FAA-H-8083-15B Instrument Flying Handbook

Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS). A system Duplex. Transmitting on one frequency and receiving on a that improves the accuracy of Global Navigation Satellite separate frequency. Systems (GNSS) by measuring changes in variables to provide satellite positioning corrections. Eddy currents. Current induced in a metal cup or disc when it is crossed by lines of flux from a moving magnet. Direct indication. The true and instantaneous reflection of aircraft pitch-and-bank attitude by the miniature aircraft, EFAS. See En Route Flight Advisory Service. relative to the horizon bar of the attitude indicator. EFC. See expect-further-clearance. Direct User Access Terminal System (DUATS). A system that provides current FAA weather and flight plan filing Electronic flight display (EFD). For the purpose of services to certified civil pilots, via personal computer, standardization, any flight instrument display that uses modem, or telephone access to the system. Pilots can request LCD or other image-producing system (Cathode Ray Tube specific types of weather briefings and other pertinent data [CRT], etc.) for planned flights. Elevator illusion. The sensation of being in a climb or Distance circle. See reference circle. descent, caused by the kind of abrupt vertical accelerations that result from up- or downdrafts. Distance measuring equipment (DME). A pulse-type electronic navigation system that shows the pilot, by an Emergency. A distress or urgent condition. instrument-panel indication, the number of nautical miles between the aircraft and a ground station or waypoint. Emphasis error. The result of giving too much attention to a particular instrument during the cross-check, instead of DME. See distance measuring equipment. relying on a combination of instruments necessary for attitude and performance information. DME arc. A flight track that is a constant distance from the station or waypoint. EM wave. Electromagnetic wave. DOD. Department of Defense. Encoding altimeter. A special type of pressure altimeter used to send a signal to the air traffic controller on the ground, Doghouse. A turn-and-slip indicator dial mark in the shape showing the pressure altitude the aircraft is flying. of a doghouse. En route facilities ring. Depicted in the plan view of IAP Domestic Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum charts, a circle which designates NAVAIDs, fixes, and (DRVSM). Additional flight levels between FL 290 and FL intersections that are part of the en route low altitude airway 410 to provide operational, traffic, and airspace efficiency. structure. Double gimbal. A type of mount used for the gyro in an En Route Flight Advisory Service (EFAS). An en route attitude instrument. The axes of the two gimbals are at right weather-only AFSS service. angles to the spin axis of the gyro, allowing free motion in two planes around the gyro. En route high-altitude charts. Aeronautical charts for en route instrument navigation at or above 18,000 feet MSL. DP. See departure procedure. En route low-altitude charts. Aeronautical charts for en Drag. The net aerodynamic force parallel to the relative route IFR navigation below 18,000 feet MSL. wind, usually the sum of two components: induced drag and parasite drag. Equivalent airspeed. Airspeed equivalent to CAS in standard atmosphere at sea level. As the airspeed and pressure Drag curve. The curve created when plotting induced drag altitude increase, the CAS becomes higher than it should be, and parasite drag. and a correction for compression must be subtracted from the CAS. DUATS. See direct user access terminal system. G-6

Expect-further-clearance (EFC). The time a pilot can Flightpath. The line, course, or track along which an aircraft expect to receive clearance beyond a clearance limit. is flying or is intended to be flown. FAA. Federal Aviation Administration. Flight patterns. Basic maneuvers, flown by reference to the instruments rather than outside visual cues, for the purpose FAF. See final approach fix. of practicing basic attitude flying. The patterns simulate maneuvers encountered on instrument flights such as holding False horizon. Inaccurate visual information for aligning the patterns, procedure turns, and approaches. aircraft, caused by various natural and geometric formations that disorient the pilot from the actual horizon. Flight strips. Paper strips containing instrument flight information, used by ATC when processing flight plans. Federal airways. Class E airspace areas that extend upward from 1,200 feet to, but not including, 18,000 feet MSL, unless FMS. See flight management system. otherwise specified. Form drag. The drag created because of the shape of a Feeder facilities. Used by ATC to direct aircraft to component or the aircraft. intervening fixes between the en route structure and the initial approach fix. Fundamental skills. Pilot skills of instrument cross-check, instrument interpretation, and aircraft control. Final approach. Part of an instrument approach procedure in which alignment and descent for landing are Glideslope (GS). Part of the ILS that projects a radio beam accomplished. upward at an angle of approximately 3° from the approach end of an instrument runway. The glideslope provides Final approach fix (FAF). The fix from which the IFR vertical guidance to aircraft on the final approach course for final approach to an airport is executed, and which identifies the aircraft to follow when making an ILS approach along the beginning of the final approach segment. An FAF is the localizer path. designated on government charts by a Maltese cross symbol for nonprecision approaches, and a lightning bolt symbol for Glideslope intercept altitude. The minimum altitude of an precision approaches. intermediate approach segment prescribed for a precision approach that ensures obstacle clearance. Fixating. Staring at a single instrument, thereby interrupting the cross-check process. Global landing system (GLS). An instrument approach with lateral and vertical guidance with integrity limits (similar to FL. See flight level. barometric vertical navigation (BRO VNAV). Flight configurations. Adjusting the aircraft control surfaces Global navigation satellite systems (GNSS). Satellite (including flaps and landing gear) in a manner that will navigation systems that provide autonomous geo-spatial achieve a specified attitude. positioning with global coverage. It allows small electronic receivers to determine their location (longitude, latitude, and Flight director indicator (FDI). One of the major components altitude) to within a few meters using time signals transmitted of a flight director system, it provides steering commands that along a line of sight by radio from satellites. the pilot (or the autopilot, if coupled) follows. GNSS. See global navigation satellite systems. Flight level (FL). A measure of altitude (in hundreds of feet) used by aircraft flying above 18,000 feet with the altimeter Global positioning system (GPS). Navigation system set at 29.92\" Hg. that uses satellite rather than ground-based transmitters for location information. Flight management system (FMS). Provides pilot and crew with highly accurate and automatic long-range navigation capability, blending available inputs from long- and short- range sensors. G-7

Goniometer. As used in radio frequency (RF) antenna Head-up display (HUD). A special type of flight viewing systems, a direction-sensing device consisting of two fixed screen that allows the pilot to watch the flight instruments loops of wire oriented 90° from each other, which separately and other data while looking through the windshield of the sense received signal strength and send those signals to two aircraft for other traffic, the approach lights, or the runway. rotors (also oriented 90°) in the sealed direction-indicating instrument. The rotors are attached to the direction-indicating Height above airport (HAA). The height of the MDA above needle of the instrument and rotated by a small motor until the published airport elevation. minimum magnetic field is sensed near the rotors. Height above landing (HAL). The height above a designated GPS. See global positioning system. helicopter landing area used for helicopter instrument approach procedures. GPS Approach Overlay Program. An authorization for pilots to use GPS avionics under IFR for flying designated Height above touchdown elevation (HAT). The DA/DH or existing nonprecision instrument approach procedures, with MDA above the highest runway elevation in the touchdown the exception of LOC, LDA, and SDF procedures. zone (first 3,000 feet of the runway). Graveyard spiral. The illusion of the cessation of a turn HF. High frequency. while still in a prolonged, coordinated, constant rate turn, which can lead a disoriented pilot to a loss of control of the Hg. Abbreviation for mercury, from the Latin aircraft. hydrargyrum. Great circle route. The shortest distance across the surface HIWAS. See Hazardous Inflight Weather Advisory of a sphere (the Earth) between two points on the surface. Service. Ground proximity warning system (GPWS). A system Holding. A predetermined maneuver that keeps aircraft designed to determine an aircraft’s clearance above the Earth within a specified airspace while awaiting further clearance and provides limited predictability about aircraft position from ATC. relative to rising terrain. Holding pattern. A racetrack pattern, involving two turns Groundspeed. Speed over the ground, either closing speed to and two legs, used to keep an aircraft within a prescribed the station or waypoint, or speed over the ground in whatever airspace with respect to a geographic fix. A standard pattern direction the aircraft is going at the moment, depending upon uses right turns; nonstandard patterns use left turns. the navigation system used. Homing. Flying the aircraft on any heading required to keep GS. See glide slope. the needle pointing to the 0° relative bearing position. GWPS. See ground proximity warning system. Horizontal situation indicator (HSI). A flight navigation instrument that combines the heading indicator with a CDI, HAA. See height above airport. in order to provide the pilot with better situational awareness of location with respect to the courseline. HAL. See height above landing. HSI. See horizontal situation indicator. HAT. See height above touchdown elevation. HUD. See head-up display. Hazardous attitudes. Five aeronautical decision-making attitudes that may contribute to poor pilot judgment: Human factors. A multidisciplinary field encompassing the antiauthority, impulsivity, invulnerability, machismo, and behavioral and social sciences, engineering, and physiology, resignation. to consider the variables that influence individual and crew performance for the purpose of optimizing human Hazardous Inflight Weather Advisory Service (HIWAS). performance and reducing errors. Service providing recorded weather forecasts broadcast to airborne pilots over selected VORs. G-8

