Ghost Wars

Maley, William, ed. Fundamentalism Reborn? Afghanistan and the Taliban. London: Hurst, 1988. Maraniss, David. First in His Class: The Biography of Bill Clinton. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995. Masters, John. Bugles and a Tiger: A Volume of Autobiography. New York: Viking, 1956. Miller, Charles. Khyber: British India’s North West Frontier. New York: Macmillan, 1977. Miller, John, and Michael Stone, with Chris Mitchell. The Cell: Inside the 9/11 Plot, and Why the FBI and CIA Failed to Stop It. New York: Hyperion, 2002. Mylroie, Laurie. The War Against America: Saddam Hussein and the World Trade Center Attacks, a Study of Revenge. 2d ed., rev. New York: HarperCollins, 2001. Persico, Joseph E. Casey: From the OSS to the CIA. New York: Viking, 1990. Pillar, Paul R. Terrorism and U.S. Foreign Policy. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2001. Prendergast, John. Prender’s Progress: A Soldier in India, 1931-1947. London: Cassell, 1979. Rashid, Ahmed. Taliban: Militant Islam, Oil, and Fundamentalism in Central Asia. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2000. –. The Resurgence of Central Asia: Islam or Nationalism? Karachi, Pakistan: Oxford University Press; London: Zed Books, 1994. Raza, M. Hanif. A Souvenir of Peshawar. Islamabad, Pakistan: Colorpix, 1994. Reisman, Michael W., and James E. Baker. Regulating Covert Action: Practices, Contexts, and Policies of Covert Coercion Abroad in International and American Law. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992. Roy, Olivier. Afghanistan: From Holy War to Civil War. Princeton, N.J.: Darwin Press, 1995. –. Islam and Resistance in Afghanistan. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1986. –. The New Central Asia: The Creation of Nations. New York: New York University Press, 1997. Rubin, Barnett R. The Search for Peace in Afghanistan: From Buffer State to Failed State. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1995. –. The Fragmentation of Afghanistan: State Formation and Collapse in the International System. 2d ed. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1995. Rubin, Barry. Islamic Fundamentalism in Egyptian Politics. London: Macmillan, 1990. Scales, Robert H., Jr. Future Warfare Anthology. Rev. ed. Carlisle Barracks, Penn.: U.S. Army War College, 2001. Sinclair, Gordon. Khyber Caravan: Through Kashmir, Waziristan, Afghanistan, Baluchistan, and Northern India. Lahore, Pakistan: Sang-E-Meel Publications, 1978.

Singh, Khushwant. Train to Pakistan. New Delhi, India: Ravi Dayal, 1988. Stewart, James B. Blood Sport: The President and His Adversaries. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996. Sullivan, Joseph G., ed. Embassies Under Siege: Personal Accounts by Diplomats on the Front Line. Washington, D.C.: Brassey’s, 1995. Swinson, Arthur. North-West Frontier: People and Events, 1839-1947. London: Corgi Books, 1967. Tanner, Stephen. Afghanistan: A Military History from Alexander the Great to the Fall of the Taliban. New York: Da Capo Press, 2002. Teitelbaum, Joshua. Holier Than Thou: Saudi Arabia’s Islamic Opposition.Washington,D.C.:Washington Institute for Near East Policy, 2000. Vassiliev, Alexei. The History of Saudi Arabia. New York: New York University Press, 2000. Weaver, Mary Anne. A Portrait of Egypt: A Journey Through the World of Militant Islam. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1999. –. Pakistan: In the Shadow of Jihad and Afghanistan. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2002. Wilkinson-Latham, Robert. North-West Frontier, 1837-1947. London: Osprey, 1977. Woodward, Bob. Shadow: Five Presidents and the Legacy of Watergate. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1999. –. Veil: The Secret Wars of the CIA, 1981-1987. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1987. Yergin, Daniel. The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money and Power. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1992. Yousaf, Mohammad. Silent Soldier: The Man Behind the Afghan Jehad, General Akhtar Abdur Rahman Shaheed. Lahore, Pakistan: Jang, 1991. Yousaf, Mohammad, and Mark Adkin. The Bear Trap: Afghanistan’s Untold Story. Lahore, Pakistan: Jang, 1992. JOURNAL ARTICLES AND MANUSCRIPTS “Afghanistan, Crisis of Impunity: The Role of Pakistan, Russia, and Iran in Fueling the Civil War.” Human Rights Watch 13, no. 3 (July 2001): 3-58. Al-Khatlan, Saleh M. “Saudi Foreign Policy Toward Central Asia.” Journal of King Abdulaziz University 14, no. 1 (2000): 19-31. Al-Zawahiri, Ayman. Knights Under the Prophet’s Banner. Excerpts as printed in Al-Sharq al- Awsat, trans. FBIS. December 2, 2001. Azzam, Maha. “Islamic Oriented Protest Groups in Egypt 1971-1981: Theory, Politics, and Dogma.” Thesis, Oxford University, 1989.

