: A: She could take the bus. B: Yeah, that’s true. She could. (She could take the bus.) A: He may be wrong, you know. B: Yes, he may. (Yes, he may be wrong.) 2. NEGATIVE (−) FORMS Warning: Negatives are formed by adding ‗not‘ after the modal verbs. We don‘t use don’t/doesn’t/didn’t with modal verbs:  We can’t hear very well at the back. Not: We don‘t can hear very well … 3. QUESTION (?) FORMS Warning: The subject and the modal verb change position to form questions. We don‘t use do/does/did:  Could you help me? Not: Do you could help me?  Will it be a problem? Not: Does it will be a problem?  Why can’t you come too? Not: Why don‘t you can come too? We use modal verbs in question tags:  You can’t live like that, can you?  It could be any of those things, couldn’t it? Modul Guru Pembelajar Bahasa Inggris Kelompok Kompetensi Profesional B 11

1) CAN CAN: FORMS AFFIRMATIVE (+) FORM Can comes first in the verb phrase (after the subject and before another verb):  We [verb phrase] can take the train to Birmingham. Can is never used with another modal verb:  He can hear the music from his room sometimes. Not: He can might hear the music … or He might can might hear the music … NEGATIVE (−) FORM The negative form of can is can’t. We don‘t use don’t/doesn’t/didn’t with can:  I can’t believe you said that! Not: I don‘t can believe you said that! We can use the full form cannot (one word) in formal contexts or when we want to emphasize something:  I cannot understand why she behaves like that. QUESTION (?) FORM Warning: The subject and can change position to form questions. We don‘t use do/does/did:  Can this really be true? Not: Does this can really be true?  Can’t you ask for another day off work? We use can and can’t in question tags:  You can’t take photos inside the museum, can you?  Abby can speak Japanese, can’t she? Modul Guru Pembelajar Bahasa Inggris Kelompok Kompetensi Profesional B 12

CAN: USES INFORMAL PERMISSION: (affirmative and negative statements and affirmative questions) We often use can to ask for or give permission:  Can I take Daisy for a walk?  Students can use calculators during the exam. We use can’t to forbid (say what you must not do):  You can’t park there. You can’t just take the day off work. You have to have permission in advance. In a conversation: A: Can I use your phone, please? B: Yes, you can. ABILITY: (affirmative and negative statements and questions) We often use can to talk about ability to do something in the present or future:  I can sing one song in Polish.  Can you sleep on your back?  We can go swimming after school tomorrow, if you like. We often use can with verbs of perception such as hear, see, smell, taste, and mental process verbs such as guess, imagine, picture, understand and follow (in the sense of ‗understand‘):  I can hear you.  I can see her coming down the road now.  Can you smell something burning?  I can guess why you’re angry. We can’t follow these instructions for installing this new DVD player. (We can‘t understand these instructions.) Modul Guru Pembelajar Bahasa Inggris Kelompok Kompetensi Profesional B 13

GENERAL TRUTHS We use can to talk about things which we think are usually, but not always, true:  Reducing cholesterol through diet can be difficult. (It‘s not always difficult for everyone, but in general it is difficult.)  Fireworks can frighten pets.  Swans can be very vicious. We don‘t normally use could to talk about what we believe to be true in the present. Compare: Table 4 Using Can & Could Exercise can help reduce I believe this is a general truth or fact. stress. Exercise could help I see this only as a possibility. reduce stress. Finding a hotel in August I believe this is a general truth or fact based can be difficult. on my experience or knowledge. Finding a hotel in August I see this only as a possibility. could be difficult. POSSIBILITY: (AFFIRMATIVE STATEMENTS AND QUESTIONS) We use can to express possibility or to question possibilities:  We can go to Rome in June because both of us have a week off work. (It is possible for us to go to Rome because we don‘t have to work in June.)  Well, how can you be on a diet if you buy so much chocolate? (I don‘t think it‘s possible that you are on a diet because you still buy lots of chocolate.) Modul Guru Pembelajar Bahasa Inggris Kelompok Kompetensi Profesional B 14