Hypoxia. A state of oxygen deficiency in the body sufficient Induction icing. A type of ice in the induction system that to impair functions of the brain and other organs. reduces the amount of air available for combustion. The most commonly found induction icing is carburetor icing. IAF. See initial approach fix. Inertial navigation system (INS). A computer-based IAP. See instrument approach procedures. navigation system that tracks the movement of an aircraft via signals produced by onboard accelerometers. The initial IAS. See indicated airspeed. location of the aircraft is entered into the computer, and all subsequent movement of the aircraft is sensed and used to ICAO. See International Civil Aviation Organization. keep the position updated. An INS does not require any inputs from outside signals. Ident. Air Traffic Control request for a pilot to push the button on the transponder to identify return on the Initial approach fix (IAF). The fix depicted on IAP charts controller’s scope. where the instrument approach procedure (IAP) begins unless otherwise authorized by ATC. IFR. See instrument flight rules. Inoperative components. Higher minimums are prescribed ILS. See instrument landing system. when the specified visual aids are not functioning; this information is listed in the Inoperative Components Table found ILS categories. Categories of instrument approach in the United States Terminal Procedures Publications. procedures allowed at airports equipped with the following types of instrument landing systems: INS. See inertial navigation system. ILS Category I: Provides for approach to a height Instantaneous vertical speed indicator (IVSI). Assists in above touchdown of not less than 200 feet, and with interpretation by instantaneously indicating the rate of climb runway visual range of not less than 1,800 feet. or descent at a given moment with little or no lag as displayed in a vertical speed indicator (VSI). ILS Category II: Provides for approach to a height above touchdown of not less than 100 feet and with Instrument approach procedures (IAP). A series of runway visual range of not less than 1,200 feet. predetermined maneuvers for the orderly transfer of an aircraft under IFR from the beginning of the initial approach ILS Category IIIA: Provides for approach without to a landing or to a point from which a landing may be a decision height minimum and with runway visual made visually. range of not less than 700 feet. Instrument flight rules (IFR). Rules and regulations ILS Category IIIB: Provides for approach without established by the Federal Aviation Administration to govern a decision height minimum and with runway visual flight under conditions in which flight by outside visual range of not less than 150 feet. reference is not safe. IFR flight depends upon flying by reference to instruments in the flight deck, and navigation is ILS Category IIIC: Provides for approach without a accomplished by reference to electronic signals. decision height minimum and without runway visual range minimum. Instrument landing system (ILS). An electronic system that provides both horizontal and vertical guidance to a IMC. See instrument meteorological conditions. specific runway, used to execute a precision instrument approach procedure. Indicated airspeed (IAS). Shown on the dial of the instrument airspeed indicator on an aircraft. Directly related Instrument meteorological conditions (IMC). to calibrated airspeed (CAS), IAS includes instrument errors Meteorological conditions expressed in terms of visibility, and position error. distance from clouds, and ceiling less than the minimums specified for visual meteorological conditions, requiring Indirect indication. A reflection of aircraft pitch-and-bank operations to be conducted under IFR. attitude by the instruments other than the attitude indicator. Induced drag. Drag caused by the same factors that produce lift; its amount varies inversely with airspeed. As airspeed decreases, the angle of attack must increase, in turn increasing induced drag. G-9

Instrument takeoff. Using the instruments rather than Land as soon as practical. ATC instruction to pilot. The outside visual cues to maintain runway heading and execute landing site and duration of flight are at the discretion of the a safe takeoff. pilot. Extended flight beyond the nearest approved landing area is not recommended. Interference drag. Drag generated by the collision of airstreams creating eddy currents, turbulence, or restrictions Land immediately. ATC instruction to pilot. The urgency to smooth flow. of the landing is paramount. The primary consideration is to ensure the survival of the occupants. Landing in trees, International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). The water, or other unsafe areas should be considered only as United Nations agency for developing the principles and a last resort. techniques of international air navigation, and fostering planning and development of international civil air transport. LDA. See localizer-type directional aid. International standard atmosphere (IAS). A model of Lead radial. The radial at which the turn from the DME arc standard variation of pressure and temperature. to the inbound course is started. Inversion illusion. The feeling that the aircraft is tumbling Leans, the. A physical sensation caused by an abrupt backwards, caused by an abrupt change from climb to straight- correction of a banked attitude entered too slowly to and-level flight while in situations lacking visual reference. stimulate the motion sensing system in the inner ear. The abrupt correction can create the illusion of banking in the Inverter. A solid-state electronic device that converts D.C. opposite direction. into A.C. current of the proper voltage and frequency to operate A.C. gyro instruments. Lift. A component of the total aerodynamic force on an airfoil and acts perpendicular to the relative wind. Isogonic lines. Lines drawn across aeronautical charts to connect points having the same magnetic variation. Lines of flux. Invisible lines of magnetic force passing between the poles of a magnet. IVSI. See instantaneous vertical speed indicator. L/MF. See low or medium frequency. Jet route. A route designated to serve flight operations from 18,000 feet MSL up to and including FL 450. LMM. See locator middle marker. Jet stream. A high-velocity narrow stream of winds, usually Load factor. The ratio of a specified load to the total weight found near the upper limit of the troposphere, which flows of the aircraft. The specified load is expressed in terms of generally from west to east. any of the following: aerodynamic forces, inertial forces, or ground or water reactions. KIAS. Knots indicated airspeed. Loadmeter. A type of ammeter installed between the generator Kollsman window. A barometric scale window of a output and the main bus in an aircraft electrical system. sensitive altimeter used to adjust the altitude for the altimeter setting. LOC. See localizer. LAAS. See local area augmentation system. Local area augmentation system (LAAS). A differential global positioning system (DGPS) that improves the accuracy Lag. The delay that occurs before an instrument needle attains of the system by determining position error from the GPS a stable indication. satellites, then transmitting the error, or corrective factors, to the airborne GPS receiver. Land as soon as possible. ATC instruction to pilot. Land without delay at the nearest suitable area, such as an open field, at which a safe approach and landing is assured. G-10