Bearden, Milton. “Afghanistan, Graveyard of Empires.” Foreign Affairs 80, no. 6 (November/ December 2001): 17-30. Beg, Mirza Aslam. “Taliban’s Military Successes, 1995-2000.” National Security (ca. 2001): 1-44. Benjamin, Daniel, and Steven Simon. “A Failure of Intelligence?” The New York Review of Books (December 20, 2001): 76-80. –. “America and the New Terrorism.” Survival 42, no. 1 (Spring 2000): 59-75. Cogan, Charles G. “Partners in Time: The CIA and Afghanistan Since 1979.”World Policy Journal 10, no. 2 (Summer 1993): 73-82. –. “Shawl of Lead: From Holy War to Civil War in Afghanistan.” Conflict 10 (1990): 189- 204. Deutch, John, Ashton Carter, and Philip Zelikow. “Catastrophic Terrorism: Tackling the New Danger.” Foreign Affairs 77, no. 6 (November/December 1998): 80-94. Dowell, William. “With Massoud’s Rebels.” The Washington Quarterly 5, no. 4 (Autumn 1982): 209ff. Gates, Robert. “From the Shadows Manuscript.” Vols. 1 and 2. Kennedy School Library. Examined and typed April 27, 2002. Hyman, Anthony. “Propaganda Posters of the Afghan Resistance.” Central Asian Survey Incidental Papers Series, no. 3 (January 1985): 1-55. Jalali, Ali A. “Afghanistan: The Anatomy of an Ongoing Conflict.” Parameters 31, no. 1 (Spring 2001): 85-98. Judah, Tim. “The Taliban Papers.” Survival 44, no. 1 (Spring 2002): 69-80. Katzman, Kenneth. “Counterterrorism Policy: American Successes.” The Middle East Quarterly 5, no. 4 (December 1998): 45-52. Khalilzad, Zalmay. “Anarchy in Afghanistan.” Journal of International Affairs 51, no. 1 (Summer 1997): 37-56. Khalilzad, Zalmay, and Daniel Byman. “Afghanistan: The Consolidation of a Rogue State.” The Washington Quarterly 23, no. 1 (Winter 2000): 65-78. Kline, David. “The Conceding of Afghanistan.” The Washington Quarterly 6, no. 2 (Spring 1983): 130ff. Kuperman, Alan J. “The Stinger Missile and U.S. Intervention in Afghanistan.” Political Science Quarterly 114, no. 2 (Summer 1999): 219-63. Lundberg, Kirsten, Philip Zelikow, and Ernest May. “Politics of a Covert Action: The U.S., the Mujahideen, and the Stinger Missile.” Kennedy School of Government Case Program, Harvard University, 1999. Obaid, Nawaf E. “Improving U.S. Intelligence Analysis on the Saudi Arabian Decision Making Process.” Master’s degree thesis, Harvard University, 1998. Riedel, Bruce. “American Diplomacy and the 1999 Kargil Summit at Blair House.” Center