GUESSING AND PREDICTING: CAN’T AS THE NEGATIVE OF MUST When we want to guess or predict something, we use can’t as the negative form of must. We use can’t have + -ed form as the negative form of must have + -ed. Can’t and can’t have + -ed form express strong possibility: A: Who owns this blue coat? It must be yours. B: It can’t be mine. It’s too big. (A uses must to guess that the coat belongs to B. He sees this as a strong possibility. B uses can’t to express strong negative possibility. The coat is too big, so it isn‘t his.) A: Roy must have made a lot of money. B: He can’t have done. He doesn’t even own a house. (A makes a deduction that Roy has made a lot of money. B sees this as very unlikely and so expresses it as a negative possibility.) REQUESTS We use can as a question form to make requests: Those cakes look so good. Can I try one? Can I have your surname? Can you help me with this form? REPROACHES We use can’t as a question form to ask people to stop doing something we don‘t want them to do, or to do something they are not doing which we want them to do:  Can’t you stop making that awful noise?  Why can’t you just be nice to her instead of upsetting her? OFFERS We use can as a question form to make offers:  Can I help you lift that?  Can we do anything for you? Modul Guru Pembelajar Bahasa Inggris Kelompok Kompetensi Profesional B 15

CAN: PAST The past of ―can” is ―could”:  In those days, you could buy everything in the local shop. Now we have to go to the big supermarket for everything.  We asked the security guards if we could go backstage to meet the band. When we question the possibility of something in the past, we use can’t have + -ed form:  You can’t have arrived here earlier than me. CAN: TYPICAL ERRORS  We write cannot as one word: The children cannot be left unsupervised at any time. Not: The children can not be left unsupervised …  We use could, not can, to talk about ability in the past. They could see a light on in the house as they drove past at 10 pm. Not: They can see a light on in the house … 2) COULD COULD: FORM AFFIRMATIVE (+) FORM Could comes first in the verb phrase (after the subject and before another verb):  We could have lunch early. Could cannot be used with another modal verb:  We could drive to France Not: We could might drive to France. or We might could drive to France. Modul Guru Pembelajar Bahasa Inggris Kelompok Kompetensi Profesional B 16

NEGATIVE (−) FORM The negative form of could is couldn’t. We don‘t use don’t/doesn’t/didn’t with could:  He couldn’t lift that. It’s too heavy. Not: He didn‘t could lift that … We can use the full form could not in formal contexts or when we want to emphasise something:  Fabio was frightened. He could not move his arm. It was stuck. QUESTION (?) FORM The subject and could change position to form questions. We don‘t use do/does/did:  Could I pay by credit card? Not: Do I could pay by credit card?  We use could and couldn’t in question tags:  I could come back tomorrow, couldn’t I? COULD: USES POSSIBILITY: (affirmative statements and questions) We often use could to express possibility in the present and the future. Compare: Table 5 Certainty & Modality It’s blue. It could be blue. (present) I am certain that it is blue. It‘s a I‘m not certain that it is blue. fact. The storm will get worse. The storm could get worse. (future) I‘m certain that the storm will get I‘m not certain that the storm will get worse. worse. Modul Guru Pembelajar Bahasa Inggris Kelompok Kompetensi Profesional B 17

In a conversation: A: Do you happen to know where Ann is? B: I'm not sure, but he could be at the library now. (He could have been at the library yesterday) SUGGESTIONS Could We often use phrases with could to make suggestions. Some are neutral, some are strong. The negative form, couldn’t, is stronger than the affirmative form: Strong A: I only have three chairs. There will be four of us for dinner. B: Couldn’t you use the one in your bedroom? A: I need to finish this essay by tonight. B: Couldn’t you get up early in the morning to finish it? Neutral A: I have nothing to wear to the party. B: You could wear your red dress and your black shoes. A: We’ll need to have at least £300 for the concert tickets, the accommodation and the train. B: We could cut lawns and wash cars and that kind of thing. Or we could borrow the money from our parents and pay them back. We often use could to make suggestions: A: Will’s party is fancy-dress. B: It’s Halloween. C: Oh right. I could go as Julius Caesar. B: Again? How many times have you done that? A: I’ve got to be in the meeting at 10 and the train doesn’t get in until 10.15. B: Could you get an earlier train? Modul Guru Pembelajar Bahasa Inggris Kelompok Kompetensi Profesional B 18

CAN’T YOU …? We can use can’t you to make a strong suggestion. It can sound very direct when it is addressed to someone who is present: [mother to child]  Can’t you finish your homework before going? [a woman is talking about her husband who wants a new television] A: I think our television is fine. I don’t want it to be replaced really. B: Mm. A: And he’ll want one of those wide screens. B: Oh dear. Can’t he manage with the one you have? PERMISSION We use could to ask for permission. Could is more formal and polite than can:  Could I ask you a personal question? WARNING: We don‘t use could to give or refuse permission. We use can: A: Could I leave early today? B: Yes, you can./No, you can’t. Not: Yes, you could./No, you couldn‘t. COULD: PAST We don‘t usually use could to talk about single events that happened in the past. PAST ACHIEVEMENT When actual past achievements are mentioned, we usually use was/were able to or managed to but not could in affirmative clauses. This is because they are facts, rather than possibilities:  I was able to/managed to buy a wonderful bag to match my shoes. Not: I could buy a wonderful bag to match my shoes. Modul Guru Pembelajar Bahasa Inggris Kelompok Kompetensi Profesional B 19