Localizer (LOC). The portion of an ILS that gives left/right Mandatory altitude. An altitude depicted on an instrument guidance information down the centerline of the instrument approach chart with the altitude value both underscored and runway for final approach. overscored. Aircraft are required to maintain altitude at the depicted value. Localizer-type directional aid (LDA). A NAVAID used for nonprecision instrument approaches with utility and Mandatory block altitude. An altitude depicted on an accuracy comparable to a localizer but which is not a part instrument approach chart with two underscored and of a complete ILS and is not aligned with the runway. Some overscored altitude values between which aircraft are LDAs are equipped with a glide slope. required to maintain altitude. Locator middle marker (LMM). Nondirectional radio MAP. See missed approach point. beacon (NDB) compass locator, collocated with a middle marker (MM). Margin identification. The top and bottom areas on an instrument approach chart that depict information about Locator outer marker (LOM). NDB compass locator, the procedure, including airport location and procedure collocated with an outer marker (OM). identification. LOM. See locator outer marker. Marker beacon. A low-powered transmitter that directs its signal upward in a small, fan-shaped pattern. Used along the Long range navigation (LORAN). An electronic flight path when approaching an airport for landing, marker navigational system by which hyperbolic lines of position beacons indicate both aurally and visually when the aircraft are determined by measuring the difference in the time of is directly over the facility. reception of synchronized pulse signals from two fixed transmitters. LORAN A operates in the 1750 to 1950 kHz Maximum altitude. An altitude depicted on an instrument frequency band. LORAN C and D operate in the 100 to 110 approach chart with overscored altitude value at which or kHz frequency band. below aircraft are required to maintain altitude. LORAN. See long range navigation. Maximum authorized altitude (MAA). A published altitude representing the maximum usable altitude or flight level for Low or medium frequency. A frequency range between an airspace structure or route segment. 190–535 kHz with the medium frequency above 300 kHz. Generally associated with nondirectional beacons MB. See magnetic bearing. transmitting a continuous carrier with either a 400 or 1,020 Hz modulation. MCA. See minimum crossing altitude. Lubber line. The reference line used in a magnetic compass MDA. See minimum descent altitude. or heading indicator. MEA. See minimum en route altitude. MAA. See maximum authorized altitude. Mean sea level. The average height of the surface of the Mach number. The ratio of the true airspeed of the aircraft sea at a particular location for all stages of the tide over a to the speed of sound in the same atmospheric conditions, 19-year period. named in honor of Ernst Mach, late 19th century physicist. MFD. See multi-function display. Mach meter. The instrument that displays the ratio of the speed of sound to the true airspeed an aircraft is flying. MH. See magnetic heading. Magnetic bearing (MB). The direction to or from a radio MHz. Megahertz. transmitting station measured relative to magnetic north. Magnetic heading (MH). The direction an aircraft is pointed with respect to magnetic north. G-11

Microwave landing system (MLS). A precision instrument Minimum vectoring altitude (MVA). An IFR altitude lower approach system operating in the microwave spectrum which than the minimum en route altitude (MEA) that provides normally consists of an azimuth station, elevation station, terrain and obstacle clearance. and precision distance measuring equipment. Minimums section. The area on an IAP chart that displays the Mileage breakdown. A fix indicating a course change lowest altitude and visibility requirements for the approach. that appears on the chart as an “x” at a break between two segments of a federal airway. Missed approach. A maneuver conducted by a pilot when an instrument approach cannot be completed to a landing. Military operations area (MOA). Airspace established for the purpose of separating certain military training activities Missed approach point (MAP). A point prescribed in each from IFR traffic. instrument approach at which a missed approach procedure shall be executed if the required visual reference has not Military training route (MTR). Airspace of defined vertical been established. and lateral dimensions established for the conduct of military training at airspeeds in excess of 250 knots indicated airspeed Mixed ice. A mixture of clear ice and rime ice. (KIAS). MLS. See microwave landing system. Minimum altitude. An altitude depicted on an instrument approach chart with the altitude value underscored. Aircraft are MM. Middle marker. required to maintain altitude at or above the depicted value. MOA. See military operations area. Minimum crossing altitude (MCA). The lowest allowed altitude at certain fixes an aircraft must cross when proceeding MOCA. See minimum obstruction clearance altitude. in the direction of a higher minimum en route altitude (MEA). Mode C. Altitude reporting transponder mode. Minimum descent altitude (MDA). The lowest altitude (in MRA. See minimum reception altitude. feet MSL) to which descent is authorized on final approach, or during circle-to-land maneuvering in execution of a MSA. See minimum safe altitude. nonprecision approach. MSL. See mean sea level. Minimum en route altitude (MEA). The lowest published altitude between radio fixes that ensures acceptable MTR. See military training route. navigational signal coverage and meets obstacle clearance requirements between those fixes. Multi-function display (MFD). Small screen (CRT or LCD) in an aircraft that can be used to display information to the Minimum obstruction clearance altitude (MOCA). The pilot in numerous configurable ways. Often an MFD will be lowest published altitude in effect between radio fixes on VOR used in concert with a Primary Flight Display. airways, off-airway routes, or route segments, which meets obstacle clearance requirements for the entire route segment MVA. See minimum vectoring altitude. and which ensures acceptable navigational signal coverage only within 25 statute (22 nautical) miles of a VOR. NACG. See National Aeronautical Charting Group. Minimum reception altitude (MRA). The lowest altitude NAS. See National Airspace System. at which an airway intersection can be determined. National Airspace System (NAS). The common network of Minimum safe altitude (MSA). The minimum altitude United States airspace—air navigation facilities, equipment depicted on approach charts which provides at least 1,000 feet and services, airports or landing areas; aeronautical charts, of obstacle clearance for emergency use within a specified information and services; rules, regulations and procedures, distance from the listed navigation facility. technical information; and manpower and material. G-12

National Aeronautical Charting Group (NACG). A Notice to Airmen (NOTAM). A notice filed with an aviation Federal agency operating under the FAA, responsible for authority to alert aircraft pilots of any hazards en route or at publishing charts such as the terminal procedures and en a specific location. The authority in turn provides means of route charts. disseminating relevant NOTAMs to pilots. National Route Program (NRP). A set of rules and NRP. See National Route Program. procedures designed to increase the flexibility of user flight planning within published guidelines. NSA. See National Security Area. National Security Area (NSA). Areas consisting of airspace of NTSB. See National Transportation Safety Board. defined vertical and lateral dimensions established at locations where there is a requirement for increased security and safety NWS. National Weather Service. of ground facilities. Pilots are requested to voluntarily avoid flying through the depicted NSA. When it is necessary to Obstacle departure procedures (ODP). Obstacle clearance provide a greater level of security and safety, flight in NSAs protection provided to aircraft in instrument meteorological may be temporarily prohibited. Regulatory prohibitions are conditions (IMC). disseminated via NOTAMs. ODP. See obstacle departure procedures. National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB). A United States Government independent organization responsible for OM. Outer marker. investigations of accidents involving aviation, highways, waterways, pipelines, and railroads in the United States. Omission error. The failure to anticipate significant NTSB is charged by congress to investigate every civil instrument indications following attitude changes; for aviation accident in the United States. example, concentrating on pitch control while forgetting about heading or roll information, resulting in erratic control NAVAID. Naviagtional aid. of heading and bank. NAV/COM. Navigation and communication radio. Optical illusion. A misleading visual image. For the NDB. See nondirectional radio beacon. purpose of this handbook, the term refers to the brain’s NM. Nautical mile. misinterpretation of features on the ground associated with landing, which causes a pilot to misread the spatial relationships between the aircraft and the runway. NOAA. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Orientation. Awareness of the position of the aircraft and of oneself in relation to a specific reference point. No-gyro approach. A radar approach that may be used in case of a malfunctioning gyro-compass or directional gyro. Otolith organ. An inner ear organ that detects linear Instead of providing the pilot with headings to be flown, acceleration and gravity orientation. the controller observes the radar track and issues control instructions “turn right/left” or “stop turn,” as appropriate. Outer marker. A marker beacon at or near the glide slope intercept altitude of an ILS approach. It is normally located Nondirectional radio beacon (NDB). A ground-based radio four to seven miles from the runway threshold on the transmitter that transmits radio energy in all directions. extended centerline of the runway. Nonprecision approach. A standard instrument approach Overcontrolling. Using more movement in the control procedure in which only horizontal guidance is provided. column than is necessary to achieve the desired pitch-and bank condition. No procedure turn (NoPT). Term used with the appropriate course and altitude to denote that the procedure turn is not Overpower. To use more power than required for the purpose required. of achieving a faster rate of airspeed change. NoPT. See no procedure turn. G-13

