Section-4-Creating-Lessons-Success

SAMPLE LESSON Consonants Phonic Principle: The letter s stands for the /s/ sound. Step 1: Reread Begin by having children Step 4: Apply to Text Provide students reread a story or passage containing previously with connected reading practice. Choose taught sound-spelling relationships. Then a book in which many of the words are provide phonemic-awareness exercises decodable based on the sound-spelling (such as oral blending) for children needing relationships previously taught. this support. Step 5: Dictate and Write Dictate the Step 2: Introduce Sound-Spelling  following words and sentence. Have children Explain to children that the letter s stands write the words and sentence on a sheet of for the /s/ sound, as in the word sock. Write paper. For students who are having difficulty the word sock on the board as you display segmenting the sounds in each word, extend a picture of a sock. Make sure the picture is the word. You might wish to clap on each sound labeled. Then blend the word sock aloud as to provide another clue. Then write the words you run your finger under each letter. Have a and sentence on the board. Have the children volunteer underline the letter s. Point to the self-correct their papers. Do not grade this letter s and ask students to state the sound dictation practice. It’s designed to help children that the letter stands for. Continue by having segment words and associate sounds with children generate a list of words containing the spellings. /s/ sound. List these words on the board. • sat sock Step 3: Blend Words Write the following • I am sad. words and sentences on the board. Note that all the words are decodable based on the Provide freewriting opportunities. sound-spelling relationships previously taught. For example, have children select an object’s The first line focuses on words with the new name that begins with the /s/ sound. Then sound-spelling. The second line reviews have them write a sentence about that object. previously taught sound-spellings. The Or have children generate a list of words that sentences contain some high-frequency begin with the letter s. Record the words on words previously taught. chart paper. Then use the words to create a class story. Begin with a title, such as “The • sat sad sock Silly Snake.” • mad mat rock • Sam is sad. • I sat on the rock. Now distribute the following letter-card set to each child: a, o, i, s, t, m. Have children build as many words as possible. Ask them to write the words on a sheet of paper. Circulate around the room and model blending when necessary. SECTION 4: CREATING LESSONS FOR SUCCESS 179

Consonant Digraphs Guidelines: • Consonant digraphs are two consonants that appear together in a word and stand for one sound. The consonant digraphs are sh, ch, th, wh, ph, gh, and ng. • Teach the consonant digraphs after children have learned the single consonants. Help students become aware of these unique letter pairs by challenging them to be on the lookout for digraphs in words. Consonant Clusters Guidelines: • Consonant clusters are two consonants that appear together in a word, with each retaining its sound when blended. The sound that each cluster stands for is called a blend. Therefore, the term cluster refers to the written form, and the term blend refers to the spoken form. • The clusters are highly reliable; that is, when we see these letter combinations in words, they almost always stand for the blended sounds of each consonant. The one major exception is sc. It can stand for the /sk/ sounds, as in scare, or the c can be silent, as in science. In addition, the consonant cluster ck stands for one sound, the /k/ sound. Sometimes I pair students for the rereading portion of the lesson. In addition, I often have students read to children in lower grades. Many struggling readers enjoy this because it provides them with an opportunity to be the “expert.” 180 PHONICS FROM A TO Z

• There are three major categories of consonant clusters— r-blends (br, cr, dr, fr, gr, pr, tr), s-blends (sc, sk, sl, sm, sn, sp, st, sw), and l-blends (bl, cl, fl, gl, pl). In addition, a few other consonant clusters, such as tw and qu, can be formed. There are also three-letter consonant clusters, such as str, spr, thr, chr, phr, and shr. The clusters thr, chr, phr, and shr are made up­of a digraph and a consonant. The cluster ngth, as in strength, is made up of two digraphs—ng and th. • Teach the consonant clusters after children have learned the single consonant sound-spellings. Being in Touch With Families Communicate with parents frequently and openly. Let them know the skills you are teaching and send home books and activities for them to enjoy with their children. Keep in mind the following guidelines for communication with parents (Shalaway, 1989): • Recognize that schools and homes have shared goals. • Respect parents and communicate that respect. • Acknowledge the changes in the American family. Use the word families instead of parents. Many children today do not live with both parents; some don’t live with either parent. • Understand the different types of school-family communication and the advantages and limitations of each. Decide which type is best to accomplish your goal (newsletter, phone call, activity, family booklet, website, etc.). • Tailor communications to your audience. • Be sure to check written material for spelling, grammar, and punctuation. Nothing is as upsetting to families as errors in materials you create. It decays trust in your abilities. • Get expert help if you need it. If you are facing a specific issue in your classroom, consult experts at the district level or at a local college or university. • Communication is a two-way street. Invite responses when communicating with families. Provide opportunities for families to get involved. I always leave a response space on my family newsletters for children to return to me. SECTION 4: CREATING LESSONS FOR SUCCESS 181

SAMPLE LESSON Consonant Digraphs Phonic Principle: The digraph sh stands for the /sh/ sound. Step 1: Reread Begin the lesson by having The sentences contain some high-frequency children reread a story or passage containing words previously taught. previously taught sound-spelling relationships. Then provide phonemic-awareness exercises • sack shack hop shop (such as oral blending) for children needing • dish fish mash rush this support. • The ship is big. • I wish I had a red dish. Step 2: Introduce Sound-Spelling Explain to children that when we see the letters s and Next distribute the following letter-card set to h together in words, they often stand for a new each child: a, i, o, sh, m, f, w, p. Have children sound. Point out that the letters sh stand for build as many words as possible. Ask them to the /sh/ sound, as in the words ship and dish. write the words on a sheet of paper. Circulate Write the words ship and dish on the board around the room and model blending when as you display a picture of each. Make sure necessary. the pictures are labeled. Then blend each word aloud as you run your finger under each Step 4: Apply to Text Provide students letter. Have a volunteer underline the letters with connected reading practice. Choose sh. Point to the letters sh and ask students to a book in which many of the words are chorally state the sound that the letters stand decodable based on the sound-spelling for. Continue by having children generate a list relationships previously taught. of words containing the /sh/ sound in the initial and final position. List these words on the board Step 5: Dictate and Write Have children in separate columns. write the following words and sentence on a sheet of paper as you dictate them. For Step 3: Blend Words Write the following students who are having difficulty segmenting words and sentences on the board. Note that the sounds in each word, extend the word. all the words are decodable based on the You might want to clap on each sound to sound-spelling relationships previously taught. provide another clue. Then write the words The first line focuses on words with the /sh/ and sentence on the board. Have children sound in the initial position. The contrast self-correct their papers. Don’t grade this provided focuses children’s attention on the dictation practice. It is designed to help importance of each letter in a word. The children segment words and associate sounds second line focuses on words with the with spellings. /sh/ sound in the final position. • shot sack fish • We like to shop. Provide freewriting opportunities. You might have children write a group story, or you might display a picture of an object whose name contains the target sound (such as a fish) and have children write about it. 182 PHONICS FROM A TO Z

SAMPLE LESSON Consonant Clusters Phonic Principle: s-blends Step 1: Reread Begin the lesson by having Next distribute the following letter-card set children reread a story or passage containing to each child: a, o, e, s, m, p, t, sh. Have previously taught sound-spelling relationships. children build as many words as possible. Then provide phonemic-awareness exercises Ask them to write the words on a sheet of (such as oral blending) for children needing paper. Circulate around the room and model this support. blending when necessary. Step 2: Introduce Sound-Spelling  Step 4: Apply to Text Provide students Write the words snake, stone, and spot on with connected reading practice. Choose the board. Underline the letters sn, st, and sp a book in which many of the words are in each word. Explain to children that these decodable based on the sound-spelling letters stand for the /sn/, /st/, and /sp/ sounds, relationships previously taught. respectively. Point out that often when s and another consonant appear together in a word, Step 5: Dictate and Write Have children the sounds that both letters stand for are write the following words and sentence on blended together. Blend each word aloud as a sheet of paper as you dictate them. For you run your finger under each letter. Point students having difficulty segmenting the to each of these clusters and ask students to sounds in each word, extend the word. chorally state the sounds that the letters stand You might want to clap on each sound to for. Continue by having children generate a list provide another clue. Then write the words of words containing these sounds. List these and sentence on the board. Have children words on the board. self-correct their papers. Do not grade this dictation practice. It’s designed to help Step 3: Blend Words Write the following children segment words and associate words and sentences on the board. Note that sounds with spellings. all the words are decodable based on the sound-spelling relationships previously taught. • snack top stop The first line contains contrasts to focus • I can smell the cake. children’s attention on the importance of each letter in a word. The sentences contain some Provide freewriting opportunities. high-f­requency words previously taught. For example, have children write a different ending for a story they just read. • sell spell sack stack • sneak speak stop spot • Will you spell it? • I need a stamp. SECTION 4: CREATING LESSONS FOR SUCCESS 183

r -blends br cr drill grand pr prowl drink grandfather prune brace crab drip grandmother practice pry Brad crack drive grant praise braid cradle droop grape prance tr brain craft drop grapes pray braise crane drove graph prayer trace brake crash drug grasp precious track bran crawl drum grass prepare trade branch crayon dry grasshopper present trail brand crazy grate president train brass creek fr grave press tramp brat creep gravity pretty trap brave crib frail gravy pretzel trash brawl cricket frame gray price tray bray cried frank graze pride tread bread croak freak grease priest treat break crook freckles great prince tree breath crop free greed princess trek breathe cross freeze green principal tribe breeze crow freight greet print trick brew crowd fresh grew prison trim brick crown Friday grid prisoner trip bride crumb friend grill prize troll bridge crunch fright grim probably tromp bright crust frill grime probe troop brim cry fringe grin problem trot bring frizz grind prod trouble brisk dr frog grip produce trough broad from grit product trout broil drab front groan professor truck broke draft frost groceries program true bronco drag frozen groom project truly bronze dragon fruit grouch promise trumpet brood drain fry ground pronoun trunk brook drake frying group pronounce trust broom drank grow proof truth broth drape gr growl prop try brother draw grown propeller brought dread grab grub protect brown dream grace grudge proud browse dress grade gruff prove bruise drew graft grump brush drift grain gram 184 PHONICS FROM A TO Z