 We hired a car and we were able to/managed to drive 1,000 miles in one week. Not: We hired a car and we could drive 1,000 miles in one week. ABILITY We use could to talk about past ability:  When I was young, I could easily touch my toes.  Could he drive when he was 15? POSSIBILITY We use could have + -ed form to talk about possibility in the past:  I could have been a lawyer.  They could have taken a taxi home instead of walking and getting wet.  Janette couldn’t have done any better. GUESSING AND PREDICTING: COULDN’T AS THE NEGATIVE OF MUST When we want to guess or predict something, we use couldn’t as the negative form of must. We use couldn’t have + -ed form as the negative form of must have + -ed. Couldn’t and couldn’t have + -ed form express strong possibility:  She must have made a mistake. It couldn’t be true.  A firework couldn’t have done all that damage. COULD + SMELL, TASTE, THINK, BELIEVE, ETC. We use could to refer to single events that happened in the past, with verbs of the senses (smell, taste, see, hear, touch, etc.) and mental processes (think, believe, remember, understand etc.):  The food was terrible. I could taste nothing but salt.  We knew they were in there. We could hear voices inside.  He came and spoke to me, but I couldn’t remember his name. REPORTING CAN We use could when reporting clauses with can as past events: Modul Guru Pembelajar Bahasa Inggris Kelompok Kompetensi Profesional B 20

 They told us we could wait in the hallway. (The original words were probably: ‗You can wait in the hallway.‘)  She said we could book the tickets online. (The speaker remembers hearing ‗You can book the tickets online.‘) CRITICISM We often use could have + -ed form to express disapproval or criticism:  You could have called to say you would be late. (You didn‘t call – I think you should have called.)  You could have tidied your room. REGRET We use could have + -ed form to talk about things that did not happen and sometimes to expresses regret:  He could have been a doctor.  I could have been famous. We often use the expression how could you/she/he/they? to show disapproval (to show that we don‘t like what someone has done):  Grandfather, how could you? How could you leave me?  How could you have gone without telling me? In the conversation: A: We had to give away our dog when we moved to England. B: Oh, how could you? 3) WILL WILL: FORM AFFIRMATIVE FORM Will comes first in the verb phrase in a statement (after the subject and before another verb). It is often contracted to ’ll in informal situations:  The next Olympic Games will be in London.  I’ll give you a call at about 6 o’clock.  Will cannot be used with another modal verb:  You will be obliged to sign a contract before starting employment. Not: You will must sign a contract .. or You must will sign a contract .. Modul Guru Pembelajar Bahasa Inggris Kelompok Kompetensi Profesional B 21

Will can be followed by have to or be able to: You’ll have to let me know when it arrives. She will be able to live nearer her parents if she gets the job. NEGATIVE FORM The negative form of will is won’t. We don‘t use don’t, doesn’t, didn’t with will:  They won’t tell us very much until January. Not: They don‘t will tell us very much until January. We use the full form will not in formal contexts or when we want to emphasize something:  I’ll carry her but I will not push a pram. QUESTION FORM The subject and will change position to form questions. We don‘t use do, does, did :  Will you be home earlier tomorrow?  Will I be able to take this brochure home with me?  Will the number be in the phone book? Not: Does the number will be in the phone book? We can use will and won’t in question tags:  You won’t forget to take the cake out of the oven, will you?  It’ll take quite a long time to get there, won’t it? WILL OR ’LL? We commonly use ’ll as the short form of will and shall. In speaking, will and shall are usually contracted to ’ll, especially after subject pronouns (I, we, you, they, he, she, it):  We’ll meet you outside the coffee shop. (more common in speaking than We will meet you …) However, in some contexts ’ll is normally the only choice. In such cases, ’ll is best not seen as a contraction of either will or shall, but as an independent form. Modul Guru Pembelajar Bahasa Inggris Kelompok Kompetensi Profesional B 22