P-static. See precipitation static. Precipitation static (P-static). A form of radio interference PAPI. See precision approach path indicator. caused by rain, snow, or dust particles hitting the antenna and inducing a small radio-frequency voltage into it. PAR. See precision approach radar. Precision approach. A standard instrument approach procedure in which both vertical and horizontal guidance Parasite drag. Drag caused by the friction of air moving is provided. over the aircraft structure; its amount varies directly with the airspeed. Precision approach path indicator (PAPI). A system of lights similar to the VASI, but consisting of one row of lights PFD. See primary flight display. in two- or four-light systems. A pilot on the correct glide slope will see two white lights and two red lights. See VASI. PIC. See pilot-in-command. Precision approach radar (PAR). A type of radar used Pilot-in-command (PIC). The pilot responsible for the at an airport to guide an aircraft through the final stages of operation and safety of an aircraft. landing, providing horizontal and vertical guidance. The radar operator directs the pilot to change heading or adjust Pilot report (PIREP). Report of meteorological phenomena the descent rate to keep the aircraft on a path that allows it encountered by aircraft. to touch down at the correct spot on the runway. Pilot’s Operating Handbook/Airplane Flight Manual Precision runway monitor (PRM). System allows (POH/AFM). FAA-approved documents published by the simultaneous, independent Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) airframe manufacturer that list the operating conditions for approaches at airports with closely spaced parallel runways. a particular model of aircraft. Preferred IFR routes. Routes established in the major PIREP. See pilot report. terminal and en route environments to increase system efficiency and capacity. IFR clearances are issued based on Pitot pressure. Ram air pressure used to measure airspeed. these routes, listed in the A/FD except when severe weather avoidance procedures or other factors dictate otherwise. Pitot-static head. A combination pickup used to sample pitot pressure and static air pressure. Pressure altitude. Altitude above the standard 29.92\" Hg plane. Plan view. The overhead view of an approach procedure on an instrument approach chart. The plan view depicts the routes Prevailing visibility. The greatest horizontal visibility that guide the pilot from the en route segments to the IAF. equaled or exceeded throughout at least half the horizon circle (which is not necessarily continuous). POH/AFM. See Pilot’s Operating Handbook/Airplane Flight Manual. Primary and supporting. A method of attitude instrument flying using the instrument that provides the most direct Point-in-space approach. A type of helicopter instrument indication of attitude and performance. approach procedure to a missed approach point more than 2,600 feet from an associated helicopter landing area. Primary flight display (PFD). A display that provides increased situational awareness to the pilot by replacing the Position error. Error in the indication of the altimeter, ASI, traditional six instruments used for instrument flight with and VSI caused by the air at the static system entrance not an easy-to-scan display that provides the horizon, airspeed, being absolutely still. altitude, vertical speed, trend, trim, rate of turn among other key relevant indications. Position report. A report over a known location as transmitted by an aircraft to ATC. PRM. See precision runway monitor. Precession. The characteristic of a gyroscope that causes an Procedure turn. A maneuver prescribed when it is necessary applied force to be felt, not at the point of application, but to reverse direction to establish an aircraft on the intermediate 90° from that point in the direction of rotation. approach segment or final approach course. G-14

Profile view. Side view of an IAP chart illustrating the vertical Random RNAV routes. Direct routes, based on area approach path altitudes, headings, distances, and fixes. navigation capability, between waypoints defined in terms of latitude/longitude coordinates, degree-distance fixes, or Prohibited area. Designated airspace within which flight of offsets from established routes/airways at a specified distance aircraft is prohibited. and direction. Propeller/rotor modulation error. Certain propeller RPM Ranging signals. Transmitted from the GPS satellite, these settings or helicopter rotor speeds can cause the VOR course allow the aircraft’s receiver to determine range (distance) deviation indicator (CDI) to fluctuate as much as ±6°. Slight from each satellite. changes to the RPM setting will normally smooth out this roughness. RB. See relative bearing. RBI. See relative bearing indicator. Rabbit, the. High-intensity flasher system installed at many large airports. The flashers consist of a series of brilliant RCO. See remote communications outlet. blue-white bursts of light flashing in sequence along the approach lights, giving the effect of a ball of light traveling Receiver autonomous integrity monitoring (RAIM). towards the runway. A system used to verify the usability of the received GPS signals and warns the pilot of any malfunction in the Radar. Radio Detection And Ranging. navigation system. This system is required for IFR-certified GPS units. Radar approach. The controller provides vectors while monitoring the progress of the flight with radar, guiding Recommended altitude. An altitude depicted on an the pilot through the descent to the airport/heliport or to a instrument approach chart with the altitude value neither specific runway. underscored nor overscored. The depicted value is an advisory value. Radials. The courses oriented from a station. Receiver-transmitter (RT). A system that permits selection Radio or radar altimeter. An electronic altimeter that of a unique channel or frequency whereupon a signal (typically determines the height of an aircraft above the terrain by communication) can be transmitted and received. measuring the time needed for a pulse of radio-frequency energy to travel from the aircraft to the ground and return. Reduced vertical separation minimum (RVSM). Reduces the vertical separation between flight level (FL) 290–410 Radio frequency (RF). A term that refers to alternating from 2,000 feet to 1,000 feet and makes six additional FLs current (AC) having characteristics such that, if the current is available for operation. Also see DRVSM. input to antenna, an electromagnetic (EM) field is generated suitable for wireless broadcasting and/or communications. Reference circle (also, distance circle). The circle depicted in the plan view of an IAP chart that typically has a 10 NM Radio magnetic indicator (RMI). An electronic navigation radius, within which chart the elements are drawn to scale. instrument that combines a magnetic compass card with two bearing pointers (typically). Generally, one pointer is for the Regions of command. The “regions of normal and reversed ADF while the other is for an RNAV or VOR navigation command” refers to the relationship between speed and the system. The pointers are typically different colors and of power required to maintain or change that speed in flight. different widths for ease of identification. Sometimes a function switch is provided to allow the #2 pointer to be REIL. See runway end identifier lights. slaved to either a VOR or RNAV system. The card of the RMI acts as a gyro-stabilized magnetic compass (usually Relative bearing (RB). The angular difference between the corrected for north via a flux valve) and shows the magnetic aircraft heading and the direction to the station, measured heading the aircraft is flying. clockwise from the nose of the aircraft. Radio wave. An electromagnetic wave (EM wave) with Relative bearing indicator (RBI). Also known as the fixed- frequency characteristics useful for radio transmission. card ADF, zero is always indicated at the top of the instrument and the needle indicates the relative bearing to the station. RAIM. See receiver autonomous integrity monitoring. G-15

Relative wind. Direction of the airflow produced by an object Runway visual range (RVR). The instrumentally derived moving through the air. The relative wind for an airplane in horizontal distance a pilot should be able to see down the flight flows in a direction parallel with and opposite to the runway from the approach end, based on either the sighting direction of flight; therefore, the actual flight path of the of high-intensity runway lights, or the visual contrast of airplane determines the direction of the relative wind. other objects. Remote communications outlet (RCO). An unmanned RVR. See runway visual range. communications facility that is remotely controlled by air traffic personnel. RVV. See runway visibility value. Required navigation performance (RNP). A specified level St. Elmo’s Fire. A corona discharge which lights up the aircraft of accuracy defined by a lateral area of confined airspace in surface areas where maximum static discharge occurs. which an RNP-certified aircraft operates. Satellite ephemeris data. Data broadcast by the GPS Restricted area. Airspace designated under 14 CFR part satellite containing very accurate orbital data for that 73 within which the flight of aircraft, while not wholly satellite, atmospheric propagation data, and satellite clock prohibited, is subject to restriction. error data. Reverse sensing. The VOR needle appearing to indicate the Scan. The first fundamental skill of instrument flight, also reverse of normal operation. known as “cross-check;” the continuous and logical observation of instruments for attitude and performance information. RF. Radio frequency. SDF. See simplified directional facility. Rhodopsin. The photosensitive pigments that initiate the visual response in the rods of the eye. Selective availability. A satellite technology permitting the Department of Defense (DOD) to create, in the interest of Rigidity. The characteristic of a gyroscope that prevents its national security, a significant clock and ephemeris error in axis of rotation tilting as the Earth rotates. the satellites, resulting in a navigation error. Rime ice. Rough, milky, opaque ice formed by the Semicircular canal. An inner ear organ that detects angular instantaneous freezing of small supercooled water droplets. acceleration of the body. Risk. The future impact of a hazard that is not eliminated Sensitive altimeter. A form of multipointer pneumatic or controlled. altimeter with an adjustable barometric scale that allows the reference pressure to be set to any desired level. RMI. See radio magnetic indicator. SIDS. See standard instrument departure procedures. RNAV. See area navigation. SIGMET. The acronym for Significant Meteorological RNP. See required navigation performance. information. A weather advisory issued concerning weather significant to the safety of all aircraft. Runway end identifier lights (REIL). A pair of synchronized flashing lights, located laterally on each side of the runway Signal-to-noise ratio. An indication of signal strength threshold, providing rapid and positive identification of the received compared to background noise, which is a measure approach end of a runway. of how adequate the received signal is. Runway visibility value (RVV). The visibility determined for a particular runway by a transmissometer. G-16

