Sciences Subject (BS11001)

51 Budding Budding is the process of combining parts of the plant together to become one by inserting the bud shield of the desired scion onto the rootstock. There are two ways of budding, i.e. by slicing the wood and not slicing the wood. Only the steps of budding without slicing the wood is provided as follows: 1. Choose the rootstock part that is greenish brown. Make two vertical slits onto the rootstock from top to bottom around 6 - 7 centimeters long and spaced apart for around one third of the rootstock circumference. 2. Cut across the top ends. Peel the bark off from top to bottom and remove it, by leaving the lower part about 1 centimeter long. 3. Cut the bud shield about 7 - 10 centimeter long, peel the wood, then cut out the bud at the bottom.

52 4. Insert the bud shield into the rootstock bark with the bud in upwards direction. Then wrap it firmly with plastic. 5. Uncover the plastic after 7 - 10 days. Then re-wrap it and ensure to have enough room for the bud to come out. Leave it for 2 -3 weeks, then cut the top of the rootstock and remove the plastic.

53 Grafting Grafting is combining the tissues of two plants together for futher growing as one plant. The procedure is as follows. 1. Cut the rootstock about 10 centimeters above the ground. Then make a split or cleft through the center of the rootstock stem with depth about 3 - 4 centimeters. 2. Cut the scion of desired plant in a wedge shape approximately 3 - 4 centimeters long. 3. Insert the desired scion into the wound of the rootstock, ensure the wounds are contacted, then tie the wound on the top and bottom tightly with a string.

54 4. Cover the grafted plant with a plastic bag or store it in plastic drying plant. 5. Approximately 5 - 7 weeks, the wound will be well united. Bring to the nursery while waiting to plant it..

55 Cutting Cutting is the process of cutting various parts of the desired plant such as leaves and roots and cultivating them in a mulching material to get a new plant. This section will provide the procedure for branch cutting as follows: 1. Cut the base of a branch closed to the node approximately 15 - 20 centimeters long in a shark’s mouth shap. Cut the top end above the bud about 1 centimeter. 2. Use a sharp-edged knife to slit around the stem 1 - 1.5 centimeters long and about 2-3 tracks. 3. Put the cut branch into the nursery at a depth of about 2.5 - 5 centimeters. 4. Store it in a plastic drying plant or a large plastic bag. 5. After around 25 - 30 days, the cut branch will develop shoots with roots. When there is a massive amount of roots, it is ready for transplanting.

56 Activity Learners shall propagate plants in one of the methods learned and record the results in the designed table Quiz Instruction: Choose the most correct answer. 1. Which parts of a flower allow reproduction? a. Stamens - Pistils b. Stamens - Petals c. Pistils - Petals d. Sepals - Petals 2. Which one is not required for the food producing process of plants? a. Carbon dioxide b. Oxygen c. Sunlight d. Water 3. In which part of a plant does gas exchange occur? a. Root b. Leaf c. Stem d. Flower 4. Which room in a house can a leaf be compared to? a. Bedroom b. Bathroom c. Kitchen d. Living room 5. Which one is not a factor for plant growth? a. Water b. Air c. Minerals d. Weed

57 Topic 4 Animals Each type of animals living in the nature has different internal and external structures. Therefore, we can classify animals into two main types as follows: 1. Vertebrates and invertebrates 2. Animals are living things since they can eat, breathe, excrete, and breed to increase their population. There are a variety of animals in the world. Each type of animal has a different nature and living depending on its characteristics of internal and external structures. Animals are divided into 2 types as follows. Vertebrates are the animals with connected bones. These bones function as the core of the body. Examples of vertebrates are as follows: Fish are aquatic animals living in both freshwater and seawater. They have slender shapes in order to move easily in water. Their bodies are covered with scales or mucus. They use gills for breathing. Most fish lay eggs such as catfish, snake-head fish, tilapia, carp, mackerel, etc. Some species are viviparous such as guppy fish, needle fish, swordtail fish, sharks (some species). The caudal and lateral fins help the fish move in different directions. Frogs, bullfrogs, toads, small green frogs (Ranidae) are amphibians. Their eggs are in water and later grow into larvae called “tadpoles” which live in water and breathe using gills. While the tadpoles live in water, they move by using tails. When tadpoles grow, the tails are gone and they have four legs instead. Typically, they have the same appearance as their mother but are smaller. Then they move to live on land. Amphibians breathe using lungs and skin when they are mature. Crocodiles, turtles, snakes, lizards are reptiles living on land. Their bodies are covered with hard and dry scales. They breathe using lungs. These animals produce eggs with hard crusts or sticky and soft covers. Birds, ducks, chickens, geese, are poultry living on land with two legs and two wings for flying. Their bodies are covered with feathers. They breathe using lungs. These animals produce eggs with hard shells. Humans, monkeys, dogs, bats, whales, dolphins are mammals because females have milk glands for producing milk for their offsprings. Their bodies are covered with hair. They breathe using lungs and are life-bearing animals. The skeleton of a monkey is like a human’s skeleton.

58 Invertebrates Invertebrates are animals without bones as the core of the body. So, some animals develop hard shells for covering their bodies to prevent them from harm. Examples of Invertebrates are as follows: Parasites are invertebrates with long bodies in round or flat shapes. Most parasites live in human or animal bodies and suck their blood for food. Shrimps, Mantis shrimps, crabs are invertebrates, having hard shells covering their bodies. The body is divided into two parts, i.e. the head with a pair of big eyes and the abdomen with articulated legs for walking, swimming, or assisting in eating. Insects are invertebrates having hard shells covering their bodies similar to shrimps, crayfish, and crabs. However, the body of an insect is divided into three parts, i.e. head, thorax, and abdomen. There is one pair of eyes in the head, one pair of antennae in the thorax, and there are three pairs (six legs) in rods for walking, running, jumping, or catching food for eating. Shells are invertebrates with soft bodies and limestone substances in hard outer shells covering their bodies. Most shells live in water, both freshwater such as clams, apple snails, river snails, and saltwater such as cockles, mussels, horse mussels, etc. Some species live on land such as snails. Squids are marine invertebrates that have soft bodies, slender shapes, and tentacles at the end of their bodies for swimming. A squid may have a hard plate called cuttlebone as the structure within its body. Animals in the world are divided into vertebrates and invertebrates. These animals live in different habitats. Some animals live in water, some live on land, and some live both on land and in water. Animals which are born and live in the wild or in water freely, we classify them as wildlife. On the other hand, animals living in our houses or the wildlife that human beings have raised until they are tame, we call them pets. Structures and functions of various systems in animal bodies Animals are living things that live in different habitats. Some animals have tissues or organs that are not clearly developed. However, some species have evolved obviously. Animals have different complexity in the body structures. As a result, their various systems have different structure components and functions.