for Advanced Study of India, University of Pennsylvania, Policy Paper Series, 2002. Rubin, Barnett. “Afghanistan: The Forgotten Crisis.” UNHCR Refugee Survey Quarterly 15, no. 2 (1996). Saikal, Amin. “The Role of Outside Actors in Afghanistan.” Middle East Policy 7, no. 4 (October 2000): 50-57. Tomsen, Peter. “A Chance for Peace in Afghanistan.” Foreign Affairs 79, no. 1 (January/February 2000): 179-82. –. “Geopolitics of an Afghan Settlement.” Perceptions, Journal of International Affairs 5, no. 4 (December 2000/February 2001): 86-105. Weaver, Mary Anne. “Of Birds and Bombs.” APF Reporter 20, no. 4 (2001): http://www.alicia patterson.org. CONGRESSIONAL HEARINGS Armitage, Richard. Joint House and Senate Select Intelligence Committee Hearing on Events Surrounding the Terrorist Attacks of September 11, 2001 (“Joint Inquiry Committee”). September 19, 2002. Berger, Samuel. Joint Inquiry Committee. September 19, 2002. Black, Cofer. Joint Inquiry Committee. September 26, 2002. Cannistraro, Vincent M. Senate Foreign Relations Committee: Near East and South Asian Affairs Subcommittee Hearing on Terrorism and the Middle East Peace Process. March 19, 1996. –. House International Relations Committee Hearing on al Qaeda and the Global Reach of Terrorism. October 3, 2001. Collins, James F. House International Relations Committee Hearing on Central Asia. November 14, 1995. Freeh, Louis. Joint Inquiry Committee. October 8, 2002. Gee, Robert W. Statement to House International Relations Committee: Subcommittee on Asia and the Pacific. February 12, 1998. Hayden, Michael. Joint Inquiry Committee. October 17, 2002. Heslin, Sheila. Senate Governmental Affairs Committee Hearing on Finance Reform. September 17, 1997. Hill, Eleanor. Hearings: Joint Inquiry Committee. September 18, 2002; September 20, 2002; September 24, 2002; October 1, 2002; October 8, 2002; October 17, 2002. –. Staff Statements: Joint Inquiry Staff Statement. September 18, 2002. –. The Intelligence Community’s Knowledge of the September 11 Hijackers Prior to September 11, 2001. September 20, 2002. –. The FBI’s Handling of the Phoenix Electronic Communication and Investigation of

Zacarias Moussaoui Prior to September 11, 2001. September 24, 2002. –. Counterterrorism Information Sharing with Other Federal Agencies and with State and Local Governments and the Private Sector. October 1, 2002. –. Proposals for Reform Within the Intelligence Community. October 3, 2002. –. On the Intelligence Community’s Response to Past Terrorist Attacks Against the United States from February 1993 to September 2001. October 8, 2002. –. Joint Inquiry Staff Statement. October 17, 2002. Inderfurth, Karl F. Senate Foreign Relations Committee: Near Eastern and South Asian Affairs Subcommittee Hearing on Afghanistan. July 10, 1997. –.Senate Foreign Relations Committee: Near Eastern and South Asian Affairs Subcommittee Hearing on Events in Afghanistan. October 22, 1997. –.Senate Foreign Relations Committee: Near Eastern and South Asian Affairs Subcommittee Hearing on Events in Afghanistan. October 8, 1998. –. Senate Appropriations Committee: Foreign Operations Subcommittee Hearing on Afghanistan. March 9, 1999. –.Senate Foreign Relations Committee: Near Eastern and South Asian Affairs Subcommittee Hearing on the Crisis in Afghanistan. April 14, 1999. –. Senate Foreign Relations Committee: East Asian and the Pacific Affairs Subcommittee Hearing on Pakistan. October 14, 1999. –. House International Relations Committee: East Asian and the Pacific Affairs Subcommittee Hearing on Regional Security in South Asia. October 20, 1999. –.Senate Foreign Relations Committee: Near Eastern and South Asian Affairs Subcommittee Hearing on Afghanistan. July 20, 2000. Karzai, Hamid. Senate Foreign Relations Committee: Near Eastern and South Asian Affairs Subcommittee Hearing on Afghanistan. July 20, 2000. Khalilzad, Zalmay. Senate Foreign Relations Committee: Near Eastern and South Asian Affairs Subcommittee Hearing on Events in Afghanistan. October 22, 1997. –.Senate Foreign Relations Committee: Near Eastern and South Asian Affairs Subcommittee Hearing on Events in Afghanistan. October 8, 1998. Lake, Anthony. Joint Inquiry Committee. September 19, 2002. Leno, Mavis. Senate Appropriations Committee: Foreign Operations Subcommittee Hearing on Human Rights Abuses Against Women in Afghanistan. March 9, 1999. Massoud, Ahmed Shah. Letter Submitted to the Senate Foreign Relations Committee: Near Eastern and South Asian Affairs Subcommittee Hearing on Events in Afghanistan. October 8, 1998. Mueller, Robert S. Joint Inquiry Committee. September 26, 2002; October 17, 2002. Pillar, Paul. Joint Inquiry Committee. October 8, 2002.

