Fundamentals of Research

Lectures Notes with compilation of notes and some excerpt from several references’ books. Suitable for beginner level researcher with some knowledge in statistics. Only for the usage in respective lectures. 1

Table of Contents 1 INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH...................................................... 6 1.1 Research...................................................................................... 6 1.2 Purpose of Research................................................................... 6 1.3 Limitations................................................................................... 7 1.4 Research Ethics........................................................................... 8 1.5 Terms & Definitions..................................................................... 8 2 OVERVIEW OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS .....................................13 2.1 Stages in The Research Process ...............................................13 2.2 Problem Definition .....................................................................13 2.2.1 The starting point ..............................................................14 2.2.1 Writing the problem statement ........................................15 2.2.2 Searching for existing literature .......................................17 2.3 Reviewing the Literature .......................................................21 2.2.1 Reading an article ............................................................ 22 2.2.2 Writing the literature review ............................................ 26 2.3 APA Format ............................................................................... 27 2.4 Referencing................................................................................31 3 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ......................................................... 32 3.1 The Need for Theoretical Framework ...................................... 32 3.2 The Components of Theoretical Framework ...........................33 3.3 Variables....................................................................................34 3.3.1 Dependent Variables........................................................34 3.3.2 Independent Variables .....................................................34 3.4 Identifying the Research Problem............................................34 3.5 Stating the Research Questions............................................... 35 3.6 Identifying the Research Hypothesis ....................................... 35 3.6.1 Statement of hypotheses formats ...................................36 3.7 Identifying the Research Objective.......................................... 37 2

3.8 Example.....................................................................................39 3.8.1 Descriptive study..............................................................39 3.8.2 Correlational studies ........................................................40 3.8.3 Hypothesis Testing studies..............................................40 3.8.4 From ideas to functional concept in research .................41 4 RESEARCH DESIGN .......................................................................45 4.1 Types of research: application perspective ............................46 4.2 Types of research: objectives perspective .............................. 47 4.2.1 Descriptive study.............................................................. 47 4.2.2 correlational study ...........................................................48 4.2.3 Explanatory research .......................................................48 4.2.4 Exploratory research ........................................................49 4.3 Types of research: mode of enquiry perspective.....................51 4.3.1 Experimental Research .................................................... 52 4.3.2 Quantitative & Qualitative Research ............................... 53 4.4 The Timing of Research ............................................................ 53 4.4.1 Cross-sectional research ................................................. 53 4.4.2 Longitudinal research ...................................................... 53 5 SAMPLING DESIGN........................................................................ 55 5.1 Selecting The Sampling Design ............................................... 55 5.2 Choose Point in Sampling Design............................................ 57 5.3 Type of Sampling Technique ................................................... 57 5.3.1 Probability sampling Techniques .................................... 58 5.3.2 Non-probability Sampling Strategies ..............................59 5.3.3 Differences between probability and non-probability sampling techniques ............................................................................ 60 5.3.4 When to use non-probability sampling ........................... 61 5.4 Sample Size............................................................................... 62 6 ERRORS IN SURVEY RESEARCH....................................................63 6.1 Total Survey Error .....................................................................63 6.2 Random Sampling Error ...........................................................63 6.3 Non Sampling Error (Systematic Error)....................................64 6.3.1 Selection bias: ..................................................................65 3

6.3.2 Respondent error .............................................................66 6.3.3 Response bias...................................................................66 6.3.4 Administrative error ......................................................... 67 6.3.5 Testing Goodness of Data................................................68 7 SOURCES OF DATA ........................................................................71 7.1 Type of Data Sources.................................................................71 7.2 Method of Collecting Data ........................................................71 7.3 Secondary Data......................................................................... 75 7.3.1 Sources of secondary data .............................................. 75 8 SURVEY INSTRUMENT ................................................................... 77 8.1 DESIGNING A QUESTIONNAIRE ........................................... 78 8.1.1 Open-ended question: ..................................................... 79 8.1.2 Close-ended question:..................................................... 79 8.1.1 Rating scales.....................................................................80 9 DATA MANAGEMENT.....................................................................83 9.1 Preparation Stages....................................................................83 9.1.1 Data coding ......................................................................83 9.1.2 Data entry .........................................................................83 9.1.3 Data Editing ......................................................................83 10 DATA ANALYSIS.............................................................................86 10.1 Descriptive Statistics............................................................ 87 10.2 Inferential Statistics..............................................................89 11 AN OVERVIEW IN REPORT WRITING ............................................. 92 12 REFERENCES .................................................................................96 4

