Writing Skill III

Luangnamtha Teacher Training College Writing Skill III 1

Writing skill III 2

Contents Title Page Unit 1........................................................................................................................................................6 Five-Paragraph Essay...............................................................................................................................6 Stimulating Idea .......................................................................................................................................6 1. Five paragraphs in detail.....................................................................................................................6 2. Writing Process ...................................................................................................................................7 3. Structure of five paragraph essay........................................................................................................8 4. Coherence and unity in the paragraph.................................................................................................9 5. Major Connectors............................................................................................................................. 10 6. Main and dependent clauses............................................................................................................. 11 6.1. Clause ............................................................................................................................................ 11  Independent and Dependent Clauses............................................................................................. 11 - Dependent clause........................................................................................................................... 11 - Independent clause ........................................................................................................................ 11 7. Practice............................................................................................................................................. 12 7.1. Unity and coherence ...................................................................................................................... 12 7.2. Independent (Subordinators) and Dependent Clauses exercise...................................................... 13 Unit 2..................................................................................................................................................... 14 Process analysis essay ........................................................................................................................... 14 Stimulating Idea .................................................................................................................................... 15 1. The essay analysis............................................................................................................................ 15 2. Structuring a Process Analysis Essay .............................................................................................. 16 1. The Essay Writing Process............................................................................................................... 16 Unit 3..................................................................................................................................................... 19 Cause and effect essay........................................................................................................................... 19 Stimulating idea .................................................................................................................................... 19 1. Cause and effect essay ..................................................................................................................... 19 1. How Do I Write a Cause-Effect Essay? ........................................................................................... 19 2. Causes .............................................................................................................................................. 19 3. Effects .............................................................................................................................................. 20 4. Structuring the Effects Essay ........................................................................................................... 21 5. Paragraphs: Connecting your ideas.................................................................................................. 21 6. Transitional word and phrases......................................................................................................... 22 7. Sentence connectors......................................................................................................................... 23 3

8. Conditional sentences ...................................................................................................................... 25 8.1. First Conditional: real possibility .................................................................................................. 25 8.2. Second Conditional: unreal ........................................................................................................... 26 8.3. Third Conditional: no possibility................................................................................................... 27 10.Practice............................................................................................................................................. 28 10.1. Transitional words and phrases showing the relationship within and between sentences .... 28 10.2. Fill the gaps with the following italic words. Use each of them only once........................... 29 10.3. Fill in the correct forms of the verbs given in the right-hand column.......................................... 30 10.4. Underline the conjunctions........................................................................................................... 30 10.5. Cause and effect .................................................................................................................... 31 10.6. Which sentences below are cause and effect......................................................................... 31 Unit 4..................................................................................................................................................... 32 Argumentative Essay............................................................................................................................. 32 Stimulate idea........................................................................................................................................ 33 1. Argumentative Essays...................................................................................................................... 33 2. Argumentative Essay in detail ......................................................................................................... 33 3. Elements of an Argumentative Essay .............................................................................................. 35 4. Writing Argumentative Essays ........................................................................................................ 36 5. Counter-argument rebuttal ............................................................................................................... 36 6. Counter-argument ............................................................................................................................ 37 7. Controlling idea and evidence.......................................................................................................... 37 8. Clauses as Nouns and Adjectives Independent and Dependent Clauses........................................... 39 8.1. Independent .................................................................................................................................... 39 8.2. Dependent ...................................................................................................................................... 39 8.4. Noun clauses after verbs or expressions that show importance or urgency: ................................. 40 9. Practice.............................................................................................................................................. 41 9.1. Find out the noun clauses in the following sentences and state what purpose they serve............. 41 9.3. Complete the sentences by changing the questions to noun clauses: ............................................. 41 9.4. Complete the sentences by changing the questions to noun clauses. ............................................. 41 9.5. Select the correct answer a, b, c, d or e : ........................................................................................ 42 Unit 5..................................................................................................................................................... 44 Classification Essay .............................................................................................................................. 44 Stimulating idea .................................................................................................................................... 45 1. Classification Essay ......................................................................................................................... 45 1. What is the final thought? ................................................................................................................ 45 4

2. Gerunds (-ing) ................................................................................................................................... 46 3.Infinitive............................................................................................................................................. 47 3.Practice............................................................................................................................................... 47 2. Sentence Pattern:.............................................................................................................................. 48 Unit 6..................................................................................................................................................... 51 Reaction Essay ...................................................................................................................................... 51 Stimulating idea .................................................................................................................................... 52 1. Reaction essay.................................................................................................................................. 52 3. Point of consideration when writing a report ................................................................................... 53 4. A sample respond or reaction paper ................................................................................................ 53 5. Topic sentence for second reaction paragraph ............................................................................... 54 6. Topic sentence for third reaction paragraph................................................................................... 55 7. Concluding paragraph ...................................................................................................................... 55 8. Identifying Prepositions and Prepositional Phrases ......................................................................... 55 8. Adjective Clauses.............................................................................................................................. 56 8.1. IDENTIFYING clauses – watch your use of commas: .................................................................. 59 8.3. A more advanced exercise- Choose the best answer a, b, c, d or e: ............................................... 60 5

Unit 1 Five-Paragraph Essay Unit Goal Rhetorical Focus  Structure of five paragraph essay  Coherence and unity in paragraph and essays Language and Grammar focus  Main and dependent clauses  Run-on sentences and fragments  Verb tense consistency Stimulating Idea  What is five paragraph essay?  What is the clause?  How difference between dependent clause and independent clause? 1. Five paragraphs in detail Paragraph 1: Introduction The introductory paragraph should include the following elements: Background information: Enough information necessary for your reader to understand your topic Thesis statement: Indicates your paper’s topic, makes your paper’s purpose clear, and provides an overview of the three main supporting points that will unify the essay. The thesis statement is typically the last sentence. If you are writing in response to a text, the introduction should include the title, author, and genre of that piece. Paragraph 2: Body Paragraph Begins with a topic sentence that identifies one main idea that will be discussed as support or proof for the thesis statement Supporting sentences use specific details, demonstrated through closely related examples or evidence, to expand and explain the main idea. Generally, a well-developed paragraph has at least five to eight sentences. Paragraph unity means that all ideas in a paragraph are closely related to its topic sentence and further develop that topic sentence. That is, all sentences in a single paragraph must be unified around a central point or idea. Paragraph 3: Body Paragraph This paragraph, and any subsequent body paragraph, should begin with a topic sentence that signals the reader that a new idea or point is being introduced. As you organize your essay, keep in mind its coherence. Coherence refers to connections among paragraphs and ideas—the logical sequence of your thoughts. Use transition words or phrases at the outset of your body paragraphs and to move from one idea to another within your paragraphs. Have you transitioned logically from the main idea in the previous paragraph to this one? Are you making clear connections among the paragraphs and ideas? Be sure to think about coherence during the revision stage of the writing process. Paragraph 4: Body Paragraph This paragraph begins with the final topic sentence that relates back to the remaining point mentioned in the thesis statement. Each paragraph should contain a new main idea. Again, flesh out this main idea with specific examples, details, and relevant support. Be sure to maintain paragraph unity. That is, each sentence must relate to your topic sentence. 6

Paragraph 5: Conclusion The conclusion revisits your overall purpose for writing and often invites your reader to consider the implications of why your ideas are significant. The conclusion may restate the thesis, summarize the paper’s major points, or leave the reader with a final thought to ponder. Several other methods for writing conclusions are included on a separate Tutoring Center handout. If you choose to restate the thesis or summarize the essay’s main ideas, do not repeat the same wording from the introduction or body paragraphs. Remember not to introduce new, unrelated ideas in the conclusion. 2. Writing Process  Pre writing Step one: Choose a topic. Before you write, your teacher gives you a specific assignment or some ideas of what to write about. If not, choose your topic yourself. Step two: Gather ideas. When you have a topic, think about what you will write about that topic. Step three: Organise. Decide which of the ideas you want to use and where you want to use them. Choose which idea to talk about first, which to talk about next, and which to talk about last.  Drafting Step four: Write. Write your paragraph or essay from start to finish. Use your notes about your ideas and organization.  Reviewing and revising Step five: Review structure and content. Check what you have written. Read your writing silently to yourself or aloud, perhaps to a friend. Look for places where you can add more information, and check to see if you have any unnecessary information. Ask a classmate to exchange texts with you. Your classmate reads your text, and you read his or hers. Getting a reader’s opinion is a good way to know if your writing is clear and effective. Learning to give opinions about other people’s writing helps you to improve your own. You may want to go on to step six now and revise the structure and content of your text before you proofread it.  Rewriting Step six: Revise structure and content. Use your ideas from step five to rewrite your text, making improvements to the structure and content. You might need to explain something more clearly, or  Five paragraph Essay Technology revolution Technology has highly evolved over time. In fact, nowadays almost everybody has some sort of machine at hand, be it computers, cars, or even washing machines. But although machinery was devised to benefit mankind, it has also brought along many flaws to match. Firstly, when it comes to technological equipment such as computers, disruption most often arises between the person using the computer, and the household he or she issurrounded by, or living with. For example, many old family traditions such as eating meals with your relatives at the dining table seldom take place now that one of the family members might be too busy working on his Mac. laptop. Thus, family values and morals have changed in order to adapt to this technological age. 7

Secondly, having many kinds of machinery at hand is not only destroying family traditions, but is also very harmful to our environment. Many people are careless about allowing their car engines to run haphazardly, or leaving their laptops on for long periods of time, however they do not seem aware of the fact that all this energy and electricity consumption is dangerous to not only our local environment, but to the world as a whole. Additionally, it is the over-usage of machinery, big or small that is bringing our society ever closer to Global Warming, and we must stop. As I mentioned in my introduction, technological equipment was never programmed to damage nature per se, but to help people all around the globe. Now that nuclear families aren’t as closely intact compared to the 1950s or 1990s, technology has given us an alternative method to keep in touch with our relatives thanks to computer applications such as Skype, or even cell phone applications such as VIBER or WhatsApp. Machinery has most definitely done wonders in our lives, and we as people should be grateful to easily possess cars, and/or phones when poorer countries do not even have the chance to. However, with all the advantages machinery has brought to us all, I personally believe that possessing too many cars or phones, or even consuming too much of their energy and battery, is beginning to get out of hand and needs to be controlled. Exercise: In the following sentences underline each adverb dependent clause. 3. Structure of five paragraph essay Outline for a Five-Paragraph Essay Essay Title Paragraph 1: Introduction - Topic Sentence (Main Idea of your paper) - Example Sentence #1 - Example Sentence #2 - Example Sentence #3 - Concluding Sentence that repeats the Main Idea Paragraph 2: Example #1 - Topic Sentence Example #1 (from the Introduction) - 3 Example Sentences that support your Topic Sentence - Concluding Sentence that restates Example #1 Paragraph 3: Example #2 - Topic Sentence Example #2 (from the Introduction) - 3 Example Sentences that support your Topic Sentence - Concluding Sentence that restates Example #2 Paragraph 4: Example #3 - Topic Sentence Example #3 (from the Introduction) - 3 Example Sentences that support your Topic Sentence - Concluding Sentence that restates Example #3 Paragraph 5: Conclusion - Topic Sentence (Main Idea of your paper) - Example Sentence #1 - Example Sentence #2 - Example Sentence #3 - Concluding Sentence that restates the Main Idea 8

