Encyclopedia Britannica Series Meteorology and Climate

48 METEOROLOGICAL PHENOMENA WEATHER AND CLIMATE 49 When Water Accumulates Torrential Torrential Snow increases runoff rains Rains raise the level of into the rivers. ater is a vital element for life, but in excess it leads to serious consequences for people Caused by low pressure the water in the rivers and the systems, instability of and their economic activity. Flooding occurs when certain areas that are normally dry the air mass, and high riverbeds. W are covered with water for a more or less prolonged period. The most important causes humidity are excessive rains, the overflow of rivers and lakes, and giant waves that wash over the coast. Such waves can be the result of unusually high tides caused by strong surface winds or by submarine earthquakes. Walls, dikes, dams, and embankments are used to help prevent flooding. Little or no rain penetrates into the valley slopes covered with pines. Principal Tributary Flooded Land Floodplains river river Plants with thick, Floodplains are areas adjacent When land is flooded for days or droopy stems to rivers or streams that are months, the air in the soil is replaced by water, which prevents the buildup of subject to recurrent flooding. oxygen, thus affecting the biological activity of plants and the soil itself. In the latter Low-lying terrain case, if the water does not have sufficient The main river cannot salt, the incomplete decomposition of organic contain the increased matter and the significant washing away of There is so much flow of the tributary nutrients make the soil more acidic. If the water on the rivers. surface that the soil water contains a great deal of salt, the salt cannot absorb it. will remain in the soil, causing a different problem: salinization. The soil cannot carry oxygen to the roots. 250,000 Solid particulates Victims of flooding in the Bay Reduction The water Large rivers cross the Houses and of Bengal, Bangladesh, in 1970 trees covered causes a decline The components of the soil that in oxygen in the plains, which suffer with water are oxidized can be reduced and aerated spaces of from regular flooding thus change their properties. the soil. Dam Filtering grates Natural Transformers stores water to prevent the passage of Hydroelectric Flood Control dam course of Their job is to divert it or to unwanted objects in the With the construction of dikes and the river transform the voltage regulate its flow water used to produce hydroelectric power. outside the riverbed. of the electric current. embankments, the flow of rivers prone to flooding is largely contained. Agriculture is more productive when water can be controlled. Channeling water via turbines also generates Electrical electricity. energy can be made available to houses. Hydroelectric Plants Elevation EMBANKMENT use the force and velocity of running of the reservoir Earthen embankments help water to turn turbines. There are two contain rivers that tend to STORM types: run-off-river (which uses the Electrical generator overflow and temporarily DIKES natural kinetic energy of the river's Equipment that change course. In areas where the coast running waters) and reservoir (where the produces electricity by is low and exposed to flooding, water accumulates behind dams and is Electrical converting the protective dikes have been constructed then released under increased pressure to power lines mechanical energy of against high tides and powerful waves. the power plant). the rotating turbine into electrical energy PDF电子书基地 http://dayo1982.400gb.com

50 METEOROLOGICAL PHENOMENA WEATHER AND CLIMATE 51 Water Scarcity 3 FIELD CAPACITY The amount of moisture in the soil remaining after water has run off the 4 n deserts, drought from lack of rain is customary, surface. Field capacity but in arid, semiarid, and subhumid regions, determines whether, even WILTING with a meteorological I desertification occurs when for weeks, months, or drought, the land can This results when less water is available in the years the land is degraded because of climatic variations. continue to absorb upper layers of the soil. existing water between A high-pressure center that stays in a certain location longer than CY C L O N I C soil particles. usual can be the cause of this phenomenon. Soils are able to put up with a certain dry period, but when the water table decreases Solid drastically, the drought can turn into a natural catastrophe. C U R R E N T particles Capillary water RAIN A (osmosis) Caused by cyclonic (low pressure) air Capillary currents. HIGH PRESSURE water 1 B A high-pressure center, or anticyclone, is more stationary than usual and Gravitational SATURATED SOIL creates an abnormal water The water that falls as situation in the region. precipitation may be more than the soil can DROUGHT absorb, and it descends C The jet-stream toward aquifers. currents are thrown off course by the high- Solid pressure center, which particles impedes rainfall. A dry A period begins. R E Air A Solid particulates H I G H - P R E S S U R E Remaining water 2 METEOROLOGICAL DROUGHT The condition that results when precipitation is much lower than normal levels for that location. It is generally THE DRIEST ZONES determined based on comparison with coincide with deserts. For example, in the average rainfall. Atacama Desert in northern Chile, not a single drop of water fell between 1903 and 1917. Hygroscopic water 100 years 1975-76 Solid Less than 50% of the average rainfall The region of the Sahel has ENGLAND particles endured periods of devastating Space droughts lasting this long. 1965-67 between 1933-37 UNITED 1.5 million deaths the pores The Dust Bowl STATES caused by Solid 5 was created. INDIA drought particles 1962-66 SAHEL KEY Affected the states Areas of insufficient rain of the Northeast THE PROPORTION Excess Saturation Level of Hygroscopic AGRICULTURAL DROUGHT for normal vegetation 1977 1967-69 OF WATER IN THE water threshold wilting coefficient When soil moisture exists only at the hygroscopic and harvests Water is rationed in Numerous AUSTRALIA (saturation) (field (minimum of level (surface moisture on soil particles), there is California. forest fires SOIL capacity) water) no water available for vegetation. PDF电子书基地 http://dayo1982.400gb.com

50 METEOROLOGICAL PHENOMENA WEATHER AND CLIMATE 51 Water Scarcity 3 FIELD CAPACITY The amount of moisture in the soil remaining after water has run off the 4 n deserts, drought from lack of rain is customary, surface. Field capacity but in arid, semiarid, and subhumid regions, determines whether, even WILTING with a meteorological I desertification occurs when for weeks, months, or drought, the land can This results when less water is available in the years the land is degraded because of climatic variations. continue to absorb upper layers of the soil. existing water between A high-pressure center that stays in a certain location longer than CY C L O N I C soil particles. usual can be the cause of this phenomenon. Soils are able to put up with a certain dry period, but when the water table decreases Solid drastically, the drought can turn into a natural catastrophe. C U R R E N T particles Capillary water RAIN A (osmosis) Caused by cyclonic (low pressure) air Capillary currents. HIGH PRESSURE water 1 B A high-pressure center, or anticyclone, is more stationary than usual and Gravitational SATURATED SOIL creates an abnormal water The water that falls as situation in the region. precipitation may be more than the soil can DROUGHT absorb, and it descends C The jet-stream toward aquifers. currents are thrown off course by the high- Solid pressure center, which particles impedes rainfall. A dry A period begins. R E Air A Solid particulates H I G H - P R E S S U R E Remaining water 2 METEOROLOGICAL DROUGHT The condition that results when precipitation is much lower than normal levels for that location. It is generally THE DRIEST ZONES determined based on comparison with coincide with deserts. For example, in the average rainfall. Atacama Desert in northern Chile, not a single drop of water fell between 1903 and 1917. Hygroscopic water 100 years 1975-76 Solid Less than 50% of the average rainfall The region of the Sahel has ENGLAND particles endured periods of devastating Space droughts lasting this long. 1965-67 between 1933-37 UNITED 1.5 million deaths the pores The Dust Bowl STATES caused by Solid 5 was created. INDIA drought particles 1962-66 SAHEL KEY Affected the states Areas of insufficient rain of the Northeast THE PROPORTION Excess Saturation Level of Hygroscopic AGRICULTURAL DROUGHT for normal vegetation 1977 1967-69 OF WATER IN THE water threshold wilting coefficient When soil moisture exists only at the hygroscopic and harvests Water is rationed in Numerous AUSTRALIA (saturation) (field (minimum of level (surface moisture on soil particles), there is California. forest fires SOIL capacity) water) no water available for vegetation. PDF电子书基地 http://dayo1982.400gb.com

53 Agricultural areas (420-512) WEATHER AND CLIMATE 6 miles (10 km) Maximum height that it can attain 0.6 mile Maximum (1 km) diameter miles Some tornadoes Tornadoes 3:00 P.M.-9:00 P.M. The period of the day with the highest probability of tornado formation miles (200 km) The length of the path along the ground over which a tornado can move 261-320 F5 Houses uprooted from their foundations and dragged great distances 300 per hour (480 km/h) Maximum velocity the tornado winds can attain MULTIPLE VORTICES have a number of vortices. Most tornadoes occur in agricultural areas. The humidity and heat of the spring and summer are tornadoes are generated on average annually in the United States. 125 207-260 (333-418) F4 Solidly built walls blown down TOP The top of the tornado remains inside the cloud. Column of air that forms the lower part of a tornado; a funnel that generates violent winds and draws in air. It usually acquires the dark color of the dust it sucks up from the ground, but it can be invisible. required to feed the storms that produce them. In order to grow, crops require both the humidity and temperature variations associated with the seasons. 1,000 158-206 (254-332) F3 Roofs and walls demolished, cars and trains overturned VORTEX Where and When Some tornadoes are so powerful that they can rip the roofs off houses. 113-157 (181-253) F2 Mobile homes destroyed, trees felled high as 300 miles per hour (480 km/h). They can uproot trees, destroy moving air is mixed with soil and other matter rotating at velocities as buildings, and turn harmless objects into deadly airborne projectiles. A rotates faster as it approaches the center of the column. This increases the force of the ascending current, and the column continues to grow until it stretches from high in the clouds to the ground. Because of their short duration, they are difficult to study and predict. 1. BEGINNING OF A TORNADO When the winds meet, they cause the air to rotate in a clockwise direction in the Southern Hemisphere and in the reverse direction in the Northern Hemisphere. 2. ROTATION The circulation of the air causes a decrease in pressure at the center of the storm, creating a central column of air. The central whirling column continues to descend within the cloud, perforating it in the direction of the ground. SPIRALING WINDS First a cloud funnel appears that can then extend to touch the ground. The tornado generally moves from the southwest to the northeast. 73-112 40-72 (117-180) (64-116) F1 F0 Mobile homes Damage to ripped from their chimneys, tree foundations branches broken PDF电子书基地 http://dayo1982.400gb.com generated by electrical storms (or sometimes as the result of a hurricane), and they take the form of powerful funnel-shaped METEOROLOGICAL PHENOMENA Lethal Force ornadoes are the most violent storms of nature. They are whirlwinds that extend from the sky to the ground. In these storms, tornado can devastate a whole neighborhood within seconds. How They Form Tornadoes begin to form when a current of warm air ascends inside a cumulonimbus cloud and begins to rotate under the influence of winds in the upper part of the cloud. From the base of the column, air is sucked toward the inside of the turning spiral. The air Spinning Mild funnel of air Wind Convection Cumulonimbus 3. DESCENT Storm Humid wind 4. THE OUTCOME The tornado reaches the Earth and depending on its intensity can send the roofs of buildings flying. Normally the tornado path is no more than 160 to 330 feet (50-100 m) wide. WIND VELOCITY MILES PER HOUR (KM/H) The Fujita-Pearson scale was CATEGORY created by Theodore Fujita EFFECTS according to the damage caused by the wind, from the lightest to the most severe. 52 T Strong wind Warm and humid wind Cold and dry wind PATH FUJITA SCALE to classify tornadoes

54 METEOROLOGICAL PHENOMENA WEATHER AND CLIMATE 55 Death and Destruction OWENSVILLE Serious damage 4:30 P.M. to houses f the 1,000 tornadoes that annually strike the United States, there is one that has the unfortunate Final contact with the ground distinction of being one of the worst: the Tri-State tornado, which occurred on March 18, 1925, and O caused extreme devastation. It moved across Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana, destroying homes and 71 miles per hour INDIANA causing the confirmed deaths of 695 people, although it is believed that the number may have been much (115 km/h) higher. The tornado traveled 230 miles (368 km) at an average velocity of 66 miles an hour (105 km/h), and its duration set a record at three hours and 30 minutes. It has been rated on the Fujita scale as an PRINCETON F5 tornado—one of the most damaging—and caused losses to the United States of $17 million. Half of the town destroyed PARRISH al ar ea 65 deaths 50 percent Almost total GRIFFIN destroyed destruction u r 150 houses 30 90 22 dead R destroyed, and DE SOTO percent Partial percent 60 miles per hour many children destroyed destruction but destroyed (96 km/h) 100 killed. MISSOURI a large number percent destroyed of victims (U.S.) 69 dead Latitude 37° N 55 miles per hour 100 Longitude 93° W (90 km/h) percent destroyed GORHAM In 40 minutes, Value on the Fujita scale F5 Town in ruins 541 people died. 34 dead Duration 3 hours 30 minutes Tornadoes in the United States Average velocity 66 miles per hour WEST FRANKFORT 20 Unlike hurricanes, which are tropical storms primarily affecting the (105 km/h) Partial destruction percent Gulf of Mexico, tornadoes are phenomena that occur between the MI SSOURI 450 wounded destroyed Great Plains of the United States, the Rocky Mountains, and the Gulf of and 127 dead Mexico and usually appear in the spring and summer. (96 km/h) 1:01 P.M. 60 miles per hour MURPHYSBORO 3:00 P.M. First contact with the ground Town with the -9:00 P.M. greatest number of fatalities The period of the day REDFORD with the highest Town hit by 234 dead 40 probability of tornado tornado 66 miles per hour percent formation ELLINGTON (107 km/h) BIEHLE destroyed First town A number of affected houses destroyed I LL INO I S 1,000 One dead The number of tornadoes occurring 71 miles per hour ANNAPOLIS per year in the (115 km/h) United States AND LEADANNA Large number of victims 90 THE 10 MOST 75 injured percent DEVASTATING TORNADOES and 2 dead destroyed Deaths Injuries THE TOWN OF GRIFFIN, IN THE STATE OF INDIANA, WAS LEFT IN RUINS. 15,000 houses destroyed 17 million dollars in losses PDF电子书基地 http://dayo1982.400gb.com

54 METEOROLOGICAL PHENOMENA WEATHER AND CLIMATE 55 Death and Destruction OWENSVILLE Serious damage 4:30 P.M. to houses f the 1,000 tornadoes that annually strike the United States, there is one that has the unfortunate Final contact with the ground distinction of being one of the worst: the Tri-State tornado, which occurred on March 18, 1925, and O caused extreme devastation. It moved across Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana, destroying homes and 71 miles per hour INDIANA causing the confirmed deaths of 695 people, although it is believed that the number may have been much (115 km/h) higher. The tornado traveled 230 miles (368 km) at an average velocity of 66 miles an hour (105 km/h), and its duration set a record at three hours and 30 minutes. It has been rated on the Fujita scale as an PRINCETON F5 tornado—one of the most damaging—and caused losses to the United States of $17 million. Half of the town destroyed PARRISH al ar ea 65 deaths 50 percent Almost total GRIFFIN destroyed destruction u r 150 houses 30 90 22 dead R destroyed, and DE SOTO percent Partial percent 60 miles per hour many children destroyed destruction but destroyed (96 km/h) 100 killed. MISSOURI a large number percent destroyed of victims (U.S.) 69 dead Latitude 37° N 55 miles per hour 100 Longitude 93° W (90 km/h) percent destroyed GORHAM In 40 minutes, Value on the Fujita scale F5 Town in ruins 541 people died. 34 dead Duration 3 hours 30 minutes Tornadoes in the United States Average velocity 66 miles per hour WEST FRANKFORT 20 Unlike hurricanes, which are tropical storms primarily affecting the (105 km/h) Partial destruction percent Gulf of Mexico, tornadoes are phenomena that occur between the MI SSOURI 450 wounded destroyed Great Plains of the United States, the Rocky Mountains, and the Gulf of and 127 dead Mexico and usually appear in the spring and summer. (96 km/h) 1:01 P.M. 60 miles per hour MURPHYSBORO 3:00 P.M. First contact with the ground Town with the -9:00 P.M. greatest number of fatalities The period of the day REDFORD with the highest Town hit by 234 dead 40 probability of tornado tornado 66 miles per hour percent formation ELLINGTON (107 km/h) BIEHLE destroyed First town A number of affected houses destroyed I LL INO I S 1,000 One dead The number of tornadoes occurring 71 miles per hour ANNAPOLIS per year in the (115 km/h) United States AND LEADANNA Large number of victims 90 THE 10 MOST 75 injured percent DEVASTATING TORNADOES and 2 dead destroyed Deaths Injuries THE TOWN OF GRIFFIN, IN THE STATE OF INDIANA, WAS LEFT IN RUINS. 15,000 houses destroyed 17 million dollars in losses PDF电子书基地 http://dayo1982.400gb.com

56 METEOROLOGICAL PHENOMENA WEATHER AND CLIMATE 57 Anatomy of a Hurricane HURRICANE TYPHOON DANGER ZONE The areas that are vulnerable to hurricanes in the United States include the Atlantic coast and the coast DAY 1 Equator along the Gulf of Mexico, from Texas to Maine. The A jumble CYCLONE Caribbean and the tropical areas of the western hurricane, with its ferocious winds, banks of clouds, and torrential of clouds DAY 2 Pacific, including Hawaii, Guam, American Samoa, and is formed. The clouds Saipan, are also zones frequented by hurricanes. rains, is the most spectacular meteorological phenomenon of the begin to rotate. DAY 3 A Earth's weather. It is characterized by an intense low-pressure The spiral center surrounded by cloud bands arranged in spiral form; these rotate form becomes more defined. around the eye of the hurricane in a clockwise direction in the Southern 1. BIRTH Hemisphere and in the opposite direction in the Northern Hemisphere. Forms over warm seas, aided by winds in opposing directions, While tornadoes are brief and relatively limited, hurricanes are enormous high temperatures, humidity, 2. DEVELOPMENT DAY 6 DAY 12 Now mature, it The hurricane and slow-moving, and their passage usually takes many lives. and the rotation of the Earth Begins to ascend, displays a visible eye. begins to break twisting in a spiral around apart when it a low-pressure zone 19 miles per hour makes landfall. (30 km/h) NH FRINGES OF STORM THE EYE Hurricanes in the CLOUDS Central area, VELOCITY AT WHICH IT DEATH Northern Hemisphere otate violently around has very low APPROACHES THE COAST rotate counterclockwise, the central zone. pressure 3. As they pass from the sea to and those in the FRICTION the land, they cause enormous Southern Hemisphere When the hurricane reaches damage. Hurricanes gradually SH SH rotate clockwise. the mainland, it moves more dissipate over land from the slowly; it is very destructive in lack of water vapor. Descending this stage, since it is here that air currents populated cities are located. The high-altitude winds blow from outside the storm. PATH OF THE HURRICANE The air wraps around the eye. 92 feet/high (28 m) Cloud bands in VAPOR MAXIMUM HEIGHT the form of a EYE WALL Rises warm from the sea, 1 REACHED BY THE WAVES spiral The strongest winds are formed. forming a column of clouds. It rises 3,900 feet (1,200 m) in the center of 2 the storm. CLASSIFICATION OF DAMAGE DONE Saffir-Simpson category 3 Strong ascendant Damage Speed miles High Tide currents per hour (km/h) feet (m) WIND ACTIVITY CLASS 1 minimum 74 to 95 (119 to 153) 4 to 5 (1.2 to 1.5) 4 CLASS 2 moderate 96 to 110 (154 to 177) 6 to 8 (1.8 to 2.4) CLASS 3 extensive 111 to 130 (178 to 209) 9 to 12 (2.7 to 3.6) 80º F is the minimum temperature The trade winds Light winds give The CLASS 4 extreme 131 to 155 (210 to 250) 13 to 18 (3.9 to 5.4) 5 are pulled toward that water on the surface of winds flow it direction and the ocean will evaporate at. the storm. permit it to grow. outward. CLASS 5 catastrophic more than 155 (250) more than 18 (5.4) (27º C) PDF电子书基地 http://dayo1982.400gb.com

56 METEOROLOGICAL PHENOMENA WEATHER AND CLIMATE 57 Anatomy of a Hurricane HURRICANE TYPHOON DANGER ZONE The areas that are vulnerable to hurricanes in the United States include the Atlantic coast and the coast DAY 1 Equator along the Gulf of Mexico, from Texas to Maine. The A jumble CYCLONE Caribbean and the tropical areas of the western hurricane, with its ferocious winds, banks of clouds, and torrential of clouds DAY 2 Pacific, including Hawaii, Guam, American Samoa, and is formed. The clouds Saipan, are also zones frequented by hurricanes. rains, is the most spectacular meteorological phenomenon of the begin to rotate. DAY 3 A Earth's weather. It is characterized by an intense low-pressure The spiral center surrounded by cloud bands arranged in spiral form; these rotate form becomes more defined. around the eye of the hurricane in a clockwise direction in the Southern 1. BIRTH Hemisphere and in the opposite direction in the Northern Hemisphere. Forms over warm seas, aided by winds in opposing directions, While tornadoes are brief and relatively limited, hurricanes are enormous high temperatures, humidity, 2. DEVELOPMENT DAY 6 DAY 12 Now mature, it The hurricane and slow-moving, and their passage usually takes many lives. and the rotation of the Earth Begins to ascend, displays a visible eye. begins to break twisting in a spiral around apart when it a low-pressure zone 19 miles per hour makes landfall. (30 km/h) NH FRINGES OF STORM THE EYE Hurricanes in the CLOUDS Central area, VELOCITY AT WHICH IT DEATH Northern Hemisphere otate violently around has very low APPROACHES THE COAST rotate counterclockwise, the central zone. pressure 3. As they pass from the sea to and those in the FRICTION the land, they cause enormous Southern Hemisphere When the hurricane reaches damage. Hurricanes gradually SH SH rotate clockwise. the mainland, it moves more dissipate over land from the slowly; it is very destructive in lack of water vapor. Descending this stage, since it is here that air currents populated cities are located. The high-altitude winds blow from outside the storm. PATH OF THE HURRICANE The air wraps around the eye. 92 feet/high (28 m) Cloud bands in VAPOR MAXIMUM HEIGHT the form of a EYE WALL Rises warm from the sea, 1 REACHED BY THE WAVES spiral The strongest winds are formed. forming a column of clouds. It rises 3,900 feet (1,200 m) in the center of 2 the storm. CLASSIFICATION OF DAMAGE DONE Saffir-Simpson category 3 Strong ascendant Damage Speed miles High Tide currents per hour (km/h) feet (m) WIND ACTIVITY CLASS 1 minimum 74 to 95 (119 to 153) 4 to 5 (1.2 to 1.5) 4 CLASS 2 moderate 96 to 110 (154 to 177) 6 to 8 (1.8 to 2.4) CLASS 3 extensive 111 to 130 (178 to 209) 9 to 12 (2.7 to 3.6) 80º F is the minimum temperature The trade winds Light winds give The CLASS 4 extreme 131 to 155 (210 to 250) 13 to 18 (3.9 to 5.4) 5 are pulled toward that water on the surface of winds flow it direction and the ocean will evaporate at. the storm. permit it to grow. outward. CLASS 5 catastrophic more than 155 (250) more than 18 (5.4) (27º C) PDF电子书基地 http://dayo1982.400gb.com