PREFACE Readers of this book are assumed to have basic knowledge in Statistics especially in terms and definitions. Chapter One is the review of several important terms and discussions about research in general. Meanwhile, Chapter Two is the research process which focuses more on validating ideas and research interest by reviewing and analyzing the previous studies in order to come out with a literature review. APA style format for citations and also ways on how to embed the citations into the paragraphs are also introduced. Next, Chapter Three discusses on the development of the framework based on the literature review in Chapter Two. The readers also can learn about types of research design in Chapter Four. Chapter Five is about the sampling design that is appropriate with the research objectives is chosen. Next, Chapter Six discusses the possible errors can be identified in a research. Then, Chapter Seven informs about two types of data which are primary and secondary data. Followed by Chapter Eight which highlights the types of instrument to collect the data. Meanwhile, Chapter Nine illustrates the ways in dealing with the data. Lastly, Chapter Ten focuses on the data analysis. “The important thing is not to stop questioning. Curiosity has its own reason for existing.” – Albert Einstein Regards, Suriyati Ujang 4th draft – March 2021 5

1 INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH What you’ll learn in this chapter: • How research is defined and what some of its purposes • The characteristics of a good research 1.1 Research Research is an organized process through which new knowledge is discovered. Data, information and facts are gathered for the advancement of knowledge by performing a methodical study in order to prove a hypothesis or answer a specific question of the occurrence problem. Research is also a process of finding solutions to a problem after a thorough study and analysis of the situational factors have been done. Definition Research is an organized, systematic, critical, objective, scientific inquiry or investigation into a specific problem undertaken with the purpose of finding answers or solutions to it. 1.2 Purpose of Research Research is a process through which new knowledge is discovered. A theory such as a theory of motivation, or development, or learning, for example helps us to organize this new information into a set of related ideas that explain the situation and can be used to predict events. Generally, the importance of research: 1. Provide the knowledge and skills needed for the manager in the fast-paced decision-making environments. 6

2. Provides valuable information that guide managers, employees and other personnel of an organization in their daily work for the organization. All research is a systematic process of inquiry, but not all research is scientific. It depends on the objectives of the researcher. However, the purposes of research can be generalized as follow: 1. To understand the phenomena 2. To increase the knowledge about specific inquiry by researcher 3. To solve the encountered problem faced in any organization that seek for solution 4. To develop a new policy 5. To provide the knowledge and skills needed for the manager in making an effective decision 6. Helpful in decision making 7. Help to identify issues that requires further investigation High-quality research is characterized by many different attributes. The characteristics of a good research are: 1. Is based on the work of others 2. Can be replicated 3. Is generalizable to other settings 4. Is based on some logical rationale and tied to theory 5. Is doable 6. Is incremental 1.3 Limitations Many factors can influence the depth and breadth of a research. Rather than focusing solely on the depth and the breadth, in real life a research is usually restricted to: 7

1. Time constraint 2. Budget constraint 3. Availability of data 4. Nature of decisions 1.4 Research Ethics A good researcher should maintain a proper ethics in the process of achieving good results. The ethics such as: 1. Protection from harm 2. Maintenance of privacy 3. Coercion 4. Informed consent 5. Confidentiality 6. Sharing the findings 1.5 Terms & Definitions The best independent variable is the one that is dependent of any other variable that is being used in the same study. In this way, the independent variable can contribute the maximum amount of understanding beyond other variables can offer. Variable is a class of outcomes that can take on more than one value. The more precisely a variable is measured, the more useful the measurement is. Type of Definition Also known as: variable A variable that is measured to • Outcomes Dependent see whether the treatment or • Result variable manipulation of the Criterion variables independent variable had an • effect. 8

Independent A variable that is • Treatment Control manipulated to examine its Extraneous impact on a dependent variable Moderator variable. • Factor A variable that is • Predictor related to the dependent variable, the influence of variable which needs to be removed • Restricting A variable that is related to the dependent variable or variable independent variable that is not part of the experiment • Threatening A variable that is related variable to the dependent variable or independent variable and has • Interacting an impact on the dependent variable variable When problem arises, there is an ambiguity shrouded the underlying the research problem. The process of questioning why the situation happened is called as developing research question. Definition Research questions is the list of questions the research is trying to answer. The researcher and the manager should identify the ambiguities so that the researcher can redefine the ambiguity in a specific question. For example, to what extent does the effect of CGPA on final examination? 9

Definition Research hypothesis reflects the general problem under study Restates the general problem in a form that is precise enough to allow testing Basically, there are two mostly discussed hypothesis: Null Hypothesis Research hypothesis Research hypothesis Definition Null Hypothesis states is a statement of inequality suggesting that there is no that a relationship exists between the relationship between the independent and dependent variables independent and H1: µ1 ≠ µ2 dependent variables where: H1: Research hypothesis under study. µ1 : Theoretical average of population 1 symbol Ho: µ1 = µ2 µ2 : Theoretical average of population 2 Sentence where: There is a significant (eg) relationship between The Ho: Null hypothesis gender and CGPA purposes µ1: Theoretical average of § Directly tested population 1 µ2: Theoretical average of during research process population 2 § To compare against There is no significant relationship between Null hypothesis gender and student’s performance § A starting point for analysis § Provides a benchmark for comparison 10