l-blends bl blow clip flea gl plead slid blue cloak fleck pleasant slide blab bluff clock fleet glad please slight black blunt clod flesh glance pleat slim blackboard blush clog flew glare pledge slime blade clomp flex glass plenty sling blame cl close flick gleam plink slip blank closet flight glee plod slipper blanket clack cloth fling glide plot slit blast clad clothes flint glitch plow slope blaze claim clothing flip gloat plug slot bleach clam cloud float glob plum slow bleat clamp clove flock globe plump slowly bleed clan clown flood gloom slug bleep clang club floor gloss sl slump blend clap cluck flop glove slush bless clash clue floss glow slab sly blew clasp clump flour glue slack blind class clutch flow slam blink claw flower pl slant blip clay fl flu slap blizzard clean fluff place slate blob clear flag fluid plaid sled block cleat flake fluke plain sleek blonde clerk flame flunk plan sleep blood click flap flush plane sleepy bloom cliff flare flute planet sleet blossom climate flash fly plank sleeve blot climb flashlight plant slept blouse cling flat plate slice clink flaw play slick player Other Consonant Clusters tw twin thrill qu quartz quilt twine throat queen quirk tweed twinkle throb quack quench quit tweet twirl throne quail quest quiz tweezers twist through quake question quote twelve thrush quality quick twenty thr quarrel quiet twice quart quill twig thrash quarter thread SECTION 4: CREATING LESSONS FOR SUCCESS 185

s-blends sc sm spat stapler stoop scrawl stride speak star stop scream strike scab smack spear starch store screech string scald small speck stare storm screen strip scale smart speech starfish story screw stripe scallion smash speed start stove scribble stroke scallop smear spell starve style script stroll scalp smell spend state scroll strong scamp smile spent station sw scrub stronger scan smock spike stationery struck scar smog spill statue swallow squ struggle scarce smoke spin stay swam strum scare smooth spine steady swamp square scarf smudge spire steak swan squash spr scat spirit steal swap squat scold sn spoil steam swarm squeak sprain scoop spoke steel swat squeal sprang scoot snack sponge steep swatch squeeze sprawl scooter snag spoon steer sway squid spray scope snail sport stem sweat squint spread scorch snake spot step sweater squirm sprig score snap spout stereo sweep squirrel spring scour snare spur stew sweet squirt springboard scout snarl spy stick sweeten squish sprinkle scuba snatch sticky swell sprinkler scuff sneak st stiff swept str sprint sneeze still swerve sprout sk sniff stable stilt swift straight spruce snip stack sting swim strain skate snob stadium stingy swine strainer spl sketch snoop staff stink swing strand ski snore stage stir swish strange splash skid snout stain stirrup switch stranger splendid skill snow stair stitch swollen strap splint skillet snug stake stock swoop straw splinter skin snuggle stale stocking strawberry split skip stalk stomach scr stray skirt sp stall stone streak skit stamp stool scram stream skull space stand scramble street skunk span staple scrap strength sky spare scrape stretch spark scraper stretcher scratch strict 186 PHONICS FROM A TO Z

Ending Consonant Clusters ct weld lamp mend tank guard coast wild limp mind think hard cost act lump mound trunk heard crust duct lp plump pound wink herd dust fact pump round lard east pact help ramp sand nt sword fast gulp romp send toward fist ft scalp shrimp sound ant word ghost yelp skimp spend bent yard gust cleft slump stand bunt jest craft lt stamp strand cent rk just draft stomp tend dent last drift belt stump trend faint ark least gift bolt swamp wand front bark list graft built thump wind grant clerk lost left colt tramp wound hint dark mast lift dealt tromp hunt fork mist loft fault trump nk lent hark most raft felt lint jerk must rift guilt nd bank meant lark nest shaft halt blank mint mark past shift jolt and blink paint park pest sift kilt band bunk pint perk post soft knelt bend chunk plant stork quest swift melt bind drank print work rest thrift pelt bland drink rent roast tuft quilt blend dunk runt sk rust salt blind frank scent test ld tilt blond honk sent ask toast welt bond hunk spent desk trust bald bound ink splint disk twist bold mp brand junk tent dusk west build end link tint mask wrist child blimp find mink want risk cold bump found pink went task field camp friend plank fold champ grand plunk pt sp gold chimp grind rank held chomp ground rink apt crisp hold clamp hand sank kept gasp mild clump hind sink slept wasp mold cramp hound skunk wept old crimp kind stink st scald damp land stunk rd scold dump lend sunk best shield grump bird blast sold hump board boast told jump cord bust cast chest SECTION 4: CREATING LESSONS FOR SUCCESS 187

Silent Letters Most of the letters in our alphabet are silent in words at one time or another. Frequently, consonants are silent because the pronunciation of a particular word has changed over time, but the spelling has remained constant. Silent consonants also occur in words borrowed from other languages. Our inner speech seems to ignore silent letters when we read. Guidelines: The following list, based on Hanna’s 17,000 most frequent words (Burmeister, 1971), shows the 15 most frequent silent-letter spellings and their corresponding sounds. 1. tch /ch/ (hatch) 9. lm /m/ (calm) 2. dg /j/ (lodge) 10. rh /r/ (rhino) 3. wr /r/ (write) 1 1. dj /j/ (adjust) 4. kn /n/ (know) 1 2. wh /h/ (who) 5. gn /n/ (gnaw, sign) 13. bt /t/ (debt) 6. mb /m/ (lamb) 14. gh /g/ (ghost) 7. ps /s/ (psychology) 1 5. mn /m/ (hymn) 8. lk /k/ (talk) The chart below shows the conditions under which each letter is silent and provides some sample words for instruction. Letter(s) Condition Sample Words b • silent before t and after m unless this debt, doubt, subtle, lamb, climb, comb, letter and the b are in separate syllables crumb, dumb, tomb, thumb, plumb, (timber) numb c • silent in the cluster ck back, pick, sack, lick • silent occasionally after s science, scene • silent in a few other words Connecticut, indict ch • rarely silent yacht d • rarely silent (sometimes a result of lazy Wednesday, grandmother, pronunciation) handkerchief g • silent when it comes before n or m gnat, gnaw, gnarl, gnu, sign, design, assign, resign, phlegm 188 PHONICS FROM A TO Z

Letter(s) Condition Sample Words h • silent when it follows r or k rhyme, khaki • sometimes silent when it follows x exhaust • often silent between a consonant and shepherd the unstressed vowel • silent after vowels at the end of a word oh, hurrah • sometimes silent at the beginning of a honor, hour, heir word k • silent before n at the beginning of a know, knife, knee, knob, kneel, knew, word or syllable knapsack, knack, knight, knit, knock, knot, knowledge l • silent usually before f, k, m, or v calf, talk, calm, salve • silent in the -ould spelling pattern would, could, should m • rarely silent mnemonic n • silent after m (considered autumn, hymn morphophonemic; the n is maintained in all derivatives of the word and pronounced in many other forms of the word, such as hymnal ) p • silent before n, s, or t pneumonia, psychology, ptomaine s • silent sometimes when it follows i island, debris, aisle • silent in the word Arkansas t • silent in words with -sten and -stle fasten, listen, castle, whistle • silent in words borrowed from French bouquet, ballet, depot, debut that end in -et, -ot, or -ut th • rarely silent asthma, isthmus u • silent sometimes when it follows g or q guard, opaque w • silent before r at the beginning of a wrong, write word or syllable who, whose, whole • silent in words beginning with who- two, answer, sword • silent in a few other words x • rarely silent Sioux z • rarely silent rendezvous SECTION 4: CREATING LESSONS FOR SUCCESS 189

SAMPLE LESSON Silent Letters Phonic Principle: silent letter spelling wr Step 1: Reread Begin the lesson by having Next distribute the following letter-card set children reread a story or passage containing to each child: wr, a, e, i, s, t, p, ck. Have previously taught sound-spelling relationships. children build as many words as possible. Then provide phonemic-awareness exercises Ask them to write the words on a sheet of (such as oral blending) for children needing paper. Circulate around the room and model this support. blending when necessary. Step 2: Introduce Sound-Spelling  Step 4: Apply to Text Provide students Explain to children that sometimes a letter with connected reading practice. Choose stands for no sound in a word; it is silent. Point a book in which many of the words are out that when the letters wr appear together decodable based on the sound-spelling at the beginning of a word, such as write, the relationships previously taught. letter w is silent. Write the word write on the board. Then blend the word write aloud as Step 5: Dictate and Write Have children you run your finger under each letter. Have a write the following words and sentence on volunteer underline the letters wr. Point to the a sheet of paper as you dictate them. For letters wr and ask students to chorally state students having difficulty segmenting the the sound that the letters stand for. Continue sounds in each word, extend the word. by having children suggest words that begin You might want to clap on each sound to with wr. Encourage them to become “word provide another clue. Then write the words explorers” and search through classroom books and sentence on the board. Have children for words. List these words on the board. self-correct their papers. Do not grade this dictation practice. It’s designed to help Step 3: Blend Words Write the following children segment words and associate words and sentences on the board. Note that sounds with spellings. all the words are decodable based on the sound-spelling relationships previously taught. • write read wreck The sentences contain some high-frequency • Did you wrap that up? words previously taught. Provide freewriting opportunities. • rap wrap wing wring Have children generate a list of words with • wreck wrong wrist wrinkle the target sound-spelling. List these words • He will wrap the gift. on the board. Then, in small groups, have • I like to write letters. children create a story using as many of the words as ­possible. 190 PHONICS FROM A TO Z