58 METEOROLOGICAL PHENOMENA WEATHER AND CLIMATE 59 What Katrina Took Away urricane Katrina lashed the south and the center of the United States THE WINDS NEW ORLEANS At 155 miles per hour (250 in August 2005. The force of the wind razed thousands of houses, km/h), they force the water Latitude 30° N H buildings, oil installations, highways, and bridges, leaving a vast area against the protective walls.. Longitude 90° W of the country without communication and some heavily populated areas without provisions. It resulted in extensive material damage and thousands THE WATER 360 square miles (933 square kilometers) of deaths in Florida, the Bahamas, Louisiana, and Mississippi. Satellite images advances toward the city, Area 500,000 Number of inhabitants reveal the scope of the disaster, considered one of the most devastating in invading the central regions. Altitude (above sea level) 10 feet (3 m) the history of the country. LAKE PONTCHARTRAIN DIKES 6:00 A.M. were breached by the The time when water and the wind, the hurricane causing a great flood. made landfall LONDON AUGUST 23 AVENUE CANAL A tropical depression forms in the Bahamas. It intensifies and becomes Huracanes fueron 17TH STREET tropical storm Katrina. On August 14 registrados en 2005. CANAL ORLEANS 25, it makes landfall in Florida as a AVENUE CANAL category 1 hurricane. El total de tormentas 80% 26 tropicales registradas en el año 2005. Area of New Orleans AUGUST 27 affected by flooding Leaves the Gulf of Mexico and reaches category 3. On August 28, CATEGORY 5 CATEGORY 3 it is transformed from category 3 to category 5 and increases in size. Area most affected Areas most affected by the flood by the flood AUGUST 29 In the early hours, it makes landfall in OVER Louisiana as a category 4 hurricane. 75% 1,500 A little later, it makes landfall for the third time, in Mississippi. of the inhabitants Deaths confirmed after Katrina of this zone were CATEGORY 4 evacuated. miles 155 per hour (250 km/h) OVER MAXIMUM WIND SPEED 75 billion SEPTEMBER 1 What remains of the hurricane dollars was the cost of the repairs. is weakened as it moves north to Canada, where it dissipates. The hurricane winds pushed the water 14 feet (4.3 m) above the normal sea level. Direction of Along with the storm, the the hurricane backed-up water reaches the dikes of the Mississippi River. PDF电子书基地 http://dayo1982.400gb.com

58 METEOROLOGICAL PHENOMENA WEATHER AND CLIMATE 59 What Katrina Took Away urricane Katrina lashed the south and the center of the United States THE WINDS NEW ORLEANS At 155 miles per hour (250 in August 2005. The force of the wind razed thousands of houses, km/h), they force the water Latitude 30° N H buildings, oil installations, highways, and bridges, leaving a vast area against the protective walls.. Longitude 90° W of the country without communication and some heavily populated areas without provisions. It resulted in extensive material damage and thousands THE WATER 360 square miles (933 square kilometers) of deaths in Florida, the Bahamas, Louisiana, and Mississippi. Satellite images advances toward the city, Area 500,000 Number of inhabitants reveal the scope of the disaster, considered one of the most devastating in invading the central regions. Altitude (above sea level) 10 feet (3 m) the history of the country. LAKE PONTCHARTRAIN DIKES 6:00 A.M. were breached by the The time when water and the wind, the hurricane causing a great flood. made landfall LONDON AUGUST 23 AVENUE CANAL A tropical depression forms in the Bahamas. It intensifies and becomes Huracanes fueron 17TH STREET tropical storm Katrina. On August 14 registrados en 2005. CANAL ORLEANS 25, it makes landfall in Florida as a AVENUE CANAL category 1 hurricane. El total de tormentas 80% 26 tropicales registradas en el año 2005. Area of New Orleans AUGUST 27 affected by flooding Leaves the Gulf of Mexico and reaches category 3. On August 28, CATEGORY 5 CATEGORY 3 it is transformed from category 3 to category 5 and increases in size. Area most affected Areas most affected by the flood by the flood AUGUST 29 In the early hours, it makes landfall in OVER Louisiana as a category 4 hurricane. 75% 1,500 A little later, it makes landfall for the third time, in Mississippi. of the inhabitants Deaths confirmed after Katrina of this zone were CATEGORY 4 evacuated. miles 155 per hour (250 km/h) OVER MAXIMUM WIND SPEED 75 billion SEPTEMBER 1 What remains of the hurricane dollars was the cost of the repairs. is weakened as it moves north to Canada, where it dissipates. The hurricane winds pushed the water 14 feet (4.3 m) above the normal sea level. Direction of Along with the storm, the the hurricane backed-up water reaches the dikes of the Mississippi River. PDF电子书基地 http://dayo1982.400gb.com

60 METEOROLOGICAL PHENOMENA W WEATHER AND CLIMATE 61 Foresight to Prevent Tragedies 3 AFTER THE HURRICANE First verify that everyone in the family is well loose cables or fallen poles. Call the fire urricanes usually lash specific regions of the planet, and the population must become DURING THE HURRICANE and that there are no injuries. Do not touch department or the police in case you need aware of the disasters that can strike the community. Each family must know which 2 The important thing is to remain calm food, clothing, or immediate medication. H area of the house is the most secure in case the roof, a door, or a window collapses. and to stay informed via radio or television about the path of the hurricane. They must also know when it is time to go to a shelter or if it is better to remain at home. Move away from doors and windows. Do Another important precaution is to organize and store all family documents and real-estate not leave until the authorities announce Help people Keep documents the danger from the hurricane has ended. records in a water- and fireproof strongbox. who are confirming your ownership of injured or trapped. property close at hand. Return home Do not drink only when the water unless BEFORE THE HURRICANE authorities say you are sure it 1 If you live in a hurricane-prone that it is safe. is potable. area, it is recommended that you know the emergency plans of the community and that you have a Use the plan of action for your family. telephone only for emergency calls. Reinforce roof tiles Secure all the doors and to keep them from Verify that there are windows to keep being loosened. no natural-gas leaks them from Store opening. nonperishable or damage to the food and electrical system. potable water. Keep valuable objects and Follow news reports with documents in a battery-powered radio. a waterproof container. Disconnect all electrical devices and shut off the house circuit breaker. Keep the Use a battery- powered radio to car supplied with a full tune into local stations to get tank of fuel information. just in case. Check the most fire-prone areas. Administer first aid when necessary. Do not touch wires or damaged electrical equipment. HOW TO PREPARE EMERGENCY EQUIPMENT HOW TO PREPARE A complete first-aid kit must be DOCUMENTATION Turn off the main prepared and available. Consult a To be prepared for water valve and pharmacist or your family physician. evacuation, keep family the main gas valve. documents in good order. First-aid kit Inventory Check the first-aid Make a complete kit and replace any list of belongings expired items. of each person. When you are on First-aid course the move, use You should be prepared Personal ID caution whether for dealing with the It is important on foot or driving. most common for everyone to symptoms and injuries. have an ID card. PDF电子书基地 http://dayo1982.400gb.com

60 METEOROLOGICAL PHENOMENA W WEATHER AND CLIMATE 61 Foresight to Prevent Tragedies 3 AFTER THE HURRICANE First verify that everyone in the family is well loose cables or fallen poles. Call the fire urricanes usually lash specific regions of the planet, and the population must become DURING THE HURRICANE and that there are no injuries. Do not touch department or the police in case you need aware of the disasters that can strike the community. Each family must know which 2 The important thing is to remain calm food, clothing, or immediate medication. H area of the house is the most secure in case the roof, a door, or a window collapses. and to stay informed via radio or television about the path of the hurricane. They must also know when it is time to go to a shelter or if it is better to remain at home. Move away from doors and windows. Do Another important precaution is to organize and store all family documents and real-estate not leave until the authorities announce Help people Keep documents the danger from the hurricane has ended. records in a water- and fireproof strongbox. who are confirming your ownership of injured or trapped. property close at hand. Return home Do not drink only when the water unless BEFORE THE HURRICANE authorities say you are sure it 1 If you live in a hurricane-prone that it is safe. is potable. area, it is recommended that you know the emergency plans of the community and that you have a Use the plan of action for your family. telephone only for emergency calls. Reinforce roof tiles Secure all the doors and to keep them from Verify that there are windows to keep being loosened. no natural-gas leaks them from Store opening. nonperishable or damage to the food and electrical system. potable water. Keep valuable objects and Follow news reports with documents in a battery-powered radio. a waterproof container. Disconnect all electrical devices and shut off the house circuit breaker. Keep the Use a battery- powered radio to car supplied with a full tune into local stations to get tank of fuel information. just in case. Check the most fire-prone areas. Administer first aid when necessary. Do not touch wires or damaged electrical equipment. HOW TO PREPARE EMERGENCY EQUIPMENT HOW TO PREPARE A complete first-aid kit must be DOCUMENTATION Turn off the main prepared and available. Consult a To be prepared for water valve and pharmacist or your family physician. evacuation, keep family the main gas valve. documents in good order. First-aid kit Inventory Check the first-aid Make a complete kit and replace any list of belongings expired items. of each person. When you are on First-aid course the move, use You should be prepared Personal ID caution whether for dealing with the It is important on foot or driving. most common for everyone to symptoms and injuries. have an ID card. PDF电子书基地 http://dayo1982.400gb.com

Meteorology RITA, SEPTEMBER 2003 WEATHER FOLKLORE 64-65 The image from the GOES-12 COMPILATION OF INFORMATION 66-67 satellite shows the configuration of Hurricane Rita in the eastern INSTANTANEOUS MAPS 68-69 portion of the Gulf of Mexico. RAIN, COLD, OR HEAT 70-71 MOBILE SATELLITES 72-73 he use of satellites orbiting the severe storm is heading toward a certain officials to coordinate the evacuation of other. These collect information from and Earth, recording the coming of point on the planet. Counting on this people from the affected zones. The send information to all areas of the world rain, air currents, and clouds, type of precise information about when surface of the planet is also monitored so that meteorologists can prepare maps, allows us to know with some and where tropical cyclones will occur, by a system of meteorological stations graphics, and predictions to inform the T hours of advance warning if a for example, has allowed government placed hundreds of miles from each public. PDF电子书基地 http://dayo1982.400gb.com

Meteorology RITA, SEPTEMBER 2003 WEATHER FOLKLORE 64-65 The image from the GOES-12 COMPILATION OF INFORMATION 66-67 satellite shows the configuration of Hurricane Rita in the eastern INSTANTANEOUS MAPS 68-69 portion of the Gulf of Mexico. RAIN, COLD, OR HEAT 70-71 MOBILE SATELLITES 72-73 he use of satellites orbiting the severe storm is heading toward a certain officials to coordinate the evacuation of other. These collect information from and Earth, recording the coming of point on the planet. Counting on this people from the affected zones. The send information to all areas of the world rain, air currents, and clouds, type of precise information about when surface of the planet is also monitored so that meteorologists can prepare maps, allows us to know with some and where tropical cyclones will occur, by a system of meteorological stations graphics, and predictions to inform the T hours of advance warning if a for example, has allowed government placed hundreds of miles from each public. PDF电子书基地 http://dayo1982.400gb.com

64 METEOROLOGY WEATHER AND CLIMATE 65 Weather Folklore Moon When the Moon has a halo, efore the development of meteorology as we know it today, tomorrow will have wet or bad weather. Halos occur as a consequence of the people observed in nature signs that allowed them to refraction of light by ice crystals in B predict rains, floods, or strong winds. All this knowledge cirrostratus clouds covering the Sun or Moon. They portend a warm front, which will be has been transmitted over the centuries in the form of proverbs followed by rain. or rhymes. Most of these fragments of meteorological knowledge Almanac Forecasts Clouds lack a scientific foundation, but some of them reflect certain In the 16th century, almanacs with weather forecasts were principles. Plants and animals play a major role in these sold throughout Europe. Each month of the year has its own Clouds with a fringe or lining— secure your sails well. observations. refrain, although this depends on the hemisphere a person lives in. This relates to clouds that are carried The monthly and annual calendars offered agricultural and medical by winds at high altitudes; these clouds advice. From the most remote times, there was a general belief that are often a sign that a low-pressure the Moon determined the behavior of the atmosphere and that system, or cyclone, is approaching. Signs from Plants and Animals variations in the weather were caused by changes in the phase of the Moon. Some examples of these popular sayings are: “Sweet WEATHER PREDICTION In every rural community, concern for the harvest and April showers do spring May flowers;” “After a dark winter's night, There are thousands of refrains that dependency on weather resulted in a series of beliefs, the next day will be bright.” refer to changes in weather with varying degrees of accuracy, taken as prophesies of conditions. Here are some examples. later events. In any case, even though it is certain that people as well as plants and animals react to the current Swallow WIND weather, there is nothing to indicate that this might reveal Wind from the east, rain like a beast. anything about the weather in the future except to the degree that an incipient change is related to the current When swallows fly low, get weather. For example, some signs accompany the increase in your rain gear in tow. humidity that occurs prior to the passage of a cold front. Swallows usually appear before a heavy rain. MORNING DEW Dew and cool in May, bring wine to the vine and hay to the cow. OPEN AND CLOSED PINECONES Open pinecones mean dry weather; closed pinecones CLEAR SUNSET Rainbow at sundown, good mean humid weather. weather at dawn. DRY SEAWEED The lower the humidity, the Donkey more probable it is that the next day will be dry. I hear donkeys braying; I am sure it will rain today. Snails The animals react to the existing weather. It is a sign associated When you see a black slug in with the increased humidity Toad OAK your way, rain is not far away. in the environment. If the leaves of the Snails are usually hidden in the oak fall before those of the ash, the garden. You see them only on When you see a toad walking, it will be a wet spring. summer will be dry. humid days, just prior to the rain. When a toad is swimming in the water, this means it will soon rain. If it stays in the water without moving, the rain will last for some time. ASH If the leaves of the ash fall before those of the oak, the summer will be wet. PDF电子书基地 http://dayo1982.400gb.com

64 METEOROLOGY WEATHER AND CLIMATE 65 Weather Folklore Moon When the Moon has a halo, efore the development of meteorology as we know it today, tomorrow will have wet or bad weather. Halos occur as a consequence of the people observed in nature signs that allowed them to refraction of light by ice crystals in B predict rains, floods, or strong winds. All this knowledge cirrostratus clouds covering the Sun or Moon. They portend a warm front, which will be has been transmitted over the centuries in the form of proverbs followed by rain. or rhymes. Most of these fragments of meteorological knowledge Almanac Forecasts Clouds lack a scientific foundation, but some of them reflect certain In the 16th century, almanacs with weather forecasts were principles. Plants and animals play a major role in these sold throughout Europe. Each month of the year has its own Clouds with a fringe or lining— secure your sails well. observations. refrain, although this depends on the hemisphere a person lives in. This relates to clouds that are carried The monthly and annual calendars offered agricultural and medical by winds at high altitudes; these clouds advice. From the most remote times, there was a general belief that are often a sign that a low-pressure the Moon determined the behavior of the atmosphere and that system, or cyclone, is approaching. Signs from Plants and Animals variations in the weather were caused by changes in the phase of the Moon. Some examples of these popular sayings are: “Sweet WEATHER PREDICTION In every rural community, concern for the harvest and April showers do spring May flowers;” “After a dark winter's night, There are thousands of refrains that dependency on weather resulted in a series of beliefs, the next day will be bright.” refer to changes in weather with varying degrees of accuracy, taken as prophesies of conditions. Here are some examples. later events. In any case, even though it is certain that people as well as plants and animals react to the current Swallow WIND weather, there is nothing to indicate that this might reveal Wind from the east, rain like a beast. anything about the weather in the future except to the degree that an incipient change is related to the current When swallows fly low, get weather. For example, some signs accompany the increase in your rain gear in tow. humidity that occurs prior to the passage of a cold front. Swallows usually appear before a heavy rain. MORNING DEW Dew and cool in May, bring wine to the vine and hay to the cow. OPEN AND CLOSED PINECONES Open pinecones mean dry weather; closed pinecones CLEAR SUNSET Rainbow at sundown, good mean humid weather. weather at dawn. DRY SEAWEED The lower the humidity, the Donkey more probable it is that the next day will be dry. I hear donkeys braying; I am sure it will rain today. Snails The animals react to the existing weather. It is a sign associated When you see a black slug in with the increased humidity Toad OAK your way, rain is not far away. in the environment. If the leaves of the Snails are usually hidden in the oak fall before those of the ash, the garden. You see them only on When you see a toad walking, it will be a wet spring. summer will be dry. humid days, just prior to the rain. When a toad is swimming in the water, this means it will soon rain. If it stays in the water without moving, the rain will last for some time. ASH If the leaves of the ash fall before those of the oak, the summer will be wet. PDF电子书基地 http://dayo1982.400gb.com

66 METEOROLOGY WEATHER AND CLIMATE 67 Compilation of Information WEATHER VANE shows the highest temperature of the day. The shows which way the MAXIMUM THERMOMETER PSYCHROMETER measures the ost of the information available regarding climatic Radar wind is blowing. It is a capillary with mercury is calibrated in the bulb. relative humidity of the air. It consists of perfectly balanced data comes from the record that mechanical system. two thermometers M meteorologists everywhere in the world Bulb with and two bulbs (one dry and one covered mercury keep regarding cloud cover, temperature, the Indicates with muslin that is force and direction of the wind, air pressure, the direction 2 ° always kept damp). of the wind visibility, and precipitation. Then from each Bulb with HYGROTHERMOGRAPH Dry-bulb alcohol thermometer meteorological station, the data is sent by Three equally simultaneously records the radio or satellite, and this makes it possible to spaced cups air temperature and Wet-bulb relative humidity. A thermometer make forecasts and maps. record the ANEMOMETER MINIMUM thermograph and a intensity of THERMOMETER the wind. measures the speed hygrograph independently of the wind. This indicates the lowest make records on paper of instrument is temperature of the day. It the daily variations in Container of distilled water activated by the has a fork-shaped bulb. temperature and humidity. wind, which turns three hemispherical METEOROLOGICAL SHELTER cups mounted on a ANEROID BAROMETER DATA It is built of wood or fiberglass on a base that insulates it from Weather Anemometer measures atmospheric Scale RECORDER vertical rod firmly the soil and protects certain instruments (thermometers, vane placed in the ground. pressure. Changes are Spring records the psychrometers, and others) from solar radiation. Screens in the shown by the pointers. data obtained. windows ensure good ventilation. Spiral Atmospheric Vacuum spring Double circulation of the air to prevent the pressure heating of the instruments when the radiation 760 mm Metal is very intense drum Data recorder Solar panel Psychrometer BAROGRAPH Maximum and measures the minimum Mercury atmospheric pressure Levers Chains thermometers and records its Hygrothermograph changes over time. MERCURY BAROMETER An instrument used to measure Slats allow the air to flow through atmospheric pressure. It consists Workplace freely without of a glass tube full of mercury, A typical meteorological station checks the Weather Station creating currents. with the open end submerged in temperature, humidity, wind velocity and In the Northern a reservoir. direction, solar radiation, rain, and barometric Meteorologists collect data at Hemisphere, the pressure. In some places, soil temperature and different heights. They use various doors should be flow of nearby rivers are also monitored. The instruments at ground level: a oriented toward Control the north to compilation of this data makes it possible to thermometer for temperature, a prevent the Sun's unit predict different meteorological phenomena. hygrometer for humidity, and a barometer rays from striking for atmospheric pressure. the instruments Mouth when observations Thermometer are being made. Drum The light strikes and Recording is concentrated as it pen traverses the sphere. Siphon Collector Rain Meter Wooden container platform HELIOPHANOGRAPH IMPRESSION An instrument used to The concentrated rays of sunlight burn Automatic Weather Station measure the number cardboard placed behind the glass sphere. of hours of sunlight. It An automatic meteorological station uses electrical consists of a glass EVAPORIMETER sensors to record temperature, humidity, wind velocity sphere that acts as a As its name indicates, and direction, atmospheric pressure, and rainfall, among lens to concentrate it measures the other parameters. The readings are processed by sunlight. The light is effective evaporation microprocessors and transmitted via an automatic system. projected onto a piece of water from a mass RAIN METER This station functions autonomously, 24 hours a day, of cardboard behind of liquid in the open This is used to keep powered by solar energy (solar panels) or wind energy. the sphere. The air, from its loss from a chronological RAIN GAUGE cardboard is burned Record on a strip The intervals burned give the surface through record of the The precipitation that falls on according to the of cardboard a count of the hours of transformation to amount of water the ground in the form of rain is intensity of the light. graduated in hours sunlight during the day. water vapor. falling as rain. collected by the rain gauge. PDF电子书基地 http://dayo1982.400gb.com