59 1. Digestive systems of animals 1.1 Digestion in vertebrates All vertebrates such as fish, frogs, lizards, cats, have complete gastrointestinal tract or digestive tract. The digestive tract of vertebrates include the following: Mouth  Oesophagus (gullet)  stomach  small intestine  anus Rumen (stomach part for digestion) Large intestine Small intestine Oesophagus Digestive tract of cattle

60 Oesophagus Intestine Liver Stomach Digestive tract of a bird 1.2 Digestion in invertebrates 1.2.1 Digestion of the invertebrates with incomplete digestive tracts Osculum Spicule Food particles Food vacuole Collar Ostium Flagellum Choanocyte (collar cells) of sponge Sponge

61 Mouth and anus Tentacle Mouth Pharynx Digestive tract Digestive tract Food Gastrovascular Pharynx cavity Mouth and anus Hydra Planaria Fluke Digestive systems of the invertebrates with incomplete digestive tracts Summary of the digestion of invertebrates with incomplete digestive tracts Animal types Digestive tract and digestion 1. Sponge - There is no digestive tract but a special type of cells called Collar 2. Hydra, jellyfish, sea anemone Cell which is used to capture food and create food vacuole for 3. Flat worm, e.g. planaria, fluke digestion. - The digestive tract is incomplete. It has a mouth but no anus. The food is passed through the mouth into the body cavity called gastrovascular cavity which will digest food. The food waste will be excreted by the same way which is mouth. - The digestive tract is incomplete. There is only one open way that is the mouth. Food is entered into the mouth and is digested in the digestive tract. The food waste will be excreted by the same way which is mouth.

62 1.2.2 Digestion of invertebrates with complete digestive tracts Anus Malpighian tubules Anus Crop Stomach Pharynx Stomach Rectum Intestine Stomach Gizzaar Mouth Mouth Digestive tract of an insect Digestive tract of an earthworm Summary of digestion systems of the invertebrates with complete digestive tracts Animal Types Digestive tract and digestion 1. Nematodes or roundworms, - The first group that has a complete digestive tract, i.e. mouth and e.g. Ascaris lumbricoides, anus are apart. threadworms 2. Annelida or ringed worms, e.g. - Complete digestive tract. The structure of the digestive tract has earthworms, freshwater more specific features. leeches, and insects. 2. Blood circulation systems in animals The blood circulatory system of higher vertebrates consists of the heart, as the vital organ that pumps blood to all parts of the body, and blood vessels that transport blood to all cells of the body. However, some animals use the cavities among organs as the blood way. There are two types of blood circulatory systems: 2.1 Closed circulation system. This system has blood flowing in blood vessels all the time. Blood flows out of the heart through blood vessels and flows back to the heart, and continues on and on. This system is found in ringed worms such as earthworms, leeches, and vertebrates of all kinds.

63 Arterial blood Heart Venous blood Closed circulatory system Earthworm Heart Heart Heart Rodent Fish Closed circulatory systems of animals 2.2 Open blood circulation system. For this system, blood flowing out of the heart is not always confined to a vessel in the same manner as a closed system. Blood flows into the body cavities and the space between organs. This system is found in insects, shrimps, crabs, and clams. Arterial blood Heart Venous blood Open blood circulation system

64 3. Respiratory systems in animals Animals exchange gases with the environment by diffusion. Each type of animals has a different structure for atmospheric gas exchange suitable to its own living and environment. heart Shrimp openhceaavrtities insect heart snail Respiratory systems of various kinds of animals Starfish’s gill gill Starfish tracheal tubes inflow water Blood with low oxygen Insect Blood with high oxygen Fish Spider’s book lung lung Spider lung Snail Rodent Respiratory systems of various kinds of animals

65 Animal types Structures for gas exchange 1. Lower animals, e.g. hydra, - No dedicated respiratory organs. Gas exchanges through jellyfish, sponge, planaria membranes or moist skin. 2. Higher aquatic animals, e.g. - They have gills that vary in complexity but have the same funtion fish, shrimp, crabs, ink high sea (Except amphibians when they are tadpoles living in water, they shells. breathe with gills. Later on when they are adult living on land, they breathe with lungs). 3. Lower terrestrial animals, e.g. - They have moist skin and circulatory systems that accelerate gas earthworms exchange rate 4. Higher terrestrial animals: 3 types as follows. - They have book lungs which are a series of thin lines extruding 4.1 Spiders out of the body skin, causing them to lose moisture easily. - They have tracheae which are the tubes connecting to the 4.2 Insects outside of the body through spiracles, and penetrate throughout the body. - They have lungs looking like bags that are related to the blood 4.3 Vertibrates circulatory systems. 4. Excretory systems in animals In the cells or in the bodies of animals, there are many chemical reactions occurring all the time. These reactions result in products which are beneficial to living things as well as wastes that must be removed by excretion. Each type of animals has different organs and processes to remove waste out of the body. Lower animals with simple structures have the excretory cells directly exposed to the environment . The higher vertebrates with complex structures, have dedicated excretory organs.