Simplex. Transmission and reception on the same Special use airspace. Airspace in which flight activities are frequency. subject to restrictions that can create limitations on the mixed use of airspace. Consists of prohibited, restricted, warning, Simplified directional facility (SDF). A NAVAID used military operations, and alert areas. for nonprecision instrument approaches. The final approach course is similar to that of an ILS localizer; however, the SRM. See single-pilot resource management. SDF course may be offset from the runway, generally not more than 3°, and the course may be wider than the localizer, SSR. See secondary surveillance radar. resulting in a lower degree of accuracy. SSV. See standard service volume. Single-pilot resource management (SRM). The ability for crew or pilot to manage all resources effectively to ensure Standard holding pattern. A holding pattern in which all the outcome of the flight is successful. turns are made to the right. Situational awareness. Pilot knowledge of where the Standard instrument departure procedures (SIDS). aircraft is in regard to location, air traffic control, weather, Published procedures to expedite clearance delivery and to regulations, aircraft status, and other factors that may affect facilitate transition between takeoff and en route operations. flight. Standard rate turn. A turn in which an aircraft changes its Skidding turn. An uncoordinated turn in which the rate of direction at a rate of 3° per second. The turn indicators are turn is too great for the angle of bank, pulling the aircraft to typically 2 minute or 4 minute instruments. In a 2 minute the outside of the turn. instrument, if the needle is one needle width either side of the center alignment mark, the turn is 3° per second and the Skin friction drag. Drag generated between air molecules turn takes 2 minutes to execute a 360° turn. In a 4 minute and the solid surface of the aircraft. instrument, the same turn takes two widths deflection of the needle to achieve 3° per second. The 4 minute turn instrument Slant range. The horizontal distance from the aircraft antenna is usually found on high performance aircraft. to the ground station, due to line-of-sight transmission of the DME signal. Standard service volume (SSV). Defines the limits of the volume of airspace which the VOR serves. Slaved compass. A system whereby the heading gyro is “slaved to,” or continuously corrected to bring its direction Standard terminal arrival route (STAR). A preplanned readings into agreement with a remotely located magnetic IFR ATC arrival procedure published for pilot use in graphic direction sensing device (usually this is a flux valve or flux and/or textual form. gate compass). STAR. See standard terminal arrival route. Slipping turn. An uncoordinated turn in which the aircraft is banked too much for the rate of turn, so the horizontal lift Static longitudinal stability. The aerodynamic pitching component is greater than the centrifugal force, pulling the moments required to return the aircraft to the equilibrium aircraft toward the inside of the turn. angle of attack. Small airplane. An airplane of 12,500 pounds or less Static pressure. Pressure of air that is still, or not moving, maximum certificated takeoff weight. measured perpendicular to the surface of the aircraft. Somatogravic illusion. The misperception of being Steep turns. In instrument flight, any turn greater than standard in a nose-up or nose-down attitude, caused by a rapid rate; in visual flight, anything greater than a 45° bank. acceleration or deceleration while in flight situations that lack visual reference. Stepdown fix. The point after which additional descent is permitted within a segment of an IAP. Spatial disorientation. The state of confusion due to misleading information being sent to the brain from various Strapdown system. An INS in which the accelerometers sensory organs, resulting in a lack of awareness of the aircraft and gyros are permanently “strapped down” or aligned with position in relation to a specific reference point. the three axes of the aircraft. G-17

Stress. The body’s response to demands placed upon it. Tension. Maintaining an excessively strong grip on the control column, usually resulting in an overcontrolled situation. Structural icing. The accumulation of ice on the exterior of the aircraft. Terminal Instrument Approach Procedure (TERP). Prescribes standardized methods for use in designing Suction relief valve. A relief valve in an instrument vacuum instrument flight procedures. system required to maintain the correct low pressure inside the instrument case for the proper operation of the gyros. Terminal arrival area (TAA). A procedure to provide a new transition method for arriving aircraft equipped with Synchro. A device used to transmit indications of angular FMS and/or GPS navigational equipment. The TAA contains movement or position from one location to another. a “T” structure that normally provides a NoPT for aircraft using the approach. Synthetic vision. A realistic display depiction of the aircraft in relation to terrain and flight path. TERP. See terminal instrument approach procedure. TAA. See terminal arrival area. Terrain Awareness and Warning System (TAWS). A timed-based system that provides information concerning TACAN. See tactical air navigation. potential hazards with fixed objects by using GPS positioning and a database of terrain and obstructions to provide true Tactical air navigation (TACAN). An electronic navigation predictability of the upcoming terrain and obstacles. system used by military aircraft, providing both distance and direction information. TFR. See temporary flight restriction. TAWS. See terrain awareness and warning system. Threshold crossing height (TCH). The theoretical height above the runway threshold at which the aircraft’s glide TCAS. See traffic alert collision avoidance system. slope antenna would be if the aircraft maintains the trajectory established by the mean ILS glide slope or MLS glide path. TCH. See threshold crossing height. Thrust (aerodynamic force). The forward aerodynamic TDZE. See touchdown zone elevation. force produced by a propeller, fan, or turbojet engine as it forces a mass of air to the rear, behind the aircraft. TEC. See Tower En Route Control. Time and speed table. A table depicted on an instrument Technique. The manner in which procedures are executed. approach procedure chart that identifies the distance from the FAF to the MAP, and provides the time required to transit Temporary flight restriction (TFR). Restriction to flight that distance based on various groundspeeds. imposed in order to: Timed turn. A turn in which the clock and the turn 1. Protect persons and property in the air or on the coordinator are used to change heading a definite number of surface from an existing or imminent flight associated degrees in a given time. hazard; TIS. See traffic information service. 2. Provide a safe environment for the operation of disaster relief aircraft; Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR). The federal aviation regulations governing the operation of 3. Prevent an unsafe congestion of sightseeing aircraft aircraft, airways, and airmen. above an incident; Touchdown zone elevation (TDZE). The highest elevation 4. Protect the President, Vice President, or other public in the first 3,000 feet of the landing surface, TDZE is figures; and, indicated on the instrument approach procedure chart when straight-in landing minimums are authorized. 5. Provide a safe environment for space agency operations. Pilots are expected to check appropriate NOTAMs during flight planning when conducting flight in an area where a temporary flight restriction is in effect. G-18

Tower En Route Control (TEC). The control of IFR en route Uncaging. Unlocking the gimbals of a gyroscopic instrument, traffic within delegated airspace between two or more adjacent making it susceptible to damage by abrupt flight maneuvers approach control facilities, designed to expedite traffic and or rough handling. reduce control and pilot communication requirements. Underpower. Using less power than required for the purpose TPP. See United States Terminal Procedures Publication. of achieving a faster rate of airspeed change. Tracking. Flying a heading that will maintain the desired track United States Terminal Procedures Publication (TPP). to or from the station regardless of crosswind conditions. Booklets published in regional format by the NACO that include DPs, STARs, IAPs, and other information pertinent Traffic Alert Collision Avoidance System (TCAS). to IFR flight. An airborne system developed by the FAA that operates independently from the ground-based Air Traffic Control Unusual attitude. An unintentional, unanticipated, or system. Designed to increase flight deck awareness of extreme aircraft attitude. proximate aircraft and to serve as a “last line of defense” for the prevention of mid-air collisions. User-defined waypoints. Waypoint location and other data which may be input by the user, this is the only GPS database Traffic information service (TIS). A ground-based service information that may be altered (edited) by the user. providing information to the flight deck via data link using the S-mode transponder and altitude encoder to improve the Variation. Compass error caused by the difference in safety and efficiency of “see and avoid” flight through an the physical locations of the magnetic north pole and the automatic display that informs the pilot of nearby traffic. geographic north pole. Transcribed Weather Broadcast (TWEB). Meteorological VASI. See visual approach slope indicator. and aeronautical data recorded on tapes and broadcast over selected NAVAIDs. Generally, the broadcast contains route- VDP. See visual descent point. oriented data with specially prepared NWS forecasts, inflight advisories, and winds aloft. It also includes selected current Vectoring. Navigational guidance by assigning headings. information such as weather reports (METAR/SPECI), NOTAMs, and special notices. Venturi tube. A specially shaped tube attached to the outside of an aircraft to produce suction to allow proper operation Transponder. The airborne portion of the ATC radar of gyro instruments. beacon system. Vertical speed indicator (VSI). A rate-of-pressure change Transponder code. One of 4,096 four-digit discrete codes instrument that gives an indication of any deviation from a ATC assigns to distinguish between aircraft. constant pressure level. Trend. Immediate indication of the direction of aircraft Very-high frequency (VHF). A band of radio frequencies movement, as shown on instruments. falling between 30 and 300 MHz. Trim. Adjusting the aerodynamic forces on the control Very-high frequency omnidirectional range (VOR). surfaces so that the aircraft maintains the set attitude without Electronic navigation equipment in which the flight deck any control input. instrument identifies the radial or line from the VOR station, measured in degrees clockwise from magnetic north, along TWEB. See Transcribed Weather Broadcast. which the aircraft is located. True airspeed. Actual airspeed, determined by applying a Vestibule. The central cavity of the bony labyrinth of the ear, correction for pressure altitude and temperature to the CAS. or the parts of the membranous labyrinth that it contains. UHF. See ultra-high frequency. VFR. See visual flight rules. Ultra-high frequency (UHF). The range of electromagnetic VFR-on-top. ATC authorization for an IFR aircraft to operate frequencies between 962 MHz and 1213 MHz. in VFR conditions at any appropriate VFR altitude. G-19