Powell, Colin. Senate Appropriations Committee: Foreign Operations Subcommittee Hearing on Afghanistan. May 15, 2001. Raphel, Robin. Senate Foreign Relations Committee: Near Eastern and South Asian Affairs Subcommittee Hearing on Current Events in South Asia. February 4, 1994. –.Senate Foreign Relations Committee: Near Eastern and South Asian Affairs Subcommittee Hearing on Afghanistan. June 6, 1996. Rolince, Michael. Joint Inquiry Committee. September 24, 2002. Rubin, Barnett. Senate Foreign Relations Committee: Near Eastern and South Asian Affairs Subcommittee Hearing on Events in Afghanistan. October 8, 1998. –.Senate Foreign Relations Committee: Near Eastern and South Asian Affairs Subcommittee Hearing on the Crisis in Afghanistan. April 14, 1999. Santos, Charles. House International Relations Committee Hearing on al Qaeda and the Global Reach of Terrorism. October 3, 2001. Scowcroft, Brent. Joint Inquiry Committee. September 19, 2002. Tenet, George. Senate Select Intelligence Committee Hearing on the Nomination of George Tenet as Deputy Director of Central Intelligence. June 14, 1995. –. Senate Select Intelligence Committee Hearing on Current and Projected National Security Threats. February 5, 1997. –. Senate Select Intelligence Committee Hearing on the Nomination of George Tenet as Director of Central Intelligence. May 6, 1997. –. Senate Appropriations Committee Hearing on Counterterrorism. May 13, 1997. –. Senate Select Intelligence Committee Hearing on Current and Projected National Security Threats. January 28, 1998. –. Senate Armed Services Committee Hearing on Current and Projected National Security Threats. February 2, 1999. –. Senate Select Intelligence Committee Hearing on Current and Projected National Security Threats. February 2, 2000. –. Senate Armed Services Committee Hearing on Current and Projected National Security Threats. February 3, 2000. –. Senate Select Intelligence Committee Hearing on Current and Projected National Security Threats. February 7, 2001. –. Senate Armed Services Committee Hearing on Current and Projected National Security Threats. March 8, 2001. –. Senate Select Intelligence Committee Hearing on Current and Projected National Security Threats. February 6, 2002. –. Joint Inquiry Committee. October 17, 2002. Tomsen, Peter. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations: Near Eastern and South Asian

Affairs Subcommittee Hearing on Afghanistan. July 20, 2000. –. House Committee on International Relations Hearing on the Future of Afghanistan. November 7, 2001. Watson, Dale. Senate Foreign Relations Committee Hearing on the Report of the National Commission on Terrorism. June 15, 2000. –. Joint Inquiry Committee. September 26, 2002. White, Mary Jo. Joint Inquiry Committee. October 8, 2002. Wolfowitz, Paul. Joint Inquiry Committee. September 19, 2002. Zinni, Anthony. Senate Armed Services Committee Hearing on Afghanistan. February 29, 2000. CONGRESSIONAL REPORT Senate Select Committee on Intelligence and House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence, “Joint Inquiry into Intelligence Community Activities Before and After the Terrorist Attacks of September 11, 2001,” final report prepared December 2002, redacted and released August 2003. COMMISSION REPORT “The 9/11 Commission Report: Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States,” released July 2004. Also, interim staff statements no. 1- 17. SPEECHES Al-Faisal, Turki, Prince. “Special Address at Georgetown University.” February 3, 2002, Washington, D.C. Berger, Samuel. “Remarks to the National Academy of Sciences.” January 22, 1999, Washington, D.C. Clinton, Bill. “Remarks to Staff of the CIA and Intelligence Community.” July 14, 1995, McLean, Virginia. –. “On the Work Force Investment Act of 1998.” August 7, 1998, Washington, D.C. –.“Remarks to the National Academy of Sciences.” January 22, 1999,Washington, D.C. –. “Speech at Georgetown University.” November 7, 2001, Washington, D.C. –. “Speech at Labour Party Conference.” October 3, 2002, Blackpool, England. –.“Remarks to Democratic Leadership Council at New York University.” December 6, 2002, New York, New York. Clinton, Hillary. “Remarks to United Nations Economic and Social Council.” December