A good research hypothesis should be: § Stated in declarative form § Posits a relationship between variables § Reflects theory or literature § Brief and to the point § Testable Definition Nondirectional research hypothesis reflects a difference between groups but the direction of the difference is not specified. Definition A directional research hypothesis reflects a difference between groups, and the direction of the difference is specified. Research objective should provide the evidence of the researcher’s clear understanding about the purpose and direction of the proposed study. A good research objective also follows the definition of the research problems. The assumptions are that if the objectives are achieved, the decision maker will have the information needed to solve the problem. Definition Research objectives is a set of lists of what the research is going to achieve 11

In most scientific endeavors that involve proposinghypothesis and examining differences between groups, there is bound to be a certain amount of error that simply cannot be control. Significance level is the risk associated with not being 100% confident that the difference is caused by what you may bedue to some unforeseen factors. Definition A type I error referred to as α is the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is actually true. A type II error is the probability of failing to reject the null hypothesis given that the alternate hypothesis is actually true. Statistical significance is the probability associated with the rejection of the null hypothesis when it is true. The reason why it is importance because it allows us to recognize thatinference is not perfect and no matter how much confidence we have in the outcome, there is always a chance we may be wrong. 12

2 OVERVIEW OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS What you’ll learn in this chapter: • The processes involve in a research • Developing a research questions, hypothesis and objectives • Searching, reviewing and writing literature 2.1 Stages in The Research Process 1 • Defining the problem • Developing theoretical framework of the study 2 • Choosing a suitable research and sampling 3 design • Gathering the data 4 • Processing and analyzing the data 5 • Prepare and present the report 6 Figure 1: Stages in the research process 2.2 Problem Definition Problem definition is a statement that seeks to determine precisely what problem management wishes to solve and the type of information necessary to solve it. It is indication of a specific decision area that will 13

be clarified by answering some research questions. Generally, the step required in identifying a research problem are to: § understand the management’s objectives § understand the background of the problem § determine the unit of analysis § determine the appropriate research variables § determine the measurement issues and scales § determine the variable in the study and its measurement § State the research objectives, research questions and corresponding research hypotheses. 2.2.1 The starting point The process of finding a problem definition would be easy if we understand the background of the problem. Researcher just need to isolate and identify the problem rather than its symptoms. Then determine the unit of analysis also the relevant variables. However, for a beginner or novice researcher formulating questions is one of the most creative aspects of scientific research and the most difficult to teach. Yet, without a good question, research is pointless. Initial ideas (often vague and general) Initial Search of existing observations Research Statement of the problem Operational Definitions of Constructs/variables Research Hypothesis 14

Research start with questions, and formulating the right questions is the one most critical and creative elements of good research. A question is a problem in need of a solution or answer. What are the causes of child abuses? Why do some people become depressed? Questions are everywhere, all we have to do is observe and be curious. Here are some possible questions: Where did the topic/issue come from? What made you think of it? What are the main trends that have occurred in the field? Who are the main researchers/theorists? Working on this topic? What are some of main issues in this field? What are some of main concepts relevant to this issue? What are some key studies that have been done? When? Where? By whom? What did they find? What further investigation is needed? 2.2.1 Writing the problem statement The problem statement is a statement that carries on from the discussion of the background to the study and sets out the ‘research gap’; that is a gap in knowledge about topic/issue that needs to be filled. The actual problem may be identified only after gathering the background information and conducting an exploratory study. The most critical part of the researcher is to isolate and identify the most likely causes based on the symptoms of the problem. However, certain problem that appears to be a problem maybe only symptoms of a deeper problem. 15

Criteria that make a good problem statement: 1. Identify one issue or problem at a time 2. Avoid blame 3. Avoid naming specific solutions. 4. Define the problem by the behaviour and conditions that affect it. 5. Specific enough to be measurable. 6. Reflects community concerns as heard during the assessment process. From an academic perspective, research is relevant if: 1. Nothing is known about a topic 2. Much is known about the topic, but the knowledge is scattered and not integrated. 3. Much research on the topic is available, but the results are (partly) contradictory. 4. Established relationship does not hold in a certain situation. Sources of research problem A good research statement is relevant but also feasible. A problem statement is feasible if you are able to answer the problem within the restrictions of the research project. The restriction is varying according to our time, money, availability of respondent, expertise of the researcher and so on. A frequent problem in term of feasibility is that problem statement is too broad in scope. 16