Excretory systems of various kinds of animals are as follows. 66 Mouth Nephridium Flame cells Earthworm Diffuse through Malpighian membranes tubules Hydra Planaria Insect Kidney Ureter Urinary bladder Rodent Excretory systems in various kinds of animals Animal types Excretory structures or organs 1. Sponge - Waste is diffused out of the cells through cell membranes. 2. Hydra, jellyfish - Waste is diffused to gather in the body cavities and excrete out 3. Flatworms e.g. planaria, fluke through the mouth. Some waste is diffused through the body wall. 4. Ringed worms e.g. earthworms - They use flame cells which are distributed on both sides along the 5. Insects length of their bodies to filter waste. The waste is then discharged through the tubes that opening to the side of the body. 6. Vertebrates - They use nephridia for receiving waste that flows through the tubes. The excretory waste is then discharged through a pore on the worm's side. - They use malphigian tubules which are a number of small tubes between the stomach and intestine. Malphigian tubules absorb the waste from blood and transfer through digestive tract and discharge out of the body through the anus along with residues. - They use two kidneys with ureters and a urinary bladder as excretory organs.

67 5. Nervous System The nervous system is the system that functions to command, connect and coordinate with the environment as well as to receive commands and adjust other systems in the body to be able to act correctly in different environmental conditions. Nervous systems of various kinds of animals Ladder-type nerve nervous system ganglion nerve net Hydra Planaria Planaria Insect Nervous systems of various kinds of animals Animal types Nervous System 1. Sponge - No nervous system 2. Hydra, jellyfish - The first type that has nerve cells connecting as a net called the nerve net. 3. Flatworms e.g. planaria - The first type that has nervous system as the control center around the head area with the nerves branching out called the ladder-type nervous system. 4. Advanced invertebrates such - An animal of this type has nerve ganglion more in the head, as earthworms, insects, shells. arranged as a ring around the pharynx or oesophagus. It functions as a center of nervous system and has nerves lying along the length of the body. 5. Vertebrates - This animal type has brain and spinal cord as the control center of the body. There are nerve cells and nerves in all over the body.

68 6. Reproductive systems in animals 6.1 Reproductive systems of animals can be divided into two types as follows: 1. Asexual reproduction is a mode of reproduction that offsprings are produced from the parent by different ways without using reproductive cells, including budding, regeneration, fragmentation, and parthenogenesis. 2. Sexual reproduction is a process that create new units of organisms by combining male and female gametes including the reproduction of some types of lower animals and all higher animals. Some animals can reproduce sexually and asexually such as hydra. Hydra’s asexual reproduction is budding. 6.2 Several types of asexual reproduction are the following: 1. Budding is the reproduction in which a new organism develops outside the original or parent organism called a bud. The bud grows until it becomes the new organism looking alike to its parent but much smaller. It is separated from the parent organism later on and further grows, or may remain attached to the parent. The animals with this type of reproduction include hydra, sponge, coral. Hydra’s budding 2. Regeneration is the reproduction by growing the body part split or fallen apart to a new life, leading to the increase of population. Animals with this reproductive characteristics include planaria, starfish, sea anemone, earthworms, freshwater leeches.

69 Split Regeneration of planaria and starfish 3. Fragmentation is splitting from the original organism into pieces. Each piece grows to be a new one. This reproduction is found in flatworms. 4. Parthenogenesis is the reproduction of some insects where females can produce eggs that hatch without being fertilized. In normal conditions, the eggs will always hatch out into females. However, in the condition that not suitable for living such as cold, drought, or lack of food, females produce the eggs that hatch into both males and females. After that, the males and females are mating, then the females will lay eggs that are resistant to such adverse conditions. Insects with this reproductive characteristics include walking sticks, aphids, water flea. Social insects such as bees, ants, wasps, hornets, fall into this type of reproduction but in normal conditions their hatches always turn out males. 6.3 Two types of sexual reproduction are as follows: 1. Monoecious reproduction or having two sexes in one unit. Generally, it cannot combine within itself but rather combine with another since the egg and sperm are not mature at the same time such as hydra, planaria, earthworms, etc. testis sperm ovary base base Sexual reproduction of the hydra out of the ovary and further grow.

70 2. Dioecious reproduction or having male and female reproductive organs in separate units: For this type of animal reproduction, there are two types of fertilization: 2.1 Internal fertilization is a combination of the sperm and egg within the female’s body, including all animals that lay eggs on land, mammals, and live-bearing fish such as needle fish, guppy, sharks. 2.2 External fertilization is a combination of the sperm and egg outside the female’s body. This type of fertilization requires water as medium for the sperm to move to unite with the egg, including fish, amphibians, and all kinds of the animals that lay eggs in water . 7. Bone structures and animal growth 7.1 Animal bone types or skeletons are divided into 2 types as follows. 1. Exoskeleton. The skelecon outside the body in forms of hard shells, crusts, skales, and carapaces, found in insects, shrimps, crabs, shells, in order to protect the internal organs from harm. Snail Sea mantis shrimp Sea turtle Insect Snail Sea prawn Crab Exoskeleton of various kinds of animals

71 2. Endoskeleton. The skelecon inside the body including all bones of the vertebrates. Bird Rabbit Fish Frog 7.2 Animal growth Exoskeleton and endoskeleton animals have different growth patterns as follows. 1. The growth of exosceleton animals such as insects, shrimps, crabs, is difficult. Therefore, when mature, they need to shake off the old shells. This process is called molting to allow the soft body to grow, then a hard shell is created to cover the body again. This cycle continues on and on, so that the shape of growth chart is like a ladder. The graph spikes in the period of molting and growing, alternating with the slow increase in some ranges. Weight (milligram) Time (days) Graph showing the development of water mass

72 A shell has exoskeleton covering its body but does not have molting. It instead creates more shells, and the body inside expands accordingly. The growth of insects can be classified into 2 types as follows. Insect growth type Growth pattern 1. Ametamorphosis - Shape is unchanged during growth i.e. Adult egg  young, similar in appearance but smaller Egg than adult  adult Example: diplurans, silverfish, springtails Young Life cycle of a dipluran - Change shape in steps during growth. Insects of 2. Metamorphosis this type include the ones not falling into Type 1. 2.1 Complete Metamophosis - Complete 4 stages of shape change i.e. Adult egg  larva  pupa  adult Example: bees, beetles, flies, ants, wasps, hornets, silk worms Pupa Egg Larva Egg Larva Life cycle of a beetle Adult Pupa Life cycle of a fly