10, 1997, New York, New York. Inderfurth, Karl F. “Statement by Karl Inderfurth.” July 19, 1999, Tashkent, Uzbekistan. Simons, Thomas W., Jr. “The Evolving American Approach to World Affairs and the Emerging Pakistan-U.S. Relationship: Works in Progress.” (Speech presented to Association of Retired Ambassadors.) September 22, 1996, Islamabad, Pakistan. –. “Regional Stability in South Asia: U.S. Views.” (Speech presented to United Service Institution.) November 27, 1996, New Delhi, India. –. “Pakistan-U.S. Relations: A Personal Perspective.” (Speech presented to English Speaking Union of Karachi.) June 3, 1998, Karachi, Pakistan. Tenet, George. “Remarks at Swearing-in Ceremony by Vice President Gore.” July 31, 1997, Washington, D.C. –. “Speech at the University of Oklahoma.” September 12, 1997, Norman, Oklahoma. –. “Acceptance of the Ellis Island Medal of Honor.” November 6, 1997, New York, New York. –. “Does America Need the CIA?” November 19, 1997, Ann Arbor, Michigan. –. “Remarks at Intelligence Community Awards Ceremony.” December 11, 1997, McLean, Virginia. –.“Remarks to CIA Employees on Strategic Direction.“May 5, 1998, McLean, Virginia. –.“Oscar Iden Lecture at Georgetown University.” October 18, 1999,Washington,D.C. SELECTED U.S. GOVERNMENT DOCUMENTS “Afghan Policy-U.S. Strategy.” State Department Cable, September 26, 1991. “Afghanistan Settlement-Analysis and Policy Recommendations.” State Department Cable, June 1997. “Afghanistan: The Revolution After Four Years.” CIA, Directorate of Intelligence, July 1982. Released July 1999 by the National Security Archive. “Afghanistan: Trends for 1992.” State Department Cable, December 16, 1991. “Afghanistan-U.S. Interests and U.S. Aid.” State Department Memorandum, December 18, 1992. “Biography of Mohammed Omar.” CIA fact sheet, December 21, 1998. “Central Asia, Afghanistan and U.S. Policy.” State Department Memorandum, February 2, 1993. “The Costs of Soviet Involvement in Afghanistan.” CIA, Office of Soviet Analysis, February 1987. Released 2000. “Démarche to Pakistan on Hekmatyar and Sayyaf Gulf Statements.” State Department Action Memorandum, January 28, 1991. Released April 6, 2000.

“Executive Order 12947.” Federal Register, January 25, 1995. “Implications of a Continued Stalemate in Afghanistan.” State Department Cable, February 5, 1993. “Memorandum of Conversation Between HRH Prince Turki and Senator Bill Bradley.” Memorandum, April 13, 1980. “Ramzi Ahmed Yousef: A New Generation of Sunni Islamic Terrorists.” FBI assessment, 1995. “Report of the Accountability Review Boards: Bombings of the U.S. Embassies in Nairobi, Kenya and Dar es Salaam, Tanzania on August 7, 1998.” Released January 8, 1999. “SE Tomsen Meeting with Shura of Commanders Oct. 6.” State Department Cable, October 10, 1990. “The Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan: Five Years After.” CIA, Directorate of Intelligence, May 1985. “Special Envoy to the Afghan Resistance.” State Department Action Memorandum, April 19 1989. Released March 23, 2000. “Terrorism, the Future, and U.S. Foreign Policy.” Congressional Research Service, September 13, 2001. “Terrorist Attack on USS Cole: Background and Issues for Congress.” Congressional Research Service, January 30, 2001. “To SecState WashDC Priority, Dissent Channel.” State Department Cable, June 21, 1989. “Usama bin Laden: Islamic Extremist Financier.” CIA Assessment, 1996. “U.S. Policy on Counterterrorism.” Presidential Directive-39, June 21, 1995. “USSR: Withdrawal from Afghanistan.” Director of Central Intelligence, Special National Intelligence Estimate, March 1988. DOCUMENT SETS The Cold War International History Project at the Woodrow Wilson Center. “Toward an International History of the War in Afghanistan, 1979-1989.” Comp. Christian F. Ostermann and Mircea Munteanu. Conference in association with The Asia Program and The Kennan Institute for Advanced Russian Studies at the Woodrow Wilson Center, The George Washington Cold War Group at The George Washington University, and the National Security Archive. Washington, D.C.: April 29-30, 2002. –. “Excerpt from a report of 40th Army HQ.” –. Gromov, Boris. “Limited Contingent.” Progress, Moscow, 1994. –. Likhovskii, A. A. “The Tragedy and Valor of the Afghani.” GPI “Iskon,” Moscow, 1995.