2.2.2 Searching for existing literature A research study begins with initial idea that is refined and developed into one or more specific questions and predictions. The initial idea can come from reading the research literature, from one’s own personal interest and observation, or from the need for a solution to a practical problem. Initial ideas focus on specific variables. After developing an initial idea, by consulting the literature for research on similar issues, information on how others defined the variables and what procedures they used. Researchers modify, discard, or retain initial ideas based on this examination of the literature. In facts, the literature can be the first in the journey to find a research idea. It will tell you what is known and what has yet to be studies and will point you the direction of promising areas for future study. Steps to find literature using UiTM EzAccess acount are as follow: Step 1: Log in to EzAccess acount in UiTM Library website. 17

Step 2: Click online databases Step 3: Choose any database. For example, ScienceDirect, Scopus and Springer 18

Step 4: Search related key in to subject of interest Step 5: From the results, refine according to desired criteria listed on the left. 19

Step 6: Click download Step 7: You can save and start reading. 20

2.3 Reviewing the Literature Before planning the details of a study, researcher usually dig into the literature to find out what has been written about a topic they are interested in investigating. Both opinion of experts in the field and other research studies area of interest. Definition Literature review is a process selecting available documents and critically analysing the topics which contain information, ideas, data and evidence. A literature review is helpful in several ways: 1. It helps you to keep up to date with what is current in your field of study. 2. It helps you to gain an understanding of the current state of knowledge about your selected research topic. 3. It will tell whether the problem you have identified has already been researched. If it has, you should either revise the problem in light of the results of other studies or look for another problem. Type of resources 1. general references 2. Primary resources 3. Secondary resources 4. Internet sources/computer sources Steps involved in a literature search: 1. Define the research problem as precisely as possible. 2. Look for relevant secondary sources. 3. Select and peruse one or two appropriate general reference works. 4. Formulate search terms (key words or phrases) pertinent to the problem or question of interest. 21

5. Search the general references for relevant primary sources. 6. Obtain and read relevant primary sources, note and summarize key point in the sources. 2.2.1 Reading an article Having good materials is only good if we know how to utilize the information. 1. Read the abstract or summary first. This will tell whether the article is worth reading in its entirety. Make sure, it is related to our study/topic. 2. Read the bibliographic data (latest references). 22

Bibliography is a listing of work that is relevant to the main topic of research interest arranged in alphabetical order of the last names of the authors. 3. Take notes on the article concentrating on the following points. Article / Journal review: To make the reading and literature review writing much more easier, it is advisable to make comprehensive review on the journals that have been read. The example is as in Table 2.1 23

Author Title Hypothesis/Obj. Procedures/ Findings/conclusions method Wong, Does gender H1: Cyberbullying The results of an online survey involving Cheung & matter in victimization is positively The partial least 208 university students reveal that both Xiao cyberbullying associated with the squares, cyberbullying victimization and perceived (2018) perpetration? likelihood of cyberbullying component- online disinhibition enhance the intention to An empirical perpetration. based structural perpetrate cyberbullying, whereas self- investigation equation control is a critical buffer that represses the H2: Perceived online modeling (SEM) propensity to cyberbully others. disinhibition is positively technique associated with Our findings also show that the factors the likelihood of influencing cyberbullying differ in strength cyberbullying for male and female students perpetration. H3: Self-control is negatively associated with the likelihood of cyberbullying perpetration. 24

Agatston, Students’ Examined the prevalence of Questionnaire, Of the students, 11% that they had been Kowalski & Perspectives on electronic bullying among frequencies, Chi- electronically bullied at least once in the last Limber Cyber Bullying middle square analyses, couple of months (victims only); 7% indicated (2007) school students. MANOVA that they were bully/victims; and 4% had electronically bullied someone else at least once in the previous couple of months (bullies only). The most common methods for electronic bullying (as reported by both victims and perpetrators) involved the use of instant messaging, chat rooms, and e-mail. Importantly, close to half of the electronic bully victims reported not knowing the perpetrator’s identity. 25

4. In searching for research topics, sometimes a good research paper has a recommendation/limitation section. This can be a source of idea for your new research. 2.2.2 Writing the literature review 1. Find a focus – look for themes or issues that connect with your 2. problem statement. Construct a working topic for your thesis. Organize your writing according to three elements: i. An introduction or background ii. A body of review containing the discussion sources. iii. Conclusion and/or recommendation section. 26

2.3 APA Format A reference list is a subset of the bibliography, which includes details of all citations used in the literature review and elsewhere in the paper. These citations have the goal of crediting the authors and enabling the reader to find the works cited. There are various format used for references, the most commonly used is APA style. All citations mentioned in the research report will find a place in the Reference at the end of report. Example: Book by single author Leshin, C.B. (1997). Management on the World Wide Web. Eanglewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Book by more than one author 27