73 Insect growth type Growth pattern 2.2 Incomplete Metamorphosis - Change shape in only 3 stages i.e. Example: dragonflies, mayflies, water striders egg  naiad  adult Adult Egg Naiad in water Naiad on land 2.3 Gradual Metamorphosis cicadas, Life cycle of a dragonfly Example: cockroaches, crickets, - Gradually change shape in only 3 stages i.e. egg  nymph  adult bedbugs, orange bugs Egg Ootheca containing eggs Nymph after hatching from the egg Adult Adult Nymph with no wings Life cycle of a cockroach

74 2. The growth of edosceleton animals is similar to humans where the growth curve is in an S shape. However, amphibians such as frogs, toads, change their shapes during growth, i.e. they have metamorphosis. Their lives can be divided into two distinct periods, i.e. in water and on land. The sequence of growth is as follows. egg  tadpole  adult Adult frog (3 years old) Egg 3 years 12 days Jelly Frog spawn Gill 1 month Tadpole Froglet (1 year old) Hind leg 7 months Tail 1 - 2 months Front leg 7.3 Relationship of systems in an animal body The systems in the body of animals are related both directly and indirectly. The relationship of these systems ensure that animals can survive even though they are in different environmental conditions. Examples of the relationship of various systems in an animal body are as follows: 1. Motion of animals is the important characteristic that distinguish them from plants. Animals generally move towards something beneficial or necessary for their living such as food, suitable habitat, mating, or rasing larvae. On the other hand, they move away from unwanted objects or danger, such as enemies or predators. In order to move, for any purpose, the invertebrates require collaborative interaction of muscular and nervous systems. The vertebrates require the colloaboration among the muscular, skeletal, and nervous systems. 2. The animal growth from embryo to adult depends on all of the systems in the body. These systems must collaboratively work together to ensure the normal growth of animals as follows:

75 - Digestive system is the system that brings nutrients into the body as the key ingredients for growth. - Respiratory system brings the gas that cells need into the body and discharge unwanted gas out of the body. It also produces energy for the cells for further utilization. - Blood circulatory system delivers various useful substances to the cells throughout the body and transport unwanted substances to excretory organs for removal from the body. - Excretory system gets rid of unwanted waste out of the body. - Skeletal system: Exoskeleton helps protect the body inside from harm. Endoskeleton assists in movement or motion. - Nervous system controls mechanisms and functions of all systems in the body. When animals grow to be adults, they are ready for reproduction to increase the population of their offspring so that they can sustain their species. Animal growth Growth All living things grow after they are born. Animals also have a growth which is the process of changing in size and in shape as a result of increasing number of cells by dividing the existing cells, as well as enlarging cells by producing cytoplasm to make cells larger. Subsequently, the cells change shapes and functions, and finally form groups that coordinate to perform functions as organs. These organs are combined to form a body of living organisms to further live in the environment. While growing, some animals change shape periodically and become similar to their parents finally. Some animals have the same shape as their parents since birth but smaller in size. Growth is the process involving changes of living things at all levels, structural and functional. The growth processes include simple steps as follows.

76 1. Cell proliferation In single-celled organisms, proliferation is considered a reproduction, generating a new life in several forms such as fragmentation, budding, etc. In multicellular organisms, proliferation is the process to increase the number of cells such as dividing cells of the embryo to become adult, generating new cells to replace old ones such as skin cells. skin cells 2. Cell enlargement It is the process of collecting and synthesizing organic substances in the molecules of cells to make the molecules larger. It is also a combination between molecules causing the cells to expand their sizes accordingly. This process results in animal growth such as snakes molt when they are bigger. Anaconda is a giant snake with an interesting life. In mating, a male surrounds a female and injects sperm into the female body. The female is pregnant for about two months, and gives birth to a live young one which is not common as other snakes lay eggs. A number of baby anacondas are delivered at a time and some of them die and become the food of their mother. If the mother anaconda bites the live baby, the baby will then shake the body and the mother will spit it out immediately. Before a baby anaconda grows and survives as an adult, it would have faced many enemies. Less than 10% of baby anacondas can survive. When an anaconda is fully grown, it is ready to mate and produce offsprings.

77 3. Cell differentiation At the initial stages, cells may perform one function but when there is a change in functionality, the cells are diffrentiated accordingly in order to be able to perform different functions. Differentiation can happen in both physical and biochemical dimensions and at the levels of molecules, cells, organs, and organ systems. The new cells look different from the original cells. Different cells in a human body Nerve cells Red blood cells Muscle cells

78 Physical development of humans Crawling Walking One legged Two legged jumping Cycling 10 months 15 months jumping or rope jumping 5 years 4 years 5 years 4. Shape stabilization Living things change shapes over time from birth to adulthood due to cell divisions or cell proliferations. The shape of the adult may be a lot different from the new-born or totally different such as frog, butterflies, etc. The growth of higher animals stop when they are fully grown and they stop to grow in height,regardless of weight. Silverfish . The eggs of silverfish are hatched to become small fish with a similar appearance to the parents. The last molting makes themt a full- grown.

79 Factors affecting growth 1. The potential of genetic inheritance transfer: How living things grow up depends mainly on their genes since the growth of the embryo follow the same steps as those of the parents. However, the growth rate will vary depending on the environment of the living organisms at that time. 2. Environmental factors 2.1 Bilogical factors: An abnormal growth may be the result of living things existing together. For example, if the body has parasites such as worms, bacteria, destroying the tissues or absorbing nutrients, it will abnormally slowly grow or finally die. 2.2 Physical factors 2.2.1 Factors related to energy include heat, sunlight, sound, etc. 2.2.2 Factors related to chemical substances: Chemicals affecting growth are hormones since hormones and related substances control the normal functioning of the systems in the body.. Animal propagation Today, the world population has significantly increased, and the demand for animals as food and products for human beings is increased accordingly. Therefore, human beings have found various ways to help in propagating animals more to have a sufficient quantity as well as meeting quality requirements. Scientists apply modern technology in propagation in order to get more quantity of animals rather than having animals mating naturally. The new methods that are convenient and effective, and are widely used at present include artificial insemination, embryo transfer, and cloning. Cloning is the new propagation technique that has been invented successfully in February 1997.