66 METEOROLOGY WEATHER AND CLIMATE 67 Compilation of Information WEATHER VANE shows the highest temperature of the day. The shows which way the MAXIMUM THERMOMETER PSYCHROMETER measures the ost of the information available regarding climatic Radar wind is blowing. It is a capillary with mercury is calibrated in the bulb. relative humidity of the air. It consists of perfectly balanced data comes from the record that mechanical system. two thermometers M meteorologists everywhere in the world Bulb with and two bulbs (one dry and one covered mercury keep regarding cloud cover, temperature, the Indicates with muslin that is force and direction of the wind, air pressure, the direction 2 ° always kept damp). of the wind visibility, and precipitation. Then from each Bulb with HYGROTHERMOGRAPH Dry-bulb alcohol thermometer meteorological station, the data is sent by Three equally simultaneously records the radio or satellite, and this makes it possible to spaced cups air temperature and Wet-bulb relative humidity. A thermometer make forecasts and maps. record the ANEMOMETER MINIMUM thermograph and a intensity of THERMOMETER the wind. measures the speed hygrograph independently of the wind. This indicates the lowest make records on paper of instrument is temperature of the day. It the daily variations in Container of distilled water activated by the has a fork-shaped bulb. temperature and humidity. wind, which turns three hemispherical METEOROLOGICAL SHELTER cups mounted on a ANEROID BAROMETER DATA It is built of wood or fiberglass on a base that insulates it from Weather Anemometer measures atmospheric Scale RECORDER vertical rod firmly the soil and protects certain instruments (thermometers, vane placed in the ground. pressure. Changes are Spring records the psychrometers, and others) from solar radiation. Screens in the shown by the pointers. data obtained. windows ensure good ventilation. Spiral Atmospheric Vacuum spring Double circulation of the air to prevent the pressure heating of the instruments when the radiation 760 mm Metal is very intense drum Data recorder Solar panel Psychrometer BAROGRAPH Maximum and measures the minimum Mercury atmospheric pressure Levers Chains thermometers and records its Hygrothermograph changes over time. MERCURY BAROMETER An instrument used to measure Slats allow the air to flow through atmospheric pressure. It consists Workplace freely without of a glass tube full of mercury, A typical meteorological station checks the Weather Station creating currents. with the open end submerged in temperature, humidity, wind velocity and In the Northern a reservoir. direction, solar radiation, rain, and barometric Meteorologists collect data at Hemisphere, the pressure. In some places, soil temperature and different heights. They use various doors should be flow of nearby rivers are also monitored. The instruments at ground level: a oriented toward Control the north to compilation of this data makes it possible to thermometer for temperature, a prevent the Sun's unit predict different meteorological phenomena. hygrometer for humidity, and a barometer rays from striking for atmospheric pressure. the instruments Mouth when observations Thermometer are being made. Drum The light strikes and Recording is concentrated as it pen traverses the sphere. Siphon Collector Rain Meter Wooden container platform HELIOPHANOGRAPH IMPRESSION An instrument used to The concentrated rays of sunlight burn Automatic Weather Station measure the number cardboard placed behind the glass sphere. of hours of sunlight. It An automatic meteorological station uses electrical consists of a glass EVAPORIMETER sensors to record temperature, humidity, wind velocity sphere that acts as a As its name indicates, and direction, atmospheric pressure, and rainfall, among lens to concentrate it measures the other parameters. The readings are processed by sunlight. The light is effective evaporation microprocessors and transmitted via an automatic system. projected onto a piece of water from a mass RAIN METER This station functions autonomously, 24 hours a day, of cardboard behind of liquid in the open This is used to keep powered by solar energy (solar panels) or wind energy. the sphere. The air, from its loss from a chronological RAIN GAUGE cardboard is burned Record on a strip The intervals burned give the surface through record of the The precipitation that falls on according to the of cardboard a count of the hours of transformation to amount of water the ground in the form of rain is intensity of the light. graduated in hours sunlight during the day. water vapor. falling as rain. collected by the rain gauge. PDF电子书基地 http://dayo1982.400gb.com

68 METEOROLOGY WEATHER AND CLIMATE 69 Instantaneous Maps eather maps represent at any given moment the state of the atmosphere at different altitudes. These maps are made based on the information provided by meteorological Upper-air Map W stations and are useful for specialists. The data collected by them include various values WINDS for pressure and temperature that make it possible to forecast the probability of precipitation, Another type of map, which is used to The direction and intensity of the analyze upper-air weather conditions, is an whether the weather will remain stable, or if it will change because a weather front is moving in. upper-level, or geopotential, map. On these maps, winds are indicated by a segment contour lines connect points located at the same with a circle at its end, which altitude for a certain pressure level (normally indicates the direction from which the 500 hectopascals [hPa]) and correlate with the wind is blowing. On this segment, temperature of the air in the higher layers of the perpendicular lines are traced that troposphere (at 16,400 feet [5,000 meters] indicate the velocity of the wind in NOMENCLATURE LOW PRESSURE, altitude on the 500 hPa map). The temperature knots, where one knot equals 1.2 miles OR DEPRESSION is represented in each region of the troposphere per hour (1.9 km/h). Every meteorological map carries a label that In this zone, atmospheric by lines called isotherms. SYMBOLS POSITION indicates the date and stability will be low given The direction of The line indicates time it was made. Isobar Maps that the air is rising, and the wind is the direction of the wind. It can be represented by there is a high probability 12 indicates the hour One of the variables that provides the most information of precipitation. these symbols: north, northeast, east, southeast, and Z Greenwich HIGH-PRESSURE south, southwest, in real time for knowing meteorological conditions is Mean Time. atmospheric pressure, whose values over land (at sea level) BAD WEATHER LOW-PRESSURE TROUGH RIDGE west, or northwest. Instability and of abundant probability of bad weather. A This map is prepared are represented on what are called isobar maps, or ground- high probability This phenomenon increases the Area of high geopotential level weather maps. The isobars, or lines that connect points with the initial LOW PRESSURE rain low-pressure trough has a low values in which the chances values of Tuesday, of equal pressure, make it possible to estimate the velocity This is a low- 1000 geopotential value. of rain are slight pressure zone. The September 2. INIT: TUE, 02SEP2003 12Z and direction of the wind at ground level. This information pressure increases 995 GOOD WEATHER OVERCAST SKY WIND VELOCITY helps forecast the movement of cold or warm air masses. The from the internal letter A indicates an anticyclonic area, which indicates isobars toward the atmospheric stability and that the probability of rain is very indicates five indicates an stability and low knots, a longer line overcast sky and major atmospheric instability with possible rain. expectation of indicates 10 knots, a white circle a precipitation It indicates the low. The letter B indicates a low-pressure area and presages external isobars. 990 Atmospheric A black circle A short line initial values. clear sky. and a terminal triangle indicates more than 40 knots. ANTICYCLONE WINDS LOW-PRESSURE They circulate TROUGH AXIS In this area, the and move away from the area. atmospheric stability is high, WINDS circulate around the 1686 since the downward motion center of the area. HIGH-PRESSURE is the year in which English of the air prevents the RIDGE AXIS astronomer Edmond Halley formation of clouds. There is 1030 made the first low probability of rain. meteorological map. HIGH PRESSURE This is a high- 1025 pressure area. The pressure decreases ISOBARS SYMBOLS from the internal are lines joining points There are a number of different isobars toward the of equal pressure. external isobars. symbols to represent different kinds of fronts. 1020 UPPER-LEVEL MAPS 250 hPa 36,100 FEET (11,000 METERS) The contour lines traced in WARM A warm air mass with these charts connect points local storms is advancing. 500 hPa 18,000 FEET (5,500 METERS) 1015 of equal geopotential height, which define high-pressure ridges and low-pressure 700 hPa 9,800 FEET (3,000 METERS) COLD A cold air mass with rain is advancing. troughs. The wind direction is parallel to these lines. These 850 hPa 4,900 FEET (1,500 METERS) charts are used to prepare weather forecasts. SURFACE 0 FEET (0 METERS) STATIONARY Moderately bad weather OCCLUDED FRONT and little change of temperature indicates the line of collision between a cold 500 HPA front and a warm front. The first pressure value that These are usually represents a geopotential of OCCLUDED FRONT associated with severe 500 hectopascals (hPa) It is mixed; it will act first as a warm storms. front and then as a cold front. PDF电子书基地 http://dayo1982.400gb.com

68 METEOROLOGY WEATHER AND CLIMATE 69 Instantaneous Maps eather maps represent at any given moment the state of the atmosphere at different altitudes. These maps are made based on the information provided by meteorological Upper-air Map W stations and are useful for specialists. The data collected by them include various values WINDS for pressure and temperature that make it possible to forecast the probability of precipitation, Another type of map, which is used to The direction and intensity of the analyze upper-air weather conditions, is an whether the weather will remain stable, or if it will change because a weather front is moving in. upper-level, or geopotential, map. On these maps, winds are indicated by a segment contour lines connect points located at the same with a circle at its end, which altitude for a certain pressure level (normally indicates the direction from which the 500 hectopascals [hPa]) and correlate with the wind is blowing. On this segment, temperature of the air in the higher layers of the perpendicular lines are traced that troposphere (at 16,400 feet [5,000 meters] indicate the velocity of the wind in NOMENCLATURE LOW PRESSURE, altitude on the 500 hPa map). The temperature knots, where one knot equals 1.2 miles OR DEPRESSION is represented in each region of the troposphere per hour (1.9 km/h). Every meteorological map carries a label that In this zone, atmospheric by lines called isotherms. SYMBOLS POSITION indicates the date and stability will be low given The direction of The line indicates time it was made. Isobar Maps that the air is rising, and the wind is the direction of the wind. It can be represented by there is a high probability 12 indicates the hour One of the variables that provides the most information of precipitation. these symbols: north, northeast, east, southeast, and Z Greenwich HIGH-PRESSURE south, southwest, in real time for knowing meteorological conditions is Mean Time. atmospheric pressure, whose values over land (at sea level) BAD WEATHER LOW-PRESSURE TROUGH RIDGE west, or northwest. Instability and of abundant probability of bad weather. A This map is prepared are represented on what are called isobar maps, or ground- high probability This phenomenon increases the Area of high geopotential level weather maps. The isobars, or lines that connect points with the initial LOW PRESSURE rain low-pressure trough has a low values in which the chances values of Tuesday, of equal pressure, make it possible to estimate the velocity This is a low- 1000 geopotential value. of rain are slight pressure zone. The September 2. INIT: TUE, 02SEP2003 12Z and direction of the wind at ground level. This information pressure increases 995 GOOD WEATHER OVERCAST SKY WIND VELOCITY helps forecast the movement of cold or warm air masses. The from the internal letter A indicates an anticyclonic area, which indicates isobars toward the atmospheric stability and that the probability of rain is very indicates five indicates an stability and low knots, a longer line overcast sky and major atmospheric instability with possible rain. expectation of indicates 10 knots, a white circle a precipitation It indicates the low. The letter B indicates a low-pressure area and presages external isobars. 990 Atmospheric A black circle A short line initial values. clear sky. and a terminal triangle indicates more than 40 knots. ANTICYCLONE WINDS LOW-PRESSURE They circulate TROUGH AXIS In this area, the and move away from the area. atmospheric stability is high, WINDS circulate around the 1686 since the downward motion center of the area. HIGH-PRESSURE is the year in which English of the air prevents the RIDGE AXIS astronomer Edmond Halley formation of clouds. There is 1030 made the first low probability of rain. meteorological map. HIGH PRESSURE This is a high- 1025 pressure area. The pressure decreases ISOBARS SYMBOLS from the internal are lines joining points There are a number of different isobars toward the of equal pressure. external isobars. symbols to represent different kinds of fronts. 1020 UPPER-LEVEL MAPS 250 hPa 36,100 FEET (11,000 METERS) The contour lines traced in WARM A warm air mass with these charts connect points local storms is advancing. 500 hPa 18,000 FEET (5,500 METERS) 1015 of equal geopotential height, which define high-pressure ridges and low-pressure 700 hPa 9,800 FEET (3,000 METERS) COLD A cold air mass with rain is advancing. troughs. The wind direction is parallel to these lines. These 850 hPa 4,900 FEET (1,500 METERS) charts are used to prepare weather forecasts. SURFACE 0 FEET (0 METERS) STATIONARY Moderately bad weather OCCLUDED FRONT and little change of temperature indicates the line of collision between a cold 500 HPA front and a warm front. The first pressure value that These are usually represents a geopotential of OCCLUDED FRONT associated with severe 500 hectopascals (hPa) It is mixed; it will act first as a warm storms. front and then as a cold front. PDF电子书基地 http://dayo1982.400gb.com

70 METEOROLOGY Rain, Cold, or Heat RADIOSONDE 49,200 feet ARTIFICIAL SATELLITES carries out airborne measurements of (15,000 m) provide images used for visualizing temperature, pressure, and relative is the altitude that a clouds and water vapor in the nowing ahead of time what the weather will be is sometimes a question of life or death. humidity at different altitudes or radiosonde can reach. atmosphere and for measuring the atmospheric levels. It also indicates temperature of land and ocean The damage resulting from a torrential rain or a heavy snowfall can be avoided thanks to the direction and speed of the wind. surfaces. K the forecasts of meteorologists. The forecasts they make are based on information 32,800 feet gathered from many sources, including instruments on the ground, in the air, and at sea. Despite (10,000 m) 49,200 feet the use of sophisticated information systems, the weather can be forecast only for the next few METEOROLOGICAL AIRCRAFT The height at which (13,000 m) they fly, near the hours or days. Nonetheless, it is very useful in helping to prevent major catastrophes. obtain temperature and humidity data upper limit of the is the altitude that can be and photograph particles contained in the clouds. troposphere reached by the G-IV airplane. JET G-IV LAUNCHABLE SOUNDING PROBE is launched from an airplane toward the ground. Its trajectory is followed as it DATA COLLECTION HURRICANE HUNTER P-3 relays information about wind velocity, The World Meteorological Station Satellite In the Air AIRPLANE Doppler Parachutes temperature, humidity, and pressure. Organization acts as a center for Data can be collected by Its Doppler radar has a resolution four radar lengthen the receiving and transmitting data Launchable airplanes, satellites, or times greater than the standard time in the coming from various stations sounding probe Doppler radar in conventional use. air. located in the air, on the ocean, sounding probes. One single Radiosonde and on land. Radar satellite can cover the entire sends information to surface of the Earth. Precise 14,000 feet information helps prevent the base. Better Forecasts meteorological catastrophes (4,270 m) Radiosonde such as hurricanes or flooding. New models that measure changes in such Meteorological center is the altitude that can be 1,200 feet variables as humidity, temperature, wind reached by the P-3 aircraft. velocity, and cloud displacement may make it Airplane (365 m) possible to improve forecasts by 25 percent over is the altitude that can be reached current ones. by a radio sounding probe. On Land CURRENT Scale of 7 miles (12 km) per side MODEL Buoy The observations made at ground Boat Marine AEROSONDE sounding level are more numerous than those probe Pilotless weather aircraft made at higher altitudes. They include capable of sending measurements of atmospheric pressure, meteorological temperature, humidity, wind direction and information at intervals of EXPERIMENTAL velocity, the extent and altitude of cloud tenths of a second MODEL cover, visibility, and precipitation. METEOROLOGICAL CENTERS They improve worldwide cooperation in meteorological observations, normalize the data obtained in different cities throughout Strongest winds. Scale of 1 mile METEOROLOGICAL STATION OCEANOGRAPHIC SHIP the world, and promote the application of They are not detected (1.3 km) per side by current models. Measurements at ground level permit gathers data on the direction and forecasts to various human activities. the collection of partial data. speed of the wind and the Thermometers measure temperature, temperature of the air and water, the hygrometer measures humidity, and among other things. the barometer measures atmospheric pressure. Navigation lights Anemometer Data transmitter Solar panel METEOROLOGICAL BUOY provides information about conditions of the ACOUSTIC SIGNAL An acoustic depth sea in areas that are sounder sends out 6,600 feet not covered by ships. sound waves to The buoy floats freely measure the depth (2,000 m) with the ocean currents of the water. is the depth reached and transmits readings RADAR STATION On the Sea AUTONOMOUS UNDERWATER VEHICLE by the vehicle. automatically via MARITIME is utilized to measure the intensity with satellite. Images related to the physical properties of the SOUNDING which rain, snow, or ice is falling. The Boats, buoys, and autonomous underwater vehicles help measure ocean water, such as the temperature, salinity, and PROBES radar sends radio waves that bounce off water temperature, salinity, density, and reflected sunlight. All density, are relayed to operators and its location and They are dropped raindrops, and the return signal is the information gathered is sent to a meteorological center. depth tracked via the Global Positioning System (GPS). from airplanes and displayed on a receiving screen. then sink. PDF电子书基地 http://dayo1982.400gb.com

70 METEOROLOGY Rain, Cold, or Heat RADIOSONDE 49,200 feet ARTIFICIAL SATELLITES carries out airborne measurements of (15,000 m) provide images used for visualizing temperature, pressure, and relative is the altitude that a clouds and water vapor in the nowing ahead of time what the weather will be is sometimes a question of life or death. humidity at different altitudes or radiosonde can reach. atmosphere and for measuring the atmospheric levels. It also indicates temperature of land and ocean The damage resulting from a torrential rain or a heavy snowfall can be avoided thanks to the direction and speed of the wind. surfaces. K the forecasts of meteorologists. The forecasts they make are based on information 32,800 feet gathered from many sources, including instruments on the ground, in the air, and at sea. Despite (10,000 m) 49,200 feet the use of sophisticated information systems, the weather can be forecast only for the next few METEOROLOGICAL AIRCRAFT The height at which (13,000 m) they fly, near the hours or days. Nonetheless, it is very useful in helping to prevent major catastrophes. obtain temperature and humidity data upper limit of the is the altitude that can be and photograph particles contained in the clouds. troposphere reached by the G-IV airplane. JET G-IV LAUNCHABLE SOUNDING PROBE is launched from an airplane toward the ground. Its trajectory is followed as it DATA COLLECTION HURRICANE HUNTER P-3 relays information about wind velocity, The World Meteorological Station Satellite In the Air AIRPLANE Doppler Parachutes temperature, humidity, and pressure. Organization acts as a center for Data can be collected by Its Doppler radar has a resolution four radar lengthen the receiving and transmitting data Launchable airplanes, satellites, or times greater than the standard time in the coming from various stations sounding probe Doppler radar in conventional use. air. located in the air, on the ocean, sounding probes. One single Radiosonde and on land. Radar satellite can cover the entire sends information to surface of the Earth. Precise 14,000 feet information helps prevent the base. Better Forecasts meteorological catastrophes (4,270 m) Radiosonde such as hurricanes or flooding. New models that measure changes in such Meteorological center is the altitude that can be 1,200 feet variables as humidity, temperature, wind reached by the P-3 aircraft. velocity, and cloud displacement may make it Airplane (365 m) possible to improve forecasts by 25 percent over is the altitude that can be reached current ones. by a radio sounding probe. On Land CURRENT Scale of 7 miles (12 km) per side MODEL Buoy The observations made at ground Boat Marine AEROSONDE sounding level are more numerous than those probe Pilotless weather aircraft made at higher altitudes. They include capable of sending measurements of atmospheric pressure, meteorological temperature, humidity, wind direction and information at intervals of EXPERIMENTAL velocity, the extent and altitude of cloud tenths of a second MODEL cover, visibility, and precipitation. METEOROLOGICAL CENTERS They improve worldwide cooperation in meteorological observations, normalize the data obtained in different cities throughout Strongest winds. Scale of 1 mile METEOROLOGICAL STATION OCEANOGRAPHIC SHIP the world, and promote the application of They are not detected (1.3 km) per side by current models. Measurements at ground level permit gathers data on the direction and forecasts to various human activities. the collection of partial data. speed of the wind and the Thermometers measure temperature, temperature of the air and water, the hygrometer measures humidity, and among other things. the barometer measures atmospheric pressure. Navigation lights Anemometer Data transmitter Solar panel METEOROLOGICAL BUOY provides information about conditions of the ACOUSTIC SIGNAL An acoustic depth sea in areas that are sounder sends out 6,600 feet not covered by ships. sound waves to The buoy floats freely measure the depth (2,000 m) with the ocean currents of the water. is the depth reached and transmits readings RADAR STATION On the Sea AUTONOMOUS UNDERWATER VEHICLE by the vehicle. automatically via MARITIME is utilized to measure the intensity with satellite. Images related to the physical properties of the SOUNDING which rain, snow, or ice is falling. The Boats, buoys, and autonomous underwater vehicles help measure ocean water, such as the temperature, salinity, and PROBES radar sends radio waves that bounce off water temperature, salinity, density, and reflected sunlight. All density, are relayed to operators and its location and They are dropped raindrops, and the return signal is the information gathered is sent to a meteorological center. depth tracked via the Global Positioning System (GPS). from airplanes and displayed on a receiving screen. then sink. PDF电子书基地 http://dayo1982.400gb.com

72 METEOROLOGY W WEATHER AND CLIMATE 73 Mobile Satellites GOES EAST eteorological satellites, which have been orbiting the Earth for more than 30 years, Orbital altitude 22,370 miles (36,000 km) 88 feet 4,850 pounds (2,200 kg) Weight are an indispensable aid to scientists. Along with the images generated by these Array Launch date 2001 (26.9 m) drive M instruments, meteorologists receive data that can be used to prepare weather Orbit 75° bulletins. These reports, circulated via the mass media, allow people all over the world 12 feet to know the weather forecast. Moreover, the most advanced satellites are used to (3.6 m) study the characteristics of phenomena such as tropical cyclones (hurricanes, cyclones, and typhoons). Images, Yesterday DARK ZONES Low reflectivity and Today The TIROS satellites (Television and Polar Orbit Geostationary Infra-Red Observation Satellite) of the 1960s provided the first images of They orbit from pole to pole with a They orbit the Earth above the Equator cloud systems. The modern GOES synchronized period. As they move in their and are synchronized with the Earth's Solar satellites (Geostationary Operational orbits, they scan swaths of the Earth's rotation—that is, as they orbit the Earth, panels Environmental Satellites), which take surface. They pass over any given point they are always over the same geographic more precise time and space twice a day. Their operational lifetime is point on the Earth's surface. measurements, provide higher-quality approximately two years. images of clouds, continents, and oceans. They also measure the humidity of the atmosphere and the temperature TWO ORBITS PER DAY at ground level. 190 miles per second (305 CLEAR ZONES km/sec) High is the velocity of a WHITE reflectivity polar satellite at High clouds an altitude of 560 miles (900 km). GREEN Vegetation X-ray EQUATOR EQUATOR sensors YELLOW Low clouds VISIBLE IMAGE Oceans and continents have low POLAR ORBIT 28,400 miles ACCOMPANYING Log periodic albedo and appear as darker (45,700 km) THE EARTH antenna ORANGE areas. Areas with high albedo, in 1,100 miles per second AREA OF GREATEST Dry and contrast, are clear and bright. GEOSTATIONARY (1,770 km/sec) Telemetry HEAT EMISSION mountainous ORBIT The velocity necessary antenna 22,245 miles to remain fixed over one (35,800 km) point on the Earth CHARACTERISTICS ORBITAL ALTITUDE 22,300 miles (35,900 km) COMBINED IMAGES ROTATIONAL VELOCITY 100 RPM Magnetometer They are composed of infrared ORBITAL PERIOD 24 hours images (which permit differentiation of high and low clouds) and visible-light images ACTIVE POLAR SATELLITES ACTIVE GEOSTATIONARY SATELLITES UHF antenna AREA OF LEAST (which measure the reflectivity of HEAT EMISSION each climatic subsystem). Receiving antenna Image reception NOAA-12 NOAA-14 GOES 8 GOES 9 Sensors Transmitting antenna INFRARED IMAGE represents infrared emissions or heat from Solar the clouds and from the Earth's surface. sail Objects that are hotter appear darker. NOAA-15 METEOR 3-5 METEOSAT-7 GMS PDF电子书基地 http://dayo1982.400gb.com