VFR over-the-top. A VFR operation in which an aircraft VSI. See vertical speed indicator. operates in VFR conditions on top of an undercast. WAAS. See wide area augmentation system. Victor airways. Airways based on a centerline that extends from one VOR or VORTAC navigation aid or intersection, Warning area. An area containing hazards to any aircraft to another navigation aid (or through several navigation aids not participating in the activities being conducted in the or intersections); used to establish a known route for en route area. Warning areas may contain intensive military training, procedures between terminal areas. gunnery exercises, or special weapons testing. Visual approach slope indicator (VASI). A visual aid of Waypoint. A designated geographical location used for route lights arranged to provide descent guidance information definition or progress-reporting purposes and is defined in during the approach to the runway. A pilot on the correct terms of latitude/longitude coordinates. glide slope will see red lights over white lights. WCA. See wind correction angle. Visual descent point (VDP). A defined point on the final approach course of a nonprecision straight-in approach Weather and radar processor (WARP). A device that procedure from which normal descent from the MDA to the provides real-time, accurate, predictive and strategic weather runway touchdown point may be commenced, provided the information presented in an integrated manner in the National runway environment is clearly visible to the pilot. Airspace System (NAS). Visual flight rules (VFR). Flight rules adopted by the Weight. The force exerted by an aircraft from the pull of FAA governing aircraft flight using visual references. VFR gravity. operations specify the amount of ceiling and the visibility the pilot must have in order to operate according to these rules. Wide area augmentation system (WAAS). A differential When the weather conditions are such that the pilot can not global positioning system (DGPS) that improves the accuracy operate according to VFR, he or she must use instrument of the system by determining position error from the GPS flight rules (IFR). satellites, then transmitting the error, or corrective factors, to the airborne GPS receiver. Visual meteorological conditions (VMC). Meteorological conditions expressed in terms of visibility, distance from Wind correction angle (WCA). The angle between the cloud, and ceiling meeting or exceeding the minimums desired track and the heading of the aircraft necessary to specified for VFR. keep the aircraft tracking over the desired track. VMC. See visual meteorological conditions. Wind shear. A change in wind speed and/or wind direction in a short distance. VOR. See very-high frequency omnidirectional range. Work. A measurement of force used to produce movement. VORTAC. A facility consisting of two components, VOR and TACAN, which provides three individual services: VOR Zone of confusion. Volume of space above the station where azimuth, TACAN azimuth, and TACAN distance (DME) at a lack of adequate navigation signal directly above the VOR one site. station causes the needle to deviate. VOR test facility (VOT). A ground facility which emits a test signal to check VOR receiver accuracy. Some VOTs are available to the user while airborne, while others are limited to ground use only. VOT. See VOR test facility. G-20

Index A angle of attack.................................................................4-2 applying the four-step process......................................6-20 acceleration error..........................................................5-13 approach azimuth guidance..........................................9-43 acceleration in cruise flight...........................................4-10 approach control advances...........................................2-12 adf components............................................................9-3 advanced technologies..................................................9-24 precision runway monitor (prm).............................2-12 advanced technology systems.......................................5-28 prm benefits.............................................................2-13 aerodynamic factors................................................ 4-1, 5-1 prm radar.................................................................2-12 aerodynamics..................................................................4-2 approach control facility...............................................2-12 aeronautical information manual (aim).............. 1-1, 10-2 approaches..................................................................10-13 aircraft control................................................................8-3 lighting systems (als).............................................9-38 to airport with an operating tower...........................10-15 during instrument flight...............................................6-3 to airport without an operating control aircraft system malfunctions.........................................11-3 tower. ...................................................................... 10-13 air data computer (adc)..............................................5-22 to parallel runways..................................................10-20 airplane trim....................................................................6-8 to stall........................................................................7-26 airport/facility directory (a/fd)...................................10-2 area navigation (rnav)...............................................9-22 airport sketch/airport diagram......................................1-27 atc inflight weather avoidance assistance..................2-11 air route traffic control center (artcc)........................2-7 atc radar weather displays.........................................2-11 airspace classification.....................................................1-2 atc reports..................................................................10-7 atc towers....................................................................2-5 Class A........................................................................1-2 atmosphere......................................................................4-4 Class C........................................................................1-2 layers of the atmosphere.............................................4-5 Class D........................................................................1-2 attitude and heading reference system (ahrs)...........5-22 Class E........................................................................1-2 attitude control................................................................6-3 Class G........................................................................1-2 attitude direction indicator (adi).................................5-23 airspeed...........................................................................5-9 attitude indicator... 5-19, 6-4, 7-2, 7-6, 7-34, 7-37, 8-3, 8-5 indicated airspeed (ias).............................................5-9 attitude instrument flying calibrated airspeed (cas)...........................................5-9 fundamental skills.....................................................6-24 equivalent airspeed (eas)..........................................5-9 primary and supporting method................................6-21 mach number.............................................................5-10 using the control and performance method.................6-2 true airspeed (tas).....................................................5-9 using the primary and supporting method..................6-4 airspeed changes automated flight service stations (afss).......................2-4 common errors..........................................................8-10 automatic dependent surveillance—broadcast in straight-and-level flight............................... 7-11, 7-40 (ads-b). ...................................................................... 5-28 airspeed color codes.....................................................5-10 autopilot systems..........................................................5-25 airspeed indicator (ASI). 5-8, 6-6, 6-8, 6-10, 7-6, 7-37, 8-5 usage. ........................................................................ 7-58 air traffic control (atc).................................................2-1 autorotations.................................................................8-17 alternator/generator failure...........................................11-5 common errors..........................................................8-17 altimeter................................................6-10, 7-3, 7-36, 8-4 aviation magnetic compass...........................................5-10 enhancements (encoding)............................................5-7 analog instrument failure..............................................11-7 analog pictorial displays...............................................5-23 I-1