4. Coherence and unity in the paragraph One of the first concepts you need to understand is the idea that all formal writing has to have a central idea, or amain point. This is true if you are writing a single paragraph or an entire essay in fact, a body paragraph should have a driving central idea just like an essay should. note: please write all definitions in your journals Central idea: the focal point to which all other ideas in a paragraph or essay point. The central idea of a paragraph is called a Topic Sentence, and the central idea of an essay is called a Thesis Statement. Thesis Statement = main idea of an essay Topic Sentence = main idea of a paragraph note: in this class, for all your formal out-of-class essays, you will include a thesis statement in your introduction, and you will begin major body paragraphs with a topic sentence.  Definitions Once you’ve understood these concepts, you can better understand the importance of ideas like Unity, Development, and Coherence. These three concepts are the cornerstones of academic writing and are defined below. All of the terms here apply both to the paragraph level and to the essay level. Each of these three principles has its own important role in writing an essay, but before explaining further you should know what they are.  Unity: An essay is unified when all of its paragraphs relate directly to its thesis statement. A paragraph is unified what all of its sentences relate directly to its topic sentence.  Development: An essayis well-developed when the writer has given sufficient information to make the reader feel the thesishas been sufficiently discussed. A paragraphis well-developed when the writer has given sufficient information to make the reader feel the topic sentencehas been sufficiently dis-cussed.  Coherence: An essayis coherent when all of its paragraphsare written clearly, logically, and in a manner that is easy to follow. A paragraphis coherent when all of its sentencesare written clearly, logi-cally, and in a manner that is easy to follow. Coherence refers to a certain characteristic or aspect of writing. Literally, the word means \"to stick together.\" Coherence in writing means that all the ideas in a paragraph flow smoothly from one sentence to the next sentence. With coherence, the reader has an easy time understanding the ideas that you wish to express. Consider the paragraph that we studied in Lesson #1: My hometown is famous for several amazing natural features. First, it is noted for the Wheat on River, which is very wide and beautiful. On either side of this river, which is 175 feet wide, are many willow trees which have long branches that can move gracefully in the wind. In autumn the leaves of these trees fall and cover the river banks like golden snow. Second, on the other side of the town is Wheaton Hill, which is unusual because it is very steep. Even though it is steep, climbing this hill is not dangerous, because there are some firm rocks along the sides that can be used as stairs. There are no trees around this hill, so it stands clearly against the sky and can be seen from many miles away. The third amazing feature is the Big Old Tree. This tree stands two 9

hundred feet tall and is probably about six hundred years old. These three landmarks are truly amazing and make my hometown a famous place. 5. Major Connectors Look at the words in bold font. Do you see how theyhelp guide the reader? For example, consider the words, First, Second, and The third amazing feature. We can call these words major connectors. Major connectors help organize the main parts of your paragraph. This paragraph has three main parts: (1) a part about the Wheaton River, (2) a part about Wheaton Hill, and (3) a part about the Big Old Tree. Another way of saying this is that this paragraph has three main points which are indicated by the major connectors.Using such major connectors is an important way of providing coherence in a paragraph. Minor Connectors What about the other words in bold, such as those appearing in the phrases \"these trees\" and \"this hill\"? We can call these minor connectors. Minor connectors provide coherence to a paragraph by connecting sentences within each of the main parts of your paragraph. That is, when you write about your main points, you can use minor connectors to link your details to each main point. Now, look at this paragraph. Can you identify the main points? Each of the U.S. manned space exploration projects had specific major goals. The Mercury project was designed to test whether or not human beings could survive and function in outer space. The Mercury project tested rockets with the new Mercury space capsule, which could hold one person. The Gemini project was intended to findout whether two people could work in the weightless environment of space. Gemini astronauts took \"spacewalks.\" They floated outside  Paragraph Unity Unity is a very important characteristic of good paragraph writing. Paragraph unity means that one paragraph is about ONLY ONE main topic. That is, all the sentences the topic, supporting sentences, the detail sentences, and (sometimes) the concluding sentence -- are all telling the reader about ONE main topic. If your paragraph contains a sentence or some sentences that are NOT related to the main topic, then we say that the paragraph \"lacks unity,\" or that the sentence is \"off-topic. Look at the following paragraph, which is similar to the paragraph that we have studied above. Does it have perfect unity? Try to find the sentence that is off-topic: Each of the Russian manned space exploration projects had specific major goals. For example, the Vostok project was designed to test whether or not human beings could survive and function in outer space. For another example, the Voshkhod project was intended to find out whether people could work in the weightless environment of space. One Voshkhod cosmonaut experimented with weightlessness by taking a \"spacewalk.\" That is, he floated in a spacesuit outside his Voshkhod spacecraft, connected to it bya tether. The cosmonaut to do this was Alexei Leonov. Several weeks later, Leonov's spacewalk was followed by that of U.S. astronaut Ed White. Finally, the Soyuz project, with three cosmonauts, had goals of testing spacecraft and spaceflight skills so that people could fly long missions in Earth orbit. This paragraph is generally good, but the sentence,Several weeks later, Leonov's spacewalk was followed by that of U.S. astronaut Ed White, does not have anything to do with the major goals of the various Russian space projects. That is, it is an \"off-topic\" sentence, so we can say that the Exercise #2 -Coherence and Unity: Part (a) Decide which transitions to use from the list below the paragraph. 10

Second Also Another reason is that For example Moreover However On the other hand First One reason is that The best choice There are three major airports near Washington, D.C., but the traveller to Washington should be careful about which one he or she chooses. Baltimore-Washington International Airport, which is located near the city of Baltimore, is a good international airport. _________ it is not the best choice for a traveller who wants to visit Washington. _________ it is relatively far from the city of Washington itself. _________ a passenger bus trip between Baltimore and Washington is somewhat expensive. Dulles International Airport is a slightly better choice, since it is located closer to the city. _________ if a traveller arrives in the early evening, he or she will encounter rush-hour traffic, which is not a good way to begin a trip to the city. _________ may be Washington-Reagan National Airport. There are two reasons for this. _________ this airport is the closest to the city. _________ it is locatedon the Metro train system, which is a convenient method of transportation, allowing a traveller to travel almost anywhere he or she likes in the city of Washington. 6. Main and dependent clauses Underline the sentence below to identify independent clause and dependent clause 6.1.Clause A clause is a group of words that has a subject and a verb.  Independent and Dependent Clauses The difference between an independent and a dependent clause is the type of word it starts with. - Dependent clause A dependent clause starts with a subordinator word such as “when,” “if” or “which.” Examples: When Ronnie gets here, If Denise comes to class late, which I bought last weekend - Independent clause An independent clause can stand alone as a separate sentence and does not start with a subordinator. Examples: Let’s start the music. I’ll tell her the assignment. battery is defective. Every sentence must have at least one independent clause. A dependent clause is combined with an independent clause to make a longer sentence. Examples: When Ronnie gets here, let’s start the music. If Denise comes to class late, I’ll tell her the assignment. The battery which I bought last weekend is defective. 11

These example sentences with two clauses are called complex sentences. They have both an independent and a dependent clause. Sometimes two independent clauses are put together to make a longer sentence. This is done with a comma and a FANBOYS conjunction. Examples: Dogs bark, and cats meow. The weather is beautiful today, so I’ll take a walk. examples are called compound sentences. A sentence can be both compound and complex. Example: When cats meow, dogs bark, and birds chirp.  Independent (Subordinators) and Dependent Clauses Subordinators such as “if,” “when,” “since,” “because,” and “although,” start adverb dependent clauses. Examples: Since the cat is meowing, the dog is barking. I'll take a walk because the weather is beautiful. I smashed my car into an oak tree after I went to the store 7. Practice 7.1.Unity and coherence Eassay 1 (………………………………….) It is true that medical doctors are health professionals whose roles are of great importance in the society. They are usually educated and people generally look up to them to take good care of their health issues. In fact, whether people live or die depends to a very great extend on the doctors in charge of their health situations, depending on how serious they are. Almost every one wants a doctor that is vastly knowledgeable in the medical field, especially those with many years of experience. Although I agree that the level of education of a medical doctor is of much importance for a doctor to be regarded as a “good medical doctor”, I am also of the opinion that that is not the only criterion for a doctor to be regarded as a “good medical doctor”. Character and the integrity of the person contribute to a large extend. I am also of the view that a medical doctor should be a very responsible person in the society because alot of people tend to emulate them. Young adults usually look forward to becoming medical doctors in the future. That being the case, they tend to copy the behaviours of medical doctors they know. The country where I come from, Nigeria, where the health system has some issues, some medical doctors who lack good character and do not care about their integrity can, because a patient does not have enough money to pay their medical bills, walk away from a dying patient. During oath taking, these doctors state that they will put patients first before any thing, but some of them do not keep up with this. Although I agree that doctors in the third world countries usually face some challenges, I am still of the opinion that when it comes to saving a patient’s life, a good medical doctor should always swing into action. In Canada, though I have stayed here for just a year, I think many of their doctors can be regarded as “good doctors” from the little I have seen. In conclusion, I believe that a well educated doctor without a good character and integrity and also without a passion to save lives is as good as a “bad doctor” since, with his education but with love for money rather than love for his patient’s lives, can still lead to the loss of lives. 12

Read essay 1 then answer the questions below 1. Topic sentence 2. Controlling idea 3. How many supporting sentences 4. Concluding sentence 5. Name the title of the essay 6. Find the transition words 7. Find signal words 8. Find connectors 9. Does it coherence? 10. Does it unite? 7.2. Independent (Subordinators) and Dependent Clauses exercise 1. Because I partied all weekend, I never found time to do my homework. 2. I hate to drink coffee because it always upsets my stomach. 3. When you win the lottery, you can buy me dinner. 4. Although I don’t remember his name, I’m sure that man is a famous actor. 5. As I was walking down Broadway, a police car jumped the curb and ran over my cat. 6. After I graduate from TVI, I hope to work as a nurse at Lovelace hospital. 7. You will never be a good student if you do not study. 8. The train was racing through the city as the evening sun went down. 9. This assignment is easy if you have taken a grammar course.  Subordinators such as “who,” “which,” “that,” and “whom” start adjective dependent clauses. Examples: My cat, who is soft and sweet, hates dogs. The Furr's that is on the corner has been robbed five times. The weather, which is beautiful, makes me want to take a walk. Exercise: In the following sentences underline each adjective dependent clause. 1. John Smith, who was an early English explorer, is most famous for his love for the Native American girl Pocahontas. 2. TVI, which is the only community college in Albuquerque, is now offering courses in computer science. 3. A mule, which is the cross between a horse and a donkey, is known for being stubborn. 4. Money that is gained dishonestly spends just like money that is earned honestly. (2 dependent clauses) 5. I like to drink beer at Duffy’s, which is my favorite hangout. 6. The man in the blue shirt, whom I first met in Canada at an AA conference, is the speaker tonight. 7. Money, which is often called the root of all evil, is good to have. 8. The high school that you attended must have had a wonderful English program. 9. The woman who has the orange hair is my dear mother.  Write SUB for subordinate clause and IND for dependent clause. INDEPENDENT CLAUSE If you want to reduce waste, a recycling program is a good idea SUBORDINATE CLAUSE If you want to reduce waste, a recycling program is a good idea. 13

Exercise Identify the underlined clause in each of the following sentences. Example: Because our school throws away so much paper, we should start a recycling program. 1. Every day teachers throw away hundred of sheets of paper that they should be recycling. 2. Since landfills are getting full, our school doesn't need to be contributing to the problem. 3. If our teachers recycled in their classrooms, it would set a good example for students. 4. Students who may never see an example of recycling at home could learn about it. 5. Once these students learn to recycle, they can show their family how to do it. 6. If every student taught their family to recycle, it would reduce the waste going to landfills 7. If you model recycling in your neighborhood, more neighbors will join in and start recycling 8. Although you may only think of recycling paper, many other items can be recycled. 9. Some communities recycle glass and plastic which must be put in separate bins. 10. Make sure you rinse out containers that you recycle so you won't attract bugs. 11. Ask you local waste management company if they have special bins for each kind of waste. 12. Before you know it, you will place your waste in the recycling bin without even thinking Unit Goal Unit 2 Rhetorical Focus Process analysis essay 14