As an independent form, ’ll is often used to indicate a personal decision:  There’s the cinema. We’ll get out here and you can park the car over there. Not: We shall/will get out … In a conversation: A: Anyone want a drink? B: I’ll have a tomato juice, please. ’ll is also used for indicating decisions or arrangements where will or shall would sound too direct and too formal:  OK. My diary says I’m free on Wednesday. So we’ll meet next Wednesday.  We’ll get the train to Paris and then the Metro to the hotel. Naoe and Dave and the boys’ll join us as soon as they’ve finished their meetings. WARNING: A noun phrase + ’ll is not normally acceptable in writing:  Jan’s father will fetch you from the station. Not: Jan‘s father‘ll fetch you … ’ll is not used in a tag or a short answer: [talking about the offer of a cheap hotel room] A: But you’ll have to be quick. Everyone will be after it, won’t they? B: Yeah, they will. Not: Yeah, they‘ll. WILL: USES CERTAINTY IN THE FUTURE One of the main uses of will is to refer to things in the future that we think are certain: Modul Guru Pembelajar Bahasa Inggris Kelompok Kompetensi Profesional B 23

The rooms will be redecorated but all the facilities will be the same. A: He’s still there at the moment. B: He’ll be there until the new guy starts. [talking to a child] Will you be 5 in September? MAKING PREDICTIONS Will is used to make predictions about the future: A: Have you decided what you are going to do with the car? B: No. Father thinks it’ll cost a lot of money to fix. Other examples: I think they’ll be off in January again. (they‘ll be away, possibly on holiday) Some predictions are about facts – things that we know always happen: It’s all wool. It’ll shrink if you wash it in hot water. Some predictions are about the present: That’ll be Katie shouting. (The speaker is certain. He or she makes a deduction because of what they know about the situation.) CONDITIONAL SENTENCES We often use will (or the contracted form ’ll) in the main clause of a conditional sentence when we talk about possible situations in the future:  If she gets the job, she will have to move to Germany.  I’ll take a day off if the weather’s fine next week. Modul Guru Pembelajar Bahasa Inggris Kelompok Kompetensi Profesional B 24

INTENTIONS AND DECISIONS We use will for immediate intentions and decisions. We usually use ’ll, not will, after I think:  When I go and see Marie, I think I’ll take her some flowers.  What will you do with that soup? Will you just put it in the fridge or will you freeze it?  I think I’ll have some orange juice, actually. We use will and be going to for decisions, intentions and plans. We use will when the decision is immediate and be going to when we have already made a plan: A : It’s too expensive to fly on the Friday. Look it’s nearly £200. It’s only £25 to fly on Thursday. B : We’ll fly on Thursday then. A : Great. That’ll save us lots of money. We’re going to drive to Birmingham on Friday, and Saturday morning we’re going to drive to Edinburgh. WILLINGNESS AND OFFERS Will is often used to express someone‘s willingness to do something or to make offers. It is often used with I in this context: I’ll show you where to go. I will be home after seven. I think they will help us. In a conversation: A : It’s just a leaflet that I’ve got. B : Just the leaflet. Right, I’ll go and get you a brochure too. I’ll give you a lift to the hotel. PROMISES We use will to make promises: I’ll be there for you. Don’t worry. We’ll always love you. Modul Guru Pembelajar Bahasa Inggris Kelompok Kompetensi Profesional B 25

REQUESTS AND INVITATIONS We often make requests or invitations with will: Will you pass me the salt? This tastes good. Will you give me the recipe? Will you come for dinner on Saturday? COMMANDS We sometimes give commands or orders using will:  Will you be quiet, please!  Will you stop picking your nails! It is also used to insist that someone does something: But you will have to do it. You’ll have no choice. [parent to child]  You will wear it whether you like it or not. GENERAL TRUTHS Will is used to describe something the speaker thinks is generally true: [talking about making complaints at hospitals] A : Do you think they should try and make it easier for people to complain? B : No, cos some people will always complain. (cos = because in informal speech) HABITUAL EVENTS We use will to refer to events that happen often: [talking about a younger sister, Celia, who doesn‘t eat properly; she refers to Celia] Celia will start to get upset if she has to eat cabbage or meat like chicken breast. My mum will say, ‘Just try it’. And she’ll start shaking her head and going, ‘No. I don’t want to’. Mum will put it near her mouth and she’ll start to cough. Modul Guru Pembelajar Bahasa Inggris Kelompok Kompetensi Profesional B 26