B departures and instrument departure procedures (dps)..........................................................9-31 bank..............................................................................7-25 departures from airports without an operating control bank control........................... 6-4, 6-7, 6-20, 7-6, 7-37, 8-5 tower.............................................................................10-7 blockage of the pitot-static system.................................5-2 descents............................................................... 7-16, 7-49 differential global positioning systems (dgps)...........9-32 pitot system.................................................................5-2 distance measuring equipment (dme).........................9-17 static system................................................................5-3 arc..............................................................................9-17 C components .............................................................9-17 function.....................................................................9-17 cancelling ifr flight plans............................................10-3 holding....................................................................10-13 center approach/departure control..................................2-7 disturbances to radio wave reception.............................9-3 certified checkpoints.....................................................9-16 diving or rolling beyond the vertical plane.....................3-8 change of airspeed diving while turning.......................................................3-8 drag.................................................................................4-3 during turns...............................................................7-24 induced drag................................................................4-3 in turns......................................................................8-14 parasite drag................................................................4-3 circling approaches.....................................................10-20 skin friction drag.........................................................4-3 patterns......................................................................7-32 interference drag.........................................................4-3 clearances. .................................................................... 10-3 form drag.....................................................................4-4 separations.................................................................10-4 drag curves......................................................................4-6 climbing and descending turns........................... 7-24, 8-15 dry air vacuum pump....................................................5-17 climbing while accelerating............................................3-8 dynamic pressure type instruments................................5-8 climbing while turning...................................................3-8 climbs................................................................. 4-10, 7-14 E common cross-check errors..........................................6-11 communication equipment.............................................2-2 ears..................................................................................3-4 communication facilities................................................2-4 electrical systems..........................................................5-17 communication/navigation system malfunction...........11-8 electronic flight display malfunction............................11-4 communication procedures.............................................2-4 electronic flight instrument systems.............................5-27 compass locator............................................................9-38 emergencies..................................................................8-16 compass turns............................................ 7-21, 7-53, 8-15 engine instruments..........................................................6-8 compliance with published standard instrument en route procedures.......................................................10-7 approach procedures...................................................10-13 errors during compass turns..........................................7-26 conducting an ifr flight.............................................10-26 establishing a standard rate turn...................................7-51 constant airspeed climb eyes.................................................................................3-2 from cruise airspeed..................................................7-46 from established airspeed..........................................7-47 F constant rate climbs......................................................7-47 control and performance method..................................6-18 federal airways................................................................1-4 control instruments............................................... 6-2, 6-18 filing in flight................................................................10-2 control sequence...........................................................2-13 flags or other signal strength indicators........................9-11 coping with spatial disorientation...................................3-8 flight director system (fds).........................................5-23 course deviation indicator (cdi)..................................9-11 flight instruments.................................................. 4-16, 8-2 course interception........................................................9-14 flight management systems (fms)............ 5-26, 5-27, 9-44 course reversal elements in plan view and profile view..............................................................................1-20 function.....................................................................9-46 procedure turns..........................................................1-20 flight services station (FFS)............................................2-4 holding in lieu of procedure turn..............................1-20 flightpath.........................................................................4-2 teardrop procedure....................................................1-21 flight support systems...................................................5-22 flux gate compass system.............................................5-15 D four forces.......................................................................4-2 density altitude................................................................4-5 drag. ............................................................................ 4-3 departure procedures (dps)................................ 1-12, 10-5 lift........................................................................ 4-2, 4-6 I-2

thrust. .......................................................................... 4-3 ifr flight plan...............................................................10-2 weight..........................................................................4-3 ifr flight using gps....................................................9-28 function of adf.............................................................9-4 illusions leading to spatial disorientation.......................3-5 inadvertent icing encounter..........................................11-2 G inadvertent thunderstorm encounter.............................11-2 inertial navigation system (ins)...................................9-34 glideslope (gs).............................................................9-37 global navigation satellite system (gnss)...................9-24 ins components........................................................9-34 global positioning system (gps)........................ 5-27, 9-25 ins errors..................................................................9-34 inoperative components................................................1-27 components...............................................................9-25 instrument approach capabilities..................................9-32 errors.........................................................................9-31 instrument approaches to civil airports.......................10-13 function.....................................................................9-26 instrument approach procedure charts..........................1-12 instrument approaches..............................................9-29 margin identification.................................................1-12 nearest airport function.............................................11-9 pilot briefing..............................................................1-16 substitution................................................................9-27 plan view...................................................................1-16 substitution for adf or dme...................................9-27 instrument approach procedure (iap)..........................1-12 ground proximity warning system (gpws).................5-34 approach systems......................................................9-35 ground wave...................................................................9-2 cross-check............................................... 6-10, 6-24, 8-2 gyroscopic instruments.................................................5-19 instrument flight..............................................................8-2 gyroscopic systems.......................................................5-16 instrument flight patterns.................................... 7-30, 7-61 instrument flying common errors.................................6-27 H emphasis....................................................................6-28 fixation......................................................................6-27 heading. ........................................................................ 7-44 omission....................................................................6-28 heading indicator................. 5-19, 6-7, 6-10, 7-7, 7-38, 8-6 instrument interpretation...................................... 6-13, 8-3 head-up display (hud)...................................... 5-34, 9-46 instrument landing systems (ils).................................9-35 height above landing (hal).........................................1-27 airborne components.................................................9-38 helicopter trim..............................................................6-10 components...............................................................9-35 holding instructions....................................................10-10 errors.........................................................................9-40 holding procedures.....................................................10-10 function.....................................................................9-40 homing............................................................................9-5 instrument takeoff...................................... 7-29, 7-60, 8-17 horizontal situation indicator (hsi).................... 5-23, 7-38 common errors....................................... 7-29, 7-61, 8-18 how radio waves propagate............................................9-2 instrument weather flying...........................................10-22 how to prevent landing errors due to optical illusions...3-9 integrated flight control system....................................5-25 intercepting bearings......................................................9-8 I intercepting lead radials................................................9-18 International Civil Aviation Organization (icao)........1-1 iap minimums............................................................10-21 international standard atmosphere (isa)........................4-5 icao cold temperature error table.................................5-5 intersections....................................................................1-7 icing..............................................................................4-13 inverted-V cross-check.................................................6-11 antenna icing.............................................................4-17 L clear ice.....................................................................4-13 effects of icing on critical aircraft systems...............4-16 landing........................................................................10-22 general effects of icing on airfoils............................4-14 landing minimums........................................................1-23 induction icing..........................................................4-13 large airplanes...............................................................4-10 mixed ice...................................................................4-14 law of inertia, the............................................................4-4 propeller icing...........................................................4-16 law of momentum, the....................................................4-4 rime ice......................................................................4-14 law of reaction, the.........................................................4-4 structural icing.............................................. 4-13, 10-23 learning methods.................................................. 6-2, 6-16 ifr en route charts.........................................................1-6 letters of agreement (loa)..........................................2-15 airport information......................................................1-6 charted ifr altitudes...................................................1-6 navigation features......................................................1-7 I-3

leveling off.......................................................... 7-16, 7-17 O load factor.....................................................................4-12 local area augmentation system (laas)......................9-33 obstacle departure procedures (odp)................. 1-12, 10-5 localizer........................................................................9-35 omnibearing selector (obs).........................................9-11 localizer type directional aid (lda).............................9-43 operating on the main battery............................. 11-5, 11-6 loss of alternator/generator for electronic flight operational errors of adf..............................................9-8 instrumentation.............................................................11-5 optical illusions...............................................................3-9 M featureless terrain illusion...........................................3-9 fog................................................................... 3-9, 10-24 magnetic compass................................................. 5-10, 6-7 ground lighting illusions.............................................3-9 acceleration error......................................................5-13 haze.............................................................................3-9 construction...............................................................5-11 runway width illusion.................................................3-9 deviation....................................................................5-12 runway and terrain slopes illusion..............................3-9 induced errors............................................................5-11 water refraction...........................................................3-9 northerly turning errors.............................................5-13 other routing...................................................................1-5 oscillation error.........................................................5-14 southerly turning errors.............................................5-13 P theory of operations..................................................5-11 variation....................................................................5-12 partial panel flight.........................................................7-36 performance instruments...................................... 6-2, 6-19 magnetism.....................................................................5-10 pitch.................................................................... 7-25, 7-43 marker beacons................................................... 9-37, 9-40 pitch attitude instrument cross-check.............................6-7 master battery switch....................................................11-5 pitch control......................... 6-4, 6-20, 6-22, 7-2, 7-34, 8-3 maximum allowable airspeed.......................................5-10 pitch/power relationship.................................................4-6 microwave landing system (mls)...............................9-43 pitot/static instruments....................................................5-3 missed approaches......................................................10-21 pitot/static system failure..............................................11-8 multi-function display (mfd)......................................5-28 pitot/static systems..........................................................5-2 planning the descent and approach...............................10-8 N pneumatic system failure..............................................11-7 pneumatic systems........................................................5-17 National Aeronautical Navigation Services poh/afm....................................................................10-2 (aeronav services)..................................................10-2 point in space approach................................................1-27 National Airspace System (nas)...................................1-1 position reports.............................................................10-7 navaids............................................................................1-7 postural considerations...................................................3-7 navigating the mfd page groups...............................11-10 power.................................................................. 7-26, 7-45 nearest airport page group.......................................11-10 control....................................... 6-4, 6-8, 6-21, 7-8, 7-39 nearest airports page soft keys................................11-10 control during straight-and-level flight.......................8-7 nearest airports using the mfd...............................11-10 settings.............................................................. 7-9, 7-39 nearest airports using the pfd..................................11-9 sources.......................................................................5-17 navigation/communication equipment...........................2-2 precipitation static........................................................11-3 navigation instruments.......................................... 6-2, 6-19 precision approaches....................................................1-23 ndb components...........................................................9-3 preferred ifr..................................................................1-5 nerves..............................................................................3-5 pressure altitude..............................................................4-5 Newton’s First Law........................................................4-4 pressure indicating systems..........................................5-17 Newton’s Second Law....................................................4-4 primary bank.................................................................6-23 Newton’s Third Law.......................................................4-4 primary flight display (pfd)........................................5-27 nondirectional radio beacon (ndb)...............................9-3 primary pitch................................................................6-22 nonprecision approaches..............................................1-23 primary power..............................................................6-24 nose-high attitudes........................................................7-27 primary yaw..................................................................6-23 nose-low attitudes.........................................................7-28 procedural steps in using control and performance........6-2 Notices to Airmen Publication (ntap).......................10-2 procedure turn...............................................................7-30 I-4