 Process analysis organization Language and Grammar focus  Sequence connectors  Time clause  Passive and modal passive Stimulating Idea  What is a process analysis essay ?  Why do we have to analyze the essay?  How different between passive voice and active voice?  How will we change active in to passive? 1. The essay analysis A process paper either tells the reader how to do something (a “how-to” essay) or describes how something is done. When you analyze a process, you break it down into separate steps and present those steps to your reader in one of two ways. You can either instruct the reader on how to do something (for example, how to change the oil in a car) or explain how something happens (how coins are minted). Both types of process analysis will present steps chronologically, but otherwise, the resulting papers will be quite different because the purposes of the papers are not the same. The purpose of instructions is to enable the readers to repeat the process successfully; having read the paper on changing the oil in a car, readers should be able to change the oil in their cars correctly. The purpose of an explanation is to inform readers about the process; having read the paper on the minting of coins, readers should understand the basic procedure, but they would certainly not be capable of minting their own money. When developing a process-analysis essay: To give you practice in process analysis, college composition instructors may ask you to write about a process you know well. In such a case, select and limit your topic carefully. If a topic is too complex, you cannot discuss it fully in the space of a typical writing-course paper. On the other hand, if a topic is too simple, no instructions are required. An appropriate topic would meet all four of these criteria: - The process should be one you do well and often, such as a procedure that you do daily in school, on the job, or at home. - The process should be suitable for its intended audience. For example, instructions on tying shoelaces would be inappropriate for children too young to follow written instructions. - The process should be one whose instructions are not easily found elsewhere. For example, instructions on making Jell-O or baking a cake mix would be useless because readers could follow the instructions on the box more easily than they could read a paper on the process. - The process should be one that can be discussed fully in the required length of the paper. What to consider when writing a process-analysis essay: - What process are you trying to explain? Why is it important? - Who are the readers? What knowledge do they need to understand this process? - Offer clear descriptions of any tools or materials needed to carry out the process. - Be sure to include all steps and arrange them in sequence. 15

- Explain why each step is necessary. - Include warnings where appropriate. - Define any terms that your readers may not be familiar with. - If needed, tell what should not be done or why something should be done. - Provide your readers with a way of determining if the process has been carried out successfully. 2. Structuring a Process Analysis Essay A process essay describes a series of steps or events. A coherent essay requires a clear purpose or unifying idea (thesis). There are two basic types of process essays: directional (how to do something) and informational (how something works). A directional essay provides directions to achieve a particular result (how to cook perfect grits). An informational essay explains something for a reader (how a rocket engine works). There are three basic steps to writing a process essay. 1. Divide the process Have a clear purpose and divide the process into basic, well-defined steps, usually following a time order. An outline will help you organize the paper. 2. Use effective transitions Use transitional words help clarify a process analysis essay. Phrases such as then, next, and after doing this help the reader. 3. Read the paper carefully Examine the process essay step-by-step, looking for possible omissions (for example, from a recipe). In the example below, the essay explains how to write an essay. Therefore, this is an informational essay. Note the bold and underlined thesis statement that contains the unifying theme for the essay. Also, transitions and key words that indicate the process essay development are bold and italicized 1. The Essay Writing Process Writing is a process that allows ideas to be expressed on paper. Writing an essay can be a task that requires some time to complete, but if a writer allows preparation time, then the process can be quite simple. Several steps are involved in the process of writing. Five basic steps will allow a writer to achieve the best possible outcome when trying to develop an essay. First, the writer must choose a topic or subject. If the topic is assigned, this step is unnecessary. But, if the writer must choose, he or she can incorporate two questions into the selection process. What is my purpose for developing the essay? Who is my audience? When the answers are clear, and a topic has been chosen, it is time to formulate the thesis statement. Next, step two of the writing process is drafting a thesis statement which will make clear the author’s position on the topic. The thesis statement is the central idea that the rest of the essay will support. It is the main point of the paper and is usually written in one complete sentence. In the thesis statement, the writer explains, defends, or proves the chosen topic. Usually, the thesis statement also identifies the writer’s method of essay development. Examples of essay development are cause/effect, definition, compare/contrast, exemplification or illustration, process analysis, classification, analysis, persuasion or argument, description, and narration. Once the thesis is declared, the writer is ready for the 16

next step, organizing the ideas to support the thesis. Step three, organizing ideas, can be accomplished in a variety of ways. The writer can free-write, that is, begin writing whatever thoughts pop into his or her head, and organize them later. The writer can also organize ideas in a prearranged fashion. If a writer chooses to brainstorm, he or she will write down all of his or her ideas in no particular order. Clustering, sometimes called mapping, is similar to brainstorming; however, it is a more organized way to write ideas because a diagram is constructed to illustrate how one idea branches off from another. Clustering can also be utilized as a flowchart. Finally, a writer may choose to include an outline, which will arrange ideas in a logical order, including the thesis statement, main ideas, and supporting points. Whatever way a writer chooses to organize his or her ideas, once the ideas are structured, the writer is ready for step four, writing the rough draft. After organizing the ideas, all of the ideas are now formed into complete paragraphs when writing the rough draft. The introduction paragraph will include the thesis statement, normally located at the end of the paragraph. The thesis statement is followed by supporting paragraphs using the organized ideas. During this stage of writing, the writer writes without worrying about sentence structure or spelling. Paragraphs are constructed as follows: main idea, major supporting sentences, and minor supporting details. When all of the ideas have been exhausted, and there is no more to write, the writer is ready for the final step, revising the piece of writing. Revising consists of two important parts: proofreading and editing. The writer reads what he or she has written and uses this step to perfect sentence structure and grammar. He or she must be sure that the essay follows the expected pattern of organization, supports the main idea, and contains enough examples and details so that the essay is clear to the reader. Writers should ask themselves some questions before considering the essay finished. Is the thesis clear and well supported? Are the sentences in the correct order? Is every word necessary? Are the ideas fully explained? Are transitional words used, and are they effective? Are words spelled correctly and capitalized when necessary? Are punctuation marks used properly? These are some of the questions that must be answered and changes may be made before the writer is ready to present the final version for review. A writer’s point of view can be expressed on paper when it is presented in a clear, concise form. By following the strategies outlined in the essay writing process, a writer can expect his or her essay to make a lucid connection with every person who reads it. Choosing a topic and considering the assignment, drafting a thesis statement, organizing ideas, preparing a rough draft, and revising an essay are five effective steps for writing that will allow a writer to complete a well-developed essay. One of the most important ways to link ideas is to sequence them. Sequencing refers to the order in which events happened. These are some of the most common ways to sequence in writing or speaking Essay 1 Traveling and visiting new countries can be an extremely thrilling experience. I usually prefer to take guided tours to explore a new destination. By doing that I get a chance to visit its most significant landmarks, get to meet tourists from other countries and learn about the city’s most popular and authentic restaurants. Upon joining professional 17

excursions, tourists discover the prominent cultural and historical buildings in cities, such as churches, monuments, parks, and palaces. The tours are usually organized to cover most of these important places. For example, when I visited Dubai last year, I joined the “Big Bus Tour” to explore this amazing city. While visiting the Dubai Musuem, I learned that this chief city was only built sixty years ago. Haven’t I taken such a guided tour, I wouldn’t have known this fact about this metropolis city. The other reason to prompt me in taking tour buses is the opportunity to meet other tourists. sharing the experience and spending time together gets you close to other people from different nationalities. This in return provides you with the chance of learning about other cultures and maybe building frienships with them. As an example, while touring in Mexico two years ago, I was acquainted to tourists from various cultures and learned a lot about each other. Another important factor to encourage me on taking bus tours is learning about the city’s most popular restaurants. Although brochures and flyers usually contain such information, yet tour guides who live in they cities recommend more authentic local places. As an example, one of the best meals I tried was at a local restaurants in Mexico City where the guide advised us to go. It was a meal to remember. In conclusion, taking professional excursions is worth the cost of it. You get to visit all the salient landmarks, learn about other cultures and get familiar with popular restaurants. Essay 2 Working Part-time Jobs Part-time jobs are very common nowadays. I, myself, work part-time since I have to go to school part-time as well. I think a lot of people opt for working part-time because of time flexibility and we would still be able to attend to other things that are important in our day to day living. A clear advantage of having several part-time jobs is for people to be developed in the different areas where they are working. If one has several jobs, he or she will be able to meet several people and supervisors that will expose them to different challenges and learnings. Another advantage of having several part-time jobs, is an opportunity to find out what you really want as an occupation in life. This may be a stepping stone for you to be able to discover yourself more in terms of your abilities and skills. Lastly, I think having several jobs will make you earn more money than having a full-time job. This is because in a full-time job, you are only entitled for a specific number of hours at work and sometimes, employers don’t give overtime pays. The disadvantage on the other hand, is that most of the part-time jobs do not offer benefits to its employees. Also, you have to adjust with your workmates from one workplace to another. It will also be difficult if you have two or three jobs in a day and you don’t have your own car. Commuting from one workplace to another can be very exhausting. In conclusion, I would say that I’m in favor of having several part-time jobs rather than one full-time job. My decision is mainly in line with my current situation. I need to go to school and at the same time, work for my family. Having part-time jobs will be very beneficial for me since I can arrange my schedule with my employer. Also, based on my own experience, I enjoy meeting and working with people from different walks of life. I was able to gain 18

friends which I think is very essential to be able to adapt easily in a country that is different from yours Unit 3 Cause and effect essay Unit Goal Rhetorical focus:  cause and effect organization  relating effects to cases Language focus:  sentence connectors showing case and effect  real and unreal conditionals Stimulating idea  What is a cause/effect essay?  What happen first between cause and effect?  Does they relate to each other? 1. Cause and effect essay A cause and effect essay deals with explaining, examining or exposing two events or actions (which could be thought of as topics) and how each has an effect on the other and/or the results of these events or actions. Topics always have a number of possible causes and effects. 1. How Do I Write a Cause-Effect Essay? Your mission, should you choose to accept it (and since your composition grade hangs in the balance, the ARC’s advice is to accept it enthusiastically), is to write a cause-effect essay. You’ll need a thesis, of course, but before you can develop one, you’ll need to establish a few cause-effect parameters. 1. What effect or effects will you be analyzing in the essay? 2. What causal chain leads to the effect? 3. What primary cause (also known as the main cause, or necessary cause, or first cause)is the basis for the causal chain, and thus, the basis for the effect? (It’s imperative to establish a causal chain, but it’s not e nough. There can be more than one chain; there can be more than one effect; but there should only be one primary cause.) 4. What relationship will you be trying to establish between cause and effect (your topic), and why (your thesis) ? 2. Causes First, of course, there is the primary cause. This is the necessary cause without which the effect could not occur; it’s the first link in any causal chains that follows. Then there are the sufficient causes, which by themselves might produce the effect you’ve chosen to discuss in your paper, yet still find their root farther back along the chain in the primary cause. Example: Say that your topic is the causes for the effect of roommate feuds. - Contributing causes might be sloppiness, bad music, and staying up all nigh t. 19