DISAPPROVAL Will is also used to talk about repeated behaviour which the speaker does not like or approve of. Will is normally stressed here:  He will leave his clothes all over the floor. It drives me mad. (stronger than He leaves his clothes all over the floor.) INANIMATE OBJECTS (THINGS) Will may be used to refer to inanimate objects and how they respond to humans, most typically in the negative form won’t:  The car won’t start.  The door won’t open. It’s stuck. WILL AND SHALL FUTURE : WILL AND SHALL WILL AND SHALL : FORM Will and shall are modal verbs. They are used with the base form of the main verb (They will go; I shall ask her). Shall is only used for future time reference with I and we, and is more formal than will. See this following table ! Table 6 Will & Shall singular and plural I, we (full form) work + she, he, it, you, they will or shall I, she, he, it, you, will − we, they (short form) I, we ’ll she, he, it, you, they (full form) or I, we will not work shall not will not (short form) Modul Guru Pembelajar Bahasa Inggris Kelompok Kompetensi Profesional B 27

she, he, it, you, they won’t or shan’t ?+ I, we won’t Will or Shall she, he, it, you, they Will I, we work? she, he, it, you, they ?− Won’t or Shan’t Won’t ’ll: Short Forms Of Shall And Will Spoken English: In speaking, shall and will are usually contracted to ’ll, especially after subject pronouns (I, we, you, they, she, he, it):  We’ll meet you outside the coffee shop. (more common in speaking than We will meet you outside the coffee shop) WILL AND SHALL: USES PREDICTIONS We use will and shall to make predictions and to state facts about the future:  There will be strong winds tomorrow in the south of the country.  The year 2025 will be the four-hundredth anniversary of the founding of the university.  We shall need an extra bedroom when the new baby arrives. DECISIONS AND OFFERS Will and shall (usually in the short form ’ll) are used to announce decisions and to make offers: Modul Guru Pembelajar Bahasa Inggris Kelompok Kompetensi Profesional B 28

[a salesperson in a clothes shop is talking to a customer] A: Which size do you want? Medium or large? B: I’ll have large. (decision)  Wait. I’ll open the door for you. (offer) Not: Wait. I open the door for you.  I shall contact you again when I have further information. SHALL WITH I AND WE We can use shall instead of will with I and we in statements. Its use is more formal:  We shall never forget the holiday we had in Vietnam. When we use shall I and shall we in questions it is usually to make suggestions rather than to refer to future time:  It’s getting late. Shall we go home?  Shall I invite Louisa and Jill to the party? 4) WOULD WOULD: FORM AFFIRMATIVE FORM Would comes first in the verb phrase (after the subject and before another verb):  Dad would sing to us every evening. Would cannot be used with another modal verb:  When Tracy opened the door, she thought she would find an empty room. Not: … she thought she would might find an empty room. or … she thought she might would find an empty room. NEGATIVE FORM The negative form of would is wouldn’t. We don‘t use don’t, doesn’t, didn’t with would:  There wouldn’t be any food in the house. Not: There didn‘t would be any food in the house. Modul Guru Pembelajar Bahasa Inggris Kelompok Kompetensi Profesional B 29

We use the full form would not in formal contexts or when we want to emphasize something:  Your father would not approve. QUESTION FORM The subject and would change position to form questions. We don‘t use do, does, did :  Would that be a good idea? Not: Does this would that be a good idea?  Wouldn’t that be a good idea? We can use would and wouldn’t in question tags:  She wouldn’t be any help, would she?  They would enjoy that, wouldn’t they? WOULD: USES REQUESTS We often use would to make requests. It is a more polite and indirect form of will. Compare: Table 7 Will & Would Will you make dinner? direct Would you make dinner? less direct CONDITIONAL SENTENCES We often use would (or the contracted form ’d) in the main clause of a conditional sentence when we talk about imagined situations:  If we had left earlier, we would have been able to stop off for a coffee on the way.  If we went to Chile, we’d have to go to Argentina as well. I’d love to see both. Modul Guru Pembelajar Bahasa Inggris Kelompok Kompetensi Profesional B 30

TALKING ABOUT THE FUTURE IN THE PAST We use would to talk about the future in the past. The speaker looks forward in time from a point in the past (underlined below):  When I was young I thought that in years to come I would be really tall.  When I broke my leg, I thought I would never dance again. REPORTED CLAUSES We use would as the past form of will in reported clauses. Table 8 Will & Reported Speech statement with will reported ‘I’ll pay for the food,’ said Tom. Tom said that he would pay for the food. Weather forecast: The weather forecast said that there would be There will be clear skies in the clear skies in the morning but that it would be morning but it will be cloudy for cloudy for the afternoon. the afternoon. HABITUAL ACTIONS IN THE PAST We use would to refer to typical habitual actions and events in the past. This is usually a formal use and it often occurs in stories (narratives):  I had a friend from Albany, which is about 36 miles away, and we would meet every Thursday morning and she would help us.  Then he would wash; then he would eat his toast; then he would read his paper by the bright burning fire of electric coals. WARNING: We can‘t use would in this way to talk about states. In these cases, we say used to instead of would:  I used to live in Melbourne when I was a kid. Not: I would live in Melbourne when I was a kid. Modul Guru Pembelajar Bahasa Inggris Kelompok Kompetensi Profesional B 31