Cornett, M., Wiley, B.J. & Sankar, S. (1998). The pleasures of nurturing. London: McMunster Publishing. More than one book by the same author in the same year Roy,A. (1998a). Chaos Theory. New York: Macmillan Publishing Enterprises. Roy, A. (1998b). Classic Chaos. San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bamar. Edited Book Pennauthur, A., Leong, F.T., & Schuster, K. (Eds). (1998). Style and substance of thinking. New York: Publishers Paradise. Chapter in an edited book Riley, T. & Brecht, M.L. (1998). The success of the mentoring process. In R. Wills (Ed.) Mentoring and career success, pp. 129-150. New York: Wilson Press. Book review Nichols, P.91998). A new look at Home Services [Review of the book Providing Home Services to the elderly by Girch, S.] Family Review Bulletin, 45, 12-13. Journal article Jeanquart, S., & Pelutchette, J. (1997). Diversity in the workforce and management models. Journal of Social Work Studies, 43 (3) 72-85. Conference proceeding publication Yeshwant, M. (1998). Revised thinking on Indian philosophy and religion. In S. Pennathour (Ed.), Proceeding of the Ninth International Conference on Religion, (pp. 100 – 107). Bihar, India: Bihar University. 28

Doctoral Dissertation Kiren, R.S. (1997). Medical advances and quality of life. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Omaha State University. Paper presentation at conference Bajaj, L.S. (1996, March 13). Practical tips for efficient work management. Paper presented at the annual meeting of Entrepreneurs, San Jose, CA. Unpublished manuscript Pringle, P.S. (1991). Training and developement in the ‘90s. Unpublished manuscript, Southern Illinois University, Diamondale, IL. Newspaper article, no author The new GM pact. (1998, July 28). Concord Tribune, p.1. Referencing nonprint media Film Maas, J.B.(Producer), & Gluck, D.H. (Director). (1979). Deeper into hypnosis (film). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Cassette recording Clark, K.B. (Speaker). (1976). Problems of freedom and behavior modification (Cassette Recording No. 7612). Washington DC: American Psychological Association. Electronic source Author, I. (1998). Technology and immediacy of information [Online] available at http://www.bnet.act.com Online document, no author identified, no date 29

GVU’s 18 WWW customer survey. (n.d.). Retrieved March 24th, 2009, from http://www.gotech.edu/gvu/user-ssurveys/survey- 2008-10/ Report from private organization,available on organization’s website Philips UK. (2009, March 23). U.S. Department of Energy honors Philips for significant advancement in LED lighting. Retrieved March 24th, 2009, from http://www.philips.co.uk/index.page Message posted to online forum or discussion group Davitz, J.R. (2009, February, 21). How medieval and renaissance nobles were different from each other [Msg 131]. Message posted to http://groups.yahoo.com/group/Medieval_Saints/message/1 31 30

2.4 Referencing Cite all references in the body of the paper using the author- year method. Examples: a. Todd (1998) has shown ... b. In recent studies of dual-career families (Hunt, 1999; Osborn, 1998) it has been ... c. In 1997, Kyle compared dual-career and dual-earner families and found that ... When a work has more than two authors but fewer than six, cite all authors the first time the reference occurs, and subsequently include only the surname of the first author followed by “et al.” For example: Sekaran, Martin, Trafton And Osborn (1990) found ... (first citation) Sekaran et al. (1980) found .......(subsequent citations) When a work has no author, cite in text the first two or three words of the article title. While examining unions (“With GM pact.” 1990). 31

3 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK What you’ll learn in this chapter: • What is theoretical framework • The importance of theoretical framework • How to develop theoretical framework 3.1 The Need for Theoretical Framework Definition A theoretical framework is a conceptual model of how one theorizes or makes logical sense of the relationships among the several factors that have been identified as important to the problem. - Discuss the interrelationships among the variables that are deemed to be integral to the dynamics of the situation being investigated. - Help us to postulate or hypothesize and test certain relationships so as to improve our understanding of the situation. - From theoretical framework, testable hypothesis can be developed to examine whether the theory formulated is valid or not. Therefore, it is essential to understand what a variable means and what the different types of variables are. 32

Figure 2 Flowchart of the research processes 3.2 The Components of Theoretical Framework There are 5 basic features that should be incorporated in any theoretical framework. 1. The variables considered relevant to the study should be clearly identified and labelled in the discussions. 2. The discussion should state how two or more variables are related to one another. 3. If previous research already stated the relationship between the variables, there should be an indication of the nature of the relationship either positive or negative. 4. There should be clear explanation why we expect these relationships to exist. The arguments or evidence can be obtained in previous research finding. (This should be clearly written in chapter 2: Literature Review). 33