- Trace that back a bit further in the chain and you may find a sufficient causelike the differences between two roommates (one’s sloppy, one’s neat; one likes Mozart, the other likes Snoop Dogg, one’s a morning person, the other’s a night owl). - Many people stop here, and sometimes this is as far as you can go. But often a sufficient cause isn’t the primary cause. Isn’t it possible, in other words, for two people who are substantially different to co-exist? If you don’t think so, your sufficient causemay in fact be your primary cause (and you may have identified the point of your cause-effect analysis: People who are substantially different should not be expected to co-exist). If, on the other hand, you’re not such a pessimist and you believe that people who are substantially different can in fact co-exist, you’ll want to trace the cause of roommate enmity back a bit further than how different the two people are — perhaps to their unwillingness to cooperate, to compromise, to adjust (and again, you’ll have discovered not only a primary cause but also the point of your essay: People who are substantially different can co-exist, as long as they are willing to work at it) . 3. Effects - Not every cause-effect paper is about causes. - Some may in fact center on the effects of a single cause. Consider the topic of acid rain: there may be several effects worth discussing, all leading to the point of the essay: that acid rain is causing enough damaging effects in our world that it’s worth taking the steps necessary to eliminate the problem. Eliminating that problem, of course, would be another paper—one that examines the causes of acid rain (thus making acid rain the effect of the paper). In the case of acid rain as cause, you might still want to briefly re view what makes acid rain—in other words, you’d be acknowledging that acid rain doesn’t exist in a vacuum. Acid rain thus temporarily becomes the effect caused by all sorts of environmental hazards, foremost among them air pollution. Your conclusion, then, could move back to that original cause, our insensitivity to our own environment, which is the primary cause in the chain leading to acid rain, and point to that cause as the culprit that needs to be addressed if we’re to see an end not only to acid rai n but to the environmental effects you’ve discussed in your essay. Example: Marriage and happiness When marriage is the cause, most people assume that the effect is happiness. However, what if the marriage was arranged, or was the result of a pregnancy, or done out of pure convenience? Would the cause and effect follow a logical sequence? Or could the cause be happiness and marriage the effect? Some other examples: drug addiction and crime, weight and television, ethnicity and professional success. Have a clearly focused topic Consider the required length for the essay when choosing your topic. If the essay should not exceed 500 words, keep your topic simple. Don’t have too much information to cover or introduce into yourargument(s) because you are not writing a dissertation. Avoid falling into a never-ending cycle of ideas; be concise, get to the point. Some useful guidelines: • Some topics may have many causes and effects with which to deal. Therefore, give some thought to how many and which ones you want to use; some may be more useful than others. • Don’t assume that events have a chronological order; sometimes one thing that usually happens before another doesn’t. For example: if a black cat walked in front of you and 20

seconds later you hit your head, fell down, and broke your ankle, having a black cat cross your path doesn’t mean that you will hit your head, fall down, and break your ankle every time. • Identify the causes and the effects: breaking up with your boyfriend or girlfriend could be the cause ofa fight or the result of one. • Sometimes special circumstances may not be the causes. For example: A child involved in gangs and/or mischief may come from a broken family. Although it’s a fact that this child’s parents are divorced, that may not be the directcause for the child being involved with gangs and mischief. 4. Structuring the Effects Essay 1. Introduction · Provide thesis and basis for effects, describe primary cause; may use more than one paragraph. The key question is, What effects result from this cause? 2. Body · Discuss each effect, t racing its path back to the causal chain and the root cause. 3. Conclusion · Return to thesis; speculate on possible first cause to right each bad effect. 4. Connectors Other words which contribute to the cohesion of the text are the text connectives. These are often called connectors, discourse markers or signal words. They provide the reader with signposts indicating how the text is developing. If the writer wants to show that a summary is coming up, for example, a phrase such as In short Öor briefly Ö can be used. If the text is giving a sequence of points, these can be highlighted by the use of such words as to begin Ö, Secondly, 5. Paragraphs: Connecting your ideas The connecting words within and between paragraphs are known as transition signals. They may be single words or phrases. Transition words give your paragraph coherence (unity) and demonstrate your writing skills. Moreover, they help the reader of your work to know, for instance, that a sequence of ideas, additional information, an opposite idea, a result or an example follows. You will need to know about: 1. Using transition signals 2. Examples of transition signals and their meaning 3. Placement of transition signals  Using transition signals The TWO paragraphs below show how transition words provide logical organisation of your writing and enhance the meaning of your text. Paragraph 1 is written WITHOUT transition signals. Paragraph 2 is written WITH transition signals. While BOTH paragraphs give the same information, it is quite clear that paragraph 2 is easier to understand because the reader is led from one idea to the next by the use of transition signals. Paragraph 1 - WITHOUT transition words The concept of fairness is central to understanding plagiarism. Fairness means being fair both to yourself and others. Everybody both gives and receives their proper due, and nobody has anything to complain about. An incident involving unfairness could be taking someone else’s work and passing it off as your own. The person whose work has been taken receives no 21

recognition or acknowledgment for their research and thinking. Writers who plagiarise are not being fair to themselves either because they are not developing their own independent academic skills. Students who do their own work with due acknowledgement of the work of others should develop their own academic skills and self-confidence far more than those who merely misuse the work of others. (Adapted from UNE, 2010 Avoiding coursework plagiarism and academic misconduct: Advice for students.) Paragraph 2 - WITH transition words The concept of fairness is central to understanding plagiarism. Fairness means being fair both to yourself and others. Moreover, everybody both gives and receives their proper due, and nobody has anything to complain about. For example, an incident involving unfairness could be taking someone else’s work and passing it off as your own. As a result, the person whose work has been taken receives no recognition or acknowledgment for their research and thinking. Furthermore, writers who plagiarise are not being fair to themselves either because they are not developing their own independent academic skills. Therefore, students who do their own work with due acknowledgement of the work of others should develop their own academic skills and self- confidence far more than those who merely misuse the work of others. 6. Transitional word and phrases Showing the relationships within and between sentences Transitional words and phrases connect and relate ideas,sentences, and paragraphs. They assist in the logical flow of ideas as they signal the relationship between sentences and paragraphs. In prose, the material is supported and conditioned not only bythe ordering of the material (its position) but by connectives which signal order, relationship and movement. Some of the more commonly used connectives are listed below. Note especially how these connections function to develop, relate, connect and move ideas. 1. To signal and, also, besides, further, furthermore, too, moreover, in addition of addition, ideas then, of equal importance, equally important, another 2. To signal next, afterward, finally, later, last, lastly, at last, now, subsequently, time then, when, soon, thereafter, after a short time, the next week (month, day, etc.), a minute later, in the meantime, meanwhile, on the following day, at length, ultimately, presently 3. To signal first, second, (etc.), finally, hence, next, then, from here on, to begin order or with, last of all, after, before, as soon as, in the end, gradually sequence 4. To signify above, behind, below, beyond, here, there, to the right (left), space and nearby, space opposite, on the other side, in the background, directly ahead, along the wall, as you turn right, at the tip, across the hall, at this point, adjacent to 5. To signal for example, to illustrate, for instance, to be specific, such as, and moreover, furthermore, just as important, similarly, in the same way example 6. To show as a result, hence, so, accordingly,as a consequence, consequently, 22

results thus, since, therefore, for this reason, because of this 7. To signal to this end, for this purpose, with this in mind, for this reason, for these purpose reasons like, in the same (like) manner or way, similarly 8. To signal compariso but, in contrast, conversely, however, still, nevertheless, ns nonetheless, yet, and yet, on the other hand, of course, on the contrary, or, in 9. To indicate spite contrast of this, actually, a year ago, now, notwithstanding, for all that, strangely enough, ironically 10. To signal although, though, while, despite, to be sure, it is true, true, I grant, alternative granted, I admit, admittedly, doubtless, I concede, regardless s, exceptions, it isn’t true that, people are wrong who say that, deny that, be that and as it objections may, by the same token, no doubt, we often hear it said, many people 11. To dispute claim, many people suppose, it used to be thought, in any case above all, first and foremost, importantly, again, to be sure, indeed, 12. To in intensify fact, as a matter of fact, as I have said, as has been noted in summary, to sum up, to repeat, briefly, in short, finally, on the 13. To whole, therefore, as I have said, in conclusion, as you can see summarize or repeat 7. Sentence connectors 1. Similarity likewise similarly correspondingly by the same token in the same way  Men must wear a jacket and a tie; similarly, women must wear a skirt or a dress, not trousers.  She was late and I similarly was delayed.  You can't teach navigation in the middle of a storm. Likewise, you can't build a system of values in the current educational climate. 2. Contrast a. Direct Opposition  Ali worked hard. On the other hand/In contrast/ However, Okan hardly did any work at all.  Metin is lazy. However, his brother is quite diligent (=hard working). 23

 George is an optimist. In contrast/However/, Bill is a pessimist.  Extroverts love crowds. In contrast, introverts prefer solitude.  Six is more than five; conversely, five is less than six. b. Denial of Expectation (Unexpected result)  She studied diligently for several months. Nevertheless/However/Yet/Nonetheless, she failed.  George is very handsome. Yet, he is not popular with girls.  My uncle is 70 years old now. Nonetheless, he maintains his interest in legal matters.  It's raining. Even so, we must go out 3. Result  He passed his exams. Therefore/Thus/Hence/Accordingly/Consequently, he had some good news to tell his parents.  Professor Brown is an outstanding scientist. Hence, he is highly respected.  He has been studying hard for a long time. Thus, he has made considerable progress.  He lacks self-confidence. As a consequence, he is unlikely to be successful.  The demand has increased sharply. Accordingly, the prices are higher now. 4. Addition and Listing  Aykut plays football. Moreover/ Besides/ Also, he runs a restaurant.  Necla writes short stories, in addition, she writes articles for a newspaper.  To prepare his homework, Jack went through various history books. Furthermore, he took notes from several encyclopedias.  During her spare time, Ayla practices the piano; in addition, she plays the violin.  I prefer to buy fruits and vegetables in the open market because they are quite cheap there. Besides, they are much fresher than fruits and vegetables sold at the greengrocers'.  Living in a big city offers good job opportunities. Also, it provides good educational opportunities.  All docs not have a gift for music. Moreover, he lacks motivation to practice music. Therefore, he can't become a good musician.  Owning a car has some advantages. First (First of all/Firstly/ To begin with), it gives you comfort. Secondly, it saves you a lot of time. Thirdly, it gives you great freedom of movement. What effects has the computer had on our lives? ( showing organization ) The twenty-first century is already turning out to be the century of the computer. The computer revolution that started after the Second World War is now developing exponentially and computers are beginning to influence and take over nearly every aspect of our lives. Computers are clearly changing and affecting society in many ways. The two main areas in which computers have brought about a profound change in our lives are in the economic field and in the field of communications. The computer has led to immense changes in economic and business life. First, businesses now have to be computerised or they risk failure. Every big corporation bases its operations on computing, regardless of which sector they are in. For example, Coca-Cola, the BBC and Levi’s market and sell different products and services, yet they all share one basic property – without computers their operations would collapse. Second, computing is an economic dynamo. Japan, China, India and many other countries have large IT sectors which drive their economies upwards. Furthermore, the developed 24

world is moving from an industrial-based economy to a computer and IT-based one. It is not just in business that computers have affected us so profoundly; communication has been revolutionised totally. Firstly, whereas before, people wrote letters, which would often take weeks to reach their destinations, or speak on the phone, which was terribly expensive, now they e-mail. For instance, instead of waiting weeks for a letter now, we can read it instantly, seconds after it’s been written. Secondly, many people use computers to communicate with people all around the world using chat rooms and chat programs, this was impossible before the computer became widespread. As a result, now people who live thousands of kilometres away from each other can communicate as much as they want and whenever they want using e-mail and/or chat rooms. In conclusion, computers have had a profound effect on our lives in many ways and it is in business and communication that they have had the greatest influence. In the future, if the computer continues evolving at such speed, our business practices and methods of communication will undergo even more radical changes. What effects has the computer had on our lives? (showing connector ) The twenty-first century is already turning out to be the century of the computer. The computer revolution that started after the Second World War is now developing exponentially and computers are beginning to influence and take over nearly every aspect of our lives. Computers are clearly changing and affecting society in many ways. The two main areas in which computers have brought about a profound change in our lives are in the economic field and in the field of communications. The computer has led to immense changes in economic and business life. First, businesses now have to be computerised or they risk failure. Every big corporation bases its operations on computing, regardless of which sector they are in. For example, Coca-Cola, the BBC and Levi’s market and sell different products and services, yet they all share one basic property – without computers their operations would collapse. Second, computing is an economic dynamo. Japan, China, India and many other countries have large IT sectors which drive their economies upwards. Furthermore, the developed world is moving from an industrial-based economy to a computer and IT-based one. It is not just in business that computers have affected us so profoundly; communication has been revolutionized totally. Firstly, whereas before, people wrote letters, which would often take weeks to reach their destinations, or speak on the phone, which was terribly expensive, now they e-mail. For instance, instead of waiting weeks for a letter now, we can read it instantly, seconds after it’s been written. Secondly, many people use computers to communicate with people all around the world using chat rooms and chat programs, this was impossible before the computer became widespread. As a result, now people who live thousands of kilometres away from each other can communicate as much as they want and whenever they want using e-mail and/or chat rooms. In conclusion, computers have had a profound effect on our lives in many ways and it is in business and communication that they have had the greatest influence. In the future, if the computer continues evolving at such speed, our business practices and methods of communication will undergo even more radical changes. 8. Conditional sentences 8.1.First Conditional: real possibility We are talking about the future. We are thinking about a particular condition or situation in the future, and the result of this condition. There is a real possibility that this 25

condition will happen. For example, it is morning. You are at home. You plan to play tennis this afternoon. But there are some clouds in the sky. Imagine that it rains. What will you do? IF condition result present simple WILL + base verb If it rains I will stay at home. Notice that we are thinking about a future condition. It is not raining yet. But the sky is cloudy and you think that it could rain. We use the present simple tense to talk about the possible future condition. We use WILL + base verb to talk about the possible future result. The important thing about the first conditional is that there is a real possibility that the condition will happen. Here are some more examples (do you remember the two basic structures: [IF condition result] and [result IF condition]?): IF condition result present simple WILL + base verb If I see Mary I will tell her. If Tara is free tomorrow he will invite her. If they do not pass their exam their teacher will be sad. If it rains tomorrow will you stay at home? If it rains tomorrow what will you do? result IF condition WILL + base verb present simple I will tell Mary if I see her. He will invite Tara if she is free tomorrow. Their teacher will be sad if they do not pass their exam. Will you stay at home if it rains tomorrow? What will you do if it rains tomorrow? Sometimes, we use shall, can, or may instead of will, for example: If you are good today, you can watch TV tonight. 8.2.Second Conditional: unreal possibility or dream The second conditionalis like the first conditional. We are still thinking about the future. We are thinking about a particular condition in the future, and the result of this condition. But there is nota real possibility that this condition will happen. For example, you do nothave a lottery ticket. Is it possible to win? No! No lottery ticket, no win! But maybe you will buy a lottery ticket in the future. So you can think about winning in the future, like a dream. It's not very real, but it's still possible. IF condition result past simple WOULD + base verb If I won the lottery I would buy a car. Notice that we are thinking about a future condition. We use the past simple tense to talk about the future condition. We use WOULD + base verb to talk about the future result. The important thing about the second conditional is that there is an unreal possibility that the condition will happen. Here are some more examples: IF condition result past simple WOULD + base verb If I married Mary I would be happy. If Ram became rich she would marry him. If it snowed next July would you be surprised? 26