WILLINGNESS IN THE PAST We use would to talk about willingness in past time situations. We usually use the negative form wouldn’t in this case:  The CD wasn’t working so I brought it back to the shop but they wouldn’t give me my money back because they said the box had already been opened. BEING LESS DIRECT We often use would with verbs such as advise, imagine, recommend, say, suggest, think to make what we say less direct. Table 9 Verbs After Would Advise I’d advise you to keep working on your grammar. Imagine I’d imagine it can’t be easy for you. recommend I’d recommend that you try this size. (formal) Say I’d say you are about 40. Suggest We’d suggest that you take this route. It’s more scenic. (formal) Think It’s much further than Dublin, I would think. WOULD OR WILL? We can use would as a more formal or polite alternative to will in requests. We often use the phrase would you mind + -ing in polite requests. Compare: Table 10 Interrogative Using Will & Would Will you give me a wake-up call at 7 am, Would you mind giving me a wake-up please? call at 7 am, please? Will you excuse me just one second? Would you excuse me just one second? Using would makes the request more formal and polite. Modul Guru Pembelajar Bahasa Inggris Kelompok Kompetensi Profesional B 32

Will and would can both refer to willingness. We use will for present and future time and would, usually in the negative, for past time:  John will carry your suitcase. It’s far too heavy for you. (present)  The taxi driver wouldn’t take more than four in the car. (past) WARNING: There are a number of phrases with would where will cannot be used:  Would you like your steak well cooked? Not: Will you like your steak well cooked?  Would you mind introducing me to him? Not: Will you mind introducing me to him?  Would you rather pay by credit card? Not: Will you rather pay by credit card? 5) SHALL SHALL: FORMS AFFIRMATIVE FORM Shall comes first in the verb phrase (after the subject and before another verb). We use it mostly with I and we:  I shall post it to you tomorrow. Shall cannot be used with another modal verb:  I shall have to be at the airport by 5 pm. Not: I shall must be … or I must shall be … Shall can be followed by have to, need to and be able to:  We shall have to tell him what happened.  The good news is I shall be able to join you at your meeting next week. NEGATIVE FORM The negative form of shall is shan’t. We don‘t use don’t, doesn’t, didn’t with shall: I shan’t be home tomorrow night. We shan’t know the result of the tests till Tuesday. Modul Guru Pembelajar Bahasa Inggris Kelompok Kompetensi Profesional B 33

We can use the full form shall not in formal contexts or when we want to emphasis something: [a public notice in a restaurant]  The management shall not be responsible for damage to personal property. (We don‘t often use the negative form) QUESTION FORM The subject and shall change position to form questions. Warning: We don‘t use do, does, did. The question form, with I and we, is the most common use of shall:  Shall I come round to the office? Not: Do I shall come round to the office?  We use shall in question tags:  I’ll phone you later, shall I? SHALL: USES OFFERS, SUGGESTIONS AND ADVICE We use shall I and shall we to make offers and suggestions, and to ask for advice. Table 11 The Meaning of Shall offer Shall I carry your bag? suggestion Shall I call again on Thursday? seeking advice What shall we do with this? PREDICTIONS AND INTENTIONS We use shall instead of will with I and we in rather formal contexts to make predictions and to talk about intentions or decisions. It is much less common than will. Modul Guru Pembelajar Bahasa Inggris Kelompok Kompetensi Profesional B 34

Compare: Table 12 Shall & Will Formal less formal We shall remember this day We will remember this day forever. forever. WARNING: We use shall only with the first person pronouns I and we to make predictions or express intentions:  The new business cards will be ready at the end of the month. Not: The new business cards shall be ready at the end of the month. COMMANDS Warning: In very formal contexts, we use shall to give commands: [public notice]  This door shall be kept closed at all times. SHALL: TYPICAL ERROR  We use should, not shall, for advice and suggestions:  In my opinion, we should book another hotel. Not: In my opinion, we shall book another hotel. 6) SHOULD SHOULD: FORMS AFFIRMATIVE FORM Should comes first in the verb phrase (after the subject and before another verb):  I should go home now.  Should cannot be used with another modal verb:  It should probably be sunny at that time of year. Not: It should may be sunny … or It may should be sunny … Modul Guru Pembelajar Bahasa Inggris Kelompok Kompetensi Profesional B 35