Short Vowels Guidelines: • Teach the short vowels using simple CVC (consonant-vowel- consonant) words, such as cat, sun, and big. Word lists for instruction follow. • Separate the teaching of the auditorily confusing sounds /e/ and /i/. I suggest this sequence for introducing short vowels: a, i, o, e, u or a, o, i, u, e. CVC Words for Instruction short a short e short i short o short u bad pad bed bib box bud bag pal bet big cob bug bat pan fed bit cot bun cab pat get did dot bus can rag hen dig fog but cap ram jet dip fox cub cat ran led fin got cup dad rap leg fit hog cut fan rat let hid hop dug fat sad men him hot fun gas sat met hip job gum had tag net hit jog hug ham tan pen kid log hut hat tap pet kit lot jug jam van red lid mom mud lap wag set lip mop mug mad ten lit not nut man vet pig pod pup map web pin pop rub mat wet pit pot rug nap yes rib rod run yet rid sob sub top sum rip sun sit tub six tug tip wig win zip SECTION 4: CREATING LESSONS FOR SUCCESS 191

Books Featuring Short Vowels The following lists are ideal for independent and instructional reading. In addition to these books, I also recommend decodable book series that come with your basal reading program or other commercially available series. Short a Addie Meets Max  by Joan Robins (Harper & Row) Alex and the Cat  by Helen Griffith (Greenwillow) Amanda and April  by Bonnie Pryor (Morrow) Angus and the Cat  by Marjorie Flack (Doubleday) A Birthday Basket for Tia  by Pat Mora (Macmillan) Caps for Sale  by Esphyr Slobodkina (Addison-Wesley) The Cat in the Hat  by Dr. Seuss (Random House) The Fat Cat  by Jack Kent (Scholastic) The Gingerbread Man  by Karen Schmidt (Scholastic) I Can  by Susan Winter (Dorling Kindersley) Jack and Jake  by Aliki (Greenwillow) The Little Mouse, the Red Ripe Strawberry, and the Big Hungry Bear  by Don Wood (Child’s Play) Millions of Cats  by Wanda Gag (Putnam) My Friends  by Taro Gomi (Chronicle Books) There’s an Ant in Anthony  by Bernard Most (Morrow) Who Took the Farmer’s Hat  by Joan Nodset (Harper & Row) Short e Elephant in a Well  by Marie Hall Ets (Viking) Emma’s Pet  by David McPhail (Dutton) An Extraordinary Egg  by Leo Lionni (Knopf) Get Set to Wreck!  by Robert Rector Krupp (Macmillan) Hester the Jester  by Ben Shecter (Harper & Row) I Don’t Believe in Elves  by Jane Thayer (Morrow) The Little Red Hen  by Paul Galdone (Scholastic) Shoes from Grandpa  by Mem Fox (Orchard Books) Ten Pennies for Candy  by Henry Ritchet Wing (Holt) Yeck Eck  by Evaline Ness (Dutton) Short i Bit by Bit  by Steve Sanfield (Putnam) Call for Mr. Sniff  by Thomas P. Lewis (Harper & Row) 192 PHONICS FROM A TO Z

The Doorbell Rang  by Pat Hutchins (Greenwillow) Fix-it  by David McPhail (Dutton) Gilberto and the Wind  by Marie Hall Ets (Viking) Inch by Inch  by Leo Lionni (Astor-Honor) Is It Dark? Is It Light?  by Mary D. Lankford (Knopf) My Brother, Will  by Joan Robins (Greenwillow) Small Pig  by Arnold Lobel (Harper & Row) This Is . . .  by Gloria Patrick (Carolrhoda) Titch  by Pat Hutchins (Macmillan) Two Crazy Pigs  by Karen Nagel (Scholastic) Whistle for Willie  by Ezra Jack Keats (Viking) Willy the Wimp  by Anthony Browne (Knopf) Short o All About You  by Catherine Anholt and Laurence Anholt (Viking) Animal Tracks  by Arthur Dorros (Scholastic) Big Frogs, Little Frogs  by Patricia Miller and Ira Seligman (Holt) Drummer Hoff  by Barbara Emberley (Prentice-Hall) Flossie & the Fox  by Patricia McKissack (Dial) Fox in Socks  by Dr. Seuss (Random House) I Need a Lunch Box  by Jeannette Caines (HarperCollins) Mogwogs on the March!  by Olivier Dunrea (Holiday House) Mop Top  by Don Freeman (Viking) Oscar Otter  by Nathaniel Benchley (Harper & Row) School Bus  by Donald Crews (Morrow) Short u Big Gus and Little Gus  by Lee Lorenz (Prentice-Hall) The Cut-Ups  by James Marshall (Viking) Donald Says Thumbs Down  by Nancy E. Cooney (Putnam) Fun/No Fun  by James Stevenson (Greenwillow) Hunches and Bunches  by Dr. Seuss (Random House) Scrawny, the Classroom Duck  by Susan Clymer (Scholastic) Seven Little Ducks  by Margaret Friskey (Children’s Press) Thump and Plunk  by Janice May Udry (Harper & Row) The Ugly Duckling retold  by Lillian Moore (Scholastic) Umbrella  by Taro Yashima (Viking) Where’s the Bunny? by Ruth Carroll (Henry Z. Walck) SECTION 4: CREATING LESSONS FOR SUCCESS 193

SAMPLE LESSON Short Vowels Phonic Principle: The letter a stands for the /a/ sound. Step 1: Reread Begin the lesson by having Step 4: Apply to Text Provide students children reread a story or passage containing with connected reading practice. Choose previously taught sound-spelling relationships. a book in which many of the words are Then provide phonemic-awareness exercises decodable based on the sound-spelling (such as oral blending) for children needing relationships previously taught. Lists of books this support. containing short-vowel sounds are available in many basal reading series. Step 2: Introduce Sound-Spelling  Explain to children that the letter a stands for Step 5: Dictate and Write Have children the /a/ sound, as in the word cat. Write the write the following words and sentence on a word cat on the board as you display a picture sheet of paper as you dictate them. For students of a cat. Make sure the picture is labeled. having difficulty segmenting the sounds in each Then blend the word cat aloud as you run word, extend the word. You might want to clap your finger under each letter. Have a volunteer on each sound to provide another clue. Then underline the letter a. Point to the letter a and write the words and sentence on the board. ask students to chorally state the sound that the Have children self-correct their papers. Do not letter stands for. Continue by having children grade this dictation practice. It’s designed to generate a list of words containing the /a/ help children segment words and associate sound. List these words on the board. sounds with spellings. Step 3: Blend Words Write the following • sat am words and sentences on the board. Note that all • I am sad. the words are decodable based on the sound- spelling relationships previously taught. The Provide freewriting opportunities. sentences contain some high-frequency words For example, display pictures of objects previously taught. or animals whose names contain the target short-vowel sound. Have children write a • at sat mat cat sentence describing each picture. • am mad lap sad • Sam is sad. • The cat sat on my lap. Next distribute the following letter-card set to each child: a, s, t, m, c, d, p. Have children build as many words as possible. Ask them to write the words on a sheet of paper. Circulate around the room and model blending when necessary. 194 PHONICS FROM A TO Z

Long Vowels Guidelines: • Begin instruction with simple, one-syllable words. Start with CVCe (consonant-vowel­-­consonant-e) words since this pattern is an extremely useful and unencumbered long-vowel pattern. (Word lists are provided on pages 196–197.) The silent e (also known as final e or the e-marker) acts as a diacritical mark, alerting the reader that the preceding vowel probably stands for a long-vowel sound. There are four basic one-syllable patterns in the English language, including the CVCe pattern (Eldredge, 1995). Two additional patterns commonly taught in reading programs are r-controlled vowel syllables and consonant + le syllables (or final stable syllables). 1. The closed syllable pattern is the most common. There’s one vowel in the syllable, and the syllable ends with a consonant. Most of the words using this pattern contain short-vowel sounds. There are 13 variations: CVCC (hand), CVC (cup), CCVCC (fresh), CCVC (trip), CVCCC (match), CVCCe ( judge), CCVCCC (crutch), CCVCCe (grudge), CCCVCC (script), VCC (add), VC (in), CCCVC (scrap), VCCC (inch). 2. T he vowel team (vowel digraph) pattern is the second most common. There are 12 variations: CVVC (heat), CCVVC (treat), CVVCC (reach), CVV (pay), CCVV (play), CVVCe (leave), CCVVCC (bleach), CCVVCe (freeze), CCCVVC (sprain), VVC (oat), VVCC (each), CCCVV (three). 3. T he vowel-consonant-silent e pattern is the third most common. There are four variations: CVCe (race), CCVCe (shave), CCCVCe (strike), VCe (ate). 4. The open syllable pattern is the fourth most common. There’s only one vowel in the syllable, and the syllable ends with the vowel’s sound. There are two variations: CCV (she), CV (we). • Use contrasts in instruction (rat/rate; hat/hate) so that children can see how one letter can make all the difference in a word’s vowel sound. Following is a list of contrasts for CVC and CVCe words. You can also make contrasts for words with vowel digraphs (pan/pain, cot/coat, red/read). A Note About Silent e The silent e is important in English spelling (Moats, 1995). For example, the silent e helps to keep some words from looking like plurals (please, not pleas; and house, not hous). Since the letter v doesn’t appear at the end of words, the silent e in words such as dove, love, shove, and above gives them orthographic regularity. Although this silent e doesn’t indicate that the preceding o stands for the long-o sound, it does indicate that the preceding o is not a short-o sound. In essence, the silent e helps to create a spelling pattern that is consistent and far from random. The final e also indicates when the letter g or c stands for its “soft” sound (page, race). SECTION 4: CREATING LESSONS FOR SUCCESS 195