If it snowed next July what would you do? result IF condition WOULD + base verb past simple I would be happy if I married Mary. She would marry Ram if he became rich. Would you be surprised if it snowed next July? What would you do if it snowed next July? Sometimes, we use should, could or mightinstead of would, for example: If I won a million dollars, I couldstop working. 8.3.Third Conditional: no possibility The first conditional and second conditionals talk about the future. With the third conditionalwe talk about the past. We talk about a condition in the past that did nothappen. That is why there is no possibility for this condition. The third conditional is also like a dream, but with no possibility of the dream coming true. Last week you bought a lottery ticket. But you did not win. condition result Past Perfect WOULD HAVE + Past Participle If I had won the lottery I would have bought a car. Notice that we are thinking about an impossible past condition. You did not win the lottery. So the condition was not true, and that particular condition can never be true because it is finished. We use the past perfect tense to talk about the impossible past condition. We use WOULD HAVE + past participle to talk about the impossible past result. The important thing about the third conditional is that both the condition and result are impossible now. Sometimes, we use should have, could have, might have instead of would have, for example: If you had bought a lottery ticket, you might have won. Look at some more examples in the tables below: IF condition result past perfect WOULD HAVE + past participle If I had seen Mary I would have told her. If Tara had been free yesterday I would have invited her. If they had not passed their exam their teacher would have been sad. 9. Zero Conditional: certainty We use the so-called zero conditionalwhen the result of the condition is always true, like a scientific fact. Take some ice. Put it in a saucepan. Heat the saucepan. What happens? The ice melts (it becomes water). You would be surprised if it did not. IF condition result present simple present simple If you heat ice it melts. Notice that we are thinking about a result that is always true for this condition. The result of the condition is an absolute certainty. We are not thinking about the future or the past, or even the present. We are thinking about a simple fact. We use the present simple tense to talk about the condition. We also use the present simple tense to talk about the result. The important thing about the zero conditional is that the condition always has the same result. We can also use wheninstead of if, for example: WhenI get up late I miss my bus. 27

Look at some more examples in the tables below: IF condition result present simple present simple If I miss the 8 o'clock bus I am late for work. If I am late for work my boss gets angry. If people don't eat they get hungry. If you heat ice does it melt? result IF condition present simple present simple I am late for work if I miss the 8 o'clock bus. My boss gets angry if I am late for work. People get hungry if they don't eat. Does ice melt if you heat it? 10. Practice 10.1. Transitional words and phrases showing the relationship within and between sentences  Exercise I. Circle the letter that correctlyidentifies the nature of the underlined transition in each of the following sentences. 1. A water main downtown broke this morning, soseveral businesses had no water for hours. a. addition b. time c. comparison d. cause and effect 2. Even thoughmost Americans are primarily concerned about AIDS as it exists in the U.S., it should be remembered that it is now nearly a worldwide disease. a. addition b. time c. contrast d. comparison 3. Larry will probably be a latebloomer socially, just likehis older brothers. a. time b. contrast c. comparison d. cause and effect 4. There are ways you can make boring tasks more pleasant. For instance, bring a portable radio and listen to music on the earphones while you work. a. contrast b. comparison c. illustration/example d. cause and effect 5. The lazy checkout clerk forced the six-packof cola into the bottom of the bag, tearing it. Thenshe shrugged her shoulders and said, “I guess you’ll have to carry the bag from the bottom.” a. time b. contrast c. comparison d. illustration/example 6. Science-fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke correctly predicted thatsatellites would be used for communication. Moreover, in 1947 he correctly predicted that 1959 would be the year the first rocketto the moon was launched. a. addition b. time c. contrast d. cause and effect 7. Some people in New Jersey built their houses very close to the shoreline. Consequently, they have had to spend a lot of money trying to protect their property from the sea. a. addition b. contrast c. illustration/example d. cause and effect 8. Running can make people more aware oftheir physical surroundings, such as the scent of honeysuckle or the changing moods of the trees. a. addition b. contrast c. illustration/example d. cause and effect 9. Residents complain bitterly about potholes inthe streets and sloppy trash pick-up, yet these same people resist paying higher taxes for the improvement of these services. a. time b. contrast c. comparison d. illustration/example 28

10.Telephone interviewing allows for a large number of responses in a short time and at relatively low cost. Moreover, the method permits interviewers to reach respondents at specific times of the day; this is an important consideration in the study of radio and TV listening habits. a. addition b. time c. contrast d. comparison  Exercise II. Circle the letter of the word that correctly identifies the appropriate transition word or phrase. Then underlinethe kind of transition you have used. 1. __________ the invention of television, people probably spent more of their leisure time reading. a. Nevertheless b. Because c. Before The transition word indicates: addition cause and effect time 2. If you’re having company for dinner, try to get as much done in advance as possible. __________, set the table the day before. a. For instance b. In contrast c. Similarly The transition word indicates: illustration/example comparison contrast 3. __________ I’m very allergic to flowers, my boyfriend bought a bouquet of roses. a. Until b. Because c. Even though The transition word indicates: time contrast addition 4. My grandfather loves to say, “You’re asnervous __________ a long-tailed cat in a roomful of rocking chairs.” a. after b. as c. as a result The transition word indicates: cause and effect time comparison 5. __________ Manny’s car stereowas on full blast, I could see his lips moving, but I had no idea what he was saying. a. Moreover b. Because c. Just as The transition word indicates: comparison addition cause and effect 10.2. Fill the gaps with the following italic words. Use each of them only once. as soon as whenever by the time before unless till/ until but for once while whenever in case if as 1. He has had a number of different jobs ……………………….. he left school. 2. We have to wait here …………………………. he comes. 3. ………………………….. you finish/have finished the experiment, comeand see me. I have an urgent message for you. 4. She left …………………….. I had a chance to speak to her. 5. ……………………… he was trying to repair the machine, he burned his finger. 6. ……………………… you make/have made a decision, you shouldn´t regret it. 7. The phone was ringing but ………………………….. I picked it up, it stopped. 8. He blames me …………………………. things go wrong. 9. I can´t leave the lab ……………………. I know that all the devices have been switched off. 10. He tripped on a step ………………………….. he was entering the hall. 11. Take my key …………………….. the door is locked. 12. ……………………… you get up at 7, you won´t miss the lecture. 29

13. ………………………… the unexpected interruptions, we would have finished much earlier. 10.3. Fill in the correct forms of the verbs given in the right-hand column. 1. I am sure he ………………………… the problem if you explained it to him. understand 2. If I had known the programme of that workshop, I………………………….. there. go 3. We are prepared to work overtime if it …………………….. necessary. be 4. That firm will employ our graduates provided they …………………………….. good language and computer skills. have 5. They want to know if we ………………………………….. the project on time. finish 6. If you had asked him, he ………………………………………. you. help 7. He …………………………….. two jobs since he graduated. have 8. We are prepared to work overtime provided we ………………………… paid. get 9. If the equipment of that plant …………………………. not so obsolete, the power consumption would not be so high. be 10. Let us know if you ………………………………. to the meeting. come 11. When the water ……………………………, turn off the kettle. boil 12. Call me as soon as you …………………………….. the experiment. finish 13. Don´t do anything until I ................................ you. tell 14. When the plant …………………………… , it will employ 100 people. be built 15. They want to know when the plant ………………………………… . be built 16. When the experiments …………………………………, data processing can start be completed Past tense or present perfect tense in the following sentences? Use the verbs in capitals to fill the gaps. 1. He…………………………… for this company sinc……………. school. WORK/LEAVE 2. Since when ………………………… he ……………………….. for that company? WORK 3. I …………… him at a party last night. I ………………….. since. MEET, SEE 4. We ……………… friends ever since we ……………… at school together. BE, BE 5. He ……………………………………… a member of the research team since 2010. BE 6. I …………………………. with the project since I ……working here. INVOLVE, START 10.4. Underline the conjunctions 1. As time passed, things started to look better. ………………………………… 2. I´m afraid I can´t help you as I´m not familiar with this type of machine. 3. Since you aren´t able to do it yourself, you should ask for help. 4. It´s two years now since we met in London 5. While my colleague was gathering data, I was working on a program for processing them. 6. He preferred fundamental research while his colleagues were more interested in applied research. V. Fill in the words given below. but for provided/providing (that) in case supposing unless 1. You can´t get a job …………………………… you´ve got experience. 2. Everybody can join the course …………………………….. there is space available. 30

3. ………………………. something goes wrong, what will you do? 4. ……………………….. your warning, I´d have burnt my fingers. 5. I´ll be in my office ………………………….. you need me. 10.5.Cause and effect (a) Underline the cause and highlight its effect in each of the following sentences. 1. After the dog bit her, we had to take her to the hospital. 2. Her computer stopped working due to a virus. 3. The police arrested him because he committed a crime. 4. She set fire to the curtain first before the whole house burnt down. 5. If she gets accepted to university, she will become a doctor. 6. Unless she finds a replacement, she will be fired. 7. Owing to the lack of customers, the restaurant closed down this week. 8. Since she is scared of clowns, she never goes to the circus. 9. He passed his first year at university; as a result, his parents bought him a car. 10. She is lazy, therefore she has failed all of her subjects. (b) Complete the sentence by filling in a cause or an effect as required. Circle what was needed to complete each sentence: cause or effect. 1. Melanie did not go to school because _______________.cause/effect 2. Due to _____________________, Jason was late for work again. cause/effect 3. Since Zinzi bought all the chocolate in the shop, Sarah ___________. cause/effect 4. If _________________, there won’t be enough space in the car. cause/effect 5. Khulani works late every Friday so that _______________cause/effect 6. Since Jamie’s parents found out about the party he hosted without their permission, __________________________ cause/effect 7. Owing to__________________, the tickets were all sold out.cause/effect 8. In view of Mandisa’s fear of heights, _____________________ cause/effect 9. As a result of Thabo’s silence, ______________________cause/effect 10. Jenny shouted at Mark first _________________ cause/effect (c) Read through the following passage, underlining causes and highlighting effects. I woke up late this morning because my alarm clock did not ring. As a result, I had to rush to get ready for school and I made a huge mess all over the house. I missed the bus because I had to go back home to fetch my cellphone. Consequently, I was late for school, and my lecturer was not pleased with me at all. Due to the fact that my day had been going so badly, I was in a bad mood and I shouted at my friends. Since I was in such a bad mood, they didn’t want to hang out with me and they left. After they left, my day only got worse. In view of all that happened today, I’ve decided that I need two alarm clocks instead of one, to make sure I wake up on time in the mornings. Now, tabulate your causes and the related effects using a table similar to the one below: 10.6.Which sentences below are cause and effect Eg. My alarm clock did not ring. Cause I woke up late. Effect (d) You have been given a cause and its effects. Link the cause and its effects using a few sentences. Remember to use your linking words. 1. CAUSE: terrorist attack; bomb explosion EFFECT: people killed; families grieving; multiple funerals 31