NEGATIVE FORM The negative form of should is shouldn’t. We don‘t use don’t, doesn’t, didn’t with should:  There shouldn’t be many people at the beach today. We use the full form should not in formal contexts or when we want to emphasis something:  We should not forget those who have given their lives in the defence of freedom. QUESTION FORM The subject and should change position to form questions. WARNING: We don‘t use do, does, did:  Should I turn on the air conditioning? Not: Do I should I turn on the air conditioning?  Shouldn’t you be studying now?  We use should and shouldn’t in question tags:  I shouldn’t have told her that, should I?  They should be getting back on Sunday, shouldn’t they? SHOULD: USES WHAT IS IDEAL OR DESIRED We use should most commonly to talk about what is the ideal or best thing to do in a situation:  There should be more public hospitals.  They should reduce the price of petrol. It’s so expensive.  There should be four more candles on the cake. We use should have + -ed form to talk about things that were ideal in the past but which didn‘t happen. It can express regret:  Everyone knows that this is a busy restaurant. They should have made a reservation.  I should have studied harder when I was young. I wish I had gone to college. Modul Guru Pembelajar Bahasa Inggris Kelompok Kompetensi Profesional B 36

ADVICE AND SUGGESTIONS We often use should to give advice and make suggestions:  You should tell him what you think.  We should leave it until tomorrow; it’s late now. WHAT IS LIKELY TO HAPPEN We also use should to talk about what is likely to happen:  Shall we start? Luke’s delayed but he says he should be here in ten minutes.  There should be a very big crowd at the party. Mary has so many friends. THANKING Spoken English: In speaking, we often say you shouldn’t have when someone gives us a gift: A: I got you something from Texas. A cowboy hat. B: Oh Ken, you shouldn’t have! SURPRISE OR REGRET We sometimes use should to express surprise or regret about something that happened:  I’m amazed that he should have done something so stupid.  I’m sorry that he should be so upset by what I said. SHOULD AND WOULD We use should as a more formal alternative to would with I and we in conditional clauses. Compare: Table 13 Formality Using Would & Should Formal neutral I/We should love to meet her again if I/we I/We would love to meet her again if I/we had a chance. had a chance. Modul Guru Pembelajar Bahasa Inggris Kelompok Kompetensi Profesional B 37

We use should as a more formal alternative to would when we want to be less direct. Compare: Table 14 Formality Using Should & Would Formal neutral I should think that a lot of people will be I would think that a lot of people will be interested. interested. SHOULD AND OUGHT TO Should and ought to have similar meanings and uses. Ought to is more formal and less common than should:  We should clean up the garden.  We ought to clean up the garden. Should is much more common in negatives and questions than ought to:  Should we keep a seat for Margaret? (more common than Ought we to keep a seat …?)  He shouldn’t speak to his parents in that way. (more common than He oughtn’t/ought not to speak …) We use will for all persons, but we often use shall with I and we. Will (’ll) is generally less formal than shall when used with I and we:  Simply complete the form and return it to me, and I shall personally reserve your hotel room for you.  We shall look at a full report from the centre.  We’ll see you in the morning.  Shall also has a special legal use for talking about rules and laws. In these cases, we often use it with third-person subjects: According to the basic principle of human rights, people shall not be discriminated against because of their nationality, race, age, sex, religion, occupation and social status. Modul Guru Pembelajar Bahasa Inggris Kelompok Kompetensi Profesional B 38

Shall and will are both used to talk about intentions and decisions. Shall is more formal than will. Compare: Table 15 Formality Using Shall & Will I’ll see you later. I won’t be late. informal I shall see you later. I shan’t be late. formal Spoken English:  In speaking ’ll is much more common than will and shall.  Will is much more common than shall in both speaking and writing. WILL: TYPICAL ERROR We use will or ’ll to express intentions or decisions, or to make offers, not the present simple:  I’ll never go to her house again. Not: I never go to her house again.  I’ll help you with that suitcase. Not: I help you with that suitcase. 7) MUST MUST: FORMS AFFIRMATIVE (+) FORM Must comes first in the verb phrase (after the subject and before another verb):  She must have lots of friends.  Must can‘t be used with another modal verb.  This must be your sister. Not: This must can be your sister. or This can must be your sister. NEGATIVE (−) FORM The negative form of must is mustn’t. We don‘t use don’t/doesn’t/didn’t with must:  There mustn’t be any rubbish left. Not: There dosen‘t must be any rubbish left. Modul Guru Pembelajar Bahasa Inggris Kelompok Kompetensi Profesional B 39