5. A schematic diagram of the theoretical framework should be in the report to give clear view about the theorized relationship. 3.3 Variables Variables can be in qualitative or quantitative. 3.3.1 Dependent Variables Dependent variables is the variable of primary interest to the researcher. The researcher ‘s goal is to understand and describe the dependent variable or to explain its variability or to predict it. 3.3.2 Independent Variables An independent variable is one that influences the dependent variable in either a positive or a negative way. Example: Sales Profit (Independent (Dependent variable) variable) Figure 3 Example of a schematic diagram 3.4 Identifying the Research Problem A problem does not necessarily mean that something is seriously wrong with a current situation which needs to be rectified immediately. It could simply indicate an interest in an issue where finding the right answer might help to improve an existing situation. Thus, in research it is useful to define a 34

problem as any situation where a gap exists between the actual and the desired ideal states. Thus, problem definition or problem statement is a clear, precise statement of the question or issue that is to be investigated with the goal of finding an answer or solution. The most common problem definition is referring to a situation in which a researcher is trying to answer a research question empirically because of interest in the topic. 3.5 Stating the Research Questions Research questions are derived from the problem statement. The goal defining the problem of the study is to state the research questions clearly and to have well-formulated hypotheses. Examples: 1. How significant is the effect of respondent’s socio-economic status on service quality, corporate image, and students’ satisfaction? 2. How significant is the effect service quality provided by the university in influencing students’ satisfaction with the university? 3.6 Identifying the Research Hypothesis After all important variables have been identified and established relationships among them through logical reasoning in the theoretical framework, test whether the relationships that have been theorized are in fact true 35

3.6.1 Statement of hypotheses formats There are several ways for stating statements of hypotheses depending on the research questions and objectives of the study. format Explanation Example If-then To examine whether or not there Employees who statements exist relationships between the are ore healthy will or variables, hypotheses can set take sick leave less proposition either as propositions or in the frequently form of if-then statements. Directional In stating the relationship the greater the hypothesis between two variables or motivation toward comparing two groups, terms work, the lower the such as positive, negative, more, job satisfaction of less than are used. These types the employees. of hypotheses are directional because the direction of the relationship between the variable is indicated. Non- Hypotheses that do There is a directional hypotheses postulate a relationship or relationship difference but offer no between the indication of the direction of categories of age these relationships or and job differences. satisfaction level. Null and alternative hypothesis Null It is a proposition that states a definitive, exact relationship hypothesis between two variables. In general, the null statement is expressed as no (significant) relationship between two variables or no (significant) difference between two groups. Alternative A statement indicating the opposite of the null hypothesis. hypothesis 36

Example: H0: There is no correlation between stress and job satisfaction. H1: There is a correlation between stress and job satisfaction. 3.7 Identifying the Research Objective Research objectives are statements that describe the purpose of the research in measurable terms. Once the research questions and/or hypotheses have been stated, the research objective are derived from the problem definition. These objectives explain the purpose of the research in measurable terms and define standards of what research should accomplish. Example: To examine the differences between the pre and post test scores of first year students in the statistics course. To examine the items that constitute service quality in higher education from students’ perspective. 37

Examples of research questions, research objectives & research hypothesis: RO/RQ/RH RO: To determine whether patient satisfied with the service provided by ABC RQ: Do patient satisfied with the service provided by ABC? RH: Patient not satisfied with the service provided by ABC RO: To determine whether there is significant difference in satisfaction level towards the service provided at ABC between male and female patients. RQ: Is there significance different in satisfaction level towards the service provided at ABC between male and female patients? RH: There is significant difference in satisfaction level towards the service provided at ABC between male and female patients. RO: To determine whether there is significance difference in patient’s perception towards the service provided at ABC before and after treatment they receive. RQ: Is there significant difference in patient’s perception towards the service provided at ABC before and after they receive treatment? RH: There is significant difference in patient’s perception towards the service provided at ABC before and after they receive the treatment. RO: To determine whether there is significant difference in satisfaction level towards the service provided at ABC among races patients. RQ: Is there significant difference in satisfaction level towards the service provided at ABC among races? RH: There is significant difference in satisfaction level towards the service provided at ABC among races. RO: To examine if there are significant difference in effectiveness of the four treatments. RQ: Is there significant difference in effectiveness of the four treatments? RH: There are significant difference in effectiveness of the four treatment. RO: To examine whether the patient’s satisfaction significantly effect patient’s loyalty. RQ: Do the patient’s satisfaction significant it effects patient’s loyalty? RH: Patient’s satisfaction significantly effects patient’s loyalty. 38