2. CAUSE: global warming EFFECT: heat waves in summer; people fainting; overcrowding in hospitals (e) Write a paragraph in which you explain something that happened to you in terms of its causes and effect Unit 4 Argumentative Essay Unit Goal Rhetorical focus:  argumentative organization  counter arguments  refutations+ 32

Language focus:  concessions  connectors showing addition and contrast  adverbial clauses  noun clauses Stimulate idea  What is an argumentative essay ?  Why does it need to argue?  Why do we need to connect the clause ? 1. Argumentative Essays There are many different ways to organize an argumentative essay. The most important thing to remember about an argumentative essay is that you must show both sides of a contentious issue. In other words, your topic must be debatable. An argumentative essay is a good tool of persuasion because you show the reader: 1) You have considered both sides of the argument before choosing your position 2) You are able to anticipate and refute any opposing arguments. Before you organize your essay, make sure that you have brainstormed both sides of the issue. Once you know what you want to say, the organization you choose should be whichever will best showcase your ideas. 2. Argumentative Essay in detail Point by Point This organization works well if you would like to present 2 sides of an issue fairly and objectively without taking a side. Point by point works best if the individual points of argument oppose each other directly. Introduction: - Explain the importance of the issue - Provide background information explaining why the issue is commonly debated - Provide a thesis statement which recognizes the main perspectives of the opposing sides. (Do not present your opinion) Body: Paragraph 1: - Present the first supporting point of one side - Support the points with examples or research to illustrate their position - Present the opposing or counter point to the above claim - Support the points with examples or research to illustrate their position Paragraph 2: - Present the second supporting point of one side - Support the points with examples or research to illustrate their position - Present the opposing or counter point to the above claim - Support the points with examples or research to illustrate their position Paragraph 3: - Present the third supporting point of one side - Support the points with examples or research to illustrate their position - Present the opposing or counter point to the above claim 33

- Support the points with examples or research to illustrate their position (Continue in this way until you have exhausted your ability to present both sides of the issue) Paragraph 4: (optional) - If you have additional points to present that cannot be directly countered, you can provide them in the last few body paragraphs Conclusion - Rephrase your main point - Summarize your main ideas in order to show how strong your position is over your opponent’s - Provide a final thought for the reader  An argumentative essay uses reasoning and evidence—not emotion—to take a definitive stand on a controversial or debatable issue. The essay explores two sides of a topic and proves why one side or position is the best.The First Steps Choose a specific issue to discuss. Some debatable issues cover a wide range of topics. For example, “legalizing drugs” is too broad a subject because topics within that issue include legalizing marijuana, the effectiveness of the FDA, o r whether a painkiller made in Europe should be allowed into the US. Any of these could be the sole focus of an argumentative paper. Research both sides of the topic thoroughly. Even if you know which side you want to argue, research can give you ideas for counterarguments and help your paper show balance rather than bias. Develop a working thesis. State your position on the issue and summarize your argument’s main reasons in one sentence. Your body paragraphs should explain your reasons fully. Body Paragraphs1 Option #1: Present both sides of the issue, then state your opinion and explain why you chose that side. This option is useful if you did not have an opinion on the issue prior to research, or your audience is not very familiar with your topic. - One half to two-thirds of your paper explains the issue, shows the two opposing sides, and gives an assessment of each. This demonstrates that you have indeed conducted research and are an expert on the subject. - Next, when you state your position, readers might be more inclined to agree with you. - Last, explain your reasons for choosing that side without repeating ideas from previous paragraphs. Option #2: State your opinion at the beginning. List and explain the reasons for your choice. Acknowledge the other side’s arguments; then, disprove/refute those arguments. This option is useful when your audience already has some knowledge of the issue. It allows you to be more assertive, thus making a stronger argument. - Select the strongest evidence from your research and present your points— usually one point per body paragraph. - Next, explain one or two of the opposing side’s points to show how readers might object to your argument. Then, show how these arguments are not reasonable, not logical, or not effective. Be sure to reassert your own viewpoint and why it is the best choice. Final Steps: Revise and Edit 34

- Pretend that your readers are a skeptical panel or jurors. You can best convince them of your arguments by avoiding emotional or aggressive language and by using a mix of evidence types—facts, statistics, examples, expert opinions, or even personal experience. - Cite your sources! - To increase the chances that your audience will agree with you, start body paragraphs with ideas that both sides agree upon before arguing your point. - Know the other side’s strongest arguments to defend against challenges from other students or your instructor. - In your conclusion, emphasize why your topic is important, summarize your arguments, and re-state your position as the most sensible choice. Do not include new evidence or arguments. 3. Elements of an Argumentative Essay An Argumentative Essay contains the following • an introduction • support • a refutation • a conclusion In the Introduction • background is appropriate. This may consist of a brief history of related past events, a summary of others’ opinions, or a review of the basic facts. • a thesis statement is required. This informs the reader of the writer’s opinion regarding the matter under discussion and previews his plan of development. In the Body Paragraphs • the writer presents his points of discussion. Each point is typically given its own paragraph and is supported by evidence. Most often, the writer begins with his weakest point and concludes with his stronger arguments. If all the writer’s points are equally strong, he builds a relationship with his audience by discussing the most familiar, less controversial points first. In the Refutation • the writer acknowledges the opposition. To not do so, may be considered cowardice, stupidity, dishonesty, or weakness. However, acknowledgement does not imply agreement. In this portion of the essay, the writer needs to “refute” or disagree intelligently with the opposition. A Gentle Reminder from Lester Faigley and Jack Selzers’ Good Reasons: 1. “Try to think of yourself as engaged not so much in winning over your audience as in courting your audience’s cooperation.” 2. “Show that you understand and genuinely respect your listener’s or reader’s position even if you think the position is ultimately wrong.” In the Conclusion • the writer restates, in general terms, the major arguments he has marshaled in defense of his thesis. • the writer may summarize key points, restate his thesis, reinforce the weakness of his opposition, underscore the logic of his presentation, re-emphasize why this debate is important, suggest a course of action, or challenge the reader to apply the paper’s argument to his own life. 35

4. Writing Argumentative Essays • Does the essay develop an argumentative thesis? • Has the writer considered the opinions, attitudes, and values of his audience? • Has the writer identified and refuted opposing arguments? • Has the writer supported his assertions with evidence? • Has the writer established his credibility? • Has the writer been fair? • Has the writer provided the reader with enough background information? • Has the writer presented his points clearly and organized them logically? • Has the writer written an interesting introduction and a strong conclusion? • Has the writer presented his thoughts in a way that the reader is a “respected partner” rather than a “competitor”? Has he set forth his arguments in the spirit of “mutual support” and “negotiation”? Has he invited “cooperation” rather than “resistance”? 5. Counter-argument rebuttal - What is a counter-argument? A counter-argument is an argument opposed to your thesis or part of your thesis. It expresses the view of a person who disagrees with your position (Oldham). - Where do I put a counter-argument? A counter-argument can appear anywhere in your essay, but it most commonly appears: - As part of your introduction—before you propose your thesis—where the existence of a different view is the motive for your essay, the reason it needs writing. - As a section or paragraph just after your introduction, in which you lay out the expected reaction or standard position before turning away to develop your own - As a quick move within a paragraph, where you imagine a counter-argument not to your main idea, but to the sub-idea that the paragraph is arguing or is about to argue. - As a section or paragraph just before the conclusion of your essay, in which you imagine what someone might object to what you have argued. (Harvey) - How do I introduce a counter-argument? Counter-argument in an essay has two stages. In this first stage, you turn against your argument to challenge it. The following is a listing of ways to approach introducing counter-arguments and templates for structuring them: 1) Imagine a skeptical reader - Yet some readers may challenge the view that _________. - After all, many believe _________. - Indeed, my own argument that _________ seems to ignore _________ and _________. - Of course, many will probably disagree with this assertion that _________. Counter-Argument 2 2) Cite an actual source, critic or group of critics, who might resist your argument - Here many feminists would probably object that _________. - But social Darwinists would certainly take issue with the argument that _________. - Nevertheless, both followers and critics of Malcolm X will probably argue that _________. 3) Look at your arguments themselves for possible: - problems with your conclusion Others, however, may conclude _________. - disadvantages to what you propose This proposed solution does have some disadvantages __________. 36

- alternative explanations that makes more sense. Alternatively, this issue could be viewed _________. After introducing your counter-argument, you state the case against yourself as briefly but as clearly and forcefully as you can, pointing to evidence where possible (Harvey). - How Do I Rebut a Counter Argument? In the second stage, you turn back to re-affirm your argument. You may consider the following rebuttal tactics and models for structuring them: 4) Quote acknowledged experts that support your position - While many may see this argument as flawed, ____________John Smith, an expert in his field, also finds_________. 5) Redefine the criteria of “known” concepts - Although I grant that _________, couldn’t it also be possible that _________. 6) Find agreement and show how your new idea supports a shared idea - I agree with X that _________. Furthermore, this idea actually supports my point because _________. - Pointing out faulty assumptions in your critic’s arguments where: the facts are wrong 6. Counter-argument The counterargument paragraph is developed in much the same way that an argument paragraph is developed. The difference is that the counterargument is your opponents’ (the other side’s) argument that explains why you are wrong. This paragraph is structured as follows: 1. Topic sentence. It states the other side’s reason for why you are wrong. Nouns used in this sentence are critics and opponents. Verbs used in this sentence are argue, claim, and contend. Pattern 1 Transition + some critics / opponents + argue / claim + that + argument against your thesis. Nevertheless, some critics argue that the reason why some terminally ill patients wish to commit suicide is nothing more than melancholia. Pattern 2 Transition + it is argued that + argument against your thesis. Nevertheless, it is argued that the reason why some terminally ill patients wish to commit suicide is nothing more than melancholia. 2. Explanation sentence. It explains the controlling idea, the topic sentence. 3. Expert evidence sentence. This sentence backs up the topic sentence with a quotation or paraphrase of evidence from expert(s). It includes the name of the author, name of the article, and the date of publication. 4. Explanation sentence. It explains the supporting evidence from expert(s). 5. Example and / or statistics sentence. This sentence contains an example or statistics that support the evidence from the expert(s). 6. Explanation sentence. It explains the significance of the examples or statistics as related to the controlling idea, the thesis sentence. 7. Conclusion sentence. It states what conclusion can be made once people consider the 7. Controlling idea and evidence. Directions: 37

After reading the sample counterargument paragraph below, answer the questions that follow it. Critics argue that the reason why some terminally ill patients wish to commit suicide is nothing more than melancholia. Patients suffering terminal illness might tend to be negative, hopeless, and depressed. In \"When Patients Request Assistance with Suicide,\" Dr. Michael Maskin, an associate professor of clinical psychiatry at Columbia Presbyterian Medical Center in New York, argues that in many cases, dying patients' thinking is simply occupied by negative reactions to their critical condition (1999). In other words, most of the reasons why terminally ill patients request doctors to assist them in committing suicide might be caused by certain problems related to their illness. For example, they may be experiencing problems such as hopelessness because there is no effective treatment, anxiety over doctors' very expensive fees, and regret for their family's burden of taking care of them (Maskin, 1999). For this reason, opponents argue that the terminally ill patient needs psychotherapy. Therefore, people who oppose doctor-assisted suicide believe that these patients are much too depressed to make a logical decision. 1. What is this paragraph about? 2. Who is the expert? 3. What is the name of the article that the expert’s opinion is taken from? 4. When was this article published? 5. What does the expert argue? 6. What examples are used to support the expert’s opinion? 7. Based on the examples, what do the critics argue that dying people need? 8. What conclusion is reached? Refutation The refutation paragraph must prove that your opponents’ objection (counterargument) is wrong. To do this, you must answer the objection in a fair and logical manner. This paragraph is structured as follows: Pattern It may be true that + paraphrase of objection. It may be true that all such requests, in which dying patients ask doctors to help them to kill themselves, come from depression as some psychologists have claimed and that some patients will change their minds if they participate in psychotherapy. Pattern Transition + reason why the objection is wrong. However, all of those terminally ill patients who after psychotherapy finally choose to hasten their deaths are very determined. Expert evidence sentence. This sentence backs up the topic sentence with a quotation or paraphrase of evidence from expert(s). It includes the name of the author, name of the article, and the date of publication. 4. Explanation sentence. It explains the supporting evidence from expert(s). 5. Example and / or statistics sentence. This sentence contains an example or statistics that support the evidence from the expert(s). 6. Explanation sentence. It explains the significance of the examples or statistics as related to the controlling idea, the thesis sentence. 7. Conclusion sentence. It states what conclusion can be made once people consider the controlling idea and evidence. 38