We can use the full form must not in formal contexts or when we want to emphasise something:  You must not leave any rubbish. QUESTION (?) FORM WARNING: The subject and must change position to form questions. We don‘t use do/does/did:  Must you make that noise? Not: Do you must make that noise? We can use must and mustn’t in question tags though tags with must aren‘t very common:  The house must be worth millions, mustn’t it? MUST: USES DEDUCTIONS AND CONCLUSIONS When we think carefully about facts, we often use must to express deductions and conclusions from these:  [fact] He’s so small.  [deduction/conclusion] He must be no more than four years old. [Two teachers talking about a student] A: He falls asleep in class every morning. (fact) B: He must be out late every night or maybe he works at night. (deduction/conclusion) WARNING: We use can’t/cannot as the negative of must to deny something or make negative deductions or conclusions:  It just can’t be true. He can’t have left his job.  That cannot be his sister. She looks so different. Modul Guru Pembelajar Bahasa Inggris Kelompok Kompetensi Profesional B 40

We use must have + ed form and can’t have + ed form to talk about deductions in the past. They always refer to deduction, not obligation: [A wanted to talk to B so she phoned him but he didn‘t answer the phone. She phoned again the next day] A: I called you yesterday around three o’clock but you must have been out. B: We must have been in the garden. That’s a pity. [A is telling B about his illness] A: I spent a month in hospital before I was able to walk. B: That can’t have been easy for you. SPOKEN ENGLISH: In speaking, we very often express our reaction to what we hear using phrases such as that must be or that must have been: A: She lives in Thailand now. B: That must be amazing! A: Twelve years ago Kevin and I went on a six-week camping trip. B: That must have been fun. OBLIGATION AND NECESSITY Must expresses strong obligation and necessity:  I must talk to you about the new project.  Seat belts must be worn even in the back of the car.  There must be a minimum of two members of the company at the meeting. WARNING: We use had to not must to expresses obligation and necessity in the past:  By the time we got back to our bikes, it was dark and we had to cycle home in the dark without any lights … Not: … it was dark and we must cycle home in the dark …  Last year, teachers had to make a report on each child every week. Not: Last year, teachers must make a report … Modul Guru Pembelajar Bahasa Inggris Kelompok Kompetensi Profesional B 41

We use must to talk about the future in the past when we report speech or people‘s thoughts in formal contexts: [Extract from a novel]  The pain was back in full force, but she knew she must not give in to it. She must go on day by day. We use will have to more than must to express future obligation, especially when talking about obligations at a particular point in the future:  He’ll have to wait five weeks for his eye operation. Then he’ll have to have both eyes operated on. We often use must with more general references to the future, particularly when talking about obligations that come from the speaker:  The Prime Minister must decide in the next month.  I must try harder next time.  I must pop round one evening next week. When we talk about no obligation, we use either need not, don’t/doesn’t/didn’t have to or the negative of the main verb need (don’t/doesn’t need):  You needn’t worry about it. I’ll take care of it.  You don’t have to worry about it. I’ll take care of it.  You don’t need to worry about it. I’ll take care of it. RULES AND LAWS We use must not to talk about what is not permitted:  You must not park outside the entrance.  You must not make noise after 9 o’clock. Must and must not often occur in public signs and notices indicating laws, rules and prohibitions: [airline website information]  All passengers must present valid photo identification at check- in for all flights. Modul Guru Pembelajar Bahasa Inggris Kelompok Kompetensi Profesional B 42

[bus company website notice]  Tickets must be retained for inspection, and must be produced for inspection on request by any authorised official of Bus Éireann. (Bus Éireann is the name of the Irish national bus company) INVITATIONS AND ENCOURAGEMENT We also use must to express polite invitations or encouragement:  You must come and see us soon.  You must try some of this chocolate cake. It’s delicious.  You must go and see that film. CRITICISMS We use the question form of must in criticisms:  Must you keep playing that terrible music?  Why must you mispronounce my name every time?  Must and have (got) to? OBLIGATIONS We usually use must to talk about obligations which come from the speaker and we generally use have (got) to when we refer to obligations that come from outside the speaker. Compare: Table 16 Must & Have got to I must buy some new clothes. Mine look so The obligation is from me to buy new old. clothes. I’ve got to buy some new clothes. I’m The obligation is from the school to starting a new job as a teacher and we have buy new clothes. to wear formal clothes. WARNING:  Must not and don’t have to/haven’t got to have different meanings. Modul Guru Pembelajar Bahasa Inggris Kelompok Kompetensi Profesional B 43