3.8 Example Developing objectives & hypothesis depending on type of studies (excerpt from Kumar (2014)). Irrespective of the type of research, the objectives should be expressed in such a way that the wording clearly, completely and specifically communicates to your readers your intention. Figure 4 displays the characteristics of the wording of objectives in relation to the type of research study. 3.8.1 Descriptive study If your study is primarily descriptive, your main objective should: 1. clearly describe the major focus of your study 2. mentioning the organisation and its location unless these are to be kept confidential. For example: 1. to describe the types of treatment programme provided by [name of the organisation] to alcoholics in [name of the place]. 2. to find out the opinion of the community about the health services provided by [name of the health centre/department] in [name of the place]). 39

**Identification of the organisation and its location is important as the services may be peculiar to the place and the organisation and may not represent the services provided by others to similar populations. 3.8.2 Correlational studies If your study is correlational in nature, in addition to the first three characteristics (clearly, completely & specifically) the wording of the main objective should also include the main variables being correlated. For example: 1. to ascertain the impact of migration on family roles. 2. to compare the effectiveness of different teaching methods on the comprehension of students. 3.8.3 Hypothesis Testing studies If the overall thrust of your study is to test a hypothesis, the wording of the main objectives should also indicate the direction of the relationship being tested For example: 1. to ascertain if an increase in youth unemployment will increase the incidence of street crime. 2. to demonstrate that the provision of maternal and child health services to Aboriginal people in rural Australia will reduce infant mortality 40

3.8.4 From ideas to functional concept in research The main objectives are: 1. To find the number of students who underperformed in UiTM Raub. 2. To find the impact of being actively involved in club towards academic performance. 3. To measure the effectiveness of a retraining programme designed to help young people. Although these objectives clearly state the main thrust of the studies, they are not specific in terms of the main variables to be studied and the study populations. Reasons of why the main objectives suggested before are not good enough: 1. You cannot count the number of students who underperformed in UiTM Raub until you decide what constitutes the ‘underperfomed’ and how to determine it. 2. you cannot find out the impact of being actively involved in club unless you identify how many involvements in club is considered to be active. 3. you cannot measure effectiveness until you define what effectiveness is and also what are the age to be considered young. In many cases you need to develop operational definitions for the variables and concepts you are studying and for the population that becomes the source of the information for your study. Table below lists the concepts and the population groups to be operationalised for the above examples. 41

Study Concept to be studied Population to be studied 1 2 Concepts Issues Study Issues population 3 Underperformed What Who constitutes Students would you ‘underperformed’? consider a Students in student? Actively involved What constitutes Club Who would ‘actively you involved’? The young consider an active Effectiveness What constitutes club ‘effectiveness’? member? Who would you consider a young person? You must: 1. Operationalise the concepts: define in practical, observable and measurable terms ‘poverty line’, ‘family roles’ and effectiveness 2. Operationalise the study population: define in identifiable terms ‘children’, ‘immigrants’ and ‘young’ In a research study you need to define these clearly in order to avoid ambiguity and confusion. This is achieved through the process of developing operational/working definitions. You need to develop operational definitions for the major concepts you are using in your study and develop a framework for the study population enabling you to select appropriate respondents. Though in daily life you often use words such as ‘children’, ‘youth’ and ‘active in club’ loosely, you need to be more specific when using them in a research study. You should work through your own definitions. 42

Operational definitions give an operational meaning to the study population and the concepts used. It is only through making your procedures explicit that you can validly describe, explain, verify and test. It is important to remember that there are no rules for deciding if an operational definition is valid. Your arguments must convince others about the appropriateness of your definitions. 43

Example of changing ideas/concept to operational/functional variables Concepts Indicators Variables variables Decision level (working definitions) Rich 1. Income 1. Income per year 1. If >$100 000 2. Assets 2. Total value of: 2. If > $250 000 Home(s), boat, car(s), investments. High 1. Average marks obtained in 1. Percentage of marks 1. If > 75% academic examinations achievement 2. Percentage of marks 2. If > 75% 2. Average marks obtained in practical Effectiveness work 3. Percentage of marks 3. If >80% (of a health programme) 3. Aggregate marks 1. number of patients serviced Whether the 4. Etc. in a month or year. difference in before- 1. Number of patients and-after levels is 2. Changes in morbidity 2. (a) changes in morbidity rate statistically significant (number of illness or episodes (a) changes in the extent of morbidity per 1000 pop.) Point-prevalence (b) changes in pattern of morbidity (b) Changes in morbidity increase or decrease in 3. Changes in mortality typology each variable as (a) changes in Crude death rate (CDR) decided by the (b) Changes in the age-specific - 3. (a) Changes in CDR researcher or other death rate (ASDR) (b)Changes in ASDR experts. 4. Changes in nutritional status (a) changes in weight 4. (a) Changes in weight (b) changes in illness episodes (b) Illness episode in a year (c) Changes in morbidity (c) changes in morbidity type. 44