72 METEOROLOGY W WEATHER AND CLIMATE 73 Mobile Satellites GOES EAST eteorological satellites, which have been orbiting the Earth for more than 30 years, Orbital altitude 22,370 miles (36,000 km) 88 feet 4,850 pounds (2,200 kg) Weight are an indispensable aid to scientists. Along with the images generated by these Array Launch date 2001 (26.9 m) drive M instruments, meteorologists receive data that can be used to prepare weather Orbit 75° bulletins. These reports, circulated via the mass media, allow people all over the world 12 feet to know the weather forecast. Moreover, the most advanced satellites are used to (3.6 m) study the characteristics of phenomena such as tropical cyclones (hurricanes, cyclones, and typhoons). Images, Yesterday DARK ZONES Low reflectivity and Today The TIROS satellites (Television and Polar Orbit Geostationary Infra-Red Observation Satellite) of the 1960s provided the first images of They orbit from pole to pole with a They orbit the Earth above the Equator cloud systems. The modern GOES synchronized period. As they move in their and are synchronized with the Earth's Solar satellites (Geostationary Operational orbits, they scan swaths of the Earth's rotation—that is, as they orbit the Earth, panels Environmental Satellites), which take surface. They pass over any given point they are always over the same geographic more precise time and space twice a day. Their operational lifetime is point on the Earth's surface. measurements, provide higher-quality approximately two years. images of clouds, continents, and oceans. They also measure the humidity of the atmosphere and the temperature TWO ORBITS PER DAY at ground level. 190 miles per second (305 CLEAR ZONES km/sec) High is the velocity of a WHITE reflectivity polar satellite at High clouds an altitude of 560 miles (900 km). GREEN Vegetation X-ray EQUATOR EQUATOR sensors YELLOW Low clouds VISIBLE IMAGE Oceans and continents have low POLAR ORBIT 28,400 miles ACCOMPANYING Log periodic albedo and appear as darker (45,700 km) THE EARTH antenna ORANGE areas. Areas with high albedo, in 1,100 miles per second AREA OF GREATEST Dry and contrast, are clear and bright. GEOSTATIONARY (1,770 km/sec) Telemetry HEAT EMISSION mountainous ORBIT The velocity necessary antenna 22,245 miles to remain fixed over one (35,800 km) point on the Earth CHARACTERISTICS ORBITAL ALTITUDE 22,300 miles (35,900 km) COMBINED IMAGES ROTATIONAL VELOCITY 100 RPM Magnetometer They are composed of infrared ORBITAL PERIOD 24 hours images (which permit differentiation of high and low clouds) and visible-light images ACTIVE POLAR SATELLITES ACTIVE GEOSTATIONARY SATELLITES UHF antenna AREA OF LEAST (which measure the reflectivity of HEAT EMISSION each climatic subsystem). Receiving antenna Image reception NOAA-12 NOAA-14 GOES 8 GOES 9 Sensors Transmitting antenna INFRARED IMAGE represents infrared emissions or heat from Solar the clouds and from the Earth's surface. sail Objects that are hotter appear darker. NOAA-15 METEOR 3-5 METEOSAT-7 GMS PDF电子书基地 http://dayo1982.400gb.com

Climate Change GLACIERS IN ALASKA GODS AND RITUALS 76-77 ACCELERATED MELTING 84-85 Approximately 5 percent of the land is TOXIC RAIN 86-87 CLIMATE ZONES 78-79 covered by glaciers, which advance and break up when they reach the ocean, PALEOCLIMATOLOGY 80-81 WEAKER AND WEAKER 88-89 where they form impressive cliffs of ice. THE PLANET WARMS UP 82-83 CHANGE; EVERYTHING CHANGES 90-91 ountain glaciers are melting, melts from the glaciers each year, which is European Alps and in the Caucasus glaciers will have disappeared completely, and this is a threat to the the glaciers' major contribution to raising Mountains has been reduced by half, and in including those in Glacier National Park in availability of freshwater. It the global sea level; it is thought that the Africa, only 8 percent of the largest glacier of the United States. That will have powerful is calculated that 8 cubic continental ice sheet may play a significantly Mount Kenya still exists. If these tendencies repercussions on the water resources of M miles (35 cu km) of water larger role. The volume of the glaciers in the continue, by the end of the century, most many parts of the world. PDF电子书基地 http://dayo1982.400gb.com

Climate Change GLACIERS IN ALASKA GODS AND RITUALS 76-77 ACCELERATED MELTING 84-85 Approximately 5 percent of the land is TOXIC RAIN 86-87 CLIMATE ZONES 78-79 covered by glaciers, which advance and break up when they reach the ocean, PALEOCLIMATOLOGY 80-81 WEAKER AND WEAKER 88-89 where they form impressive cliffs of ice. THE PLANET WARMS UP 82-83 CHANGE; EVERYTHING CHANGES 90-91 ountain glaciers are melting, melts from the glaciers each year, which is European Alps and in the Caucasus glaciers will have disappeared completely, and this is a threat to the the glaciers' major contribution to raising Mountains has been reduced by half, and in including those in Glacier National Park in availability of freshwater. It the global sea level; it is thought that the Africa, only 8 percent of the largest glacier of the United States. That will have powerful is calculated that 8 cubic continental ice sheet may play a significantly Mount Kenya still exists. If these tendencies repercussions on the water resources of M miles (35 cu km) of water larger role. The volume of the glaciers in the continue, by the end of the century, most many parts of the world. PDF电子书基地 http://dayo1982.400gb.com

76 CLIMATE CHANGE GRAN ATLAS DE LA CIENCIA ENFERMEDADES Y MEDICINA 77 WEATHER AND CLIMATE 77 Gods and Rituals THE SCEPTER Pre-Columbians A symbol of command consisting of ornamented short sticks, the symbol of authority The pre-Columbian population believed water was a gift from redicting the weather was a subject of interest to all the early the gods. For the Aztecs, Tlaloc was the god of rain, whereas the Incas called civilizations that populated the Earth. Greeks, Romans, Egyptians, him Viracocha. Among the Mayans, he P pre-Columbians, and Orientals venerated the gods of the Sun, the was known as Chac. He was the divinity of the peasants because water was the Moon, the heavens, the rain, storms, and the wind for centuries. In their essential factor for stability and own way, with rituals and praise, they tried to influence the weather to organization for these indigenous peoples. The calendar made it improve the bounty of the harvest. possible to forecast certain astrological events and rainstorms. ZEPHYRUS The Romans CHAC TLALOC The Greek god of the west Mayan god of agriculture. The Venerated by the Aztecs, he was wind had an important The Romans worshiped many gods THE LIGHTNING BOLT Mayans performed ceremonies known as the provider because he presence. At times he was because they inherited them from the Jupiter reigned over the petitioning Chac for rain when had the power to bring rain, beneficial, and at other earth and heaven, and drought threatened the harvest. which made the corn grow. times catastrophic. Though Greek oracles. The gods of weather were he had the attributes of the ancient Greeks were not Jupiter (wise and just, who reigned over the an eagle, a lightning sure whether the winds earth), Apollo (the god of the sun), Neptune bolt, and a scepter. were male or female, they (the god of the sea and storms), and did believe the winds had wings. Saturn (the god of agriculture). Each god VIRACOCHA had a specific function. As a result, any For the Incas, he was human activity could suffer or benefit all powerful. Creator from the attitude of the god in charge of the universe and of of that particular function. Thus, the all the earth, he was linked with rays of purpose of ritual worship and sacrifice light, thunder, to the gods was to gain their favor. lightning, and snow. Greeks The powerful Zeus was the king of the Greek gods and dispenser of divine justice. He was the sovereign of heaven (his brothers Poseidon and Hades governed the ocean and the underworld, respectively). He carried a thunderbolt to represent his power, associated with the weather. Zeus lived THE EAGLE FUJIN on Mount Olympus, from where he could observe Jupiter is the Roman Japanese god of wind. supreme god, and often intervene in the affairs of humans. The represented by the Drawn as a dark Greeks believed that Poseidon, when annoyed, figure of the eagle. monster, covered with leopard skin, he carried would break up the mountains and throw them into He is also first in a bag of wind on his the sea to form islands. Uranus was a wisdom and power. shoulders. personification of heaven for the Greeks, and Apollo was the god of the sun, light, and creation. Egyptians As in all ancient civilizations, the gods of weather were The Orient very much a part of Egyptian life. Civilization extended along the SURYA Hinduism has various banks of the Nile, where water Hindu god of the sun. In weather-related gods. The was crucial for survival—that is, India the sun most popular is Surya (god of the where cities, temples, pyramids, personified as Surya sun). Next come Chandra (god of the was considered to be and the entire economic life of the RE SETH harmful by the moon), Indra (the god who governs kingdom were concentrated. The Egyptian sun Egyptian god Dravidians of the south heaven), and Parjanya (god of rain). god, the weather influenced the rising of primordial of the storm, but benevolent by the Japanese mythology emphasizes the represented the river and the harvests. creator. His by a jackal, a peoples of central following: Fujin (god of wind), regions. These peoples Therefore the Egyptians venerated center of dog, or a wolf. attributed great healing Amaterasu (goddess of the sun), Re (the god of the sun), Nut (the worship was The son of Re power to the god. Tsukiyomi (god of the moon), Heliopolis, or the god of heaven), Seth (the god City of the Sun. and brother of Amatsu-kami (god of heaven), of the storm), and Toth (the god Osiris. Susanoo (god of storms), and Aji- of the moon). Suki-Taka-Hi-Kone (god of thunder). PDF电子书基地 http://dayo1982.400gb.com

76 CLIMATE CHANGE GRAN ATLAS DE LA CIENCIA ENFERMEDADES Y MEDICINA 77 WEATHER AND CLIMATE 77 Gods and Rituals THE SCEPTER Pre-Columbians A symbol of command consisting of ornamented short sticks, the symbol of authority The pre-Columbian population believed water was a gift from redicting the weather was a subject of interest to all the early the gods. For the Aztecs, Tlaloc was the god of rain, whereas the Incas called civilizations that populated the Earth. Greeks, Romans, Egyptians, him Viracocha. Among the Mayans, he P pre-Columbians, and Orientals venerated the gods of the Sun, the was known as Chac. He was the divinity of the peasants because water was the Moon, the heavens, the rain, storms, and the wind for centuries. In their essential factor for stability and own way, with rituals and praise, they tried to influence the weather to organization for these indigenous peoples. The calendar made it improve the bounty of the harvest. possible to forecast certain astrological events and rainstorms. ZEPHYRUS The Romans CHAC TLALOC The Greek god of the west Mayan god of agriculture. The Venerated by the Aztecs, he was wind had an important The Romans worshiped many gods THE LIGHTNING BOLT Mayans performed ceremonies known as the provider because he presence. At times he was because they inherited them from the Jupiter reigned over the petitioning Chac for rain when had the power to bring rain, beneficial, and at other earth and heaven, and drought threatened the harvest. which made the corn grow. times catastrophic. Though Greek oracles. The gods of weather were he had the attributes of the ancient Greeks were not Jupiter (wise and just, who reigned over the an eagle, a lightning sure whether the winds earth), Apollo (the god of the sun), Neptune bolt, and a scepter. were male or female, they (the god of the sea and storms), and did believe the winds had wings. Saturn (the god of agriculture). Each god VIRACOCHA had a specific function. As a result, any For the Incas, he was human activity could suffer or benefit all powerful. Creator from the attitude of the god in charge of the universe and of of that particular function. Thus, the all the earth, he was linked with rays of purpose of ritual worship and sacrifice light, thunder, to the gods was to gain their favor. lightning, and snow. Greeks The powerful Zeus was the king of the Greek gods and dispenser of divine justice. He was the sovereign of heaven (his brothers Poseidon and Hades governed the ocean and the underworld, respectively). He carried a thunderbolt to represent his power, associated with the weather. Zeus lived THE EAGLE FUJIN on Mount Olympus, from where he could observe Jupiter is the Roman Japanese god of wind. supreme god, and often intervene in the affairs of humans. The represented by the Drawn as a dark Greeks believed that Poseidon, when annoyed, figure of the eagle. monster, covered with leopard skin, he carried would break up the mountains and throw them into He is also first in a bag of wind on his the sea to form islands. Uranus was a wisdom and power. shoulders. personification of heaven for the Greeks, and Apollo was the god of the sun, light, and creation. Egyptians As in all ancient civilizations, the gods of weather were The Orient very much a part of Egyptian life. Civilization extended along the SURYA Hinduism has various banks of the Nile, where water Hindu god of the sun. In weather-related gods. The was crucial for survival—that is, India the sun most popular is Surya (god of the where cities, temples, pyramids, personified as Surya sun). Next come Chandra (god of the was considered to be and the entire economic life of the RE SETH harmful by the moon), Indra (the god who governs kingdom were concentrated. The Egyptian sun Egyptian god Dravidians of the south heaven), and Parjanya (god of rain). god, the weather influenced the rising of primordial of the storm, but benevolent by the Japanese mythology emphasizes the represented the river and the harvests. creator. His by a jackal, a peoples of central following: Fujin (god of wind), regions. These peoples Therefore the Egyptians venerated center of dog, or a wolf. attributed great healing Amaterasu (goddess of the sun), Re (the god of the sun), Nut (the worship was The son of Re power to the god. Tsukiyomi (god of the moon), Heliopolis, or the god of heaven), Seth (the god City of the Sun. and brother of Amatsu-kami (god of heaven), of the storm), and Toth (the god Osiris. Susanoo (god of storms), and Aji- of the moon). Suki-Taka-Hi-Kone (god of thunder). PDF电子书基地 http://dayo1982.400gb.com

78 CLIMATE CHANGE WEATHER AND CLIMATE 79 Climate Zones Coniferous Deciduous 1,000 MOSCOW, RUSSIA 40 C COLD FORESTS AND LAKES 0 Annual precipitation mm Very cold winters, with 25 inches (624 mm) frequent freezing at night, forest trees are typical of these regions. 20 ifferent places in the world, even if far removed from each other, 500 In these zones, the climate changes more often than can be grouped into climate zones—that is, into regions that are 250 0 anywhere else. In most cold climate regions, the D homogeneous relative to climatic elements, such as temperature, Ice cap Juniper -20 landscape is covered by brush pressure, rain, and humidity. There is some disagreement among Lakes 0 JF M A M J J A S O N D natural vegetation. climatologists about the number and description of each of these regions, but the illustrations given on this map are generally accepted. PLAINS AND Fertile soil, URBANIZATION stable climate Siberia Human settlements Plains of Siberia Hudson POLAR Bay MOUNTAINOUS CLIMATE ASIA Fruit trees Mountains create their own climate that is somewhat East European Plain independent of their location. Near the poles, the polar climate EUROPE Natural is dominated by very low brush Agriculture R o c k y NORTH temperatures, strong and Mo u n t ai n s Black Sea Caspian Him alaya s Eternal snow on perpetual snow. The mountain AMERICA A l p s irregular winds, and almost Sea the mountains peaks lack vegetation. HOUSTON, U.S. TEMPERATE Annual precipitation of M o u n t ai n s 59º F TUNDRA AND TAIGA Characterized by pleasant mm 46 inches (1,170 mm) 0 C A p p a l a c h i an temperatures and moderate 1,000 40 (15º C) rains throughout the year. Sparse Winters are mild, with long, 500 20 is the average annual conifers Arabian frost-free periods. temperature of the Earth. Sahara Peninsula Lichens Temperate regions are ideal 0 CENTRAL for most agricultural 250 AMERICA products. -20 Atlantic 0 Congo Indian JF M A M J J A S O N D Ocean basin Pacific Ocean Ocean AFRICA LHASA, TIBET TROPICAL Annual precipitation High temperatures throughout RAINFOREST OR JUNGLE C o 12º F mm 16 inches (408 mm) 0 C the year, combined with heavy r Amazon 1,000 40 rains, are typical for this Tropical fruits d i basin DESERT and flowers climate. About half of the l l e r a Intermittent (6.5º C) 500 20 world's population lives in water regions with a tropical climate. d SOUTH 0 Vegetation is abundant, and e AMERICA is the temperature decrease for OCEANIA 250 humidity is high because the l every 3,300 feet (1,000 m) of -20 water vapor in the air is not o increase in elevation. Gibson 0 readily absorbed. Plentiful s Desert JF M A M J J A S O N D water A Dry soil sources n Sea of dunes d Green and e fertile soil s Köppen Climate Classification MANAUS, BRAZIL Pampas mm Annual precipitation 0 C Layers of region Sparse Latitudes vegetation 1,000 75 inches (1,900 mm) 40 vegetation In 1936 Russian-born 80° Sand climatologist Wladimir 500 20 Patagonia Köppen presented a 60° climatological classification KEY 0 TIMBUKTU, MALI based on temperature and 40° Tropical forests, without a dry season Glacial 250 DRY Annual precipitation precipitation. The table provides -20 Temperature and Rains Lack of rain controls the arid mm 9 inches (232 mm) 0 C a broad overview of the 20° Tropical savanna, with a dry winter Mountain climate 0 climate in desert or 1,000 40 approximate distribution of Steppes (semiarid) Temperate cold continental JF M A M J J A S O N D 0° Desert (arid) (hot summer) The temperature of the Earth depends on the energy from the Sun, which is semidesert regions, the result climates on the terrestrial globe. Temperate humid, without a dry season Temperate cold continental not distributed equally at all latitudes. Only 5 percent of sunlight reaches the of the atmospheric 500 20 Köppen classification does not 20° (cold summer) surface at the poles, whereas this figure rises to 75 percent at the Equator. Rain is circulation of air. In these 0 discuss climatic regions but Temperate, with a dry winter Temperate cold continental an atmospheric phenomenon. Clouds contain millions of drops of water, which collide regions, dry air descends, 250 rather the type of climate found 40° Temperate, with a dry summer (subarctic) to form larger drops. The size of the drops increases until they are too heavy to be leaving the sky clear, with -20 in a given location according to 60° Tundra supported by air currents, and they fall as rain. many hours of burning Sun. specific parameters. 0 JF M A M J J A S O N D PDF电子书基地 http://dayo1982.400gb.com

78 CLIMATE CHANGE WEATHER AND CLIMATE 79 Climate Zones Coniferous Deciduous 1,000 MOSCOW, RUSSIA 40 C COLD FORESTS AND LAKES 0 Annual precipitation mm Very cold winters, with 25 inches (624 mm) frequent freezing at night, forest trees are typical of these regions. 20 ifferent places in the world, even if far removed from each other, 500 In these zones, the climate changes more often than can be grouped into climate zones—that is, into regions that are 250 0 anywhere else. In most cold climate regions, the D homogeneous relative to climatic elements, such as temperature, Ice cap Juniper -20 landscape is covered by brush pressure, rain, and humidity. There is some disagreement among Lakes 0 JF M A M J J A S O N D natural vegetation. climatologists about the number and description of each of these regions, but the illustrations given on this map are generally accepted. PLAINS AND Fertile soil, URBANIZATION stable climate Siberia Human settlements Plains of Siberia Hudson POLAR Bay MOUNTAINOUS CLIMATE ASIA Fruit trees Mountains create their own climate that is somewhat East European Plain independent of their location. Near the poles, the polar climate EUROPE Natural is dominated by very low brush Agriculture R o c k y NORTH temperatures, strong and Mo u n t ai n s Black Sea Caspian Him alaya s Eternal snow on perpetual snow. The mountain AMERICA A l p s irregular winds, and almost Sea the mountains peaks lack vegetation. HOUSTON, U.S. TEMPERATE Annual precipitation of M o u n t ai n s 59º F TUNDRA AND TAIGA Characterized by pleasant mm 46 inches (1,170 mm) 0 C A p p a l a c h i an temperatures and moderate 1,000 40 (15º C) rains throughout the year. Sparse Winters are mild, with long, 500 20 is the average annual conifers Arabian frost-free periods. temperature of the Earth. Sahara Peninsula Lichens Temperate regions are ideal 0 CENTRAL for most agricultural 250 AMERICA products. -20 Atlantic 0 Congo Indian JF M A M J J A S O N D Ocean basin Pacific Ocean Ocean AFRICA LHASA, TIBET TROPICAL Annual precipitation High temperatures throughout RAINFOREST OR JUNGLE C o 12º F mm 16 inches (408 mm) 0 C the year, combined with heavy r Amazon 1,000 40 rains, are typical for this Tropical fruits d i basin DESERT and flowers climate. About half of the l l e r a Intermittent (6.5º C) 500 20 world's population lives in water regions with a tropical climate. d SOUTH 0 Vegetation is abundant, and e AMERICA is the temperature decrease for OCEANIA 250 humidity is high because the l every 3,300 feet (1,000 m) of -20 water vapor in the air is not o increase in elevation. Gibson 0 readily absorbed. Plentiful s Desert JF M A M J J A S O N D water A Dry soil sources n Sea of dunes d Green and e fertile soil s Köppen Climate Classification MANAUS, BRAZIL Pampas mm Annual precipitation 0 C Layers of region Sparse Latitudes vegetation 1,000 75 inches (1,900 mm) 40 vegetation In 1936 Russian-born 80° Sand climatologist Wladimir 500 20 Patagonia Köppen presented a 60° climatological classification KEY 0 TIMBUKTU, MALI based on temperature and 40° Tropical forests, without a dry season Glacial 250 DRY Annual precipitation precipitation. The table provides -20 Temperature and Rains Lack of rain controls the arid mm 9 inches (232 mm) 0 C a broad overview of the 20° Tropical savanna, with a dry winter Mountain climate 0 climate in desert or 1,000 40 approximate distribution of Steppes (semiarid) Temperate cold continental JF M A M J J A S O N D 0° Desert (arid) (hot summer) The temperature of the Earth depends on the energy from the Sun, which is semidesert regions, the result climates on the terrestrial globe. Temperate humid, without a dry season Temperate cold continental not distributed equally at all latitudes. Only 5 percent of sunlight reaches the of the atmospheric 500 20 Köppen classification does not 20° (cold summer) surface at the poles, whereas this figure rises to 75 percent at the Equator. Rain is circulation of air. In these 0 discuss climatic regions but Temperate, with a dry winter Temperate cold continental an atmospheric phenomenon. Clouds contain millions of drops of water, which collide regions, dry air descends, 250 rather the type of climate found 40° Temperate, with a dry summer (subarctic) to form larger drops. The size of the drops increases until they are too heavy to be leaving the sky clear, with -20 in a given location according to 60° Tundra supported by air currents, and they fall as rain. many hours of burning Sun. specific parameters. 0 JF M A M J J A S O N D PDF电子书基地 http://dayo1982.400gb.com