80 Artificial insemination Artificial insemination is a technique to deliberately cause fertilization between the egg and sperm by human beings. This is done by taking the semen of the male to mix with the eggs of the female and animals do not have natural insemination. Artificial insemination can be done for animals by way of external fertilization such as for fish and internal fertilization such as for cattle, pigs, goats, sheep. Semen syringe Tube for delivering the semen for insemination Artificial insemination of animals by way of internal fertilization Animals with internal fertilization that have commonly been applied with artificial insemination include cattle, pigs, goats, sheep, with the following procedures: 1. Semen collection: Collect semen from the thoroughbred breeder that is strong and has the appropriate age, with a specific tool. 2. Semen evaluation. Check the quality of the semen collected whether it contains sufficient sperm volume and that they are strong enough to be used. 3. Semen preservation: The semen is preserved before use. Food is added into the semen for the sperms to use during the whole period of preservation and also to increase the semen volume so that it can be used with several females. The semen with the food added is then stored at a low temperature and can be divided into two types as follows: 1. Fresh semen preservation: The semen is kept in a liquid form at a temperature of 4 - 5 degrees Celcius and it can still be active for about a month. However, if the semen is kept at a temperature of 15 - 20 degrees Celcius, it is active for about 4 - 5 days only. 2. Frozen semen collection: The semen is kept in liquid nitrogen at a temperature of less than - 196 degrees Celcius so the semen is frozen in a solid form. This method will help preserve the semen for a year.

81 4. Semen injection into the female breeder: When conducting artificial insemination, take out the stored fresh or frozen semen and allow it to return to a normal condition. Then, use a syringe to suck the prepared semen and inject it into the uterus of the female breeder to allow fertilization and pregnancy. Artificial insemination of animals with external fertilization Artificial insemination of the animal with external fertilization is commonly done in some aquatic animals such as fish, shrimps, and shells. For the artificial insemination in fish, before collecting the semen and eggs from the fish breeders, they need to be prepared by injecting a \"hormone\" to stimulate the male breeder to produce the qualified semen as well as to stimulate the eggs of the female breeder to be fully matured. The hormone used comes from the pituitary gland of fish, or a synthetic hormone can be used. Artificial insemination in fish has main steps as follows: 1. Collect eggs from the female breeder. The egg is collected from the belly of the female fish breeder into the container. It is common to inject the hormone from the pituitary gland of the same kind of fish into the female breeder before insemination in order to accelerate the maturity of the eggs. 2. Collect semen from male breeder:. The semen is collected from the male fish breeder into a container that contains the collected eggs. 3. Blend the semen and the eggs: This is to ensure that the sperm is mixed with the eggs thoroughly, usually done with a soft chicken feather throughout the container. Leave it for a while, then drain the water. 4. Incubate and hatch fertilized eggs: This is to incubate and hatch the fertilized egg into the baby fish by incubating the fertilized eggs in a prepared pond or container so that they will hatch into the baby fish. Embryo transfer Embryo transfer is a new propagation technique. The main principle is that the embryo resulting from fertilization between the male and female breeders are taken out of the uterus of the female breeder. Then, the embryo is put into the womb of another female that is prepared for pregnancy instead of the breeder. This method utilizes the female breeder well since it only produces the embryo but will not be pregnant. The embryo transfer can be done only with mammals that deliver one baby at a time and have a long pregnancy period.

82 Cloning Cloning is a propagation technique to make the egg cell that has gone through some processing to be able to develop to an embryo without natural fertilization. The nucleus of such egg cell is removed and replaced with the new nucleus that belongs to the donor cell from the desired animal. After that, the egg cell is stimulated by the new nucleus to divide and become an embryo. Then, the embryo is deposited into the uterus of the surrogate mother to become pregnant and deliver the baby instead of the donor mother. The animal that was born by the cloning technique and is famous worldwide is “Dolly the sheep”. It was born in February 1997 (deceased). The donor cell of Dolly the sheep is the udder cell of the white- faced sheep. The process of cloning Dolly the sheep is shown in the diagram. Nucleus from the The donor stem cell is put cell is into the egg cell, Insert the embryo into the and impulsed by uterus of the surrogate incubated. mild electricity. mother, which is the White-faced sheep, black-faced sheep. donor cell owner Donor cell from the udder cell Egg cell Nucleus-free The cell divide The baby sheep Black-faced sheep, egg and become an delivered is the egg cell owner embryo. white-faced sheep same as the donor cell. In addition to Dolly, other cloned animals were born periodically, such as: * “Ing” , the first clonded cow of Thailand, using ear lobe cells of female Brangus as donor cells. * “CC” , the world's first cloned cat, using the cells surrounding the egg cells as donor cells.

83 Worksheet Animal Instruction: Answer the following questions with a brief explanation. 1. How are the types of animals classified? …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 2. What factors are essential to the growth of living things? …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 3. How many groups of vertebrates are there? What are they? …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 4. Give examples of 5 groups of invertebrates. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

84 Lesson 4 Ecosystem Main learning essence This chapter covers the meaning of the ecosystem, relationship of community of living things, relationship in a food chain and relationship of the local environment and the livelihood of living things. Expected learning outcome 1. Be able to describe the relationship of the community of living things and the environment. 2. Be able to describe the relationship of the living things in a food chain. 3. Be able to describe the relationship of the local environment and the livelihood of living things. Content scope Topic 1 Livelihood of local living things Topic 2 Food chain Topic 3 Relationship of the environment and the livelihood of living things