–. Lyakhovski, Aleksandr A. “New Russian Evidence on the Crisis and War in Afghanistan.” Working paper no. 41. –. Mitrokhin, Vasiliy. “The KGB in Afghanistan.” English ed., working paper no. 40. –. Politburo records provided by Anatoly Chenyaev and translated by the Gorbachev Foundation. –. “Special National Intelligence Estimate on Pakistan.” November 12, 1982. The National Security Archive. “The September 11th Sourcebooks: National Security Archive Online Readers on Terrorism, Intelligence and the Next War.” –. Volume I: Terrorism and U.S. Policy. Jeffrey Richelson and Michael L. Evans, eds. September 21, 2001. –. “The Soviet Experience in Afghanistan: Russian Documents and Memoirs.” Volume II: Afghanistan: Lessons from the Last War. John Prados and Svetlana Savranskaya, eds. October 9, 2001. –. Volume IV: The Once and Future King?: From the Secret Files of King Zahir’s Reign in Afghanistan, 1970-1973. William Burr, ed. October 26, 2001. –. Volume VII: The Taliban File. Sajit Gandhi, ed. September 11, 2003. COURT DOCUMENTS United States of America v. Ibrahim A. el-Gabrowny et al., S(2) 93 Cr. 181 (S.D. New York, 1993). United States of America v. Ramzi Ahmed Yousef et al., S 93 Cr. 180 (S.D. New York, 1993). United States of America v. Ramzi Ahmed Yousef et al., S(10) 93 Cr. 180 (S.D. New York, 1995). United States of America v. Ramzi Ahmed Yousef et al., S(12) 93 Cr. 180 (S.D. New York, February 1996). United States of America v. Ramzi Ahmed Yousef et al., S(12) 93 Cr. 180 (S.D. New York, August 1996). United States of America v. Ramzi Ahmed Yousef et al., S(12) 93 Cr. 180 (S.D. New York, August 1997). United States of America v. Ramzi Ahmed Yousef et al., S(12) 93 Cr. 180 (S.D. New York, October 1997). United States of America v. Usama bin Laden et al., S 98 Cr. 539 (S.D. New York, 1998). United States of America v. Ali Mohamed, S(7) 98 Cr. 1023 (S.D. New York, 2000). United States of America v. Usama bin Laden et al., S(7) 98 Cr. 1023 (S.D. New York, February 5, 2001). United States of America v. Usama bin Laden et al., S(7) 98 Cr. 1023 (S.D. New York,

February 6, 2001). NEWSPAPERS, MAGAZINES, AND BROADCAST NEWS Newspapers: Aerospace Daily, Al-Sharq al-Awsat, Arab News, The Arkansas Democrat- Gazette, The Boston Herald, Chicago Tribune, The Christian Science Monitor, The Daily Telegraph, Defense Daily, The Financial Times, The Guardian, The Independent (London), Los Angeles Times, The Muslim (Islamabad), New York Daily News, The New York Times, The News (Islamabad), Newsday (New York), Platt’s Oilgram News, The Seattle Times, The Toronto Star, USA Today, The Wall Street Journal, The Washington Post, The Washington Times. Magazines: Air Force Magazine, Asiaweek, Aviation Week and Space Technology, Business Week, The Economist, Financial Times, Fortune, Le Monde Diplomatique, Le Nouvel Observateur, National Journal, The New York Times Magazine, The New Yorker, Newsweek, Nida’ul Islam, Popular Science, Time. News Agencies: AAP Newsfeed, Agence France Presse, Associated Press, Bulletin Broadfaxing Network, Federal News Service, Intelligence Newsletter, MBC, Reuters, United Press International. Broadcast News: ABC News, ABC’s Nightline, al Jazeera, BBC, CNN, Fox News, The News Hour With Jim Lehrer, Orbit, PBS’s Frontline. FILMS, TELEVISION, AND VIDEOTAPES Afghan Warrior: The Life and Death of Abdul Haq, Touch Productions, London, 2003. Ahmed Badeeb 2002 Interview with Orbit Television, supplied to the author by Badeeb, translated by The Language Doctors, Inc. See note 1, chapter 4. Ahmed Shah Massoud with Abdul Haq and Peter Tomsen, June 24, 2001, Dushanbe, Tajikistan, informal video and transcript of meeting. Ahmed Shah Massoud with Otilie English, April 27, 2001, Khoja Bahuddin, Afghanistan, informal video of meeting. Hunting bin Laden, produced and directed by Martin Smith, aired as an episode of Frontline, Public Broadcasting System, March 21, 2000.