80 CLIMATE CHANGE WEATHER AND CLIMATE 81 Paleoclimatology Human Activity Climate can be divided into before and after the Industrial Revolution. This graphic shows the progressive increase of CLOTHES halocarbon gases, methane, carbon dioxide, and nitrous oxide he climate of the planet is constantly changing. In approximately two million protect the scientists from between 1770 and 1990. It is clear that humans have contributed years, the Earth has gone through very cold periods, or glaciations, that lasted the weather and prevent the to the contamination of the planet. contamination of samples. T thousands of years, alternating with warm periods. Today we live in an interglacial period that began some 10,000 years ago with an increase in average EVALUATION OF GREENHOUSE GASES global temperature. These climatic changes can be analyzed over time periods 400 Parts per Year 1770 million that exceed hundreds of thousands of years. Paleoclimatology uses records 350 Year 1990 derived from fossils, tree rings, corals, glaciers, and historical documents to study the climates of the past. 300 280 350 280 200 Gas Measurement VOSTOK Vertical ice cores (or samples) allow Latitude 77° S scientists to study the climate of 100 Longitude 105° E the past. The nearly 12-foot-long (3.6- m) ice sample taken at the Russian Vostok station contains climatic 0.28 0.8 1.7 0.28 0.31 data going back 420,000 years, 0 Surface area of the lake 5,405 square miles 0 (14,000 sq km) including the concentration of Halocarbons Methane Carbon Nitrous carbon dioxide, methane, and Inhabitants Only scientists dioxide oxide other greenhouse gases in the Year of founding 1957 atmosphere. Temperature -67° F (-55° C) Surface 95% ice Composition The lower graphic shows the change in concentration of SAMPLES methane in the atmosphere in the last 20,000 years until the The zones marked on the end of the preindustrial era. The information collected was estimated map are places where Dronning Maud Land scientists have gathered on the basis of ice probes in Greenland and Antarctica. samples of ice, which were analyzed in the laboratories. METHANE CONCENTRATION VOSTOK KEY 0.8 Holocene Glaciation Siple Station South Pole Drillings Parts per 0.7 million Ice sheets 0.6 Greenland Dominion Range 0.5 Antarctica RIDS 0.4 0.3 Law Dome 0 Newall glacier Little ICE CORES America Samples are taken at different depths. Talos Dome The surface snow becomes more compact in the lower layers. In the last layer, there are rocks and sand. Chronology 0 2.000 4.000 6.000 8.000 10.000 12.000 14.000 16.000 18.000 20.000 During the history of the Earth's surface but also on animal Time in years before the present Earth, climate has changed and plant life. This timeline shows the greatly, which has had a large effect planet's major climate changes and Feet 174 177 6,024 6,027 10,007 10,010 not only on the appearance of the their consequences. (53 m) (54 m) (1,836 m) (1,837 m) (3,050 m) (3,051 m) B.Y.A. = billions of years ago M.Y.A. = millions of years ago Y.A. = years ago 4.5 B.Y.A. 2.7-1.8 B.Y.A. 544 M.Y.A. 330 M.Y.A. 245 M.Y.A. 65 M.Y.A. 2 M.Y.A. 1.6 M.Y.A. 18,000 Y.A. 1,300-700 Y.A. 550-150 Y.A. In the beginning, Ice covers very Glacial climate in a Beginning of a long Drought and heat at the Paleocene and The cold continues; Interglacial. The begins the last Medieval warm period; Little Ice Age. Alpine there was heat. Life extensive areas. changing geography. period of glaciation. beginning. Abrupt beginning Eocene: very glaciation occurs beginning of a two- deglaciation. in some places warmer glaciers advance; more produces oxygen and Extinction of 70 percent Ice covers different cooling at the end of the warm climate. Middle every 100,000 years. million-year period. Increase in temperature; than today. Vikings severe winters. cools the climate. of marine species. geographic areas. period. Appearance of Eocene: cooling begins. melting of ice. arrive in Greenland.. the dinosaurs. PDF电子书基地 http://dayo1982.400gb.com

80 CLIMATE CHANGE WEATHER AND CLIMATE 81 Paleoclimatology Human Activity Climate can be divided into before and after the Industrial Revolution. This graphic shows the progressive increase of CLOTHES halocarbon gases, methane, carbon dioxide, and nitrous oxide he climate of the planet is constantly changing. In approximately two million protect the scientists from between 1770 and 1990. It is clear that humans have contributed years, the Earth has gone through very cold periods, or glaciations, that lasted the weather and prevent the to the contamination of the planet. contamination of samples. T thousands of years, alternating with warm periods. Today we live in an interglacial period that began some 10,000 years ago with an increase in average EVALUATION OF GREENHOUSE GASES global temperature. These climatic changes can be analyzed over time periods 400 Parts per Year 1770 million that exceed hundreds of thousands of years. Paleoclimatology uses records 350 Year 1990 derived from fossils, tree rings, corals, glaciers, and historical documents to study the climates of the past. 300 280 350 280 200 Gas Measurement VOSTOK Vertical ice cores (or samples) allow Latitude 77° S scientists to study the climate of 100 Longitude 105° E the past. The nearly 12-foot-long (3.6- m) ice sample taken at the Russian Vostok station contains climatic 0.28 0.8 1.7 0.28 0.31 data going back 420,000 years, 0 Surface area of the lake 5,405 square miles 0 (14,000 sq km) including the concentration of Halocarbons Methane Carbon Nitrous carbon dioxide, methane, and Inhabitants Only scientists dioxide oxide other greenhouse gases in the Year of founding 1957 atmosphere. Temperature -67° F (-55° C) Surface 95% ice Composition The lower graphic shows the change in concentration of SAMPLES methane in the atmosphere in the last 20,000 years until the The zones marked on the end of the preindustrial era. The information collected was estimated map are places where Dronning Maud Land scientists have gathered on the basis of ice probes in Greenland and Antarctica. samples of ice, which were analyzed in the laboratories. METHANE CONCENTRATION VOSTOK KEY 0.8 Holocene Glaciation Siple Station South Pole Drillings Parts per 0.7 million Ice sheets 0.6 Greenland Dominion Range 0.5 Antarctica RIDS 0.4 0.3 Law Dome 0 Newall glacier Little ICE CORES America Samples are taken at different depths. Talos Dome The surface snow becomes more compact in the lower layers. In the last layer, there are rocks and sand. Chronology 0 2.000 4.000 6.000 8.000 10.000 12.000 14.000 16.000 18.000 20.000 During the history of the Earth's surface but also on animal Time in years before the present Earth, climate has changed and plant life. This timeline shows the greatly, which has had a large effect planet's major climate changes and Feet 174 177 6,024 6,027 10,007 10,010 not only on the appearance of the their consequences. (53 m) (54 m) (1,836 m) (1,837 m) (3,050 m) (3,051 m) B.Y.A. = billions of years ago M.Y.A. = millions of years ago Y.A. = years ago 4.5 B.Y.A. 2.7-1.8 B.Y.A. 544 M.Y.A. 330 M.Y.A. 245 M.Y.A. 65 M.Y.A. 2 M.Y.A. 1.6 M.Y.A. 18,000 Y.A. 1,300-700 Y.A. 550-150 Y.A. In the beginning, Ice covers very Glacial climate in a Beginning of a long Drought and heat at the Paleocene and The cold continues; Interglacial. The begins the last Medieval warm period; Little Ice Age. Alpine there was heat. Life extensive areas. changing geography. period of glaciation. beginning. Abrupt beginning Eocene: very glaciation occurs beginning of a two- deglaciation. in some places warmer glaciers advance; more produces oxygen and Extinction of 70 percent Ice covers different cooling at the end of the warm climate. Middle every 100,000 years. million-year period. Increase in temperature; than today. Vikings severe winters. cools the climate. of marine species. geographic areas. period. Appearance of Eocene: cooling begins. melting of ice. arrive in Greenland.. the dinosaurs. PDF电子书基地 http://dayo1982.400gb.com

82 CLIMATE CHANGE WEATHER AND CLIMATE 83 The Planet Warms Up he increase in average temperature of the Earth's atmosphere and oceans is the result of THE TEMPERATURE OF THE EARTH THROUGH THE YEARS GREAT global warming. The main cause is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions by industrialized The effects of global warming are already noticeable. It is estimated that the average global temperature BARRIER REEF has increased more than 1.1° F (0.6° C) between the end of the 19th century and the year 2000. T nations during the past 200 years. This phenomenon has increased the greenhouse effect. It Latitude 18°S Longitude 147°E is estimated that the average global temperature has increased more than 1.1° F (0.6° C) between the end of the 19th century and the year 2000. The consequences of this are Surface 1,430 miles (2,300 km) already beginning to be noticed. Changes are observed in the global distribution of Types of reefs 3,000 precipitation: there are regions where there is an increase of rain, and there are other Age 300 million years regions where rain is diminishing. This generates, among other things, a redistribution Discovery 1770, by James Cook of fauna and flora, changes in ecosystems, and changes in human activities. Product of Human Activity Our planet is going through an accelerated and carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere. process of global warming because of the Other aggravating human activities, such as accumulation in the atmosphere of a series of gases deforestation, have limited the regenerative capacity generated by human activity. These gases not only of the atmosphere to eliminate carbon dioxide absorb the energy emitted by the surface of the through photosynthesis. These changes have caused a Earth when it is heated by radiation coming from the slow increase in the average annual temperature of 1.1º F Sun, but they also strengthen the naturally occurring the Earth. Global warming, in turn, causes numerous greenhouse effect, whose purpose is to trap heat. One environmental problems: desertification and droughts of the primary agents responsible for the growth of (which cause famines), deforestation (which further the greenhouse effect is CO 2 (carbon dioxide), which increases climate change), floods, and the destruction (0.6º C) is artificially produced by burning fossil fuels (coal, of ecosystems. Because all these variables contribute petroleum, and natural gas). Because of the intensive to global warming in complex ways, it is very difficult APPROXIMATE INCREASE use of these fuels, there has been a notable increase to predict with precision everything that will happen Of the Earth's global average temperature from 1860 in the quantity of both carbon and nitrogen oxides in the future. Increase of the SOLAR ENERGY 2 natural greenhouse The modified atmosphere effect of the atmosphere 3 retains more heat emitted by the Earth and thus upsets the natural equilibrium. A Different World With the changing patterns of precipitation and 1 will become more humid, and others will suffer the shifting of air-pressure systems, some regions be the western part of North America, where The ozone layer is in Activities, such as the burning ATMOSPHERE OZONE droughts. One of the areas that will become drier will of fuels and deforestation, the stratosphere, above desertification is already affecting agriculture. increase the concentration of the surface of the According to current forecasts, areas in high latitudes, greenhouse gases. planet. It acts as a closer to the poles, will go through a rapid warming in powerful solar filter the next 40 years. Populations of animals will be forced that prevents the to emigrate from their habitat to avoid extinction, and 84º F small amount of other animals, such as the polar bear and emperor passage of all but a ultraviolet radiation penguin, will have trouble subsisting as their habitats (UV). disappear. Ocean levels are rising between 0.4 and 0.8 (29º C) Ozone layer inch (1 and 2 cm) per decade. Some Pacific island nations such as Tuvalu have contingency plans for INCREASE OF evacuation. Another affected region is the Great Barrier The discoloration of coral occurs PRIMARY Reef of Australia. The coral is very sensitive to changes when the temperature exceeds GREENHOUSE in temperature. At temperatures above a normal 84° F 84° F (29° C). Algae are lost, the GASES [29 ° C], the coral begin to expel the algae on which coral weakens, and the color of they depend for food, and then they die. the coral fades. Stratopause STRATOSPHERE Tropopause LOW TROPOSPHERE 2 km 10 km 50 km PDF电子书基地 http://dayo1982.400gb.com

82 CLIMATE CHANGE WEATHER AND CLIMATE 83 The Planet Warms Up he increase in average temperature of the Earth's atmosphere and oceans is the result of THE TEMPERATURE OF THE EARTH THROUGH THE YEARS GREAT global warming. The main cause is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions by industrialized The effects of global warming are already noticeable. It is estimated that the average global temperature BARRIER REEF has increased more than 1.1° F (0.6° C) between the end of the 19th century and the year 2000. T nations during the past 200 years. This phenomenon has increased the greenhouse effect. It Latitude 18°S Longitude 147°E is estimated that the average global temperature has increased more than 1.1° F (0.6° C) between the end of the 19th century and the year 2000. The consequences of this are Surface 1,430 miles (2,300 km) already beginning to be noticed. Changes are observed in the global distribution of Types of reefs 3,000 precipitation: there are regions where there is an increase of rain, and there are other Age 300 million years regions where rain is diminishing. This generates, among other things, a redistribution Discovery 1770, by James Cook of fauna and flora, changes in ecosystems, and changes in human activities. Product of Human Activity Our planet is going through an accelerated and carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere. process of global warming because of the Other aggravating human activities, such as accumulation in the atmosphere of a series of gases deforestation, have limited the regenerative capacity generated by human activity. These gases not only of the atmosphere to eliminate carbon dioxide absorb the energy emitted by the surface of the through photosynthesis. These changes have caused a Earth when it is heated by radiation coming from the slow increase in the average annual temperature of 1.1º F Sun, but they also strengthen the naturally occurring the Earth. Global warming, in turn, causes numerous greenhouse effect, whose purpose is to trap heat. One environmental problems: desertification and droughts of the primary agents responsible for the growth of (which cause famines), deforestation (which further the greenhouse effect is CO 2 (carbon dioxide), which increases climate change), floods, and the destruction (0.6º C) is artificially produced by burning fossil fuels (coal, of ecosystems. Because all these variables contribute petroleum, and natural gas). Because of the intensive to global warming in complex ways, it is very difficult APPROXIMATE INCREASE use of these fuels, there has been a notable increase to predict with precision everything that will happen Of the Earth's global average temperature from 1860 in the quantity of both carbon and nitrogen oxides in the future. Increase of the SOLAR ENERGY 2 natural greenhouse The modified atmosphere effect of the atmosphere 3 retains more heat emitted by the Earth and thus upsets the natural equilibrium. A Different World With the changing patterns of precipitation and 1 will become more humid, and others will suffer the shifting of air-pressure systems, some regions be the western part of North America, where The ozone layer is in Activities, such as the burning ATMOSPHERE OZONE droughts. One of the areas that will become drier will of fuels and deforestation, the stratosphere, above desertification is already affecting agriculture. increase the concentration of the surface of the According to current forecasts, areas in high latitudes, greenhouse gases. planet. It acts as a closer to the poles, will go through a rapid warming in powerful solar filter the next 40 years. Populations of animals will be forced that prevents the to emigrate from their habitat to avoid extinction, and 84º F small amount of other animals, such as the polar bear and emperor passage of all but a ultraviolet radiation penguin, will have trouble subsisting as their habitats (UV). disappear. Ocean levels are rising between 0.4 and 0.8 (29º C) Ozone layer inch (1 and 2 cm) per decade. Some Pacific island nations such as Tuvalu have contingency plans for INCREASE OF evacuation. Another affected region is the Great Barrier The discoloration of coral occurs PRIMARY Reef of Australia. The coral is very sensitive to changes when the temperature exceeds GREENHOUSE in temperature. At temperatures above a normal 84° F 84° F (29° C). Algae are lost, the GASES [29 ° C], the coral begin to expel the algae on which coral weakens, and the color of they depend for food, and then they die. the coral fades. Stratopause STRATOSPHERE Tropopause LOW TROPOSPHERE 2 km 10 km 50 km PDF电子书基地 http://dayo1982.400gb.com

84 CLIMATECHANGE WEATHER AND CLIMATE 85 Accelerated Melting POSSIBLE FLOOD ZONES Pacific Ocean PROJECTIONS he climate is changing at a disconcerting speed. Glaciers 2010-30 are retreating, and sea level is rising because of a -25 -15 -5 0 51525 T phenomenon known as thermal expansion. Scientists Summer sea ice, In the period between 1993 and currently in decline, evaluating the planet's health deduce that this is the tends to diminish 2003, some coastlines were consequence of the Earth warming too rapidly. Human more and more rapidly reduced by the rise in sea level. in the future. activity—in particular, the burning of fossil fuels and the consequent accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere—has increased this trend. Bering 2040-60 Strait Europe As the century progresses, sea ice ARCTIC continues to melt more and more along Latitude 66° N ADVANCE OF the coasts of the Longitude 0° Arctic Ocean. VEGETATION The retreat of the ice OCEAN leaves organic CURRENTS Surface area 5,444,040 square miles (14,100,000 sq km) The main cause of material exposed, Depth 13,100 to 6,600 feet (4,000 to 2,000 m) changes in ocean which, instead of 2070-90 reflecting solar Temperature -58° F (-50° C) in winter currents are changes radiation, absorbs it, in the water's salinity. LABRADOR increasing global Some scientific models CURRENT temperature. project that summer starts in the Arctic Why It Happens and moves south, sea ice will be virtually eliminated during this The thawing at the poles is, in part, caused by the North carrying cold water century. and loose ice. increase of greenhouse gases. They absorb the America radiation emitted by the Earth and heat up the atmosphere, further increasing the Earth's temperature. TEMPERATURE The melting of glaciers puts more water in the oceans. Barents INCREASE Sea ADVANCING WATERS It is believed that the EFFECT increased emission of The accelerated melting raises sea The Arctic heats up more rapidly than the greenhouse gases will level and floods coasts that have a global average because of the darkness of Hudson cause an increase in gentle slope. As the sea level the soil and the water, which, once exposed, Bay average global rises, the width of trap more heat from the atmosphere. Once exposed to the Melting of the ice temperature of 5. air, the CO 2 is absorbed will be detrimental between 3.2° and 7.2° F 50 m coastal areas diminishes. by the atmosphere. to people and (1.8° and 4.0° C) over animals living in the the next 100 years. Greenland Arctic. 50 cm reflects 2. 1. Sunlight Where the ice is the thinnest, or from cracked, radiation layers penetrates to the of ice. ocean. 164 feet (50 m) 70% 3. Ice absorbs the heat from 4. These particles rise to The amount of coastal of the freshwater sunlight and releases a the surface, converted great quantity of trapped into CO 2 . GULF STREAM area lost when sea level in the world is in Antarctica. carbon particles. originates in the Gulf of Mexico rises 20 inches (50 cm) and carries warm water to higher latitudes. Antarctica Via cracks in the ice, new marine routes 80% can develop. When ships pass, the cracks Atlantic Ocean The Antarctic loses 36 cubic miles (152 cu rarely close, increasing the process of of Greenland's km) of ice per year, and the western ice sheet heat absorption and the release of CO 2 . is becoming thinner at an accelerating pace. This is Particles of CO 2 ice is losing 3 feet contributing to increases in sea level. Over the long (1 m) per year. term, the effect on the climate could be disastrous for many regions of the planet. PDF电子书基地 http://dayo1982.400gb.com

84 CLIMATECHANGE WEATHER AND CLIMATE 85 Accelerated Melting POSSIBLE FLOOD ZONES Pacific Ocean PROJECTIONS he climate is changing at a disconcerting speed. Glaciers 2010-30 are retreating, and sea level is rising because of a -25 -15 -5 0 51525 T phenomenon known as thermal expansion. Scientists Summer sea ice, In the period between 1993 and currently in decline, evaluating the planet's health deduce that this is the tends to diminish 2003, some coastlines were consequence of the Earth warming too rapidly. Human more and more rapidly reduced by the rise in sea level. in the future. activity—in particular, the burning of fossil fuels and the consequent accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere—has increased this trend. Bering 2040-60 Strait Europe As the century progresses, sea ice ARCTIC continues to melt more and more along Latitude 66° N ADVANCE OF the coasts of the Longitude 0° Arctic Ocean. VEGETATION The retreat of the ice OCEAN leaves organic CURRENTS Surface area 5,444,040 square miles (14,100,000 sq km) The main cause of material exposed, Depth 13,100 to 6,600 feet (4,000 to 2,000 m) changes in ocean which, instead of 2070-90 reflecting solar Temperature -58° F (-50° C) in winter currents are changes radiation, absorbs it, in the water's salinity. LABRADOR increasing global Some scientific models CURRENT temperature. project that summer starts in the Arctic Why It Happens and moves south, sea ice will be virtually eliminated during this The thawing at the poles is, in part, caused by the North carrying cold water century. and loose ice. increase of greenhouse gases. They absorb the America radiation emitted by the Earth and heat up the atmosphere, further increasing the Earth's temperature. TEMPERATURE The melting of glaciers puts more water in the oceans. Barents INCREASE Sea ADVANCING WATERS It is believed that the EFFECT increased emission of The accelerated melting raises sea The Arctic heats up more rapidly than the greenhouse gases will level and floods coasts that have a global average because of the darkness of Hudson cause an increase in gentle slope. As the sea level the soil and the water, which, once exposed, Bay average global rises, the width of trap more heat from the atmosphere. Once exposed to the Melting of the ice temperature of 5. air, the CO 2 is absorbed will be detrimental between 3.2° and 7.2° F 50 m coastal areas diminishes. by the atmosphere. to people and (1.8° and 4.0° C) over animals living in the the next 100 years. Greenland Arctic. 50 cm reflects 2. 1. Sunlight Where the ice is the thinnest, or from cracked, radiation layers penetrates to the of ice. ocean. 164 feet (50 m) 70% 3. Ice absorbs the heat from 4. These particles rise to The amount of coastal of the freshwater sunlight and releases a the surface, converted great quantity of trapped into CO 2 . GULF STREAM area lost when sea level in the world is in Antarctica. carbon particles. originates in the Gulf of Mexico rises 20 inches (50 cm) and carries warm water to higher latitudes. Antarctica Via cracks in the ice, new marine routes 80% can develop. When ships pass, the cracks Atlantic Ocean The Antarctic loses 36 cubic miles (152 cu rarely close, increasing the process of of Greenland's km) of ice per year, and the western ice sheet heat absorption and the release of CO 2 . is becoming thinner at an accelerating pace. This is Particles of CO 2 ice is losing 3 feet contributing to increases in sea level. Over the long (1 m) per year. term, the effect on the climate could be disastrous for many regions of the planet. PDF电子书基地 http://dayo1982.400gb.com