85 Topic 1 Livelihood of local living things Ecosystem is the relationship of community of living things in the habitat and with one another. The world's largest ecosystem is called the Biosphere. An ecosystem consists of two basic components as follows. 1. Abiotic components comprise of organic and inorganic substances, and physical environment. Organic substances include proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, vitamins. Inorganic substances include water, carbon dioxide, etc. Physical environment includes temperature, sunlight, pressure. 2. Biotic components include producers, consumers, and decomposers. Types of ecosystems 1. Terrestrial ecosystems include desert, grassland, rainforest, deciduous forest, pine forest, and tundra ecosystems. 2. Aquatic ecosystems include freshwater, marine, saltwater, brackish water ecosystems. Relationship of living things There are two types of relationship of living things in an ecosystem as follows. 1. Relationship between the same specie. It results in both advantages and disadvantages.  Advantages: strenthening potency and security of a group  Disadvantages: competing for food or for being a herd leader 2. Relationship of different species. Two or more species living together in the same habitat can have several types of relationships as follows: Protocooperation: The two living organisms gain benefits from each other such as bees and flowers, aphides and black ants, mynahs and buffaloes. Mutualism: The two living organisms have benefits by living together. However, they need to live together all the time. If they are separated one of them would not survive. For example, lichens, protozoa in the guts of termites, bacteria inside the root nodules of legumes.

86 Commensalism: One living organism gains benefit while the other does not gain or lose benefits, and they can live apart. Examples include bindweed clinging to a large tree, orchids and a teak, a bird nesting on a tree, shark suckers and a shark, barnacles clinging to an animal’s body. Relationship of living things and the environment Sunlight: Light from the sun is the energy that influences all living things on earth. The amount of natural light in each area varies so that the living organisms are different. Plants need sunlight more than animals. Plants use sunlight as the energy in photosynthesis for generating nutrients which are transferred to the animals in food chains. Light requirements of living things are different. Plants living in sunshine are densely populated more than those living in the areas with dim sunlight. Each plant needs sunlight in different amount. Sunlight influences the being of animals. Some animals require small amount of sunlight, then tend to live in low light environment or in dark shade such as the larvae of insects. Animals in the desert, where the sunlight is intense at daytime, hide themselves during daytime and go prowling at night. Animals in the deep sea with very little or no light, have organs that can generate light by themselves. Temperature: Living organisms choose the habitat that has the temperature suitable for themselves. The proper temperature is around 10 - 30 degrees Celsius. The temperature on the ground changes more than under the water. Consequently, the living things on land have various kinds of adaptation, such as migration of swallows from China to Thailand for living during the winter, hibernation of frogs to escape the hot or cold weather. Minerals and gases: Plants and animals take minerals and gases into the process of generating food and developing body structures. Needs of minerals and gases of living organisms vary. Acid-base status of soil and water: Living organisms can grow and live in the soil and water with suitable acid-base property. This property is dependent on the amount of minerals dissolved.

87 Activity Learners are to explore the ecosystem or the environment in the school or at home and draw the elements in such environment and describe how they are related. Test Choose the most correct answer. 1. What is the man-made environment? a. Forest b. River c. Culture d. Land 2. Which statement is correct? a. Environment refers to the things surrounding us created by nature. b. Environment refers to the things surrounding us created by human. c. Environment refers to the living or non-living things and maybe visible or invisible. d. All are correct. 3. Which one is the relationship between the living things and environment? a. Mynahs and buffaloes b. Food producing of plants c. Parasite plants on trees d. Termites and protozoa 4. Which one describes the relationship between a mynah on a buffalo? a. Protocooperation b. Mutualism c. Commensalism d. Decomposing 5. Which one is Commensalism relationship? a. Bindweed clinging to a big tree b. Bacteria in the root nodules of legumes c. Aphids and black ants d. Bees and flowers

88 Topic 2 Food chain Food chain is the relationship of living things regarding a sequence of eating one another starting from the producer to the consumers, resulting in the transfer of energy in the food from one to another in order. Example Rice Grasshopper Frog Hawk From the diagram, it can be seen that the sequence of eating one another in this food chain begins with rice. After that, the grasshopper eats rice’s leaves, then the frog eats the grasshopper, and finally the hawk eats the frog. From this sequence, it can be explained as follows. Producer Rice Rice is the producer of this food chain since it is the plant that can produce food by photosynthesis. Primary consumer Grasshopper Grasshopper is the primary consumer since it is the first animal that eats rice which is the producer.

89 Secondary consumer Frog Frog is the secondary consumer since it catches the grasshopper for food after the grasshopper has already eaten the rice. Final consumer Hawk Hawk is the final consumer or top predator since the hawk eats the frog and no other animals in this food chain eats the hawk. To write a food chain, begin with the producer on the left, follow with the primary consumer, secondary consumer, tertiary consumer, and so on, until the final consumer. Also, write each arrow for energy transfer from one living organism to another. In other words, the arrowhead points to the predator and the other side points to the prey.

90 Food web Food web is a number of food chains that overlap or relate to one another. The nature of a series of eating one another in a food chain becomes more complex i.e. eating on a random basis. Example Food web diagram From the diagram above, it can be seen that the rice which is the producer of the ecosystem can be consumed by many kinds of animals i.e. cow, grasshopper, chicken, and bee. The primary animal can be the prey and also the predator of other animals. For example, the chicken can eat the grasshopper while it can be eaten by the snake.