R stall warning systems....................................................4-17 standard 45° procedure turn..........................................7-30 racetrack pattern...........................................................7-30 standard entry procedures...........................................10-11 radar................................................................................2-3 standard holding pattern (no wind).............................10-10 radar and transponders....................................................2-3 standard holding pattern (with wind).........................10-10 standard instrument departures.....................................10-5 Mode C (altitude reporting)........................................2-3 standard rate turns............................................... 7-19, 7-51 radar approaches.........................................................10-15 standard terminal arrival routes (stars).......... 1-12, 10-9 radar-controlled departures...........................................10-5 standby battery..............................................................11-6 radar limitations............................................................9-48 static pressure.................................................................5-2 radar monitoring of instrument approaches................10-18 station passage................................................................9-5 radar navigation (ground-based)...................................9-46 steep turns........................................................... 7-22, 7-53 radio altimeters.............................................................5-29 straight-and-level flight........................6-22, 7-2, 7-34, 8-3 radio principles...............................................................9-2 recognizing unusual attitudes.......................................7-27 common errors......................................... 7-12, 7-43, 8-7 recovery from unusual attitudes...................................7-27 straight climbs and descents............................... 7-14, 7-46 rectangular cross-check................................................6-11 reduced vertical separation minimum (rvsm).............5-7 common errors....................................... 7-17, 7-50, 8-13 regions of command.......................................................4-7 straight climbs (constant airspeed and constant rate)...8-10 straight descents (constant airspeed and control characteristics.................................................4-7 constant rate) ..............................................................8-12 relative wind...................................................................4-2 substitutes for inoperative or unusable components...10-10 remote indicating compass...........................................5-15 synthetic vision.............................................................5-28 required navigation instrument system inspection.......5-36 systems preflight procedures........................................5-36 required navigation performance..................................9-44 reversal of motion...........................................................3-8 T rnav instrument approach charts..............................1-30 route information..........................................................1-10 tailplane stall symptoms...............................................4-16 teardrop patterns...........................................................7-31 S techniques for electrical usage............................ 11-5, 11-6 temporary flight restrictions (tfrs)..............................1-4 safety systems...............................................................5-29 terminal arrival area (taa)..........................................1-18 scanning techniques......................................................6-24 terminal procedures publications..................................1-12 selected radial cross-check................................. 6-11, 6-24 sensitive altimeter...........................................................5-3 departure procedures.................................................1-12 marginal identification..............................................1-12 altimeter errors............................................................5-4 standard terminal arrival routes................................1-12 cold weather altimeter errors......................................5-5 terminal radar approach control (tracon).................2-6 inherent altimeter error...............................................5-5 terrain alerting systems.................................................5-34 principle of operation..................................................5-3 terrain awareness and warning system (taws)..........5-34 sensory systems for orientation......................................3-2 the four-step process used to change attitude...............6-19 servo failure..................................................................8-17 adjust.........................................................................6-20 side-step maneuver.....................................................10-20 cross-check................................................................6-20 simplified directional facility (sdf).............................9-42 establish.....................................................................6-19 situational awareness..................................................11-11 trim............................................................................6-20 sky wave.........................................................................9-2 tilting to right or left.......................................................3-8 slip/skid indicator.........................................................7-39 timed approaches from a holding fix..........................10-18 slow-speed flight.............................................................4-8 timed turns................................................. 7-21, 7-53, 8-13 small airplanes................................................................4-9 time factors.................................................................10-12 sources of flight planning information.........................10-2 tower en route control (tec)................................. 1-6, 2-7 space wave......................................................................9-2 tracking...........................................................................9-5 spatial disorientation........................................ 3-2, 3-5, 3-7 tracking to and from the station....................................9-14 special use airspace.........................................................1-2 traditional navigation systems........................................9-3 speed stability.................................................................4-8 traffic advisory systems................................................5-29 normal command........................................................4-8 traffic alert and collision avoidance system (tcas)....5-30 reversed command......................................................4-8 I-5

traffic alert systems.......................................................5-30 visual illusions................................................................3-7 traffic avoidance.........................................................11-12 false horizon................................................................3-7 traffic avoidance systems..............................................5-30 autokinesis...................................................................3-7 traffic information system.............................................5-29 transponders....................................................................2-3 vor accuracy..............................................................9-16 trim.....................................................4-8, 6-20, 7-26, 7-45 vor components.........................................................9-10 vor/dme rnav.......................................................9-22 control.........................................................................6-8 technique......................................................... 7-12, 7-43 components...............................................................9-23 turn-and-slip indicator.......................................... 5-20, 7-8 function.....................................................................9-23 turn coordinator.................................................... 5-21, 7-7 errors.........................................................................9-24 turn coordinator/turn-and-slip indicator.........................6-8 vsi tape........................................................................7-36 turn indicator........................................................ 5-20, 8-7 turn rate indicator.........................................................7-38 W turns..................................................4-10, 7-19, 7-51, 8-13 common errors................................................ 7-25, 8-15 weather avoidance assistance.......................................2-11 coordination of rudder and aileron controls..............4-11 weather conditions......................................................10-22 radius of turn.............................................................4-11 rate of turn.................................................................4-11 thunderstorms..........................................................10-24 turns to predetermined headings................ 7-20, 7-52, 8-13 turbulence................................................................10-22 volcanic ash.............................................................10-24 U wind shear...............................................................10-25 weather information and communication features.......1-10 unforecast adverse weather...........................................11-2 wet-type vacuum pump................................................5-17 unusual attitude recovery protection............................7-55 wide area augmentation system (waas)....................9-32 unusual attitudes...........................................................8-16 wind shear...................................................................10-25 unusual attitudes and recoveries...................................7-26 windshields...................................................................4-17 common errors........................................... 7-28, 7-58, 8-16 wing................................................................................4-2 V vacuum pump systems..................................................5-17 venturi tube systems.....................................................5-17 vertical card magnetic compass....................................5-15 vertical descent angle (vda).......................................1-23 vertical speed indicator (vsi)...................5-8, 6-5, 7-4, 8-5 very high frequency omnidirectional range (vor)........9-8 function.....................................................................9-11 operational errors......................................................9-14 receiver accuracy check............................................9-16 test facility (vot).....................................................9-16 vestibular illusions..........................................................3-5 coriolis illusion............................................................3-6 elevator illusion...........................................................3-6 graveyard spiral...........................................................3-6 inversion illusion.........................................................3-6 leans, the.....................................................................3-5 somatogravic illusion..................................................3-6 vfr-on-top.................................................................10-26 vfr over-the-top........................................................10-26 visibility figures............................................................1-23 vision under dim and bright illumination.......................3-3 I-6