bit/bite fin/fine Contrasts rid/ride spin/spine can/cane glob/globe rip/ripe strip/stripe cap/cape grad/grade mat/mate rob/robe tap/tape cod/code hat/hate not/note rod/rode twin/twine cub/cube hid/hide pal/pale scrap/scrape us/use cut/cute hop/hope pan/pane shin/shine van/vane dim/dime kit/kite past/paste slid/slide wag/wage fad/fade mad/made pin/pine slim/slime fat/fate man/mane plan/plane slop/slope rag/rage rat/rate VCe Words for Instruction a_e (long a) ace cape flame haze page safe snake vane age case frame sake space vase bake cave game jade pale sale spade wade base chase gate same stage wage blade crane gave lace pane save stake wake blame crate gaze scale stale wave blaze date glaze lake paste scrape state waste brace daze grace shade take whale brake drape grade lame pave shake tale brave face grape shame tame cage fade grate lane place shape tape cake fake grave shave taste came fame haste late plane skate trace cane flake hate slate trade made plate make quake male race mane rage mate rake name rate pace rave EXCEPTIONS: advantage, are, average, breakage, cabbage, climate, courage, delicate, furnace, have, manage, message, palace, passage, private, purchase, senate, separate, surface, village 196 PHONICS FROM A TO Z

i_e (long i ) bike dive hive mice price slice strike vine bite drive kite mile pride slide stripe while bride file lice mine rice slime swine white chime fine life nice ride smile tide wide crime five like nine ripe spice tile wife dice glide lime pile rise spike time wipe dime hide line pine shine spine twice wise dine hike live pipe side stride twine write EXCEPTIONS: active, aggressive, automobile, determine, engine, examine, expressive, favorite, figurine, give, justice, live, machine, magazine, massive, native, notice, office, opposite, police, practice, promise, representative, routine, service o_e (long o) bone code hole lone pole slope stove whole broke cone home smoke stroke woke choke dome hope mole robe spoke those zone chose drove hose stole tone close globe joke nose rode stone vote note rope poke rose EXCEPTIONS: above, become, come, done, glove, gone, improve, lose, love, lovely, move, movement, none, purpose, remove, shove, some, something, welcome, whose u_e (long u) cube cute fuse mule use EXCEPTIONS: assure, conclude, crude, duke, dune, flute, include, June, measure, pleasure, prune, rude, rule, sure, treasure, tube, tune SECTION 4: CREATING LESSONS FOR SUCCESS 197

• In addition to silent e, many vowel spellings are formed by vowel digraphs, also known as vowel pairs or vowel teams. These include ea, ee, oa, ai, ay, and others. The following chart shows the predictability of various vowel digraphs, many of which are long-vowel digraphs (Burmeister, 1968). The Predictability of Common Vowel Digraphs Vowel Predictability Vowel Predictability Digraph Digraph ai /a¯ / (pain) 74%, ou / / (trouble) 41%,e air (chair) 15% /ou/ (house) 35%e ay /a¯ / (say) 96% au /ô/ (haul) 94% ea /e¯ / (seat) 51%, aw /ô/ (hawk) 100% /e/ (head) 26% ee /e¯ / (feet) 86%, oo /o–o/ (food) 59%, eer (steer) 12% /o˘o/ (foot) 36% /e¯ / (key) 58%, /a¯ / (reign) 40%, ey /a¯ / (convey) 20%, /e¯ / (deceit) 26%, ei /i/ (foreign) 13%, /l¯/ (geyser) 12% /l¯/ (seismic) 11% oa /o¯ / (boat) 94% /e¯ / (chief) 51%, ie /l¯/ (lie) 17%, / / (patient) 15% ow /o¯ / (snow) 50%, ew /yo–o/ (few) 95% /ou/ (how) 48% oi /oi/ (soil) 98% ui /o–o/ (fruit) 53%, /i/ (build) 47% oy /oi/ (boy) 98% 198 PHONICS FROM A TO Z

Books Featuring Long Vowels Long a Bringing the Rain to Kapiti Plain  by Verna Aardema (Dial) The Lace Snail  by Betsy Byars (Viking) Moira’s Birthday  by Robert Munsch (Firefly) Owl at Home  by Arnold Lobel (HarperCollins) The Pain and the Great One  by Judy Blume (Bradbury) The Paper Crane  by Molly Bang (Greenwillow) Sheila Rae, the Brave  by Kevin Henkes (Greenwillow) Taste the Raindrops  by Anna G. Hines (Greenwillow) Long e Arthur’s Funny Money  by Lillian Hoban (HarperCollins) Brown Bear, Brown Bear, What Do You See?  by Bill Martin, Jr. (Holt) Clifford’s Puppy Days  by Norman Bridwell (Scholastic) Have You Seen Trees?  by Joanne Oppenheim (Young Scott Books) Jenny’s Journey  by Sheila White Samton (Puffin Books) Little Bo Peep  by Paul Galdone (Clarion/Ticknor & Fields) Miss Nelson Has a Field Day  by Harry Allard (Houghton Mifflin) Never Tease a Weasel  by Jean Soule (Parents Magazine Press) Pierre: A Cautionary Tale  by Maurice Sendak (HarperCollins) The Screaming Mean Machine  by Joy Cowley (Scholastic) “Stand Back,” Said the Elephant, “I’m Going to Sneeze!”  by Patricia Thomas (Lothrop, Lee & Shepard) Ten Sleepy Sheep  by Holly Keller (Greenwillow) We Scream for Ice Cream  by Bernice Chardiet and Grace Maccarone (Scholastic) Long i The Bike Lesson  by Stan and Jan Berenstain (Random House) If Mice Could Fly  by John Cameron (Atheneum) Jamaica’s Find  by Juanita Havill (Houghton Mifflin) Night Sounds, Morning Colors  by Rosemary Wells (Dial) No Fighting, No Biting!  by Else E. Minarik (HarperCollins) Tight Times  by Barbara Hazen (Viking) When the Tide Is Low  by Sheila Cole (Lothrop, Lee & Shepard) SECTION 4: CREATING LESSONS FOR SUCCESS 199

Why Can’t I Fly?  by Rita Gelman (Scholastic) Wild Wild Sunflower Child Anna  by Nancy White Carlstrom (Macmillan) Winter Coats  by Margo Mason (Bantam) Long o The Adventures of Mole and Troll  by Tony Johnston (Putnam) Bob the Snowman  by Sylvia Loretan (Viking) The Giant’s Toe  by Brock Cole (Farrar, Straus & Giroux) Going Home  by Margaret Wild (Scholastic) Lost!  by David McPhail (Little, Brown) A New Coat for Anna  by Harry Ziefert (Knopf) New Shoes for Sylvia  by Johanna Hurwitz (Morrow) Night Noises and Other Mole and Troll Stories  by Tony Johnston (Putnam) One Monday Morning  by Uri Shulevitz (Scribner) Osa’s Pride  by Ann Grifalconi (Little, Brown) Roll Over!  by Mordicai Gerstein (Crown) Snowsong Whistling  by Karen Lotz (Dutton) Toad on the Road  by Jon Buller and Susan Schade (Random House) When I Am Old With You  by Angela Johnson (Orchard Books) White Snow, Bright Snow  by Alvin Tresselt (Lothrop, Lee & Shepard) Long u “Excuse Me—Certainly!”  by Louis Slobodkin (Vanguard Press) Tell Me a Trudy  by Lore Segal (Farrar, Straus & Giroux) The Troll Music  by Anita Lobel (Harper & Row) 200 PHONICS FROM A TO Z

SAMPLE LESSON Long Vowels Phonic Principle: The letters ea and ee stand for the /e¯ / sound. Step 1: Reread Begin the lesson by having Next distribute the following letter-card set children reread a story or passage containing to each child: ee, ea, s, d, t, p, k, l. Have previously taught sound-spelling relationships. children build as many words as possible. Then provide phonemic-awareness exercises Ask them to write the words on a sheet of (such as oral blending) for children needing paper. Circulate around the room and model this support. blending when necessary. Step 2: Introduce Sound-Spelling Step 4: Apply to Text Provide students Explain to children that the letters ee and ea with connected reading practice. Choose can stand for the /e¯ / sound, as in feet and a book in which many of the words are seat. Write the words feet and seat on the decodable based on the sound-spelling board. Then blend the words aloud as you relationships previously taught. Lists of books run your finger under each letter. Have a containing long-vowel sounds are available volunteer underline the letters ee or ea. Point in many basal reading series. to the letters and ask students to chorally state the sound that the letters stand for. Continue Step 5: Dictate and Write Have children by having children generate a list of words write the following words and sentence on containing the /e¯ / sound. List these words on a sheet of paper as you dictate them. For the board. Have volunteers circle the letters students having difficulty segmenting the ee or ea in all the words containing these sounds in each word, extend the word. spellings for the /e¯ / sound. You might want to clap on each sound to provide another clue. Then write the words Step 3: Blend Words Write the following and sentence on the board. Have children words and sentences on the board. Note that self-correct their papers. Do not grade this all the words are decodable based on the dictation practice. It’s designed to help sound-spelling relationships previously taught. children segment words and associate The first line focuses on short-vowel/long-vowel sounds with spellings. contrasts. The sentences contain some high-­ frequency words previously taught. • fed feed heat • We need to eat. • bet beat fed feed • leaf need bean deep Provide freewriting opportunities. • My team will win! For example, have children write a dramatic • Keep the seeds in the bag. version of a story they’ve just read. Children will enjoy performing these plays for the class. SECTION 4: CREATING LESSONS FOR SUCCESS 201