86 CLIMATE CHANGE WEATHER AND CLIMATE 87 Toxic Rain AREAS AFFECTED BY ACID RAIN urning fossil fuel releases into the air chemicals that mix with water vapor PHOTOCHEMICAL and produce acid rain. The excess of sulfur dioxides and nitrogen dioxides in 3 REACTION Sunlight increases the speed at B bodies of water makes the development of aquatic life more difficult, which chemical reactions occur. Thus, substantially increasing the mortality rate of fish. Likewise, it affects vegetation on sulfur dioxide and atmospheric gases rapidly produce sulfur trioxide. land, causing significant damage in forested areas by contaminating animals and destroying substances vital for the soil. Moreover, acidic sedimentation can increase the levels of toxic metals, such as aluminum, copper, and mercury, that are deposited Atmospheric circulation enhances The regions most vulnerable to this phenomenon are in untreated drinking-water reservoirs. the dispersal of contaminants Mexico, Beijing, Cairo, Jakarta (Indonesia), and Los over great distances. Angeles. ACID RAIN 4 falls in the form of water, fog, or pH WHAT IS pH? acid dew and leaves the acids formed in GAS EMISSIONS GAS MIXTURES the atmosphere on the ground. The degree of 1 Generated by burning fuels 2 The molecules of various aqueous solution. acidity of an gases rise and mix with and the eruption of volcanoes It indicates the pH:5 pH:6 water in the air. concentration of hydrogen ions. Acid rain Normal rain pH neutral CO 2 SO 2 CH 4 H 2 S CO NO 2 Petroleum Chemical Waste refineries industry incinerator SOIL CONSEQUENCES CONSEQUENCES Melting water carries SILICATE SOIL FOR AGRICULTURE acidic particles that The effect of acidity come from the rain. increases because of the lack Areas under cultivation are of buffering minerals. The leaves lose not as vulnerable because their wax layer. they are generally improved by fertilizers that restore CALCAREOUS SOIL nutrients to the soil and The effect is neutralized by the presence of bicarbonate. TYPES OF GASES EMITTED CONSEQUENCES neutralize acidity. EFFECTS ON FOR PLANTS THE WATER Petroleum CO 2 (carbon dioxide) Destruction refinery SO 2 (sulfur dioxide) of chlorophyll Acid rain acts via certain The acidity of rainwater CH 4 (methane) mechanisms that weaken plants, making them more changes the neutral pH of vulnerable to the effects of bodies of water. Chemical CO 2 , SO 2 , wind, cold, drought, industry H 2 S (hydrogen sulfide) disease, and parasites. pH 7 pH 4.3 Defoliation (neutral) (acid) Waste CO 2 , SO 2 , CH 4 , In mountainous areas, fog and incinerator CO (carbon monoxide) snow contribute significant NO 2 (nitrogen dioxide) quantities of the gases in question. 1972 The year when the phenomenon of acid rain was Seriously affected recorded for the first time MOST-THREATENED SPECIES Root species are lettuce and damage tobacco, especially because their leaves, destined for human MOST-AFFECTED SPECIES LEAVES This rain damages their consumption, must be surface, causing small of high quality. lesions that alter the LEVEL AT WHICH FISH DO Fir Beech Oak action of photosynthesis. pH 4.3 NOT SURVIVE IN THE WATER Trout Perch Frogs PDF电子书基地 http://dayo1982.400gb.com

86 CLIMATE CHANGE WEATHER AND CLIMATE 87 Toxic Rain AREAS AFFECTED BY ACID RAIN urning fossil fuel releases into the air chemicals that mix with water vapor PHOTOCHEMICAL and produce acid rain. The excess of sulfur dioxides and nitrogen dioxides in 3 REACTION Sunlight increases the speed at B bodies of water makes the development of aquatic life more difficult, which chemical reactions occur. Thus, substantially increasing the mortality rate of fish. Likewise, it affects vegetation on sulfur dioxide and atmospheric gases rapidly produce sulfur trioxide. land, causing significant damage in forested areas by contaminating animals and destroying substances vital for the soil. Moreover, acidic sedimentation can increase the levels of toxic metals, such as aluminum, copper, and mercury, that are deposited Atmospheric circulation enhances The regions most vulnerable to this phenomenon are in untreated drinking-water reservoirs. the dispersal of contaminants Mexico, Beijing, Cairo, Jakarta (Indonesia), and Los over great distances. Angeles. ACID RAIN 4 falls in the form of water, fog, or pH WHAT IS pH? acid dew and leaves the acids formed in GAS EMISSIONS GAS MIXTURES the atmosphere on the ground. The degree of 1 Generated by burning fuels 2 The molecules of various aqueous solution. acidity of an gases rise and mix with and the eruption of volcanoes It indicates the pH:5 pH:6 water in the air. concentration of hydrogen ions. Acid rain Normal rain pH neutral CO 2 SO 2 CH 4 H 2 S CO NO 2 Petroleum Chemical Waste refineries industry incinerator SOIL CONSEQUENCES CONSEQUENCES Melting water carries SILICATE SOIL FOR AGRICULTURE acidic particles that The effect of acidity come from the rain. increases because of the lack Areas under cultivation are of buffering minerals. The leaves lose not as vulnerable because their wax layer. they are generally improved by fertilizers that restore CALCAREOUS SOIL nutrients to the soil and The effect is neutralized by the presence of bicarbonate. TYPES OF GASES EMITTED CONSEQUENCES neutralize acidity. EFFECTS ON FOR PLANTS THE WATER Petroleum CO 2 (carbon dioxide) Destruction refinery SO 2 (sulfur dioxide) of chlorophyll Acid rain acts via certain The acidity of rainwater CH 4 (methane) mechanisms that weaken plants, making them more changes the neutral pH of vulnerable to the effects of bodies of water. Chemical CO 2 , SO 2 , wind, cold, drought, industry H 2 S (hydrogen sulfide) disease, and parasites. pH 7 pH 4.3 Defoliation (neutral) (acid) Waste CO 2 , SO 2 , CH 4 , In mountainous areas, fog and incinerator CO (carbon monoxide) snow contribute significant NO 2 (nitrogen dioxide) quantities of the gases in question. 1972 The year when the phenomenon of acid rain was Seriously affected recorded for the first time MOST-THREATENED SPECIES Root species are lettuce and damage tobacco, especially because their leaves, destined for human MOST-AFFECTED SPECIES LEAVES This rain damages their consumption, must be surface, causing small of high quality. lesions that alter the LEVEL AT WHICH FISH DO Fir Beech Oak action of photosynthesis. pH 4.3 NOT SURVIVE IN THE WATER Trout Perch Frogs PDF电子书基地 http://dayo1982.400gb.com

88 CLIMATE CHANGE W WEATHER AND CLIMATE 89 Weaker and Weaker UV RADIATION Ultraviolet radiation (UV) is a radiant form of energy that comes from the Sun. The various forms of radiation are classified according to the average wavelength measured in nanometers (nm), equivalent to one millionth of a rtificial substances are destroying the ozone layer, which millimeter. The shorter the wavelength, the greater the energy of the radiation. provides protection against ultraviolet rays. This phenomenon A is observed every year in polar regions (primarily in the UV-A UV-B UV-C These are the most These rays easily are almost all absorbed Antarctic) between August and October. Because of this, the Earth 2000 penetrate the ozone by the ozone layer. damaging rays, but 11,000,000 square miles layer. They cause skin They are harmful and they are totally filtered is receiving more harmful rays, which perhaps explains the (28,000,000 sq km) 2001 wrinkling and aging. cause various types of by the upper part of 10,000,000 square miles skin cancer. the ozone layer. appearance of certain illnesses: an increase in skin cancer cases, (26,000,000 sq km) damage to vision, and weakening of the immune system. 2004 9,300,000 square miles 2005 (24,200,000 sq km) 10,400,000 square miles (27,000,000 sq km) THE SOUTHERN OZONE HOLE The thinning of the ozone layer over the Antarctic is the result of a series of phenomena, including the action of Exosphere OZONE LAYER chlorine radicals, which cause the At an altitude of 12 to 19 miles (20 to 30 destruction of ozone. km), the Earth is surrounded by a stratospheric ozone layer that is of vital Mesosphere importance for life on the surface. The layer is formed from oxygen molecules through 11,000,000 Stratosphere the absorption of ultraviolet light from the Sun. This reaction is reversible, that is, the It is popularly called square miles ozone can return to its natural state, oxygen. the ozone hole—a Ozone layer This oxygen is reconverted into ozone, decrease or abnormal (28,000,000 sq km) beginning a continuous process of formation thinning that occurs Troposphere is the size of the area of and destruction of these components. in the ozone layer. attenuated ozone reached in 2000. The ozone layer functions as a natural filter, absorbing UV rays. 75% HOW IT DETERIORATES 3 Chlorine atoms combine 4 The chloromonoxide with a molecule of ozone, combines with an Ultraviolet radiation strikes destroy it, and form one atom of free OF SKIN CANCER 1 HOW OZONE IS FORMED chloromonoxide and one oxygen and releases IS ATTRIBUTED TO a molecule of CFC gas. oxygen atom. the chlorine atom. UV-B RADIATION. Ultraviolet rays One of the released One of the released 1 2 3 strike a molecule atoms combines with atoms combines with 5 This atom, once of oxygen which a molecule of oxygen. a molecule of oxygen. 2 An atom of again free, breaks up and releases Together they form a Together they form a chlorine is combines with its two atoms. molecule of ozone. molecule of ozone. released. another molecule CFC GASES of ozone. are a family of gases with multiple applications. They are used in refrigeration systems, air-conditioning equipment, and aerosols. O 2 O 3 4 The process can start again with the new oxygen molecule. 50 to 100 HUMAN BEINGS THE NUMBER OF YEARS Skin cancer. Damage to vision. Weakening of the THAT CFC GASES SURVIVE PLANTS WHEN? WHO? HOW? immune system. Severe Destruction of phytoplankton. In 1974, it was discovered that industrial IN THE ATMOSPHERE burns. Skin aging. Inhibition of the photosynthesis chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) affect the process. Changes in growth. ANIMALS ozone layer. Chemists Mario Molina and F. Reduced harvest yields. Diseases among farm Sherwood Rowland demonstrated that animals. Destruction of industrial CFCs are the gases that links in the food chain. weaken the ozone layer by destroying the Increase of skin cancer. ozone molecules. PDF电子书基地 http://dayo1982.400gb.com

88 CLIMATE CHANGE W WEATHER AND CLIMATE 89 Weaker and Weaker UV RADIATION Ultraviolet radiation (UV) is a radiant form of energy that comes from the Sun. The various forms of radiation are classified according to the average wavelength measured in nanometers (nm), equivalent to one millionth of a rtificial substances are destroying the ozone layer, which millimeter. The shorter the wavelength, the greater the energy of the radiation. provides protection against ultraviolet rays. This phenomenon A is observed every year in polar regions (primarily in the UV-A UV-B UV-C These are the most These rays easily are almost all absorbed Antarctic) between August and October. Because of this, the Earth 2000 penetrate the ozone by the ozone layer. damaging rays, but 11,000,000 square miles layer. They cause skin They are harmful and they are totally filtered is receiving more harmful rays, which perhaps explains the (28,000,000 sq km) 2001 wrinkling and aging. cause various types of by the upper part of 10,000,000 square miles skin cancer. the ozone layer. appearance of certain illnesses: an increase in skin cancer cases, (26,000,000 sq km) damage to vision, and weakening of the immune system. 2004 9,300,000 square miles 2005 (24,200,000 sq km) 10,400,000 square miles (27,000,000 sq km) THE SOUTHERN OZONE HOLE The thinning of the ozone layer over the Antarctic is the result of a series of phenomena, including the action of Exosphere OZONE LAYER chlorine radicals, which cause the At an altitude of 12 to 19 miles (20 to 30 destruction of ozone. km), the Earth is surrounded by a stratospheric ozone layer that is of vital Mesosphere importance for life on the surface. The layer is formed from oxygen molecules through 11,000,000 Stratosphere the absorption of ultraviolet light from the Sun. This reaction is reversible, that is, the It is popularly called square miles ozone can return to its natural state, oxygen. the ozone hole—a Ozone layer This oxygen is reconverted into ozone, decrease or abnormal (28,000,000 sq km) beginning a continuous process of formation thinning that occurs Troposphere is the size of the area of and destruction of these components. in the ozone layer. attenuated ozone reached in 2000. The ozone layer functions as a natural filter, absorbing UV rays. 75% HOW IT DETERIORATES 3 Chlorine atoms combine 4 The chloromonoxide with a molecule of ozone, combines with an Ultraviolet radiation strikes destroy it, and form one atom of free OF SKIN CANCER 1 HOW OZONE IS FORMED chloromonoxide and one oxygen and releases IS ATTRIBUTED TO a molecule of CFC gas. oxygen atom. the chlorine atom. UV-B RADIATION. Ultraviolet rays One of the released One of the released 1 2 3 strike a molecule atoms combines with atoms combines with 5 This atom, once of oxygen which a molecule of oxygen. a molecule of oxygen. 2 An atom of again free, breaks up and releases Together they form a Together they form a chlorine is combines with its two atoms. molecule of ozone. molecule of ozone. released. another molecule CFC GASES of ozone. are a family of gases with multiple applications. They are used in refrigeration systems, air-conditioning equipment, and aerosols. O 2 O 3 4 The process can start again with the new oxygen molecule. 50 to 100 HUMAN BEINGS THE NUMBER OF YEARS Skin cancer. Damage to vision. Weakening of the THAT CFC GASES SURVIVE PLANTS WHEN? WHO? HOW? immune system. Severe Destruction of phytoplankton. In 1974, it was discovered that industrial IN THE ATMOSPHERE burns. Skin aging. Inhibition of the photosynthesis chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) affect the process. Changes in growth. ANIMALS ozone layer. Chemists Mario Molina and F. Reduced harvest yields. Diseases among farm Sherwood Rowland demonstrated that animals. Destruction of industrial CFCs are the gases that links in the food chain. weaken the ozone layer by destroying the Increase of skin cancer. ozone molecules. PDF电子书基地 http://dayo1982.400gb.com

90 CLIMATE CHANGE WEATHER AND CLIMATE 91 Change; Everything Changes Incident rays Energy is integrated into the climatic system. Long-wave radiation emitted by the Earth is ATMOSPHERE trapped by the atmosphere. More than 10.8° F (6° C) SURFACE OF THE EARTH From 9° to 10.8° F ASIA (5° to 6° C) Atlantic Ocean The Most Responsible EUROPE NORTH From 7.2° to 9° F The climate of the planet is constantly AMERICA (4° to 5° C) changing. At present, the average global temperature is approximately 59° F (15° C). Geologic and other types of evidence suggest that ACCELERATION OF THE in the past the average could have been as low as THE RISE IN GREENHOUSE EFFECT 45° F (7° C) and as high as 81° F (27° C). Climate TEMPERATURE Ice reflects solar radiation, whereas change is, in large part, caused by human activities, In Alaska and western Canada the soil of jungles, forests, and which cause an increase in the concentration of winter temperatures have steppes absorbs the energy and greenhouse gases. These gases include carbon dioxide, increased between 5.4° and 7.2° F radiates it as sensible heat. This methane, and nitrogen dioxide and are released by modern (3° and 4° C) in the past 50 artificially increases the greenhouse industry, by agriculture, and by the burning of coal, petroleum, years. It has been projected that effect and contributes to global and natural gas. Its atmospheric concentration is increasing: CENTRAL in the next 100 years the Earth's warming. atmospheric carbon-dioxide content alone has grown by more than average temperature will AMERICA 20 percent since 1960. Investigators indicate that this warming can increase between 3.2° and 7.2° F have grave implications for the stability of the climate, on which most of (1.8° and 4.0° C). From 5.4° to 7.2° F Indian the life on the planet depends. Ocean Pacific (3° to 4° C) Ocean Normal thickness Hole in the The ozone layer stops Cause and Effect of the ozone layer ozone ultraviolet rays. From 3.6° to 5.4° F AFRICA (2° to 3° C) SOUTH The burning of fossil fuels and the AMERICA indiscriminate cutting of deciduous forests and rainforests cause an increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide, methane, and OCEANIA other greenhouse gases. They trap heat and increase the greenhouse effect. That is how the Arctic is warming up; the density of From 1.8° to 3.6° F the ice is decreased by melting, and (1° to 2° C) freshwater flows into the ocean, changing its salinity. Solar rays 100 is the length of time it THE ICY takes for a deciduous COASTLINE forest to return to its Rays that pass through CO 2 is years natural state after it the ozone layer SURFACE OF released has been laid to waste. THE EARTH THE EFFECT OF THINNING OF THE OZONE LAYER POLAR MELTING The ozone layer protects us from ultraviolet rays, The snow-covered sea ice reflects but, because of the release of artificial substances, it between 85 and 90 percent of the OCEAN is thinning out. This phenomenon is observed each year sunlight that strikes it, whereas sea over Antarctica between August and October and over water reflects only 10 percent. For the North Pole between October and May. Moreover, that reason, as the ice and snow melt, there is evidence that greater amounts of UV rays at many of today's coastlines will the Earth's surface are destroying or altering vegetable become submerged under water, Warm cells and decreasing the production of oxygen. which will cause yet more ice to melt. marine current PDF电子书基地 http://dayo1982.400gb.com

90 CLIMATE CHANGE WEATHER AND CLIMATE 91 Change; Everything Changes Incident rays Energy is integrated into the climatic system. Long-wave radiation emitted by the Earth is ATMOSPHERE trapped by the atmosphere. More than 10.8° F (6° C) SURFACE OF THE EARTH From 9° to 10.8° F ASIA (5° to 6° C) Atlantic Ocean The Most Responsible EUROPE NORTH From 7.2° to 9° F The climate of the planet is constantly AMERICA (4° to 5° C) changing. At present, the average global temperature is approximately 59° F (15° C). Geologic and other types of evidence suggest that ACCELERATION OF THE in the past the average could have been as low as THE RISE IN GREENHOUSE EFFECT 45° F (7° C) and as high as 81° F (27° C). Climate TEMPERATURE Ice reflects solar radiation, whereas change is, in large part, caused by human activities, In Alaska and western Canada the soil of jungles, forests, and which cause an increase in the concentration of winter temperatures have steppes absorbs the energy and greenhouse gases. These gases include carbon dioxide, increased between 5.4° and 7.2° F radiates it as sensible heat. This methane, and nitrogen dioxide and are released by modern (3° and 4° C) in the past 50 artificially increases the greenhouse industry, by agriculture, and by the burning of coal, petroleum, years. It has been projected that effect and contributes to global and natural gas. Its atmospheric concentration is increasing: CENTRAL in the next 100 years the Earth's warming. atmospheric carbon-dioxide content alone has grown by more than average temperature will AMERICA 20 percent since 1960. Investigators indicate that this warming can increase between 3.2° and 7.2° F have grave implications for the stability of the climate, on which most of (1.8° and 4.0° C). From 5.4° to 7.2° F Indian the life on the planet depends. Ocean Pacific (3° to 4° C) Ocean Normal thickness Hole in the The ozone layer stops Cause and Effect of the ozone layer ozone ultraviolet rays. From 3.6° to 5.4° F AFRICA (2° to 3° C) SOUTH The burning of fossil fuels and the AMERICA indiscriminate cutting of deciduous forests and rainforests cause an increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide, methane, and OCEANIA other greenhouse gases. They trap heat and increase the greenhouse effect. That is how the Arctic is warming up; the density of From 1.8° to 3.6° F the ice is decreased by melting, and (1° to 2° C) freshwater flows into the ocean, changing its salinity. Solar rays 100 is the length of time it THE ICY takes for a deciduous COASTLINE forest to return to its Rays that pass through CO 2 is years natural state after it the ozone layer SURFACE OF released has been laid to waste. THE EARTH THE EFFECT OF THINNING OF THE OZONE LAYER POLAR MELTING The ozone layer protects us from ultraviolet rays, The snow-covered sea ice reflects but, because of the release of artificial substances, it between 85 and 90 percent of the OCEAN is thinning out. This phenomenon is observed each year sunlight that strikes it, whereas sea over Antarctica between August and October and over water reflects only 10 percent. For the North Pole between October and May. Moreover, that reason, as the ice and snow melt, there is evidence that greater amounts of UV rays at many of today's coastlines will the Earth's surface are destroying or altering vegetable become submerged under water, Warm cells and decreasing the production of oxygen. which will cause yet more ice to melt. marine current PDF电子书基地 http://dayo1982.400gb.com

92 GLOSSARY WEATHER AND CLIMATE 93 Glossary good weather. exhaust of automobiles, trucks, and buses. It is through a reduction in precipitation. Accretion also produced by the combustion of coal and Condensation Exosphere Growth of an ice crystal in the atmosphere by Atmosphere other organic material. Too much carbon dioxide The process by which water vapor is Dew The outermost layer of the Earth's atmosphere. direct capture of water droplets when the in the atmosphere contributes to global transformed into liquid by the effect of cooling. temperature is below 32° F (0° C). The gaseous envelope that surrounds the Earth. warming. Condensation in the form of small drops of Flash Flood Conduction water formed on grass and other small objects Acid Rain Atmospheric Pressure Chlorofluorocarbons near the ground when the temperature has Sudden flooding caused by the passage of a The transfer of heat through a substance by dropped to the dew point. This generally large quantity of water through a narrow space, Rain resulting from the mixture of water vapor The pressure or weight exerted by the Artificial chemical substances often contained in molecular action or from one substance to happens during the night. such as a canyon or a valley. in the air with chemical substances typically atmosphere at a specific point. Its measurement aerosols, refrigerants, and air conditioners. another it is in contact with. released by the combustion of fossil fuels. can be expressed in various units: hectopascals, These chemicals are largely responsible for the Dike millibars, inches, or millimeters of mercury (Hg). damage to the ozone layer. Continentality Fog Aerosol It is also called barometric pressure. An earthwork for containing or channeling a Visible manifestation of drops of water Cirrus The tendency of the interior regions of the river or for protection against the sea. Aerosols are very small (liquid or solid) particles Aurora continents to have more extreme temperature suspended in the atmosphere at or near ground suspended in the atmosphere, with varied Wispy cloud formations at altitudes greater changes than coastal zones. level; this reduces the horizontal visibility to less chemical composition. Aerosols play an essential A phenomenon that is produced in the higher than 16,400 feet (5,000 m). Drizzle than a mile. It originates when the temperature role in the formation of clouds by acting as layers of the atmosphere at polar latitudes. An of the air is near the dew point, and sufficient condensation nuclei. They are also important to aurora occurs when there is a collision between Climate Convection A type of light liquid precipitation composed of numbers of condensation nuclei are present. small drops with diameters between 0.007 and the Earth's radiation balance since they help to the electrically charged particles emitted by the The process by which a heated surface increase the reflection and dispersion of Sun and the magnetic field of the Earth. In the The average state of the meteorological transfers energy to the material (air, water, etc.) 0.019 inch (0.2 and 0.5 mm). Usually drizzle Forecast radiation coming from the Sun. Northern Hemisphere, the phenomenon is called conditions of a location considered over a long above it. This material becomes less dense and falls from stratus-type clouds that are found at the aurora borealis, and in the Southern period of time. The climate of a location is rises. Cooler material descends to fill in the void. low altitudes and can be accompanied by fog, A statement about future events. The weather Air Mass Hemisphere, it is known as the aurora australis. determined by climatological factors: latitude, Air rising as a result of the heating of the which significantly decreases visibility. forecast includes the use of objective models longitude, altitude, topography, and ground by the Sun's rays. based on a number of atmospheric parameters Extensive volume in the atmosphere whose Avalanche continentality. Drought combined with the ability and experience of physical properties, in particular the the meteorologist. It is also called weather temperature and humidity in a horizontal plane, A large mass of snow that flows down the side Cloud Coriolis Force An abnormally dry climatic condition in a prediction. show only small and gradual differences. An air of a mountain. A fictitious or apparent force that applies when specific area where the lack of water is mass can cover an area of a few million square A visible mass of small particles, such as the Earth is used as a reference frame for prolonged and which causes a serious miles and can have a thickness of several miles. droplets of water and/or crystals of ice, hydrological imbalance. Front Barometer motion. It depends upon the latitude and the suspended in the air. A cloud is formed in the velocity of the object in motion. In the Northern The transition or contact zone between two Albedo An instrument for measuring atmospheric atmosphere because of the condensation of Hemisphere, the air is deflected toward the El Niño masses of air with different meteorological pressure. A decrease in pressure usually means water vapor onto solid particles of smoke, dust, right side of its path, and in the Southern characteristics, which almost always implies A measure of the percentage of radiation that storms are on the way. Increasing pressure ashes, and other elements called condensation The anomalous appearance, every few years, reflected by a surface. indicates good weather. nuclei. Hemisphere, the air is deflected toward the left of unusually warm ocean conditions along the different temperatures. For example, a front occurs at the area of convergence between side of its path. This force is strongest at the poles and does not exist at the Equator. tropical west coast of South America. warm humid air and dry cold air. Altitude Beaufort Scale Coalescence Height relative to sea level. A scale invented at the beginning of the 19th The process of growth of drops of water in a Cyclone Erosion Frontogenesis century by a British sailor, Francis Beaufort, for cloud. Two drops collide and remain joined after A climatic low-pressure system. Action in which the ground is worn down by Anemometer estimating and reporting wind velocity. It is the collision, constituting a bigger drop. This is moving water, glaciers, wind, or waves. The process of formation or intensification of a based on the different shapes taken by water one of the mechanisms that explains the growth front. This happens when wind forces two Instrument for measuring wind velocity. waves at different wind velocities, and its of the size of drops in a cloud until precipitation Desert adjacent masses of air of different densities and graduation goes from 0 to 12. There is also a (rain) is produced. A hot or cold zone where annual precipitation is Evaporation temperatures together, creating a front. It can Anticyclone Beaufort scale for application on land based on Physical process by which a liquid (such as occur when one of the masses of air, or both, observations of the wind's effect on trees and less than 1 inch (25 mm). move over a surface that reinforces their Region where the atmospheric pressure is other objects. Cold Wave water) is transformed into its gaseous state original properties. This is common on the east relatively high compared with neighboring A rapid drop in temperature to the point Desertification (such as water vapor). The reverse process is coast of North America or Asia, when a mass of regions. Normally the air above an anticyclone requiring special protective measures in called condensation. air moving toward the ocean has a weak or descends, which prevents clouds from forming Carbon Dioxide agriculture, industry, commerce, or social A process that converts fertile land to desert undefined boundary. It is the opposite of at medium and high levels of the atmosphere. An odorless, colorless gas emitted in the engine activities. frontolysis. Hence an anticyclonic system is associated with PDF电子书基地 http://dayo1982.400gb.com