91 Energy transfer in an ecosystem The sun is the energy source of the biosphere. The community of living organisms that are producers transfer the energy from sunlight to the energy stored in the molecules of nutrients. The photosynthesis results in the initial output which is glucose and the oxygen is also released into the atmosphere. The energy in the molecules of nutrients is transferred from the producer through the consumers in subsequent order to the decomposers of organic substances. The energy transferred is reduced subsequently since it is partly used to produce energy for the body by respiration and another part is lost in the form of heat. Therefore, the length of energy transfer in a food chain is limited. Typically, a food chain ends at the level of the 4th and 5th consumers only. From the food web diagram. The first consumers receiving the energy from the plant include the rabbit, rodent, bird eating plant, grasshopper, then are categorized as primary consumers. The bird eating insects, spider, and beetle has energy transmitted in the second order. The hawk is the tertiary consumer. The pattern of energy transfer in a food chain can be presented in the form of a pyramid of numbers of living organisms as shown in the diagram. Generally, the proportion of number of living organisms can be represented by an expansive pyramid ‟ a broad base, where the producers have the largest proportion and are at the bottom of the pyramid. The proportion of consumers which are higher in the pyramid decreases compared to those who are lower in the food chain. The number in each level of the pyramid shows the number of living organisms in the habitat. It can be seen that the area of one square meter of freshwater pool contains a huge number of producers. The numbers of consumers in each order are getting smaller to the tertiary consumer which is the last consumer. In the example pyramid in this diagram, the number of final consumer is 0.01 living organisms per square meter. The number of organisms is not an integer since we calculate the number of living things per one square meter surface area of the freshwater pool while the actual area of the freshwater pool is more than one square meter. Hence, when calculating the number of tertiary consumers on the surface of the freshwater pool for every 1 square meter which is small, the result is not an integer. The pyramid of numbers of living organisms does not always have a broad base. A longon field ecosystem having 200 longon trees is a habitat of community of many living species including bees, oriental fruit flies, birds, owls. It can clearly be seen that the number of bees and fruit flies that make a living by longon flowers’ nectar are several times more than longan trees. Therefore, the pyramid of numbers of living organisms of this ecosystem has the form as shown in the diagram.

92 The presentation of data in the form of pyramid of numbers may cause a misconception because each living organism either a single-celled alga or a multiple-celled animal with larger size such as an earthworm is counted equally as one unit, but in fact, the amount of food that the consumers can get from these two livng things are much different. Therefore, ecologists demonstrate information in the form of pyramid of mass of living organisms by estimating the dry mass of the organisms of each order instead of counting the number, to ensure the information is close to reality, as shown in the picture. Number or mass of living things have changed in different periods of time and the growth rate of each type of living organisms is different. Consider a teak and microalgae as an example. A teak has mass or quantity more than a million cells of microalgae. However, the algae grow and reproduce rapidly during a year and yield the food for consumers even more than the teak. Thus, the presentation in the form of pyramid of energy is proposed. The energy transfer in an ecosystem is very important. Not only the nutrients are transferred but all substances in the ecosystem, helpful or harmful, are also transferred through the food chain. For example, the use of well-known chemical pesticides and fungicides DDT, which is difficult to decompose and has high stability. It is good in destroying the insects’ nervous systems since it contains toxic heavy metals such as mercury, lead, or arsenic. These substances will remain in the producers and consumers, and be transferred along the food chain. The concentration of DDT is getting higher at each level of the food chain. For example, 1 gram of the meat of fish-eating birds has more DDT than 1 gram of the fish meat with equal weight. Residential areas of people have disposed waste into the nature. Also, human activities such as restaurants, garages, hotels, factories, and agricultural areas, generate waste and release it out to the environment so that it accumulates in the water sources, soil, and air. Then, the waste is transmitted to the producers and consumers of different orders and back to humans which are part of the food chain and cause health effect. Some waste also contain toxic substances such as heavy metals and can lead to death if the body receive the large amount.

93 In some cases, waste or toxic substances accumulated in various sources may not be transmitted to humans since the consumers at the beginning already got harm, and the food chain is destroyed. However, humans still get impact in terms of shortage of food and economy impact. Therefore, there should be precautions and proper waste management. Activity Assign the students to explore the ecosystem around the school or at home. Write the food web of the ecosystem and indentify what are the producers, what are the consumers and in which order.

94 Test Choose the most correct answer. Consider the diagram below and answer the questions 1 - 4. Plant Worm Bird Human 1. Which one is the producer? b. Worm a. Plant d. Human c. Bird 2. Which one contains the consumer(s)? a. Plant b. Worm, bird, human c. Plant, worm, bird, human d. Plant, worm, bird 3. Which one is the primary consumer? a. Plant b. Worm c. Bird d. Human 4. Which one is the final consumer? a. Plant b. Worm c. Bird d. Human

95 Topic 3 Relationship of the environment and the being of living things Meaning of Adaptation Adaptation is the process that living things change or adjust some characteristics to match with the environment. Those characteristics that have been changed help facilitate their livings in regards of survival and ability of reproduction. There are several factors related to the survival of the living organisms including seeking for food, reproduction, fighting with enemies, escaping from enemies or the environment. Living organisms have adaptation as follows. 1. Birth, existing of appearance, manner, characteristic, and function of living organisms in the population, to be suitable and able to live in such environment. This adaptation occurs from the natural selection of organisms that cause genetic diversities. 2. Physiological characteristics, behavior or morphology, controlled by genes, allow the living organisms to live suitably in the environment and be able to reproduce. 3. Changes during the life time of a living thing; for example, lack of oxygen to the brain makes a human fall down so that the blood can deliver oxygen to the brain faster i.e. a faint. Some birds change the color of feathers or change behavior in a certain season. For example, during the reproduction period of peacocks, the male peacock spread the beautiful tail-feathers. Genetic adaptation is the result of natural selection. All living things need to adapt to the environment to survive. Adaptation can occur in both physiological or behavioral ways. If the adaptation is appropriate and can be genetically transmitted, it always results in an evolution. The adaptation of living organisms is the result of natual selection. The appearance will facilitate the living organisms in regards to the survival and ability to reproduce. These characteristics maintained in the living things are controlled by genes. The living organisms that can adapt well will be able to live and propagate their species.