4 RESEARCH DESIGN What you’ll learn in this chapter: • What is research design • Types of research design Definition Research Design is the plan and structure of investigation so conceived as to obtain answers to research questions. It can be summarized as follows: 1. Research design is a plan for selecting the sources and types of used to answer the research questions. 2. It is a framework for specifying the relationship among the study’s variable 3. It is a blueprint that outlines each procedure from the hypotheses to the analysis of data. a. What techniques will be used to gather data? b. What kind of sampling will be used? c. How time and cost constraints be dealt with? 4. The research design serves as a master plan of the methods and procedures for the researcher to collect and analyze the data required by the research. 5. Must consider the type of data required, the design technique, sampling methodology, Schedule and budget. Types of research can be looked at from three different perspectives (Figure 4.1): 1. applications of the findings of the research study; 2. objectives of the study; 45

3. Mode of enquiry used in conducting the study. Figure 4.1. Type of research design (Kumar,2014) The classification of the types of a study on the basis of these perspectives is not mutually exclusive: that is, a research study classified from the viewpoint of ‘application’ can also be classified from the perspectives of ‘objectives’ and ‘enquiry mode’ employed. 4.1 Types of research: application perspective Pure research involves developing and testing theories and hypotheses that are intellectually challenging to the researcher but may or may not have practical application at the present time or in the future. Pure research is also concerned with the development, examination, verification and refinement of research methods, procedures, techniques and tools that form the body of research methodology. 46

Examples of pure research include developing a sampling technique that can be applied to a particular situation; developing a methodology to assess the validity of a procedure; developing an instrument, say, to measure the stress level in people; and finding the best way of measuring people’s attitudes. The knowledge produced through pure research is sought in order to add to the existing body of knowledge of research methods. Most of the research in the social sciences is applied. In other words, the research techniques, procedures and methods that form the body of research methodology are applied to the collection of information about various aspects of a situation, issue, problem or phenomenon so that the information gathered can be used in other ways – such as for policy formulation, administration and the enhancement of understanding of a phenomenon. 4.2 Types of research: objectives perspective From the perspective of its objectives, broadly a research endeavour can be classified as descriptive, correlational, explanatory or exploratory. 4.2.1 Descriptive study Attempts to describe systematically a situation, problem, phenomenon, service or programme, or provides information about, say, the living conditions of a community, or describes attitudes towards an issue. Descriptive research can be used when the researcher has a clearer idea about the social phenomenon or behaviour under investigation. Descriptive research provides details about a situation, setting or social relationship. It is also designed to describe characteristics of a population or a phenomenon and determine the answer to who, what, when and how questions. 47

For example, as a researcher you are hired by the Level Brothers Company to investigate customers’ perception on the use of a new laundry soap “Product A”. You may want to find out: 1. What percent of the customers prefer to use Product A? 2. Where do they usually purchase Product A? 3. On average, how many times per month do they purchase Product A? **The main purpose of such studies is to describe what is prevalent with respect to the issue/problem under study. 4.2.2 correlational study To discover or establish the existence of a relationship/association/interdependence between two or more aspects of a situation. a. What is the impact of an advertising campaign on the sale of a product? b. What is the relationship between stressful living and the incidence of heart attack? c. What is the relationship between fertility and mortality? d. What is the relationship between technology and unemployment? e. What is the effect of a health service on the control of a disease, or the home environment on educational achievement? **These studies examine whether there is a relationship between two or more aspects of a situation or phenomenon and, therefore, are called correlational studies. 4.2.3 Explanatory research Attempts to clarify why and how there is a relationship between two aspects of a situation or phenomenon. **This type of research can be conducted with situations,groups, events of issues about which a certain level of knowledge and understanding already exists. The aim of explanatory research or causal research is to understand ‘why’ 48

things occur. Explanatory research often builds on exploratory and descriptive research. It examines cause and effect relationship. 4.2.4 Exploratory research This is when a study is undertaken with the objective either to explore an area where little is known or to investigate the possibilities of undertaking a particular research study. Exploratory research is undertaken at the beginning of learning about a topic. Where little or no previous knowledge exists, the researcher must engage in an open-ended search for answers and understanding. Exploratory research may be so loosely formulated that it rarely yields definitive answers. Instead, it provides information about the methods that might be applied to obtain answers to those questions. Exploratory research provides the researcher with the insights and understanding that are needed into a topic to enable a more systematic study to be carried out subsequently. Because exploratory research may lack any clear course at the outset, it may change direction more than once. The goals of exploratory research are: 1. To become familiar with basic, facts, people 2. To develop mental picture of topic 3. To generate initial ideas, tentative theories 4. To determine feasibility of doing research 5. To formulate questions and refine ideas for research 6. To develop techniques and direction research should take Four basic categories of exploratory techniques for obtaining insights and gaining a clearer idea of a problem: 1. Secondary data analysis Data previously collected and assembles for some project other than the project at hand. 49