92 GLOSSARY WEATHER AND CLIMATE 93 Glossary good weather. exhaust of automobiles, trucks, and buses. It is through a reduction in precipitation. Accretion also produced by the combustion of coal and Condensation Exosphere Growth of an ice crystal in the atmosphere by Atmosphere other organic material. Too much carbon dioxide The process by which water vapor is Dew The outermost layer of the Earth's atmosphere. direct capture of water droplets when the in the atmosphere contributes to global transformed into liquid by the effect of cooling. temperature is below 32° F (0° C). The gaseous envelope that surrounds the Earth. warming. Condensation in the form of small drops of Flash Flood Conduction water formed on grass and other small objects Acid Rain Atmospheric Pressure Chlorofluorocarbons near the ground when the temperature has Sudden flooding caused by the passage of a The transfer of heat through a substance by dropped to the dew point. This generally large quantity of water through a narrow space, Rain resulting from the mixture of water vapor The pressure or weight exerted by the Artificial chemical substances often contained in molecular action or from one substance to happens during the night. such as a canyon or a valley. in the air with chemical substances typically atmosphere at a specific point. Its measurement aerosols, refrigerants, and air conditioners. another it is in contact with. released by the combustion of fossil fuels. can be expressed in various units: hectopascals, These chemicals are largely responsible for the Dike millibars, inches, or millimeters of mercury (Hg). damage to the ozone layer. Continentality Fog Aerosol It is also called barometric pressure. An earthwork for containing or channeling a Visible manifestation of drops of water Cirrus The tendency of the interior regions of the river or for protection against the sea. Aerosols are very small (liquid or solid) particles Aurora continents to have more extreme temperature suspended in the atmosphere at or near ground suspended in the atmosphere, with varied Wispy cloud formations at altitudes greater changes than coastal zones. level; this reduces the horizontal visibility to less chemical composition. Aerosols play an essential A phenomenon that is produced in the higher than 16,400 feet (5,000 m). Drizzle than a mile. It originates when the temperature role in the formation of clouds by acting as layers of the atmosphere at polar latitudes. An of the air is near the dew point, and sufficient condensation nuclei. They are also important to aurora occurs when there is a collision between Climate Convection A type of light liquid precipitation composed of numbers of condensation nuclei are present. small drops with diameters between 0.007 and the Earth's radiation balance since they help to the electrically charged particles emitted by the The process by which a heated surface increase the reflection and dispersion of Sun and the magnetic field of the Earth. In the The average state of the meteorological transfers energy to the material (air, water, etc.) 0.019 inch (0.2 and 0.5 mm). Usually drizzle Forecast radiation coming from the Sun. Northern Hemisphere, the phenomenon is called conditions of a location considered over a long above it. This material becomes less dense and falls from stratus-type clouds that are found at the aurora borealis, and in the Southern period of time. The climate of a location is rises. Cooler material descends to fill in the void. low altitudes and can be accompanied by fog, A statement about future events. The weather Air Mass Hemisphere, it is known as the aurora australis. determined by climatological factors: latitude, Air rising as a result of the heating of the which significantly decreases visibility. forecast includes the use of objective models longitude, altitude, topography, and ground by the Sun's rays. based on a number of atmospheric parameters Extensive volume in the atmosphere whose Avalanche continentality. Drought combined with the ability and experience of physical properties, in particular the the meteorologist. It is also called weather temperature and humidity in a horizontal plane, A large mass of snow that flows down the side Cloud Coriolis Force An abnormally dry climatic condition in a prediction. show only small and gradual differences. An air of a mountain. A fictitious or apparent force that applies when specific area where the lack of water is mass can cover an area of a few million square A visible mass of small particles, such as the Earth is used as a reference frame for prolonged and which causes a serious miles and can have a thickness of several miles. droplets of water and/or crystals of ice, hydrological imbalance. Front Barometer motion. It depends upon the latitude and the suspended in the air. A cloud is formed in the velocity of the object in motion. In the Northern The transition or contact zone between two Albedo An instrument for measuring atmospheric atmosphere because of the condensation of Hemisphere, the air is deflected toward the El Niño masses of air with different meteorological pressure. A decrease in pressure usually means water vapor onto solid particles of smoke, dust, right side of its path, and in the Southern characteristics, which almost always implies A measure of the percentage of radiation that storms are on the way. Increasing pressure ashes, and other elements called condensation The anomalous appearance, every few years, reflected by a surface. indicates good weather. nuclei. Hemisphere, the air is deflected toward the left of unusually warm ocean conditions along the different temperatures. For example, a front occurs at the area of convergence between side of its path. This force is strongest at the poles and does not exist at the Equator. tropical west coast of South America. warm humid air and dry cold air. Altitude Beaufort Scale Coalescence Height relative to sea level. A scale invented at the beginning of the 19th The process of growth of drops of water in a Cyclone Erosion Frontogenesis century by a British sailor, Francis Beaufort, for cloud. Two drops collide and remain joined after A climatic low-pressure system. Action in which the ground is worn down by Anemometer estimating and reporting wind velocity. It is the collision, constituting a bigger drop. This is moving water, glaciers, wind, or waves. The process of formation or intensification of a based on the different shapes taken by water one of the mechanisms that explains the growth front. This happens when wind forces two Instrument for measuring wind velocity. waves at different wind velocities, and its of the size of drops in a cloud until precipitation Desert adjacent masses of air of different densities and graduation goes from 0 to 12. There is also a (rain) is produced. A hot or cold zone where annual precipitation is Evaporation temperatures together, creating a front. It can Anticyclone Beaufort scale for application on land based on Physical process by which a liquid (such as occur when one of the masses of air, or both, observations of the wind's effect on trees and less than 1 inch (25 mm). move over a surface that reinforces their Region where the atmospheric pressure is other objects. Cold Wave water) is transformed into its gaseous state original properties. This is common on the east relatively high compared with neighboring A rapid drop in temperature to the point Desertification (such as water vapor). The reverse process is coast of North America or Asia, when a mass of regions. Normally the air above an anticyclone requiring special protective measures in called condensation. air moving toward the ocean has a weak or descends, which prevents clouds from forming Carbon Dioxide agriculture, industry, commerce, or social A process that converts fertile land to desert undefined boundary. It is the opposite of at medium and high levels of the atmosphere. An odorless, colorless gas emitted in the engine activities. frontolysis. Hence an anticyclonic system is associated with PDF电子书基地 http://dayo1982.400gb.com

94 GLOSSARY WEATHER AND CLIMATE 95 mercury. The millibar (mb) was the technical north and south and the Equator at 0° latitude. pressure, precipitation (rain, snow, etc.), winds disturbance (light ground-level winds), tropical Frost unit used to measure pressure until recently, (velocity and direction), storms, cloud cover, Snow depression (maximum ground-level winds of 38 when the hectopascal was adopted. The pascal percentage of relative humidity, and so on. miles per hour [61 km/h]), tropical storm A covering of ice crystals on a cold object. Lightning Precipitation in the form of white or is the unit for pressure in the MKS system, transparent frozen ice crystals, often in the (maximum winds in the range of 39 to 73 miles corresponding to the pressure exerted by the A discharge of the atmosphere's static form of complex hexagons. In general, snow per hour [62 to 112 km/h]), or hurricane Global Warming unit force (1 newton) on a unit surface (1 square electricity occurring between a cloud and the Ocean Current (maximum ground-level winds exceeding 74 meter—11 square feet); 1,000 hPa = 1,000 mb falls from stratiform clouds, but it can also fall The heating of the atmosphere caused by = 1 bar = 14.5 pounds per square inch. ground. The movement of water in the ocean caused by from cumulus clouds, usually in the form of miles per hour [119 km/h]). increased concentrations of greenhouse gases the system of planetary winds. Ocean currents snowflakes. due to human activities. Mesosphere transport warm or cold water over long Troposphere High distances around the planet. Stratosphere The layer of the Earth's atmosphere that lies The layer of the atmosphere closest to the Greenhouse Effect A prefix describing cloud formations at an The layer of the atmosphere situated above the altitude between 6,560 and 16,400 feet (2,000 above the stratosphere. Orographic Rain ground, its name means “changing sphere,” and A phenomenon explained by the presence of and 5,000 m). troposphere. this layer is where most changes in weather certain components in the atmosphere METAR Rain that results from the cooling of humid air take place. This is also where most of the (primarily carbon dioxide [CO 2 ], water vapor, Humidity as it crosses over a mountain range. Stratus phenomena of interest in meteorology occur. and ozone) that absorb a portion of the infrared The name of the format airport meteorological Low clouds that form layers. They often radiation emitted by the surface of the Earth The amount of water vapor contained in the air. bulletins are reported in. This includes data on Ozone Layer Turbulence and simultaneously reflect radiative energy back wind, visibility, temperature, dew point, and A layer of the atmosphere situated 20 to 30 produce drizzle. to the surface. This process contributes to the Hurricane atmospheric pressure, among other variables. miles (30 to 50 km) above the Earth's surface Disorderly motion of air composed of small increase in the average temperature near the Synoptic Map whirlwinds that move within air currents. The name for a tropical cyclone with sustained between the troposphere and the stratosphere. Atmospheric turbulence is produced by air in a surface. Meteorology winds of 64 knots (74 miles per hour [119 It acts as a filtering mechanism for ultraviolet A map that shows weather conditions of the state of continuous change. It can be caused by km/h]) or more, which develops in the North The science and study of atmospheric radiation. Earth's surface at a certain time and place. thermal or convective currents, by differences in Gust Atlantic, the Caribbean, the Gulf of Mexico, and phenomena. Some of the subdivisions of terrain and in the velocity of the wind, by the Pacific Northeast. This storm is called a Polar Front A rapid and significant increase in wind velocity. meteorology are agrometeorology, climatology, Thermal Inversion conditions along a frontal zone, or by a change The maximum velocity of the wind must reach typhoon in the western Pacific and a cyclone in hydrometeorology, and physical, dynamic, and An almost permanent and very large front of in temperature and pressure. the Indian Ocean. at least 16 knots (18 miles per hour [30 km/h]), synoptic meteorology. the middle latitudes that separates the An inversion of the normal reduction in and the difference between the peaks and calm temperature with an increase in altitude. Weather must be at least 10 knots (12 miles per hour [18 Hygrometer Microbarometer relatively cold polar air and the relatively warm km/h]). It generally lasts less than 20 seconds. subtropical air. Thermometer The state of the atmosphere at a given moment, An instrument used to measure humidity. A very sensitive barometer that records as it relates to its effects on human activity. Hail pressure variations using a magnified scale. Precipitation An instrument for measuring temperature. The This process involves short-term changes in the Ice different scales used in meteorology are Celsius, atmosphere in contrast to the great climatic Precipitation that originates in convective A liquid or solid, crystallized or amorphous Fahrenheit, and Kelvin (or absolute). changes that imply more long-term changes. clouds, such as the cumulonimbus, in the form of The solid state of water. It is found in the Mist particle that falls from a cloud or system of The terms used to define weather include masses or irregular pieces of ice. Typically hail atmosphere in the form of ice crystals, snow, or Microscopic drops of water suspended in the air, clouds and reaches the ground. Tornado cloudiness, humidity, precipitation, temperature, has a diameter of 0.2 to 2 inches (5 to 50 mm) hail. but may grow significantly larger. The smallest or humid hygroscopic particles, which reduce Radiation A column of air that rotates with great violence, visibility, and wind. ice fragments—whose diameter is 0.2 inch (5 Jet Streams visibility at ground level. stretching between a convective cloud and the mm) or less—are called small hailstones, or Air currents high in the troposphere (about 6 The process by which energy propagates surface of the Earth. It is the most destructive Windward graupel. Strong upward currents are required Monsoon through a specific medium (or a vacuum) via phenomenon in the atmosphere. Tornadoes can inside the clouds for hail to be produced. miles [10 km] above sea level), where the wind wave phenomena or motion. Electromagnetic The direction from which the wind is blowing. velocity can be up to 90 meters per second A seasonal wind that causes heavy rains in radiation, which emits heat and light, is one occur, under the right conditions, anywhere on (200 miles per hour). This type of structure is tropical and subtropical regions. form of radiation. Other forms are sound waves. Earth, but they appear most frequently in the Heat Wave seen in subtropical latitudes in both central United States, between the Rocky hemispheres, where the flow is toward the east, Mountains and the Appalachian Mountains. A period of abnormally hot and uncomfortable reaching its maximum intensity during the Normal Seaquake weather. It can last from a few days to a number of weeks. winter. The standard value accepted for a An earthquake at the bottom of the ocean, Tropical Cyclone meteorological element as calculated for a causing a violent agitation of ocean waves, Hectopascal Latitude specific location over a specific number of years. which in some cases reach coastal areas and A cyclone without fronts, it develops over The normal values refer to the distribution of cause flooding. tropical waters and has a surface circulation A pressure unit equal to 100 pascals and A system of imaginary parallel lines that data within the limits of the common organized and defined in a counterclockwise equivalent to 1 millibar—a millibar being encircle the globe north and south of the occurrence. The parameters can include direction. A cyclone is classified, according to equivalent to 0.031 inch (0.8 mm) of ordinary Equator. The poles are located at 90° latitude the intensity of its winds, as a tropical temperature (high, low, and divergences), PDF电子书基地 http://dayo1982.400gb.com

94 GLOSSARY WEATHER AND CLIMATE 95 mercury. The millibar (mb) was the technical north and south and the Equator at 0° latitude. pressure, precipitation (rain, snow, etc.), winds disturbance (light ground-level winds), tropical Frost unit used to measure pressure until recently, (velocity and direction), storms, cloud cover, Snow depression (maximum ground-level winds of 38 when the hectopascal was adopted. The pascal percentage of relative humidity, and so on. miles per hour [61 km/h]), tropical storm A covering of ice crystals on a cold object. Lightning Precipitation in the form of white or is the unit for pressure in the MKS system, transparent frozen ice crystals, often in the (maximum winds in the range of 39 to 73 miles corresponding to the pressure exerted by the A discharge of the atmosphere's static form of complex hexagons. In general, snow per hour [62 to 112 km/h]), or hurricane Global Warming unit force (1 newton) on a unit surface (1 square electricity occurring between a cloud and the Ocean Current (maximum ground-level winds exceeding 74 meter—11 square feet); 1,000 hPa = 1,000 mb falls from stratiform clouds, but it can also fall The heating of the atmosphere caused by = 1 bar = 14.5 pounds per square inch. ground. The movement of water in the ocean caused by from cumulus clouds, usually in the form of miles per hour [119 km/h]). increased concentrations of greenhouse gases the system of planetary winds. Ocean currents snowflakes. due to human activities. Mesosphere transport warm or cold water over long Troposphere High distances around the planet. Stratosphere The layer of the Earth's atmosphere that lies The layer of the atmosphere closest to the Greenhouse Effect A prefix describing cloud formations at an The layer of the atmosphere situated above the altitude between 6,560 and 16,400 feet (2,000 above the stratosphere. Orographic Rain ground, its name means “changing sphere,” and A phenomenon explained by the presence of and 5,000 m). troposphere. this layer is where most changes in weather certain components in the atmosphere METAR Rain that results from the cooling of humid air take place. This is also where most of the (primarily carbon dioxide [CO 2 ], water vapor, Humidity as it crosses over a mountain range. Stratus phenomena of interest in meteorology occur. and ozone) that absorb a portion of the infrared The name of the format airport meteorological Low clouds that form layers. They often radiation emitted by the surface of the Earth The amount of water vapor contained in the air. bulletins are reported in. This includes data on Ozone Layer Turbulence and simultaneously reflect radiative energy back wind, visibility, temperature, dew point, and A layer of the atmosphere situated 20 to 30 produce drizzle. to the surface. This process contributes to the Hurricane atmospheric pressure, among other variables. miles (30 to 50 km) above the Earth's surface Disorderly motion of air composed of small increase in the average temperature near the Synoptic Map whirlwinds that move within air currents. The name for a tropical cyclone with sustained between the troposphere and the stratosphere. Atmospheric turbulence is produced by air in a surface. Meteorology winds of 64 knots (74 miles per hour [119 It acts as a filtering mechanism for ultraviolet A map that shows weather conditions of the state of continuous change. It can be caused by km/h]) or more, which develops in the North The science and study of atmospheric radiation. Earth's surface at a certain time and place. thermal or convective currents, by differences in Gust Atlantic, the Caribbean, the Gulf of Mexico, and phenomena. Some of the subdivisions of terrain and in the velocity of the wind, by the Pacific Northeast. This storm is called a Polar Front A rapid and significant increase in wind velocity. meteorology are agrometeorology, climatology, Thermal Inversion conditions along a frontal zone, or by a change The maximum velocity of the wind must reach typhoon in the western Pacific and a cyclone in hydrometeorology, and physical, dynamic, and An almost permanent and very large front of in temperature and pressure. the Indian Ocean. at least 16 knots (18 miles per hour [30 km/h]), synoptic meteorology. the middle latitudes that separates the An inversion of the normal reduction in and the difference between the peaks and calm temperature with an increase in altitude. Weather must be at least 10 knots (12 miles per hour [18 Hygrometer Microbarometer relatively cold polar air and the relatively warm km/h]). It generally lasts less than 20 seconds. subtropical air. Thermometer The state of the atmosphere at a given moment, An instrument used to measure humidity. A very sensitive barometer that records as it relates to its effects on human activity. Hail pressure variations using a magnified scale. Precipitation An instrument for measuring temperature. The This process involves short-term changes in the Ice different scales used in meteorology are Celsius, atmosphere in contrast to the great climatic Precipitation that originates in convective A liquid or solid, crystallized or amorphous Fahrenheit, and Kelvin (or absolute). changes that imply more long-term changes. clouds, such as the cumulonimbus, in the form of The solid state of water. It is found in the Mist particle that falls from a cloud or system of The terms used to define weather include masses or irregular pieces of ice. Typically hail atmosphere in the form of ice crystals, snow, or Microscopic drops of water suspended in the air, clouds and reaches the ground. Tornado cloudiness, humidity, precipitation, temperature, has a diameter of 0.2 to 2 inches (5 to 50 mm) hail. but may grow significantly larger. The smallest or humid hygroscopic particles, which reduce Radiation A column of air that rotates with great violence, visibility, and wind. ice fragments—whose diameter is 0.2 inch (5 Jet Streams visibility at ground level. stretching between a convective cloud and the mm) or less—are called small hailstones, or Air currents high in the troposphere (about 6 The process by which energy propagates surface of the Earth. It is the most destructive Windward graupel. Strong upward currents are required Monsoon through a specific medium (or a vacuum) via phenomenon in the atmosphere. Tornadoes can inside the clouds for hail to be produced. miles [10 km] above sea level), where the wind wave phenomena or motion. Electromagnetic The direction from which the wind is blowing. velocity can be up to 90 meters per second A seasonal wind that causes heavy rains in radiation, which emits heat and light, is one occur, under the right conditions, anywhere on (200 miles per hour). This type of structure is tropical and subtropical regions. form of radiation. Other forms are sound waves. Earth, but they appear most frequently in the Heat Wave seen in subtropical latitudes in both central United States, between the Rocky hemispheres, where the flow is toward the east, Mountains and the Appalachian Mountains. A period of abnormally hot and uncomfortable reaching its maximum intensity during the Normal Seaquake weather. It can last from a few days to a number of weeks. winter. The standard value accepted for a An earthquake at the bottom of the ocean, Tropical Cyclone meteorological element as calculated for a causing a violent agitation of ocean waves, Hectopascal Latitude specific location over a specific number of years. which in some cases reach coastal areas and A cyclone without fronts, it develops over The normal values refer to the distribution of cause flooding. tropical waters and has a surface circulation A pressure unit equal to 100 pascals and A system of imaginary parallel lines that data within the limits of the common organized and defined in a counterclockwise equivalent to 1 millibar—a millibar being encircle the globe north and south of the occurrence. The parameters can include direction. A cyclone is classified, according to equivalent to 0.031 inch (0.8 mm) of ordinary Equator. The poles are located at 90° latitude the intensity of its winds, as a tropical temperature (high, low, and divergences), PDF电子书基地 http://dayo1982.400gb.com