Other Vowel Sounds Guidelines: Some vowel digraphs stand for sounds that are not commonly classified as long or short vowels. These include the following, which I’ve classified according to the way they are grouped in most basal reading programs. Variant Vowels /o—o / (food), /o˘o/ (foot), /ô/ (ball, cause, claw, for) Note that the o in for can also be classified as an r-controlled vowel (see below). The vowel digraph oo has a long and a short sound assigned to it. The long sound is more frequent in words than the short sound. Therefore, when children encounter this vowel digraph in a word, they should try the long sound first. The only way for children to know which sound is correct is to try both sounds and see which forms a word that is in their speaking or listening vocabularies (assuming they have heard the word before). Diphthongs /oi/ (boil, boy), /ou/ (house, cow) Diphthongs are vowel sounds formed by a gliding action in the mouth. That is, unlike other vowel sounds, the tongue and lip positions often change as the sound is formed. For example, say and extend the /a/ sound. Notice the position of the lips and tongue. Do they change while forming the sound? No. Now say the /oi/ sound. Notice how the lips are thrust forward and close together as the sound begins but quickly retract and open slightly as the sound is concluded. This gliding action is characteristic of diphthongs. Many linguists also consider the long-i and long-u sounds diphthongs. r-controlled vowels /âr/ (chair), /ûr/ (fern, bird, hurt), /är/ (park), /ôr/ (horn) The letter r affects the sound of the vowel that precedes it in many ways. The following is a suggested sequence for teaching r-controlled vowels based on frequency and predictability of spellings (Groff, 1977; Blevins, 1997): 1. /ûr/ (ir, er, ur) 2. /ôr/ (or, ore, oar) 3. /är/ (ar) 4. /âr/ (are, air, eir, ear). In addition to the letter r, the letters l and w have effects on the vowels that precede or follow them (e.g., water, fall, talk). Instead of trying to explain to children the intricacies of how the vowel sound is affected by these consonants, it’s best to teach the sounds as spelling patterns, such as ar, er, ir, or, ur, air, ear, are, all, alk, and wa. 202 PHONICS FROM A TO Z

eSchwa / / (alone, happen, direct, gallop, circus) Some linguists don’t consider this a separate sound, but rather an allophone—a variant of a particular sound caused by a reduction in stress on that sound in a word. The schwa is also known as a murmur or neutral sound. Up to 22 different spellings of the schwa sound have been identified (Hanna et al., 1966). It’s difficult to teach children rules for identifying this sound in words. Some educators suggest telling children to try the short sound of a questionable vowel when decoding multisyllabic words (Chall & Popp, 1996); others suggest telling children to say “uh” for every vowel sound in a word they are unsure of. They believe that this approximation will be close enough for the child to identify the word if it is in his or her speaking or listening vocabulary. Books Featuring Other Vowels Everybody Cooks Rice  by Norah Dooley (Carolrhoda) Good News  by Barbara Brenner (Bantam) Michael Bird-Boy  by Tomie dePaola (Simon & Schuster) A Place for Grace  by Jean Davies Okimoto (Sasquatch) Sally’s Room  by M. K. Brown (Scholastic) Song and Dance Man  by Karen Ackerman (Knopf) This Is Baseball  by Margaret Blackstone (Henry Holt) Too Many Babas  by Carolyn Croll (HarperCollins) r-Controlled Vowels The Berenstain Bears and the Sitter  by Dan and Jan Berenstain (Random House) A House for Hermit Crab  by Eric Carle (Picture Books Studio) Ox-Cart Man  by Donald Hall (Puffin) Sheep Dreams  by Arthur A. Levine (Dial) Diphthongs /ou/ and /oi/ Baseball Ballerina  by Kathryn Cristaldi (Random Books for Young Readers) The Boy of the Three-Year Nap  by Dianne Snyder (Houghton Mifflin) The Boy Who Didn’t Believe in Spring  by Lucille Clifton (Viking) Counting Cows  by Woody Jackson (Harcourt Brace) SECTION 4: CREATING LESSONS FOR SUCCESS 203

The Cow Who Wouldn’t Come Down  by Paul Brett Johnson (Orchard Books) Fox on Wheels  by Edward Marshall (Puffin) The Leaving Morning  by Angela Johnson (Orchard Books) She’ll Be Comin’ Round the Mountain adapted  by Tom and Debbie Holsclaw Birdseye (Holiday) Too Much Noise  by Ann McGovern (Houghton Mifflin) The Wheels on the Bus  by Paul Zelinsky (Dutton) In addition to these books, Scholastic offers several early reader series that are ideal for alphabet and phonics instruction. These include the following: Alpha Tales Box Set Who is it for? Each of the 26 books in this series (one for each letter of the alphabet) provides a story for you to read aloud to children. There is also an activity page, alphabet cheer, and lots of vocabulary-building opportunities. The books are for children learning the alphabet and basic letter-sounds. What can it do? This series offers children a fun way to engage with new letters and sounds. It provides a quick way to learn a set of words for each letter of the alphabet that can be used in reading, speaking, and writing. How can you use it? This series is ideal for introducing and reinforcing alphabet letters and sounds. Children will enjoy hearing the stories many times and interacting with the text and pictures through the activities provided. You can page through the book with children, point to each letter, and have children say the letter’s name. Point to pictures on the page and help children learn the words that begin with that letter and sound. Keep doing this until children begin to recognize many of the letters and words quickly. This could take weeks. Finally, page through the book, point to the letter, and have children say the letter’s sound. Nonfiction Alphabet Readers Parent Pack Who is it for? This series has one book for each letter of the alphabet and can also be read aloud to children. Each book includes a large set of new vocabulary words. What can it do? This series is ideal for building vocabulary around specific nonfiction topics. The new words are grouped by beginning letter-sound (e.g., bear, big, baby, beautiful, best, bee, bug). 204 PHONICS FROM A TO Z

How can you use it? The books in this series serve as great informational read-alouds to build knowledge and English vocabulary around topics such as animals, seasons, weather, and transportation. They can also be used as independent reading for older children who have learned most of the basic phonics skills. An activity book provides practice with writing letters. Scholastic Decodable Readers Box Set (Levels A–D) Who is it for? The 80 books in this series (20 per level) cover the full range of phonics skills—from short vowels (Level A), to short vowels with blends and digraphs (Level B), to long vowels and diphthongs (Level C), to complex vowels and multisyllabic words (Level D). The series is for all levels of students learning basic reading skills. What can it do? These books provide controlled sentences that use only the letters and sight words children have learned. The books offer a complete course in beginning phonics. Repeated readings of these texts can help children master all the basic phonics skills. They are also ideal for older children who are struggling with reading in English and need more phonics practice. How can you use it? Children can read these books on their own, or with a little help from a more skilled English speaker. Since the books are carefully sequenced, the phonics skills are built-on and reviewed from book to book throughout the sets. Children read at a pace that best meets their learning goals and reading ability. Scholastic Phonics Booster Books (Levels 1–6) Who is it for? The 36 books in this series (6 per level) cover the full range of phonics skills—short vowels (Levels 1–2), long vowels (Levels 3–4), and complex vowels (Levels 5–6). The series is for all levels of children learning basic phonics skills. The order in which the phonics skills are taught in this series is the same as the order used in the Scholastic Decodable Readers. However, since there are fewer books, the pace at which children practice these words is faster. What can it do? These books provide controlled sentences that use only the letters and sight words children have learned. The books offer a complete course in beginning phonics. Repeated readings of these stories can help children master all the basic phonics skills. Since there are fewer books than in the Scholastic Decodable Readers, they can also be used as a great review of phonics skills for older readers who need the practice or are able to advance more rapidly in their phonics learning. SECTION 4: CREATING LESSONS FOR SUCCESS 205

How can you use it? Children can read these books on their own, or with a little help from a more skilled English speaker. Since the books are carefully sequenced, the phonics skills are built-on and reviewed from book to book throughout the sets. SAMPLE LESSON Other Vowel Sounds Phonic Principle: The letters oi and oy stand for the /oi/ sound. Step 1: Reread Begin the lesson by having Next distribute the following letter-card set to children reread a story or passage containing each child: oi, oy, b, l, c, n, j. Have children previously taught sound-spelling relationships. build as many words as possible. Ask them to Then provide phonemic-awareness exercises write the words on a sheet of paper. Circulate (such as oral blending) for children needing around the room and model blending when this support. necessary. Step 2: Introduce Sound-Spelling  Step 4: Apply to Text Provide children with Explain to children that the letters oi and oy connected reading practice. Choose a book stand for the /oi/ sound, as in boil and boy. in which many of the words are decodable Write the words boil and boy on the board. based on the sound-spelling relationships Then blend the words aloud as you run your previously taught. finger under each letter. Have a volunteer underline the letters oi or oy. Point to the Step 5: Dictate and Write Have children letters and ask students to chorally state the write the following words and sentence on a sound that the letters stand for. Continue sheet of paper as you dictate them. Then write by having children generate a list of words the words and sentence on the board. Have containing the /oi/ sound. List these words children self-correct their papers. Do not grade on the board. this dictation practice. It’s designed to help children segment words and associate sounds Step 3: Blend Words Write the following with spellings. words and sentences on the board. Note that all the words are decodable based on • boy point coil the sound-spelling relationships previously • Do you like your new toy? taught. Contrasts are given in the first line. The sentences contain some high-frequency Provide freewriting opportunities.  words previously taught. For example, have children write a poem using as many words with the target sound • box boy pint point as possible. • coin joy toys noise • The boy will enjoy the game. • I found five coins. 206 PHONICS FROM A TO Z

Phonograms Throughout the past two decades, increased attention has been paid to phonograms and their use in early reading instruction. In the classrooms I visit, I see more and more Word Walls containing word lists primarily organized around phonograms. A phonogram is a letter (or series of letters) that stands for a sound, syllable, or series of sounds without reference to meaning. For example, the phonogram -ay contains two letters and stands for the long-a sound. It can be found in words such as say, may, and replay. The phonogram -ack contains three letters, stands for two sounds (/a/ /k/), and can be found in words such as pack, black, and attack. Phonograms are often referred to as word families. The words face, space, and replace belong to the same word family because they all contain the ending -ace. The ending -ace is a phonogram. A linguistic term sometimes substituted for phonogram is rime. Rime is generally used in combination with the term onset. Onset and rime refer to the two parts of a syllable. In a syllable, a rime is the vowel and everything after it. For example, in the one-syllable word sat, the rime is -at. The onset is the consonant, consonant blend, or digraph that comes before the rime in a syllable. In the words sat, brat, and chat, the onsets are s, br, and ch, respectively. A two-s­ yllable word, such as pancake, has two onsets and two rimes. What are the onsets in the word pancake? (p, c) What are the rimes? (-an, -ake) Some words, such as at, out, and up, contain no onset. Phonograms Provide Early Reading Boosts Phonograms have been used in early reading and spelling instruction dating as far back as the New England Primer and Webster’s Blue Back Spelling Books of the 1600s, 1700s, and 1800s. Phonograms have been used for spelling instruction because word patterns are the most effective vehicle for teaching spelling. Phonograms can also provide a boost to early reading instruction. Many children enter first grade with a fair grasp of consonants and the sounds they represent. By learning a phonogram such as -at, they can generate a number of primary-level words, such as bat, cat, fat, hat, mat, pat, rat, and sat. Students can then use these words in early independent writing and to read connected text. And children will encounter these words in many primary-level stories. Teaching children that words contain recognizable chunks and teaching them to search for these word parts or patterns is an important step to developing reading fluency. SECTION 4: CREATING LESSONS FOR SUCCESS 207