Acknowledgments This book belongs first to my sources. During the course of my research, scores of people- Americans, Afghans, Pakistanis, Saudis-agreed to sit for long and sometimes repeated interviews about sensitive subjects, without any guarantees about how I would handle the material. Many of them are listed by name in the notes. I am deeply grateful for their time and trust. I also accept full responsibility for any errors of fact and interpretation in what I have written; those who helped me should not be blamed. Unfortunately, some of the people to whom I owe the most cannot be named here. They know who they are; they have my sincere and lasting thanks. More than any individual, Len Downie, the executive editor of The Washington Post, my partner and friend for the last five years, granted this book its life. His sincere, unflagging support and encouragement of the project, despite the varied burdens it placed on him, made all the difference. Many others at the Post, my professional home since 1985, contributed greatly to the book. Bo Jones supported the project and much else. Don Graham provided a helpful manuscript reading, among many other things. Cyndy Zeiss kept me in order and on time. David Hoffman and Phil Bennett took time they did not possess to read early drafts and provided crucial encouragement, support, edits, and suggestions. Brigit Roeber and the entire research department helped in many ways. Walter Pincus and Bob Woodward offered important documents from their personal archives. Barton Gellman, Dana Priest, Tom Ricks, and Glenn Kessler blazed journalistic paths that I followed, and also contributed ideas and practical as- sistance. Michael Keegan and Dick Furno made the book’s maps possible. Mike Abramowitz, Joann Armao, Bob Barnes, Milton Coleman, Jackson Diehl, Jill Dutt, Doug Feaver, David Finkel, Emilio Garcia-Ruiz, Deb Heard, Fred Hiatt, Steve Hills, Anne Hull, Bob Kaiser, Kevin Merida, Larry Roberts, Gene Robinson, Chris Schroeder, Maralee Schwartz, Liz Spayd, and Matt Vita offered friendship and humor through a relentlessly paced period of news. They and other reporters and editors too many to list have made the Post not only a great newspaper but a creative and exciting place to work. In important ways, this book belongs to the newsroom. One of my purposes in this project was to provide Afghans with reliable, transparent access to hidden strands of their own history. Especially when I worked as a correspondent in the region between 1989 and 1992, I was aided, befriended, and protected in extraordinary ways by many Afghans. In particular I would like to remember here my late friend, communistera minder, driver, and translator, Najibullah, who was killed in a rocket attack on Kabul in 1992. In Afghanistan this more recent time around, my colleague Pam Constable, her Kabul housemates, and the exceptional translator Dr. Najib offered hospitality and crucial reporting help in the capital and Kandahar. In Pakistan, Karl Vick and Kamran Khan were invaluable. I am grateful as well to Maleeha Lodhi for her friendship and cheerful arguments. Asad Hayuddin helped arrange important meetings in Washington and Islamabad. David Long and Nat Kern made helpful introductions in Saudi Arabia. None of these people should be held responsible for my writings or interpretations in this book. One of the greatest research challenges I faced was to connect recollections from