Directions: After reading the sample counterargument paragraph below, answer the questions that follow it. It may be true that all such requests, in which dying patients ask doctors to help them to kill themselves, come from depression as some psychologists have claimed and that some patients will change their minds if they participate in psychotherapy. However, all of those terminally ill patients who after psychotherapy finally choose to hasten their deaths are very determined. In \"Opposing Views on Assisted Suicide,\" Faye Girsh points 4 out that many dying patients want to know about how to get help from a doctor to achieve a peaceful death even if ultimately they do not choose suicide (1999). In other words, terminally ill patients who voluntarily choose to ask doctors to help them commit suicide are those who decide carefully to take advantage of the doctor-assisted suicide law. For example, Girsh states that patients who consider assisted suicide are aware of their exact medical condition through a mutual exchange of information with their doctors, these patients understand their medical treatment along with ris k, benefits and other options, and they must talk with a psychologist to determine if they are psychologically able to make such a decision (1999). These are not patients who want to end their lives simply because they are depressed. In short , terminally ill patients who finally choose to ask doctors to help them commit suicide are mentally competent and very determined about what they want to choose. 1. Does the writer acknowledge the validity of the other side’s objection? 2. Why is the objection wrong? 3. Who is the expert? 4. What is the name of the article that the expert’s opinion is taken from? 5. When was this article published? 6. What does the expert argue? 7. What examples are used to support the expert’s opinion? 8. What does the example prove? 9. What conclusion is reached? 8. Clauses as Nouns and Adjectives Independent and Dependent Clauses 1. If a clause can stand alone as a sentence, it is an independent clause, as in the following example: 8.1. Independent The Prime Minister is in Ottawa. 2. Some clauses, however, cannot stand alone as sentences: in this case, they are dependent clausesor subordinate clauses. Consider the same clause with the subordinating conjunction\"when\" added to the beginning: 8.2. Dependent When the Prime Minister is in Ottawa 3. In this case, the clause cannot be a sentence by itself because the meaning in not complete. It answers the question \"when,\" just like an adverb of time, so is called a dependent adverb clause(or simply an adverb clause, since adverb clauses are always dependent clauses). Note how the clause can replace the adverb \"tomorrow\" in the following examples: Adverb The committee will meet tomorrow. Adverb Clause 39

The committee will meet when the Prime Minister is in Ottawa. Dependent clauses can stand not only for adverbs, but also for nouns and for adjectives. 8.3. Noun Clauses 1. A noun clauseis a dependent clause which takes the place of a noun in another clause or phrase. Like a noun, a noun clause acts as the subjector objectof a verbor the object of a preposition, answering the questions \"who(m)?\" or \"what?\". 2. Words that introduce noun clauses: How What where Which Whoever If Whatever Whichever whoever Whomever That When Whether who, which Why 3. Noun clauses with Wh-words are indirect questions. They have statement wordorder, even when theyoccur within questions [ Wh + subject + verb] Examples: I don’t know what he is doing. I wonder how he feels today. Where I put my bookis a mystery 4. Noun clauses can be used as the following: Function Noun or Pronoun Noun Clause Subject His speechwas clear. What he saidwas clear. Direct object I don’t know his contact number. I don’t know how he can be reached. Indirect object Give herthe message Give whoever answers the message. Object of a preposition I sent the notice to her. I sent the notice to whoever was Predicate/ complement noun That is my plan.That is what I plan to do. 8.4. Noun clauses after verbs or expressions that show importance or urgency: • After verbs that show importance or urgency, the base form is used. • Use the subject pronoun before a base form. • For negatives, put not before the base form Some expressions that show importance or urgency: It is advisable, It is essential , It is imperative , It is important , It is necessary, It is urgent Examples: • It is essential that a baby have stimulation. • I advise that she stayhome with her children. • It is important that a diabetic person not increase the sugar intake. Exercises: Identify each noun clause. Is it used as a subject, a direct object, an indirect object, an object of a preposition, or a predicate noun? 1. You know that the telephone uses electricity. 2. What you say into a phonecreates sound waves. 3. An electric current carries the sound to whoever is listening. 4. Basically, this is how a telephone operates. 5. You can talk to whomever you like and say whatever you think. 6. Campaign workers use whatever helps them. 7. That telephones can be very helpful has been shown inmany elections. 8. Who will win the election is what people want to know. 9. Telephoners ask whoever answers a series of questions. 40

10. Whether a candidate is popular is a vital matter. 11. Another question may be whatthe major issues are. 12. Voters usually give whoever is calling an answer. 9. Practice 9.1. Find out the noun clauses in the following sentences and state what purpose they serve. 1. The king ordered that the traitor should be put to death. 2. He said that he would not go. 3. That he is not interested in the offer is known to us. 4. He said that he was not feeling well. 5. I cannot rely on what he says. 6. I don’t know where he has gone. 9.2. Noun clause 1. Here the noun clause ‘that the traitor should be put to death’ is the object of the verb ordered. 2. Here the noun clause ‘that he would not go’ is the object of the verb said. 3. Here the noun clause ‘that he is not interested in the offer’ is the subject of the verb is. 4. Here the noun clause ‘that he was not feeling well’ isthe object of the verb said. 5. Here the noun clause ‘what he says’ is the object of the preposition on. 6. Here the noun clause‘where he has gone’ is the object of the verb know. 9.3. Complete the sentences by changing the questions to noun clauses: 1. Who is she? I don’t know.................... 2. Who are they? I don’t know....................... 3. What is that? Do you know......................... 4. What are those? I don’t know................... 5. Whose book is that? I dont know............. 6. Whose books are those? I don’t know................... 7. What is a wrench? Do you know ........................... 8. Who is that woman? I wonder..................... 9. Whose house is that? I wonder........................... 10. What is a clause? Don’t you know ........................ 11. What is in that drawer? I don’t know................................ 12. What is on TV tonight? I wonder.................... 13. Whose glasses are those? Could you tell me.......................................... 14. Who am I? H e doesn’t know........................... 15. What’s at the end ofthe rainbow? The little girl wants to know........................ 9.4. Complete the sentences by changing the questions to noun clauses. 1. Who(m) did you see at the party? Tellme............................ 2. Who came to the party? Tell me ................................... 3. Who did Helen talk to? Do you know .................................... 4. Who lives at that apartment? Do you know......................... 5. What happened? Tell me................................ 6. What did he say? Tell me.................................. 7. What kind of car does Jim have? I can’t remember ............................ 8. How old are their children? I can’t even remember............................... 41

9. Where can I catch the bus? Could you please tell me.......................... 10. Who broke the window? Do you know............................... 11. Who did Sara invite? I don’t know.......................... 12. How long has Ted been living here? Do you know........................... 13. What time is flight 677 supposed to arrive? Can you tell me...................... 14. Why is Yoko angry? Do you know............................. 9.5. Select the correct answer a, b, c, d or e : 1. I had an accident and took my car to the garage. My husband asked me where ________. a. is my car b. my car was c. my car is d. was my car e. is your car? 2. The old lady next door must have a lot of cats. I don't know how many _______________. a. cats does she have b. does she has cats c. she has cats d. cats she has e. cats has she 3. Do you know ____________ fromthe earth? I have no idea. a. how far the moon is b. how far is the moon c. how the moon is far d. if how far the moon is e. whether how is the moon far 4. Your brother is playing his music too loud. I can't hear what ____________ . a. is saying your brother b. that your brother is saying c. is saying your brother d. your brother is saying e. your brother says 5. When I left home, my uncle gave me some advice. He said __________ give up. a. I shouldn't b. that shouldn't c. don't d. that I don't e. no 6. Jill didn't want to go to the car show. Her husband insistedthat ___________ with him. a. she come b. she came c. she had come d. she comes e. she has come 7. My boss wants this report immediately. He demanded that it ______________ ready by 5:00. a. is b. will be c. be d. was e. should be 8. Did he tell you where __________ the report when you finish? a. should you put b. you to put c. you put d. to put e. will you put 9. My friend predicted _____________ receive a lot praise for my work. a. that I would b. that I c. what would I d. what I e. that I will 10. My friend saw an accident. He told me ____________ at the scene of the accident. a. if he'd seen b. what he saw c. what he'd seen d. whether he saw e. that he'd seen 11. Is it true that all movies will beavailable online? _______ is wonderful! a. That all movies will be available b. All movies will be available c. Due to the fact that all movies will be available d. It is that all movies will be available e. Being available all movies 12. Can you tell me how to fix my computer? That depends on __________ an old computer. a. have you b. whether you have c. that have you d. if have you e. about your having 13. Is it true __________ peopleare saying about the new laptops? a. that what b. that c. if d. whether or not e. what 14. _______________ light-weight is important. 42

a. A computer is b. Is a computer c. If a computer is d. Whether or not a computer is e. Is a computer 15. What are you going to do with your old computer? Nothing! ____ is too expensive. a. That I want to do b. What I want to do c. That what I want to do d. What do I want to do e. If what I want to do 9.6.adverbal clause These clauses are often called “time clauses” in English grammar books and follow specific patterns. Take a look at them and study the usage of different time expressions. Punctuation When an adverb clause begins the sentence use a comma to separate the two clauses. Example: · As soon as he arrives, we will have some lunch. When the adverb clause finishes the sentence there is no need for a comma. Example: · He gave me a call when he arrived in town. 9.7.Adverb Clauses with Time  When: “when” means “at that moment,” or “at that time”. Notice the different tenses used in relationship to the clause beginning with “when”. It is important to remember that “when” takes either the Past Simple or the Present —the dependent clause changes tense in relation to the “when” clause. Examples: · He was talking on the phone whenI arrived. · Whenshe called, he had already eaten lunch. · I washed the dishes whenmy daughter fell asleep. · We’ll go to lunch whenyou come to visit.  Before:“before” means “before that moment”. It is important to remember that “before” takes either the Past Simple or the Present. Examples: · We’ll finish beforehe arrives. · She (had) left beforeI telephoned.  After:“after” means “after that moment”. It is important to remember that “after” takes the Presentfor Futureevents and the Past or Past Perfect for past events. Examples: · We’ll finish afterhe comes. · She ate afterI (had) left.  While, as: “while” and “as” mean “during that time”. “While” and “as” are both usually used with the past continuous because the meaning of “during that time” which indicates an action in progress. Examples: · She began cooking whileI was doing my homework. · AsI was finishing my homework, she began cooking.  By the time: “by the time” expresses the idea that one event has been completed before another. It is important to notice the use of the Past Perfectfor past events and Future Perfect for future events in the main clause. This is because of the idea of something happening up to another point in time. 43