As children encounter more and more multisyllabic words, they gain an understanding that words may contain recognizable parts (phonograms, suffixes, prefixes, smaller words). This insight is critical for decoding the words quickly and efficiently. Another value of phonograms is that they are reliable and generalizable. Of the 286 phonograms that appeared in the primary-level texts reviewed in one classic study, 272 (95%) were pronounced the same in every word in which they were Provide frequent review of challenging sound-spelling found (Durrell, 1963). In addition, relationships for children needing additional support. these 272 reliable phonograms can be found in 1,437 of the words common to the speaking vocabularies of primary-age children (Murphy, 1957). Many educators have noted the utility of phonograms in early reading instruction. In fact, a relatively small number of phonograms can be used to generate a large number of words. According to Wylie and Durrell (1970), nearly 500 primary-grade words can be derived from only 37 phonograms: ack ame at ell ight ink oke uck ail an ate est ill ip op ug ain ank aw ice in ir or ump ake ap ay ick ine ock ore unk ale ash eat ide ing Wylie and Durrell also discovered some important instructional considerations about phonograms: • Long-vowel phonograms (-eat, -oat) were as easy to learn as short-vowel phonograms (-ed, -op). • Long-vowel phonograms with final e (-ake, -ide, -ope) were as easy to learn as other long-vowel phonograms. 208 PHONICS FROM A TO Z

• Phonograms containing variant vowels (-ood, -ook), r-controlled vowels (-ear, -are), and diphthongs (-out, -oint) were almost as easy to learn as long- and short-vowel phonograms. • Phonograms ending in a single consonant (-at, -ot) were easier to learn than phonograms ending in consonant clusters (-ast, -imp). Teaching With Phonograms Decoding by analogy is one instructional method that uses phonograms (Cunningham 1975–76; Wagstaff, 1994; Fox, 1996). When decoding by analogy, children look for recognizable chunks within a word to help them figure it out. Cunning­ham (1995) contends that the brain works as a “pattern detector.” As we develop as readers and our knowledge of English orthography increases, we detect more and more of these spelling patterns. Teaching children to decode by analogy helps make them aware of the patterns in our written language. The box below shows how a teacher might model the use of analogies to decode the word stick. Model: When I look at this word, I see two parts that remind me of other words I know. First I see the letters st, as in the word stop. These two letters stand for the /st/ sounds. I also see the word part -ick as in the word pick. If I blend together these two word parts, I get the word stick. Using phonograms in phonics instruction can also help children gain access to more complex phonics concepts, such as r-controlled vowels (Wagstaff, 1994). To explain to children how the r in the word far affects the sound that the a stands for is difficult. However, teaching children the phonogram -ar and providing them practice reading words such as bar, car, far, jar, and star is simpler and arguably more efficient. Phonogram Cautions Although phonograms can provide a boost to early reading instruction, I offer a strong word of caution. Phonograms should never be the sole focus of early reading instruction because they provide the developing reader only limited independence in word analysis. Some educators refer to the use of phonograms in phonics instruction as “rudimentary phonics” (Roswell & Natchez, 1971). They found that beginning readers who rely primarily on phonograms to decode by analogy are less skilled at word identification than beginning readers who analyze words fully SECTION 4: CREATING LESSONS FOR SUCCESS 209

(Bruck & Treiman, 1990). Why is this so? Because beginning readers are taught to remember phonograms by sight. Little attention is paid to the actual sound-spelling relationship of the vowel, and almost no attention is paid to the ending consonant sound-spelling relationship. This places fewer phonemic awareness and phonics demands on the reader. When readers use phonograms, they need to focus on only the initial consonant, consonant blend, or digraph. Therefore, when teachers use phonograms to teach vowel sounds, children get little practice in learning vowel sound-spelling relationships. What they are actually practicing are the consonant sound-spelling relationships. But fully analyzing words focuses children’s attention on all of the word’s sound-spelling relationships. As you can see, analyzing words in their entirety is essential. Much of what children learn about English orthography (spelling patterns) comes from the constant analysis of words and exposure to an abundance of print. Eventually, multiple exposures to words enable the reader to recognize words by sight and recognize common spelling patterns in unfamiliar words—an important goal in developing reading fluency. The best explanation of how this happens can be gleaned from the work of Ehri (1995). She provides us with a clear model of the phases children go through in making every word a sight word. This model includes four phases: 1 Pre-Alphabetic Phase (Logographic) Children recognize symbols, such as the “golden arches” of McDonald’s, and attach a word or meaning to them. Or they recognize a special feature of a word. For example, a child might remember the word yellow because it contains two “sticks” in the middle. 2 Partial Alphabetic Phase Children are beginning to learn sound-spelling relationships, yet they are using only some phonics cues to figure out words. For example, a child guesses the word kitten based on his knowledge of the sounds associated with the letters k and n, and his use of picture clues. However, this same child would probably not be able to distinguish the word kitten from the word kitchen because the word is not being analyzed fully. 3 Full Alphabetic Phase Children are using their knowledge of sound-spelling relationships and analyzing words in their entirety. Much practice decoding and multiple exposures to print help children to begin to develop an awareness of spelling ­patterns. 210 PHONICS FROM A TO Z

4 Consolidated Alphabetic Phase (Orthographic) Children’s awareness of spelling patterns is stronger, and they’re beginning to use this knowledge to quickly and accurately decode unknown words. For example, a child sees the word stack. Instead of analyzing the word sound by sound, she almost instantly recognizes the familiar st combination from words such as step and stop, and the word part -ack. The efficiency with which this child decodes words is greater than in the previous phase and occurs as a result of many opportunities to fully analyze words, decode many words, and pay attention to word parts within words. As children repeatedly encounter words, they learn many as sight words. This is the ultimate goal of fast, efficient decoding. Some children require as few as four or five exposures to new words to learn them by sight. For struggling readers, the number of exposures that are needed jumps to 50–100 (Honig, 1996). Learning words by sight requires analyzing many words in their entirety and wide reading. Beginning readers who are taught to look only for phonograms or other word chunks are being treated as skilled readers instead of the developing readers they are. In addition, no reading program can teach the vast number of phonograms children will encounter in words. Therefore, although the use of phonograms to decode by analogy is useful, it is not sufficient. Children must be able to use a variety of decoding strategies including decoding by analogy, blending, recognizing sight words, and using context clues, to figure out the complete range of words in the English language. Another caution associated with phonograms is the over-reliance on them to create reading materials for phonics practice. Text with a high proportion of phonograms should be avoided (Perfetti & McCutcheon, 1982). This type of text, once common in the so-called linguistic readers of decades ago, is illustrated by the following example: Fat cat. Fat cat sat. Fat cat sat on bat. Pat fat cat. This type of text—with its minimal contrasts and repetition of phonograms—reads more like a tongue twister than the connected text that enables a child to gain meaning. Though it was designed to help early readers, it often caused serious confusion and lack of comprehension. It’s important that early reading text be closer to children’s oral language than that used in the “linguistic” readers. SECTION 4: CREATING LESSONS FOR SUCCESS 211

However, by including high-frequency words and words with other patterns, this type of text can be restructured to be more natural sounding. How to Use Phonogram Lists You can use the phonogram lists on pages 213–225 to develop word lists for phonics and spelling instruction. These lists are based on the work of researchers (Fry et al., 1993), textbook publishers, and my tireless searching through children’s dictionaries. The lists contain one-syllable words and are organized by vowel sound. Within each list, the words are listed in alphabetical order beginning with single consonant words, then proceeding to words beginning with consonant clusters or digraphs. Use the lists with care. They can provide a valuable source of words for activities such as word sorts and word building. However, some of the words on the lists may not be appropriate for your instructional needs. For example, if you’re working with first and second graders, a few of the words, such as vat, span, and plot, may not be in your students’ speaking or listening vocabulary. Avoid using these words, particularly when you’re developing sentences, stories, or any other types of connected text. I have tried to weed out most of the words not common to young children’s books or vocabulary. And remember to introduce words beginning and ending with single consonants before words with consonant clusters or digraphs. 212 PHONICS FROM A TO Z

Long-a Phonograms -ace Gail -ait name paste say hail same taste way face jail bait tame waste clay lace mail gait blame fray mace nail wait flame -ate gray pace pail strait frame play race quail trait shame date pray brace rail fate slay grace sail -ake -ane gate spray place tail hate stay space wail bake cane Kate stray trace flail cake Jane late sway frail fake lane mate tray -ade snail Jake mane rate trail lake pane crate -aze fade make sane grate jade -ain quake vane plate daze made rake wane skate faze wade main sake crane state gaze blade pain take plane haze glade rain wake -ave maze grade vain brake -ange raze shade brain drake cave blaze spade chain flake range Dave craze trade drain shake change gave glaze grain snake grange pave graze -age plain stake strange rave slain save -eak age Spain -ale -ape wave cage sprain brave break gage stain bale cape crave steak page strain Dale gape grave rage train gale nape shave -eigh sage male tape slave wage -aint pale drape neigh stage sale grape -ay weigh faint tale scrape sleigh -aid paint scale shape bay saint stale day -ey laid taint whale -ase gay maid quaint hay hey paid -ame base jay grey raid -aise case lay prey braid came vase may they raise dame chase nay whey -ail praise fame pay game -aste ray bail lame fail baste haste SECTION 4: CREATING LESSONS FOR SUCCESS 213