96 Therefore, living organisms adapt their bodies to be similar to the nature where they live in order to camouflage to protect themselves from the enemy attack and disguise the prey coming nearby. The prey of each living thing is different for easy consumption. The picture shows the mouth shapes of some insects. Ways of adaptation of living things All living things adapt to the environment in which it resides in order to survive and continue to reproduce. However, since there are many types of living organisms in the world, the adaptation of each type is different, which can be summarized as follows. Adaptation of lizards. A lizard adjusts its color to match with the color of the wall or ceiling where it lives. If it lives in a white building, it adjusts its color to be pale or almost white. But when living in a house, it changes color to brown. Adaptation of waterfowl. A teal living and feeding in water adapts its feathers to be glossy and has webbed toes in order to swim and catch fish easily. The purpose of adaptation of these living organisms is to camouflage to protect themselves from predators’ hunting or disguise the prey coming closed, as well as to find food easily. Some living things adapt their shapes to blend with the nature which is their habitat in order to camouflage to prevent themselves from enemy attack or disguise the prey coming nearby. Adaptations in appearance of 3 kinds of grasshoppers are as follows. 1. Walking stick. It has brown body and long ungainly legs. When it holds still, it looks like a branch. 2. Green leaf katydid. The body is green or brown. When it holds still, it looks like a leaf. 3. Mantis. It has green body, large front legs with the organ at the end of the legs for catching prey. When it stands still, its wings are piled up covering the body looking like a leaf.

97 Living organisms adapt their shapes to blend with the environment they live in. Some such as insects can also adapt their mouths to be suitable for their food or the prey they eat. By adapting their mouths to be suitable to the prey, insects have different physical structures. The insects that bite and eat leaves adapt their mouths to be similar to scissors or pliers in order to bite, eat, gnaw, or chew food into small pieces. For example, crickets, grasshoppers, cockroaches, ants, etc. The mouth of this insect type is called a cutting-chewing mouth. Insects eating liquid food adapt their mouths to be like a flat spatula. The lip is stretched out to lick and absorb food. In the body, there is a hollow tube opening for saliva to help in digestion and serve as a digestive tract to the pharynx. Insects in this group include flies, bees, horseflies, etc. The mouth of this insect type is called a lapping-sponging mouth. Insects that suck water from the victim adapt their mouths to a long tube looking like a protruding needle to pierce and suck water or liquid food from its prey. For example, mosquitoes, aphids, giant water bugs. The mouth of this insect group is called a piercing-sucking mouth. Insects sucking nectar from flowers adapt their mouths to be able to roll after sucking food, such as butterflies, etc. The mouth of this insect group is called a siphoning mouth. Adaptation of animals, aiming for suitability of their feeding, results in different physiological structures of their bodies. For example, the insect biting and eating leaves has jaws for chewing, the insect having liquid food adapt its mouth to be a tube for absorbing, etc. The adaptation of these animals ensure they can live in the environment properly and have propagation. Adaptation of plants Adaptation to the environment is not only found in animals, but also in plants. Adaptation of plants depends on the environment. For example, water hyacinth is a lightweight water plant with bulbous petioles and has a number of hollow spaces in the cells, so it can float in water.

98 Activity Assign the students to explore the ecosystem around the school or at home. Observe which animals adapt to the environment and describe the reasons. Test Choose the most correct answer. 1. Why a cactus has spiny leaves? a. To produce more food b. To reduce transpiration c. To prevent the destruction from natural enemies d. Because the cactus shed leaves often. 2. What is the impact to the living organisms resulting from the environment? a. Morning glory or water hyacinth stems are hollow to be able to float. b. Dogs have fur on the back more than on the belly to drain heat from the sun. c. Animals with small size sustain their species by breeding a large quantity at a time. d. All are correct. 3. How the environment affect the living beings? a. May cause the living things to extinction. b. Cause the living things to adaptation. c. Living things experience various kinds of difficulties. d. All are correct. 4. Which one is not the adaptation to environment? a. A parrot has beautiful green feathers. b. A Penguin has no feathers, but slippery skin. c. A polar bear has long hair. d. A walking stalk grasshopper is brown and has long legs. 5. If a panda is raised in the hot weather country, it will die. Why? a. The food is changed. b. The weather is too hot. c. The environment is changed. d. Lack of essential nutrients.

99 Lesson 5 Natural resources and the local environment Main learning essence Natural resources mean natural things that benefit human beings such as soil, water, air, forest, meadow, minerals, etc. The most significant meaning of natural resources, type of natural resources, effects from the loss of natural resources, particularly the effects on living things, meaning and types of local environment, prevention of changes in the local environment, and how to solve local environmental problems Expected learning outcome 1. Be able to explain the process of succession. 2. Be able to discuss the use of natural resources and the conditions of environmental problems. 3. Be able to explain the causes of the problem, as well as to plan and implement the plan. 4. Be able to explain prevention, solution, surveillance, conservation, and development of natural resources and the environment. 5. Be able to explain geological events that affect living things and the environment. 6. Be able to explain global warming, its causes and effects on human life. Scope of content Topic 1: Natural resources Topic 2: Environment

100 Topic 1: Natural Resources Meaning of natural resources and environment Natural resources are natural things that benefit human beings such as soil, water, air, forest, meadow, minerals, etc. Environment means both living and non-living things that surround us, including those that come from nature and those that are created by man. All kinds of natural resources are part of the environment but not all environments are a part of natural resources. Significance of natural resources and the environment Natural resources are vital for human lives and affect the development of nations. If a country has an abundance of natural resources and a good environment, its people tend to have a high quality of life and a good livelihood. We can categorize the significance of natural resources into 3 types as follows: 1. Economic significance: Richness of natural resources can have a positive impact on a country’s economy, leading to a good quality of life of its population. 2. Social significance: Natural resources are important to society. With rich natural resources, a country can develop rapidly and compete with civilized countries. 3. Political significance: Countries with an abundance of natural resources tend to be powerful nations, accepted by other civilized countries, and have a strong bargaining power on the world stage. We can see that colonialism in the past was motivated by the desire to possess the natural resources of other countries. Types of natural resources and the environment Natural resources can be categorized into 2 main groups: 1. Non-renewable resources are natural resources that cannot be renewed once they have been used, or take millions of years to be renewed. Therefore, it is necessary that human beings use non-renewable resources wisely, maximizing their benefits and saving them for long-term use. Examples of non-renewable resources are minerals, natural gas, oil, etc. 2. Renewable resources are resources that can replenish themselves naturally such as soil, water, air, forest and wildlife.