interviews (inevitably selective) with authenticating, contemporaneous documents. I am grateful to Robert Gates for directing me to his unedited manuscript, held at Harvard University. Peter Tomsen generously shared declassified State Department cables from his vast personal archive on Afghanistan. Otilie English provided a very helpful taped interview with Ahmed Shah Massoud from early 2001. Karl Inderfurth provided important travel calendars and other documents that added precision to my account of U.S. diplomatic history in Afghanistan between 1997 and 2000. Bill Harlow, Mark Mansfield, and Jenny in the CIA’s office of public affairs helpfully directed me to open source material. Other sources consulted diaries, calendars, official histories, archives, and other government documents to ensure that my narrative was as accurate and complete as possible. I am grateful to all of them. Excerpts from classified documents published by the congressional Joint Inquiry Committee on the September 11 attacks provided important insight about the 1998-2001 period. The Age of Sacred Terror, by Daniel Benjamin and Steven Simon, former White House counterterrorism officials, also offered helpful inside documentation about those years. Finally, Christian Ostermann and his colleagues at the Cold War International History Project collected and, where necessary, translated an enormously valuable archive of Soviet and American documents about Afghanistan from the 1980s, adding to the earlier good work by the National Security Archive at George Washington University. The National Security Archive worked its declassification magic again during 2003 and added useful new material about U.S. policy toward the Taliban. As the source notes indicate, I also sought to connect my original interviews with other previously published journalism and scholarship on Afghanistan, the CIA, and terrorism in South Asia. My colleague Pam Constable wrote early and intrepidly about the Taliban. So did John Burns and Barry Bearak of The New York Times. Vernon Loeb of the Post wrote extensively about bin Laden prior to September 11; I have drawn from his work. Peter Finn broke extensive ground about al Qaeda more recently. I have relied also on the early, in-depth journalism of Douglas Frantz, James Risen, and Judith Miller of the Times about bin Laden, U.S. counterterrorism policy, and aspects of Pakistani and Saudi intelligence. The Wall Street Journal produced major breakthroughs from their investigations into the life of Ayman al-Zawahiri. I am also grateful to the team at the Los Angeles Times for their matchless biographical work on the members of the Hamburg cell. Among American scholars, Barnett Rubin’s writing, especially The Fragmentation of Afghanistan, lays a very important foundation for anyone writing about Afghanistan’s post-1979 traumas. Ahmed Rashid’s book Taliban was not only a great feat of journalism, but an act of personal bravery. I have relied also on Olivier Roy’s enduring insights into Afghanistan and political Islam. I owe many other professional debts to previously published work; the notes provide a full accounting. Thanks to Jean Cleary for finding me a room of my own. Thanks to Adam Holzman for his friendship, sounds, humor, and ideas. From our first conversation shortly after September 11 to our last edit two years later, Ann Godoff supported this book’s highest possible ambitions and nurtured them at every turn. She is a great editor and a remarkable person. Her assistant at The Penguin Press, Meredith Blum, was a terrific correspondent and an encouraging partner. Rose Ann Ferrick’s meticulous, thoughtful work on the manuscript improved it immeasurably. Ryu Spaeth’s work on the bibliography and chapter notes, and his careful copyediting, also

made a major contribution. As she has for nearly two decades now, Melanie Jackson, my literary agent, provided sound counsel throughout, steering us all through a few unusual bumps with confidence and skill. Thanks above all to my family, especially to Alexandra, Emma, and Max for their love, tolerance, and encouragement.

About the Author STEVE COLL is the managing editor of The Washington Post. He has been a reporter, foreign correspondent, and editor at the paper since 1985. He worked in Afghanistan and Pakistan while serving as the Post’s South Asia bureau chief between 1989 and 1992. Among his journalism awards is a Pulitzer Prize. His four previous books include On the Grand Trunk Road: A Journey into South Asia. He is married to the novelist Susan Coll.

Table of Contents List of Maps Principal Characters PROLOGUE ACCOUNTS RECEIVABLE PART ONE BLOOD BROTHERS 1. “We’re Going to Die Here” 2. “Lenin Taught Us” 3. “Go Raise Hell” 4. “I Loved Osama” 5. “Don’t Make It Our War” 6. “Who Is This Massoud?” 7. “The Terrorists Will Own the World” 8. “Inshallah, You Will Know My Plans” 9. “We Won” PART TWO THE ONE-EYED MAN WAS KING 10. “Serious Risks” 11. “A Rogue Elephant” 12. “We Are in Danger” 13. “A Friend of Your Enemy” 14. “Maintain a Prudent Distance” 15. “A New Generation” 16. “Slowly, Slowly Sucked into It” 17. “Dangling the Carrot” 18. “We Couldn’t Indict Him” 19. “We’re Keeping These Stingers” 20. “Does America Need the CIA?” PART THREE THE DISTANT ENEMY 21. “You Are to Capture Him Alive” 22. “The Kingdom’s Interests” 23. “We Are at War” 24. “Let’s Just Blow the Thing Up”

25. “The Manson Family” 26. “That Unit Disappeared” 27. “You Crazy White Guys” 28. “Is There Any Policy?” 29. “Daring Me to Kill Them” 30. “What Face Will Omar Show to God?” 31. “Many Americans Are Going to Die” 32. “What an Unlucky Country” Afterword Notes Bibliography Acknowledgments About the Author Afghanistan The Birth of Modern Saudi Arabia Massoud at War, 1983–1985 Bin Laden’s Tarnak Farm The CIA in the Panjshir, 1997–2000 PROLOGUE 1