Long-e Phonograms -e -eal near -ee cheek sneer rear creek steer be deal tear bee Greek he heal year fee sleek -eet me meal clear knee we peal shear Lee -eel beet she real smear see feet seal spear tee feel meet -ea teal wee heel fleet veal -ease flee kneel greet pea zeal free peel sheet sea squeal cease glee reel skeet tea steal lease spree steel sleet flea crease three wheel street plea -eam grease tree sweet -eem tweet -each beam -east -eech ream deem -eeze beach seam beast beech seem leach team feast leech teem breeze peach cream least breech freeze reach dream yeast screech -een sneeze teach gleam speech squeeze bleach scream -eat keen tweeze breach steam -eed queen wheeze preach stream beat seen feat deed teen -iece -ead -ean heat feed green meat heed screen niece bead bean neat need piece lead dean peat reed -eep read Jean seat seed -ief knead lean bleat weed beep plead mean cheat bleed deep brief wean cleat breed jeep chief -eak clean pleat creed keep grief glean treat freed peep thief beak wheat greed seep leak -eap speed weep -ield peak -eath tweed cheep weak heap creep field bleak leap heath -eek sheep yield creak reap sheath sleep shield freak cheap wreath leek steep sneak meek sweep speak -ear -eave peek squeak reek -eer streak dear heave seek tweak fear leave week deer gear weave jeer hear cleave peer sheave queer 214 PHONICS FROM A TO Z

Long-i Phonograms -ibe -ied -ight -ime -ipe -uy bribe died fight dime pipe buy scribe lied knight lime ripe guy tribe cried light mime wipe dried might time gripe -y -ice fried night chime snipe spied right crime stripe by dice tried sight grime swipe my lice tight prime cry mice -ier blight slime -ire dry nice bright fly rice brier flight -ind fire fry vice crier fright hire ply price drier plight bind tire pry slice flier slight find wire shy splice hind spire sky thrice -ies -ike kind sly twice mind -ise spy dies bike rind try -ide lies dike wind guise why pies hike blind rise hide ties like grind wise -ye ride cries Mike side dries pike -ine -ite bye tide flies spike dye wide skies strike dine bite eye bride spies fine kite lye glide tries -ild line mite rye pride mine quite slide -ife mild nine rite snide wild pine site stride fife child vine white knife shine write -ie life -ile shrine sprite rife spine die wife file swine -ive lie strife mile whine pie Nile dive tie -igh pile five vie tile hive high vile jive nigh smile live sigh while chive thigh drive strive thrive SECTION 4: CREATING LESSONS FOR SUCCESS 215

Long-o Phonograms -o -oat choke -olt -ose blow smoke crow go oat spoke bolt hose flow no boat stoke colt nose glow so coat stroke jolt pose grow pro goat molt rose show moat -old volt chose slow -oach bloat close snow float old -ome prose stow coach gloat bold those poach throat cold dome -own roach fold home -ost broach -obe gold Nome known hold Rome host mown -oad lobe mold chrome most sown robe sold gnome post blown load globe told ghost flown road probe scold -one grown toad -ote shown -ode -ole bone thrown -oak cone note code dole hone quote soak lode hole lone rote cloak mode mole tone vote croak node pole zone wrote rode role clone -oal strode stole drone -ove whole phone coal -oe prone cove foal -oll shone wove goal doe stone clove foe poll drove -oam hoe roll -ope grove Joe toll stove foam toe droll cope trove loam woe knoll dope roam scroll hope -ow -oke stroll mope -oan troll nope bow coke pope know Joan joke rope low loan poke scope mow moan woke slope row groan yoke sow broke tow -oast boast coast roast toast 216 PHONICS FROM A TO Z

Short-a Phonograms -ab -ad jam -ance yank gash -at Pam blank hash cab bad ram dance clank lash bat dab dad Sam lance crank mash cat gab fad tam chance drank rash fat jab had yam France flank sash gnat lab lad clam glance Frank brash hat nab mad cram prance plank clash mat tab pad gram stance prank flash pat blab sad scam trance spank slash rat crab tad scram thank smash sat drab Brad sham -anch stash vat flab Chad slam -ant thrash brat grab clad swam ranch trash chat scab glad blanch pant flat slab -amp branch rant -ask scat stab -aft chant slat camp -and grant ask spat -ack daft damp plant cask that raft lamp band scant mask back waft ramp hand slant task -atch hack craft vamp land flask Jack draft champ sand -ap batch knack graft clamp bland -asm catch lack shaft cramp brand cap hatch Mack scamp gland gap chasm latch pack -ag stamp stand lap plasm match quack tramp strand map spasm patch rack bag nap scratch sack gag -an -ang rap -asp snatch tack jag sap thatch black lag ban bang tap gasp clack nag can fang yap hasp -ath crack rag Dan gang chap rasp shack sag fan hang clap clasp bath slack tag man pang flap grasp math smack wag pan rang scrap path snack brag ran sang slap -ast wrath stack crag tan clang snap track drag van slang strap cast -ax whack flag bran sprang trap fast shag clan twang wrap last lax -act snag plan mast Max stag scan -ank -ash past tax fact span vast wax pact -am than bank bash blast flax tact Hank cash tract dam lank dash ham rank sank tank SECTION 4: CREATING LESSONS FOR SUCCESS 217

Short-e Phonograms -ead sled smell -ench scent crest sped spell spent quest dead swell bench wrest head -edge clench -ep lead -elp drench -et read hedge French pep bread ledge help quench rep bet dread wedge kelp stench prep get spread dredge yelp trench step jet thread pledge wrench let tread sledge -elt -ept met -end net -ealth -eft belt kept pet felt end wept set health left knelt bend crept wet wealth cleft melt fend slept yet stealth theft pelt lend swept Chet welt mend fret -eath -eg dwelt send -esh tend -etch death beg -em vend mesh breath keg blend flesh fetch leg gem spend fresh sketch -eck Meg hem trend wretch peg stem -ess deck them -ength -ext heck -eld Bess neck -en length guess next peck held strength less text check meld Ben mess fleck weld den -ense bless speck hen chess wreck -elf Ken dense dress men sense press -ed self pen tense stress shelf ten bed yen -ent -est fed -ell Glen led then bent best Ned bell when cent jest red cell wren dent lest Ted dell gent nest wed fell -ence Kent pest bled jell lent rest bred Nell fence rent test fled sell hence sent vest Fred tell pence tent west shed well whence vent zest shred yell went blest dwell chest shell 218 PHONICS FROM A TO Z

Short-i Phonograms -ib stiff will kin -inge sip -ist whiff chill pin tip bib drill tin binge zip fist fib -ift frill win hinge blip list rib grill chin singe chip mist crib gift skill grin tinge clip wrist glib lift spill shin cringe drip twist rift still skin fringe flip -ick sift thrill spin grip -it drift trill thin -ink ship Dick shift twill twin skip bit kick swift kink slip fit lick thrift -ilt -ince link snip hit Nick mink strip kit pick -ig kilt mince pink trip knit quick tilt since rink whip lit Rick big wilt prince sink pit sick dig quilt wink -is quit tick fig stilt -inch blink sit wick gig brink is wit brick jig -im inch clink his flit chick pig cinch drink grit click rig dim finch shrink -ish skit flick wig him pinch slink slit slick brig Jim clinch stink dish spit stick sprig Kim flinch think fish split thick swig rim wish trick twig Tim -ing -int swish -itch brim -id -ilk grim bing hint -isk ditch prim ding lint hitch bid milk slim king mint disk pitch did silk swim ping tint risk witch hid trim ring glint brisk switch kid -ill whim sing print frisk lid wing splint whisk -ive mid ill -imp zing sprint rid bill bring squint -isp give grid dill limp cling stint live skid fill blimp fling lisp slid gill chimp sling -ip wisp -ix squid hill crimp spring crisp Jill primp sting dip fix -iff kill skimp string hip -iss mix mill swing lip six cliff pill -in thing nip hiss sniff quill wring quip kiss sill bin rip miss till fin bliss Swiss SECTION 4: CREATING LESSONS FOR SUCCESS 219

Short-o Phonograms -ob sock -oft -ond -ot -otch tock Bob block loft bond cot botch cob clock soft fond dot notch gob crock pond got blotch job flock -og blond hot knob frock jot -ough lob shock bog -op knot mob smock cog lot cough rob stock dog bop not trough sob fog cop pot blob -od hog hop rot -ox glob jog mop tot slob cod log pop blot ox snob mod clog sop clot box throb nod flog top plot fox pod frog chop shot lox -ock rod smog crop slot pox sod drop spot dock clod -omp flop trot hock plod plop knock prod pomp prop lock trod romp shop mock chomp slop rock stomp stop Many popular rhymes and songs feature phonograms. 220 PHONICS FROM A TO Z

Short-u Phonograms -ome tuck jug crumb sung hush Chuck lug plumb clung lush come cluck mug thumb flung mush some pluck pug sprung rush stuck rug -ump stung blush -on struck tug strung brush truck chug bump swung crush son drug dump wrung flush ton -ud plug hump plush won shrug jump -unk slush bud slug lump thrush -ough cud smug pump bunk dud snug rump dunk -ust rough mud thug chump hunk tough crud clump junk bust slough spud -ulk frump sunk dust stud grump chunk gust -ove thud bulk plump drunk just hulk slump flunk must dove -udge sulk stump plunk rust love thump shrunk crust glove budge -ull trump skunk thrust shove fudge slunk trust above judge cull -un spunk nudge dull stunk -ut -ub drudge gull bun trunk grudge hull fun but cub sludge lull gun -unt cut dub smudge mull pun gut hub trudge skull run bunt hut nub sun hunt jut rub -uff -um shun punt nut sub spun runt rut tub buff bum stun blunt glut club cuff gum grunt shut flub huff hum -unch stunt strut grub puff mum scrub ruff sum bunch -up -utch shrub bluff chum hunch snub fluff drum lunch cup Dutch stub gruff glum munch pup hutch scuff plum punch sup clutch -uch sluff scum brunch crutch snuff slum crunch -us much stuff strum scrunch -utt such swum bus -ug -ung plus butt -uck -umb thus mutt bug hung putt buck dug dumb lung -ush duck hug numb rung luck gush muck puck suck SECTION 4: CREATING LESSONS FOR SUCCESS 221