Examples: · By the timehe finished, I had cooked dinner. · She’ll have finished her homework by the time they arrive.  Until, till: “until” and “till” express “up to that time”. We use either the Present Simpleor Past Simplewith “until” and “till”. “Till” is usually only used in spoken English. Examples: · We waited untilhe finished his homework. · I’ll wait tillyou finish.  Since: “since” means “from that time”. We use the Present Perfect (continuous) with “since”. “Since” can also be used with a specific point in time. Examples: · I have played tennis sinceI was a young boy.  As soon as: “as soon as” means “when something happens —immediately afterwards”. “As soon as” is very similar to “when;” it emphasizes that the event will happen immediately after the other. We usually use the Present Simplefor future events, although Present Perfect can also be used. Examples: · He will let us know as soon as he decides (oras soon as he has decided). 9. Whenever, every time: “whenever” and “every time” mean “each time something happens”. We use the Present Simple (or the Past Simple in the past) because “whenever” and “every time” express a habitual action. Examples: · Wheneverhe comes, we have lunch at our favorite restaurant. · We take a hike every time he visits. 10. The first, second (etc.), next, last time:means “that specific time.” We can use these forms to be more specific about which time of a number of times something happened. Examples: · The first timeI went to New York, I was intimidated by the city. · I saw Jack the last timeI went to San Francisco. · The second timeI played tennis, I began to have fun. Unit 5 Classification Essay Unit Goal Rhetorical focus:  classification organization  organizing principles of importance and chronology Language focus: 44

 gerunds and infinitives  sentence patterns with verbs Stimulating idea  What is a classification Essay ?  What is gerund verb and infinitive verbs ?  How different between gerund and verbING? 1. Classification Essay A classification essay puts one or more items into different groups or categories in order to make a point about those items. Usually, you must propose several possible groups/categories/classifications, choose which one to put your subject under, and then explain why you chose this group/category/classification over the others. How do I begin? Decide what you will classify. - Be creative! Do NOT rely entirely on dictionary definitions. Do not choose too many or too few possible classifications. - Do not leave out obvious classifications. - Do not include every single possible classification. Decide what point you will make. - If the subject you are classifying belongs to one group/category instead of others, then this should teach the reader something about the subject. - What do you want the reader to learn from your classification of this subject? Determine how classifying your subject will make that point. - Why does your subject belong to one group/category/classification instead of others? What can or should the reader learn from this? How will this be useful to the reader? - An effective classification essay will haveAn Introduction that - Tells the reader what idea/concept/object you will be classifying - Tells the reader why this subject is difficult to classify - States a thesis that tells the reader your classification of the subject and the larger point that your classification makes about the subject - States the specific support for your classification Body paragraphs that - Begin with Topic Sentences that relate to your thesis and/or its specific support - Explain each specific support for your classification - Explain why you put the subject in this classification instead of others - Explain why your classification makes a larger point about the subject A Conclusion that - Restates the thesis - Summarizes the different classifications you considered - Summarizes why you put the subject in this particular classification and why this makes a larger point about the subject 1. What is the final thought? Have you ever thought about how many friends you meetin a lifetime? You probably have a list of names that pop into your mind automatically. These are the friends who are closest to your heart. There is no formula to predict who will become a 45

lasting friend or who will just pass through your life briefly. If you look at your list, you may see that your closest friends all have different views on life that define their personality. I can categorize my friends into three groups: optimistic, pessimistic, and realistic. First, optimistic friends have a very positive outlook on life. They believe that all situations will have a happy ending. Surgeries will go as planned, trips will be full of adventure, and speeches will beclear and memorable. Recently, I had to give a speech at my best friend’swedding, and my friend Michelle calmed me down by helping me imagine how successful I would be. Optimistic friends are also very good at seeing the best in people. While others are gossiping about someone behind their back, my friend Annie always tries to name one great characteristic that person has. Optimistic friends remind us to look for the good in life. Pessimistic friends are the exact opposite. Theyconstantly worry about the worst case scenario for every situation. My friend Scott is always stressed out because of his pessimistic outlook. He believes no one will come to his parties, he will fail his exams, and he will never find a job that makes him happy. Pessimistic people are also more likely to be suspicious of new people. For instance, they may immediately assume that a stranger is dishonest, unfriendly, or out to cheat them somehow. Pessimistic people have a negative attitude that can affect their success and relationships. Finally, there are realistic friends who are somewhere in the middle. These friends look at each situation logically to determine if it will be successful or unsuccessful. If they are studying for an exam, they will predict their success based on how much they were able to study. Realistic friends also view friendships very logically. They first talkwith and observe friends before making a judgment about them. For example, my friend Joni loves to play the game “Twenty Questions” with new people soshe can learn about them. Realistic friends are very good at seeing situations and people as they are. Everyone lives their life according to their views. The friends you surround yourself can be classified according to their view as an optimist, pessimist, or realist. What category do your friends fall under? What kind of friend are you? 2. Gerunds (-ing) 1) Gerunds as Subject, Object or Complement: Try to think of gerunds as verbs in noun form.Like nouns, gerunds can be the subject, object or complement of a sentence: • Smokingcosts a lot of money. • I don't like writing. • My favourite occupation is reading. But, like a verb, a gerund can also have an object itself. In this case, the whole expression [gerund + object] can be the subject, object or complement of the sentence. • Smokingcigarettescosts a lot of money. • I don't like writingletters. • My favourite occupation is readingdetective stories. Like nouns, we can use gerunds with adjectives (including articles and other determiners): • pointless questioning • a settlingof debts • the makingof Titanic • his drinkingof alcohol 2) Gerunds after Prepositions: 46

This is a good rule. It has no exceptions! If we want to use a verb after a preposition, it must be a gerund. It is impossible to usean infinitive after a preposition. So for example, we say: • I will call you after arrivingat the office. • Please have a drink before leaving. • I am looking forward to meetingyou. • Do you object to workinglate? • Tara always dreams about goingon holiday. 3) Gerunds after Certain Verbs We sometimes use one verb after another verb. Often the second verb is in the infinitive form, for example: Gerunds (-ing) 2 • I want to eat. But sometimes the second verb must be in gerund form,for example: • I dislike eating. This depends on the first verb. Here is a list of verbs that are usually followed by a verb in gerund form: • admit, appreciate, avoid, carry on, consider, defer, delay, deny, detest, dislike, endure, enjoy, escape, excuse, face, feel like, finish, forgive, give up, can't help, imagine, involve, leave off, mention, mind, miss, postpone, practise, put off, report, resent, risk, can't stand,suggest, understand Look at these examples: • She is considering havinga holiday. • Do you feel like goingout? • I can't help fallingin love with you. • I can't standnot seeing you. 3.Infinitive After an adjective Example: The new computer is really easyto use. After certain verbs  with to Example: He refused to paythe bill. afford, agree, appear, arrange, beg, choose, decide, expect, fail, help (also  without to hesitate hope learn manage mean offer plan prepare pretend promise refuse want wish  Gerund As the subject of a clause Example: Cyclingis good for your health. After a prepositionExample: I did my homework before going out. Verbs followed by Gerund Example: I enjoy cooking. Words followed either by Infinitive or Ing-Form Words with the same meaning Example: I started to read. / I started reading. • attempt begin bother cannot bear cease continue hate intend love prefer start 3.Practice 1 I dislike _______________ to the movies by myself. 2 We started _______________ dinner without you. 3 I can't imagine _______________ my own house. 47

4 I used _______________ that television show allof the time. 5 I always eat breakfast before _______________ to school. 6 When do you practise _______________ the piano? 7 My grandmother prefers _______________ science fiction books. 8 You need _______________ harder this year. 9 I am used to _______________ her in a bad mood. 10 Have you talked to the dentist about _______________ your teeth? 2. Sentence Pattern: What is sentence pattern? Systematic arrangement of words in a sentence meaningfully is sentence pattern. There are five basic patterns. They are: 1. SV ( Subject + Verb ) 2. SVO ( Subject + Verb + Object ) 3. SVIODO ( Subject + Verb + Indirect Object + Direct Object ) 4. SVC ( Subject + Verb + Complement ) 5. SVOC ( Subject + Verb + Object + Complement ) SUBJECT: Subject is a word or group of words in a sentence about which something is said. VERB: Verb is a word or phrase expressing existence, action or occurrence. COMPLEMENT: Complement is a word or phrase that usually come after a ‘be’ verb such as am, is, are, was and were to make the sense complete. Sometimes COMPLEMENT comes after certain verbs such as become, turn, look, appear, feel, etc. OBJECT: Object is a word or phrase in a sentence towards which the action of the verbal element is directed. If there are two objects in a sentence, the answer for the question WHAT? is DIRECT OBJECT(DO) and WHOM? is INDIRECT OBJECT (IDO). 1. SV ( Subject + Verb ) Subject Verb The bird flies. The cattle are grazing. The boy ran. The girl was dancing. It will rain. 2. SVO ( Subject + Verb + Object ) Subject Verb Object The man sold his house. My father is buying a new car. His uncle runs a business. Rahul loves his mother. Madan spent all his money 3. SVIODO ( Subject + Verb + Indirect Object + Direct Object ) Subject Verb Indirect Object Direct Object The teacher taught us grammar. My mother presented my friend a gift. Rakesh wrote to his parents a letter. 48

My friend sent me a message Sarvesh gave her advice. 4. SVC ( Subject + Verb + Complement ) Subject Verb Complement The rose is flower. Football is a game. Monica looked bewildered Rajan remained a bachelor. Mr. Kamalesh is an LIC agent. 5. SVOC ( Subject + Verb + Object + Complement ) Subject Verb Object Complement The parents named the child Angeline. The Committee elected Krish their leader. He painted his house yellow. They appointed him the captain This programme will keep the audience spell bound. Note: There are 144 patterns totally. They can be formed adding “Adjunct” to the basic patterns. ADJUNCT is the optional element in the sentence. It answers the questions How? Why? When? Where? (Note: The removal of adjunct would not harm the sense of the sentence) 6. SVA ( Subject + Verb + Adjunct ) Subject Verb Adjunct Mahesh got up early. The Prime Minister arrives tomorrow. Mani writes beautifully. The accused will be tried next month. My father works in Bangalore. 7. SVOA ( Subject + Verb + Object + Adjunct ) Subject Verb Object Adjunct The school organizes a tour to North India. The new Principal stated his policy clearly. Everyone attends the meeting regularly. People throw the garbage on the road. My daughter plays key board very well. 8. SVOAA ( Subject + Verb + Object + Adjunct + Adjunct ) Subject Verb Object Adjunct Adjunct The peon rang the bell at 5 o’ clock in the evening. The court began its session late in the morning. The CEO will visit our school frequently this year. The poor received help from the government today. The Inspector enquired the criminal very pleasantly in the station. 9. SVOCA ( Subject + Verb + Object + Complement + Adjunct ) Subject Verb Object Complement Adjunct The Rotarians elected Prabhakar President last month. 49

They made Shankar the chief of the council. The parents named her Agnel through baptism. The committee made me secretary of the school They painted the museum red purposely. 10. ASV ( Adjunct + Subject + Verb ) Adjunct Subject Verb Now You may go. Quickly they returned. Tonight we shall relax. Early morning they leave. These days selfish people prosper. 11. ASVO (Adjunct + Subject + Verb + Object ) Adjunct Subject Verb Object Every day he sends message. Once a month I meet my parents. Last time India won the world cup. Every morning he recites the mantra. Once while we must take rest. XII. ASVC (Adjunct + Subject + Verb + Complement ) Adjunct Subject Verb Complement Usually she gets angry. Occasionally he becomes restless. Generally the boss is punctual. Unfortunately the girl was sick. Rarely the Doctor becomes uneasy. 12. ASVIODO (Adjunct + Subject + Verb + Indirect Object + Direct Object ) Adjunct Subject Verb Indirect Object Direct Object Yesterday she gave me a gift. Last Monday Kala sent him a greeting card. Last year the school gave the teachers mementoes. Every year the govt. gives the students uniform. This morning our teacher taught us mathematics. 13. ASVIODO (Adjunct + Subject + Verb + Object + Complement + Adjunct ) Adjunct Subject Verb Object Complement Adjunct Yesterday the priest named her Beautrice in the church. Last week the CM called his minister efficient during the function. Next month we will make Ganesh chairman of our company. Tomorrow the committee will elect Sachin captain of our cricket team. Last night Motilal dreamt a dream a hearty dream about his success. 14. AASVC (Adjunct + Adjunct + Subject + Verb + Complement) Adjunct Adjunct Subject Verb Complement Last week in CTS Leo was made a team leader. Every morning in the assembly the students remain quiet. In summer during May the Sun shines bright. 50