96 INDEX WEATHER AND CLIMATE 97 Index A ozone layer thinning, 89 emissions, 82, 83, 86 coral, 82, 83 dry-bulb thermometer, 67 F water runoff, 21 increases, 84, 90 weather folklore, 64, 65 Coriolis effect, 12, 14, 22 Antarctica, 80, 81, 85 See also greenhouse gas cosmic ray, 11 dry climatic zone, 78 absorption, 11 anticyclone, 12, 13, 51, 68 CFC gas (chlorofluorocarbon gas), 88 cryosphere, 8, 9 Dust Bowl, droughts, 50 Ferrel cell, 12-13 acid rain, 86-87 Arctic, 84-85 chaparral, 25 crystal, water field capacity, soil, 50 gas emissions, 86 argon, 10 Chinook wind, 26 formation, 42 flood control, 48 gas mixtures, 86 ash (volcanic), 9 cirrocumulus cloud, 39 snow, 42-43 flood plain, 48 ozone layer, weakening, 88-89 ash tree, weather folklore, 65 cirrostratus cloud, 38 types, 42, 43 flooding, 48-49 pH, 87 Asia cirrus cloud, 38, 39 cumulonimbus cloud, 38, 52 E causes, 48 photochemical reaction, 87 El Niño, 33, 35 city, heat islands, 27 cumulus cloud, 14, 38 dikes, 48, 58 plant consequences, 86 global warming, 91 climate current El Niño, 34-35 soil consequences, 87 monsoons, 28-29, 30-31 Köppen classification, 79 air flow, 13 Earth embankment, 48 vulnerable regions, 87 potable water, 21 temperature and rain, 78 cyclonic, 50 climate change, 90-91 global warming, 82, 85 water consequences, 87 atmosphere, 8 types, 78-79 formation, 22-23 climatic zones, 78-79 Hurricane Katrina, 58 advection fog, 45 climate change, 90 climate change, 74-75, 90-91 geostrophic balance, 22 equilibrium, 8-9 land, 48-49 aerosonde pilotless weather aircraft, 71 cooling, 9 causes and effects, 91 gulf stream, 85 global warming, 82-85 monsoons, 30-31 Africa disturbances, 14 human activity, 81, 82, 90 jet stream, 12, 13, 14 ocean currents, 22-23 zones, 85 global warming, 91 dynamics, 12-13 climate zone, 78-79 Labrador, 85 paleoclimatology, 80-81 fog, 44-45 potable water, 21 global warming, 83 desert, 78 lake, 23 rotation, 12 formation, 44 agriculture layers, 10-11 forest and lakes, 79 ocean: See ocean current satellite image, 6-7 radiation, 45 acid rain, 87 paleoclimatology, 80-81 polar mountainous climate, 79 subpolar arctic circulating system, 23 temperature, 82, 90-91 types, 45 See also ozone layer rainforest, 78 wind influence, 22 ecosystem visibility, 44 drought, 51 flooding, 48 atmospheric pressure, 66 tundra and taiga, 79 cyclone, 5, 12, 13, 28, 36, 57 destruction, 82 folklore, weather: See weather folklore gods and rituals, 76, 77 aurora, 10, 16-17 climatic system, 6-7, 8-9 cyclonic current, 50 foundations, 8 forecast: See weather forecast Australia cloud, 38-39 cyclonic zone, 12-13 Ekman spiral, ocean currents, 22 fossil fuel monsoons, 30 tornadoes, 53 drought, 50 electrical storms, 46-47 El Niño, 32-33 global warming, 91 air potable water, 21 formation, 12, 14, 20, 38-39 conditions during, 32 greenhouse effect, 82 atmosphere, 10-11 autonomous underwater vehicle, 70 hurricanes, 56 drought, 32-33 freshwater, 21, 74 circulation changes, 12-13 interior, 39 D effects, 19, 34-35 front, 38 collision, 14-15 lightning inside, 46 flooding, 34-35 cold, 14, 68 currents, 13 rain formation, 40-41 electrical storm, 46-47 occluded, 15, 68 displacement, 12 B types, 11, 38, 39 data recorder (weather prediction), 67 tornadoes, 52 size, 15 weather forecast, 70 weather folklore, 65 deep ocean current, 22-23 embankment, 48 stationary, 15 aircraft, weather, 71, 81 cloud street, 39 deforestation, 82, 91 environment, components, 6 warm, 14, 15, 68 albedo, solar radiation, 8, 9 barograph, 66 coastal breeze, 26, 27 depression, 13, 58, 68 Equator, atmospheric dynamics, 12 weather map symbol, 14, 68 almanac, weather forecasting, 65 barometer, 66 cold climatic zone, 79 desert, 50, 78 erosion, 21 frontal fog, 45 altocumulus cloud, 39 biosphere, 8 cold front, 14, 68 desertification, 5, 50, 82, 83 Europe frost, 43 altostratus cloud, 39 collision (air), 14-15 dew, 42, 44, 65 global warming, 91 Fujita-Pearson scale, 53, 54 anabatic wind, 26 condensation, 7, 14, 20, 24 dew point, 24, 43 potable water, 21 Andes Mountains, 24-25 nuclei, 40 dike, 48, 58 evaporation, 7, 8, 20 anemometer, 67 C precipitation, 8 divergence, 13 evaporimeter, 66 aneroid barometer, 66 continentality effect, 27 donkey, weather folklore, 64 exosphere, 10, 16 animal convection, 7, 38 droplet, formation, 20 acid rain, 86, 87 calcareous soil, 87 convergence, 13, 38 drought, 50-51 coral, 82, 83 carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), 10 cooling (atmosphere), 9 global warming, 82 PDF电子书基地 http://dayo1982.400gb.com

96 INDEX WEATHER AND CLIMATE 97 Index A ozone layer thinning, 89 emissions, 82, 83, 86 coral, 82, 83 dry-bulb thermometer, 67 F water runoff, 21 increases, 84, 90 weather folklore, 64, 65 Coriolis effect, 12, 14, 22 Antarctica, 80, 81, 85 See also greenhouse gas cosmic ray, 11 dry climatic zone, 78 absorption, 11 anticyclone, 12, 13, 51, 68 CFC gas (chlorofluorocarbon gas), 88 cryosphere, 8, 9 Dust Bowl, droughts, 50 Ferrel cell, 12-13 acid rain, 86-87 Arctic, 84-85 chaparral, 25 crystal, water field capacity, soil, 50 gas emissions, 86 argon, 10 Chinook wind, 26 formation, 42 flood control, 48 gas mixtures, 86 ash (volcanic), 9 cirrocumulus cloud, 39 snow, 42-43 flood plain, 48 ozone layer, weakening, 88-89 ash tree, weather folklore, 65 cirrostratus cloud, 38 types, 42, 43 flooding, 48-49 pH, 87 Asia cirrus cloud, 38, 39 cumulonimbus cloud, 38, 52 E causes, 48 photochemical reaction, 87 El Niño, 33, 35 city, heat islands, 27 cumulus cloud, 14, 38 dikes, 48, 58 plant consequences, 86 global warming, 91 climate current El Niño, 34-35 soil consequences, 87 monsoons, 28-29, 30-31 Köppen classification, 79 air flow, 13 Earth embankment, 48 vulnerable regions, 87 potable water, 21 temperature and rain, 78 cyclonic, 50 climate change, 90-91 global warming, 82, 85 water consequences, 87 atmosphere, 8 types, 78-79 formation, 22-23 climatic zones, 78-79 Hurricane Katrina, 58 advection fog, 45 climate change, 90 climate change, 74-75, 90-91 geostrophic balance, 22 equilibrium, 8-9 land, 48-49 aerosonde pilotless weather aircraft, 71 cooling, 9 causes and effects, 91 gulf stream, 85 global warming, 82-85 monsoons, 30-31 Africa disturbances, 14 human activity, 81, 82, 90 jet stream, 12, 13, 14 ocean currents, 22-23 zones, 85 global warming, 91 dynamics, 12-13 climate zone, 78-79 Labrador, 85 paleoclimatology, 80-81 fog, 44-45 potable water, 21 global warming, 83 desert, 78 lake, 23 rotation, 12 formation, 44 agriculture layers, 10-11 forest and lakes, 79 ocean: See ocean current satellite image, 6-7 radiation, 45 acid rain, 87 paleoclimatology, 80-81 polar mountainous climate, 79 subpolar arctic circulating system, 23 temperature, 82, 90-91 types, 45 See also ozone layer rainforest, 78 wind influence, 22 ecosystem visibility, 44 drought, 51 flooding, 48 atmospheric pressure, 66 tundra and taiga, 79 cyclone, 5, 12, 13, 28, 36, 57 destruction, 82 folklore, weather: See weather folklore gods and rituals, 76, 77 aurora, 10, 16-17 climatic system, 6-7, 8-9 cyclonic current, 50 foundations, 8 forecast: See weather forecast Australia cloud, 38-39 cyclonic zone, 12-13 Ekman spiral, ocean currents, 22 fossil fuel monsoons, 30 tornadoes, 53 drought, 50 electrical storms, 46-47 El Niño, 32-33 global warming, 91 air potable water, 21 formation, 12, 14, 20, 38-39 conditions during, 32 greenhouse effect, 82 atmosphere, 10-11 autonomous underwater vehicle, 70 hurricanes, 56 drought, 32-33 freshwater, 21, 74 circulation changes, 12-13 interior, 39 D effects, 19, 34-35 front, 38 collision, 14-15 lightning inside, 46 flooding, 34-35 cold, 14, 68 currents, 13 rain formation, 40-41 electrical storm, 46-47 occluded, 15, 68 displacement, 12 B types, 11, 38, 39 data recorder (weather prediction), 67 tornadoes, 52 size, 15 weather forecast, 70 weather folklore, 65 deep ocean current, 22-23 embankment, 48 stationary, 15 aircraft, weather, 71, 81 cloud street, 39 deforestation, 82, 91 environment, components, 6 warm, 14, 15, 68 albedo, solar radiation, 8, 9 barograph, 66 coastal breeze, 26, 27 depression, 13, 58, 68 Equator, atmospheric dynamics, 12 weather map symbol, 14, 68 almanac, weather forecasting, 65 barometer, 66 cold climatic zone, 79 desert, 50, 78 erosion, 21 frontal fog, 45 altocumulus cloud, 39 biosphere, 8 cold front, 14, 68 desertification, 5, 50, 82, 83 Europe frost, 43 altostratus cloud, 39 collision (air), 14-15 dew, 42, 44, 65 global warming, 91 Fujita-Pearson scale, 53, 54 anabatic wind, 26 condensation, 7, 14, 20, 24 dew point, 24, 43 potable water, 21 Andes Mountains, 24-25 nuclei, 40 dike, 48, 58 evaporation, 7, 8, 20 anemometer, 67 C precipitation, 8 divergence, 13 evaporimeter, 66 aneroid barometer, 66 continentality effect, 27 donkey, weather folklore, 64 exosphere, 10, 16 animal convection, 7, 38 droplet, formation, 20 acid rain, 86, 87 calcareous soil, 87 convergence, 13, 38 drought, 50-51 coral, 82, 83 carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), 10 cooling (atmosphere), 9 global warming, 82 PDF电子书基地 http://dayo1982.400gb.com

98 INDEX WEATHER AND CLIMATE 99 G heliophanograph, 66 jet-stream current, 12, 13 meteorological station, 67, 70 El Niño, 35 chronology, 80-81 meteorology, 62-73 Rossby wave, 14 high pressure, 12 gas measurement, 80 global warming, 90 See also anticyclone katabatic wind, 26 methane, concentration, 80-81, 90 monsoons, 28 human activity, 81 gas high pressure ridge, 69 Köppen climate classification, 79 minimum thermometer, 67 potable water, 21 methane concentration, 81 CFC, 88 hoar frost, 43 mist, 44, 45 tornadoes, 53, 54-55 samples, 80, 81 human activity monsoon, 19, 28-29, 30-31 Northern Hemisphere, 22, 28, 52, 56 permafrost, 9 density, 10 greenhouse, 8, 9, 84, 90 climate change, 81, 82, 90 areas affected, 28 perspiration, 20 measurement in paleoclimatology, 80 pollution, 10, 24, 90 L effects, 30-31 O pH, acid rain, 87 geopotential weather map, 69 humidity, measuring instruments, 67 formation in India, 28-29, 31 photochemical reaction, 87 GEOS (Geostationary Operational hurricane, 34-35, 56-57 intertropical influence, 28 photosynthesis, 9, 82 Environmental Satellite), 72-73 damages, 5, 36, 58-59 La Niña North America, 28 oak tree, weather folklore, 64-65 pinecone, weather folklore, 64 geostrophic balance, 22 danger zone, 57 conditions during, 33 Moon, weather folklore, 65 occluded front, 15, 68 plant glacier eye and eye wall, 56 effects, 32, 35 mountain, 24-25 ocean acid rain, 86 accelerated melting, 74-75, 84-85 formation, 56, 57 Labrador current, 85 Andes, 24-25 circulation, 9 flooding, 48 Alaska, 74-75 hurricane hunter P3 airplane, 71 lake, seasonal water circulation, 23 barrier to wind and moisture, 9 current: See ocean current hydrologic cycle, 20 global equilibrium, 8-9 preparation, 37, 60-61 land climatic effects, 24-25 El Niño, 32-33, 34-35 ozone layer, 89 Global Positioning System (GPS), 70 rotation, 56 temperature distribution, 26-27, 29 climatic zones, 79 hurricanes, 56 weather folklore, 64, 65 global warming, 82-83 safety measures, 60-61 weather data, 70 descending wind, 25 level changes, 5, 32, 83. 85 polar cell, 13 accelerated melting, 84-85 Saffir-Simpson category, 57 lenticular cloud, 39 high, 11 temperature distribution, 26-27, 29 polar ice advancing vegetation, 85 tracking, 37 lightning, 46-47 major ranges, 25 water return, 20 cap, 10 Antarctica, 85 wave height, 57 electrical potential, 47 monsoons, 29 weather data, 70 melting, 5, 84-85, 90 cause, 82 wind activity, 57 origin, 46 uneven mountainside, 25 ocean current, 22-23 polar mountainous climate, 79 climate changes, 5, 82 Hurricane Elena, satellite image, 36-37 types, 46 vegetation, 25 changes, 84 pollution, 11, 24 effects, 82-83 Hurricane Georges, 4 lightning rod, 47 winds, 26 deep, 22, 23 See also acid rain human activity, 82, 84 hurricane hunter P3 airplane, 71 lithosphere, 8, 9 mythology and religion, 76-77 formation, 22-23 precipitation predictions, 83 Hurricane Katrina, 58-59 Lorenz, Edward, 5 Aztecs, 77 gulf stream, 85 condensation, 8 rising ocean levels, 5, 82-83, 85 Hurricane Rita, satellite image, 62-63 low pressure, 12, 13, 46, 56, 68 Egyptians, 76 Labrador, 85 droplet formation, 20 gravity, water circulation, 9 hydroelectric plant, 49 See also cyclone Greeks, 76 surface, 22 formation, 14, 21, 24, 40-43 Great Barrier Reef, 83 hydrologic cycle, 20-21 low pressure trough, 69 Hindus, 77 oceanographic ship, 70 rain: See rain greenhouse effect, 9, 10, 82-83, 91 hydrometeor, 42 Incas, 77 oxygen, 10, 17, 88 sleet, 42 greenhouse gas, 8, 9, 81, 82, 84, 90 hydrosphere, 8, 21 Japanese, 77 ozone, 10, 11, 83, 88, 89 snow, 14, 25, 40, 42-43 Greenland, 81, 84 hygrothermograph, 67 Mayans, 77 ozone layer, 88-89 snowfall record, 42 ground-level weather map, 68 M Orient, 77 atmosphere, 11 pressure gulf stream, 84-85 pre-Columbians, 77 CFC gas, 88 high, 12, 69 Romans, 76-77 deterioration, 88 low, 12, 13, 68 I-K magnetosphere, 16, 17 global warming, 83 psychrometer, 67 map, weather: See weather map thinning, 90 H ice, 9 maritime sounding probe, 71 N weakening, 88-89 maximum thermometer, 67 polar, 5, 10, 84-85, 90 mercury barometer, 66 Q-R Hadley cell, atmospheric dynamics, 12, 13 ice core, paleoclimatology, 80, 81 mesosphere, 11 hail, 14, 40, 43 Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), 12, 28 meteor, 11 nimbostratus cloud, 39 P Halley, Edmund, 68 inversion fog, 45 meteorological aircraft, 71, 81 nitrogen, 10, 17 radar station, 71 heat, greenhouse gas, 8 isobar, 13, 68 meteorological buoy, 71 noctilucent cloud, 11 radiation North America heat island, 27 isotherm, 69 meteorological shelter, 67 paleoclimatology, 80-81 solar, 8, 9, 11, 16 PDF电子书基地 http://dayo1982.400gb.com

98 INDEX WEATHER AND CLIMATE 99 G heliophanograph, 66 jet-stream current, 12, 13 meteorological station, 67, 70 El Niño, 35 chronology, 80-81 meteorology, 62-73 Rossby wave, 14 high pressure, 12 gas measurement, 80 global warming, 90 See also anticyclone katabatic wind, 26 methane, concentration, 80-81, 90 monsoons, 28 human activity, 81 gas high pressure ridge, 69 Köppen climate classification, 79 minimum thermometer, 67 potable water, 21 methane concentration, 81 CFC, 88 hoar frost, 43 mist, 44, 45 tornadoes, 53, 54-55 samples, 80, 81 human activity monsoon, 19, 28-29, 30-31 Northern Hemisphere, 22, 28, 52, 56 permafrost, 9 density, 10 greenhouse, 8, 9, 84, 90 climate change, 81, 82, 90 areas affected, 28 perspiration, 20 measurement in paleoclimatology, 80 pollution, 10, 24, 90 L effects, 30-31 O pH, acid rain, 87 geopotential weather map, 69 humidity, measuring instruments, 67 formation in India, 28-29, 31 photochemical reaction, 87 GEOS (Geostationary Operational hurricane, 34-35, 56-57 intertropical influence, 28 photosynthesis, 9, 82 Environmental Satellite), 72-73 damages, 5, 36, 58-59 La Niña North America, 28 oak tree, weather folklore, 64-65 pinecone, weather folklore, 64 geostrophic balance, 22 danger zone, 57 conditions during, 33 Moon, weather folklore, 65 occluded front, 15, 68 plant glacier eye and eye wall, 56 effects, 32, 35 mountain, 24-25 ocean acid rain, 86 accelerated melting, 74-75, 84-85 formation, 56, 57 Labrador current, 85 Andes, 24-25 circulation, 9 flooding, 48 Alaska, 74-75 hurricane hunter P3 airplane, 71 lake, seasonal water circulation, 23 barrier to wind and moisture, 9 current: See ocean current hydrologic cycle, 20 global equilibrium, 8-9 preparation, 37, 60-61 land climatic effects, 24-25 El Niño, 32-33, 34-35 ozone layer, 89 Global Positioning System (GPS), 70 rotation, 56 temperature distribution, 26-27, 29 climatic zones, 79 hurricanes, 56 weather folklore, 64, 65 global warming, 82-83 safety measures, 60-61 weather data, 70 descending wind, 25 level changes, 5, 32, 83. 85 polar cell, 13 accelerated melting, 84-85 Saffir-Simpson category, 57 lenticular cloud, 39 high, 11 temperature distribution, 26-27, 29 polar ice advancing vegetation, 85 tracking, 37 lightning, 46-47 major ranges, 25 water return, 20 cap, 10 Antarctica, 85 wave height, 57 electrical potential, 47 monsoons, 29 weather data, 70 melting, 5, 84-85, 90 cause, 82 wind activity, 57 origin, 46 uneven mountainside, 25 ocean current, 22-23 polar mountainous climate, 79 climate changes, 5, 82 Hurricane Elena, satellite image, 36-37 types, 46 vegetation, 25 changes, 84 pollution, 11, 24 effects, 82-83 Hurricane Georges, 4 lightning rod, 47 winds, 26 deep, 22, 23 See also acid rain human activity, 82, 84 hurricane hunter P3 airplane, 71 lithosphere, 8, 9 mythology and religion, 76-77 formation, 22-23 precipitation predictions, 83 Hurricane Katrina, 58-59 Lorenz, Edward, 5 Aztecs, 77 gulf stream, 85 condensation, 8 rising ocean levels, 5, 82-83, 85 Hurricane Rita, satellite image, 62-63 low pressure, 12, 13, 46, 56, 68 Egyptians, 76 Labrador, 85 droplet formation, 20 gravity, water circulation, 9 hydroelectric plant, 49 See also cyclone Greeks, 76 surface, 22 formation, 14, 21, 24, 40-43 Great Barrier Reef, 83 hydrologic cycle, 20-21 low pressure trough, 69 Hindus, 77 oceanographic ship, 70 rain: See rain greenhouse effect, 9, 10, 82-83, 91 hydrometeor, 42 Incas, 77 oxygen, 10, 17, 88 sleet, 42 greenhouse gas, 8, 9, 81, 82, 84, 90 hydrosphere, 8, 21 Japanese, 77 ozone, 10, 11, 83, 88, 89 snow, 14, 25, 40, 42-43 Greenland, 81, 84 hygrothermograph, 67 Mayans, 77 ozone layer, 88-89 snowfall record, 42 ground-level weather map, 68 M Orient, 77 atmosphere, 11 pressure gulf stream, 84-85 pre-Columbians, 77 CFC gas, 88 high, 12, 69 Romans, 76-77 deterioration, 88 low, 12, 13, 68 I-K magnetosphere, 16, 17 global warming, 83 psychrometer, 67 map, weather: See weather map thinning, 90 H ice, 9 maritime sounding probe, 71 N weakening, 88-89 maximum thermometer, 67 polar, 5, 10, 84-85, 90 mercury barometer, 66 Q-R Hadley cell, atmospheric dynamics, 12, 13 ice core, paleoclimatology, 80, 81 mesosphere, 11 hail, 14, 40, 43 Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), 12, 28 meteor, 11 nimbostratus cloud, 39 P Halley, Edmund, 68 inversion fog, 45 meteorological aircraft, 71, 81 nitrogen, 10, 17 radar station, 71 heat, greenhouse gas, 8 isobar, 13, 68 meteorological buoy, 71 noctilucent cloud, 11 radiation North America heat island, 27 isotherm, 69 meteorological shelter, 67 paleoclimatology, 80-81 solar, 8, 9, 11, 16 PDF电子书基地 http://dayo1982.400gb.com