Variant Vowel /âr/ Phonograms -air chair dare ware snare -ear flair fare blare spare air stair hare flare square bear fair mare glare stare pear hair -are pare scare wear lair rare share swear pair bare care -urk -earn Variant Vowel /ûr/ Phonograms lurk earn murk learn -erm -ird -irt -urb yearn -urse germ bird dirt curb -erb term third flirt blurb curse shirt nurse herb -ern -irk skirt -urge purse verb squirt fern quirk urge -urt -erge stern shirk -irth purge smirk curt merge -erve birth -url hurt serge -irl girth blurt verge nerve curl spurt serve girl -ur furl -erk swerve swirl hurl twirl fur jerk -ir whirl blur -urn clerk slur fir -irst spur burn sir turn stir first churn whir thirst spurn Variant Vowel /är/ Phonograms -ar spar -arge park -arn -art bar star barge Clark barn cart car -ard large shark darn dart far charge spark yarn mart card jar stark part mar guard -ark -arp tart par hard -arm chart lard bark carp dark arm harp tar yard hark farm tarp smart char start lark harm sharp scar mark charm 222 PHONICS FROM A TO Z

Variant Vowel /ô/ Phonograms -all -alt taunt -awl -ong -ost flaunt all halt bawl bong cost ball malt -ault brawl dong lost call salt crawl gong frost fall fault drawl long hall -aught vault scrawl song -oth mall shawl tong tall caught -aw prong moth wall naught -awn strong broth small taught caw wrong cloth squall fraught gnaw dawn froth stall jaw fawn -oss sloth -aunch law lawn -alk paw pawn boss -ought haunch raw yawn loss balk launch saw brawn moss ought talk paunch claw drawn toss bought walk staunch draw prawn cross fought chalk flaw floss sought stalk -aunt slaw gloss brought squaw thought -oar daunt straw gaunt -ort boar haunt roar jaunt fort soar port (/ô/ With r) sort -oor short -ord pore -ork -orn snort door sore sport floor cord tore cork born ford wore fork corn -our -orch lord chore pork horn chord score York morn four porch sword shore stork torn pour torch snore worn scorch -ore spore -orm scorn store sworn bore swore dorm thorn core form fore norm gore storm more SECTION 4: CREATING LESSONS FOR SUCCESS 223

Diphthong /oi/ Phonograms -oil broil -oint -oist -oy toy ploy oil spoil joint foist boy -owl boil -oin point hoist coy coil moist joy fowl foil coin -oise Roy howl join growl noise soy prowl soil loin poise scowl toil groin -own Diphthong /ou/ Phonograms down -ouch -ounce wound -out -outh gown ground town couch ounce out mouth brown pouch bounce -our bout south clown vouch pounce (about) crown crouch trounce our gout -ow drown grouch hour pout frown slouch -ount sour rout bow flour tout cow -oud count scour clout how mount scout now loud -ouse shout sow cloud -ound snout vow proud house spout brow bound louse sprout chow found mouse stout plow hound blouse trout mound spouse pound round sound Many trade books feature words with phonograms. These books can be used for independent reading. 224 PHONICS FROM A TO Z

Variant Vowel /oo/ Phonograms *These words contain the long-u sound, /y—oo/. -ew -ood -oon -oot -ude -une dew food boon boot dude dune few* mood loon hoot rude June knew brood moon loot crude tune new noon moot prude prune pew* -oof soon root blew croon toot -ue -ure brew goof spoon scoot chew roof swoon shoot cue* cure* crew proof due lure flew spoof -oop -ooth hue* pure* grew Sue sure screw -ool coop booth blue threw hoop tooth clue -use cool loop glue -o fool droop -ooze true use* pool scoop fuse* do tool sloop ooze -uke muse* to drool snoop snooze ruse who school stoop duke spool swoop -oup puke* -ute -oo stool troop fluke soup cute* boo -oom -oose croup -ule jute coo group lute goo boom goose mule* mute* moo doom loose -ube rule brute too loom moose Yule chute woo room noose cube* flute zoo zoom lube -ume shoo bloom tube -uth broom fume* -ood gloom -uce plume Ruth groom truth good spruce hood truce wood stood Variant Vowel /o�o/ Phonograms -ook brook -ould -ull -ush crook book shook could bull bush cook hook -oot would full push look nook foot should pull took soot SECTION 4: CREATING LESSONS FOR SUCCESS 225

What About Rules? Use i before e except after c. When two vowels go walking, the first does the talking. Don’t stand on that table! Sit up straight, Wiley! These and other rules swim around in my head when I think about my early school days. Although I do sit up straight today and avoid standing on tables, when it comes to reading I often wonder how many rules I actually recall and use as a skilled reader and writer. This list is probably quite small. So how useful are these rules, and should we spend much instructional time teaching them? “Effective decoders see words not in terms of phonics rules, but in terms of patterns of letters that are used to aid in identification” (Stahl, 1992). Through phonics instruction that focuses children’s attention on each letter in a word, teaches blending, and highlights common spelling patterns, children will begin to internalize rules, or generalizations, about words. For example, when children encounter words in which the letter c stands for either the /s/ sound or the /k/ sound, we want them to be able to generalize the conditions under which each is likely to occur. Rules can be used to help children attend to this specific spelling pattern or organize their thinking about it. As time progresses and children are provided more opportunities to review and apply this rule, they will internalize it. In addition, teachers of reading need to be aware of rules so that they can verbalize them for children who would benefit from this instruction (Durkin, 1993). However, since few rules are 100% reliable, they should never be taught as absolutes. That is one reason why I prefer the term generalization rather than rule. Guidelines for Using Rules/Generalizations • Don’t make rules/generalizations the emphasis of phonics instruction. Instead, use them as one tool to help children focus on important spelling patterns and recognize unfamiliar words. • Teach only those rules/generalizations with the most utility. For example, teaching children that the spelling pattern -ough can stand for up to six sounds is wasteful. In addition, avoid generalizations that are wordy or full of technical language. • Emphasize applying the rules/generalizations rather than verbalizing them. Remember that once children can apply the generalizations, there is no need to spend instructional time on them. 226 PHONICS FROM A TO Z

• Don’t teach the rules/generalizations too soon or too late. Teach them at a point when children can best understand and apply them. • Never teach rules as absolutes. Since children tend to think of rules as absolutes, it’s better to use the term generalization. And be sure to make the children aware of important exceptions to generalizations. The classic study on generalizations and their utility was conducted in 1963 (Clymer). Clymer examined 45 generalizations (rules) taught by basal reading programs. He found that many of these generalizations were of limited value. In fact, less than half of the rules worked as much as 75% of the time. The following chart shows the generalizations he examined. I’ve updated the wording of some of the generalizations so that they’re consistent with the language used in today’s basals. Utility of Phonics Generalizations Generalizations Example Exception % Utility CONSONANT GENERALIZATIONS 1. W hen two of the same consonants appear berry suggest 99 side by side in a word, only one is heard. 2. When the letter c is followed by the letter o cat 100 or a, the c stands for the /k/ sound. 3. The digraph ch is usually pronounced /ch/ batch machine 95 as in watch and chair, not /sh/. 4. When the letters c and h appear next to rich 100 each other in a word, they stand for only one sound. 5. The letter g often has a sound similar to that ginger give 64 of the letter j in jump when it comes before the letter i or e. 6. When the letter c is followed by the letter e cent ocean 96 or i, the /s/ sound is likely to be heard. 7. When a word ends in the letters ck, it has sick 100 the /k/ sound, as in book. 8. When the letters ght appear together fight 100 in a word, the letters gh are silent. 9. When a word begins with the letters kn, know 100 the letter k is silent. 10. When a word begins with the letters wr, write 100 the letter w is silent. SECTION 4: CREATING LESSONS FOR SUCCESS 227

Generalizations Example Exception % Utility VOWEL GENERALIZATIONS city lady 61 lid mind 57 11. If there is one vowel letter in an accented seat chief 45 syllable, it has a short sound. best gold 62 12. When a word has only one vowel letter, torn fire 78 the vowel sound is likely to be short. hope come 63 13. When two vowels appear together in a word, nail/said 64% have 66 the long sound of the first one is heard and bead/head 66% the second is usually silent.* boat/cupboard 97% 60 suit/build 6% 84 14. When a vowel is in the middle of a bake 15 one-syllable word, the vowel is short. dry tray 0 15. The letter r gives the preceding vowel a 48 sound that is neither long nor short. fly funny 40 76 16. When there are two vowels, one of which is baby 46 final e, the first vowel is long and the e is silent. fall canal 98 59 17. The first vowel is usually long and the snow few 32 second silent in the digraphs ai, ea, oa, and ui. pet flew 17 18. When words end with silent e, the preceding invite gasoline a or i is long. feet been 19. When the letter y is the final letter in a word, it usually has a vowel sound. own town watch swam 20. When the letter y is used as a vowel in words, it sometimes has the sound of long i. field friend 21. When y or ey appears in the last syllable that is not accented, the long-e sound is heard. 22. The letter a has the same sound as /ô/ when followed by l, w, and u. 23. The letter w is sometimes a vowel and follows the vowel digraph rule. 24. When there is one e in a word that ends in a consonant, the e usually has a short sound. 25. In many two- and three-syllable words, the final e lengthens the vowel in the last syllable. 26. Words having double e usually have the long-e sound. 27. The letters ow stand for the long o sound. 28. When the letter a follows the letter w in a word, it usually has the sound that a stands for as in was. 29. In the vowel spelling ie, the letter i is silent and the letter e has the long vowel sound. *This is the old “When two vowels go walking, the first does the talking” rule. 228 PHONICS FROM A TO Z