Fitness & Wellness 9th Edition - WERNER W.K. HOEGER

ACTIVITY 3.1 Date: Day of the Week: Time Exercise/Activity Duration Number Comments of Day of Steps Totals : Activity category based on steps per day (use Table 3.1, page 63): Date: Day of the Week: Time Exercise/Activity Duration Number Comments of Day of Steps Totals: Activity category based on steps per day (use Table 3.1, page 63): Briefly evaluate your current activity patterns, discuss your feelings about the results, and provide a goal for the weeks ahead. 90 Fitness and Wellness

ACTIVITY 3.2 Exercise Readiness Date Name Course Section List advantages of starting an exercise program. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. List disadvantages of starting an exercise program. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Chapter 3 Exercise Prescription 91

ACTIVITY 3.2 Instructions Carefully read each statement and circle the number that best describes your feelings in each statement. Please be completely honest with your answers. 1. I can walk, ride a bike (or a wheelchair), swim, or walk in a Strongly Mildly Mildly Strongly shallow pool. Agree Agree Disagree Disagree 2. I enjoy exercise. 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 3. I believe exercise can help decrease the risk for disease and premature mortality. 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4. I believe exercise contributes to better health. 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 5. I have previously participated in an exercise program. 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 6. I have experienced the feeling of being physically fit. 4 3 2 1 7. I can envision myself exercising. 4 3 2 1 8. I am contemplating an exercise program. 4 3 2 1 9. I am willing to stop contemplating and give exercise a try for a 4 3 2 1 few weeks. 4 3 2 1 10. I am willing to set aside time at least three times a week for exercise. 4 3 2 1 11. I can find a place to exercise (the streets, a park, a YMCA, a 4 3 2 1 health club). 3 2 1 12. I can find other people who would like to exercise with me. 13. I will exercise when I am moody, fatigued, and even when the weather is bad. 14. I am willing to spend a small amount of money for adequate exercise clothing (shoes, shorts, leotards, or swimsuit). 15. If I have any doubts about my present state of health, I will see a physician before beginning an exercise program. 16. Exercise will make me feel better and improve my quality of life. 4 Scoring Your Test: This questionnaire allows you to examine your readiness for exercise. You have been evaluated in four categories: mastery (self- control), attitude, health, and commitment. Mastery indicates that you can be in control of your exercise program. Attitude exam- ines your mental disposition toward exercise. Health provides evidence of the wellness benefits of exercise. Commitment shows dedication and resolution to carry out the exercise program. Write the number you circled after each statement in the corre- sponding spaces below. Add the scores on each line to get your totals. Scores can vary from 4 to 16. A score of 12 and above is a strong indicator that that factor is important to you, and 8 and below is low. If you score 12 or more points in each category, your chances of initiating and adhering to an exercise program are good. If you fail to score at least 12 points in three categories, your chances of succeeding at exercise may be slim. You need to be better informed about the benefits of exercise, and a re- training process may be required. Mastery: 1. 5. 6. 9. Attitude: 2. 7. 8. 13. Health: 3. 4. 15. 16. Commitment: 10. 11. 12. 14. 92 Fitness and Wellness

ACTIVITY 3.3 Exercise Prescription Forms Date Section Name bpm Course I. Cardiorespiratory Exercise Prescription Intensity of Exercise 1. Estimate your own maximal heart rate (MHR) MHR 207 – (.70 × age) MHR 207 – (.70 × ) 2. Resting heart rate (RHR) bpm 3. Heart rate reserve (HRR) MHR RHR beats HRR 4. Training intensity (TI) HRR % TI RHR 30% TI .30 bpm bpm 40% TI .40 bpm bpm 60% TI .60 85% TI .85 5. Cardiorespiratory training zone: Unconditioned individuals, persons in the poor cardiorespiratory fitness category, and older adults starting an exercise program should use a 30 to 40 percent TI. Individuals in fair and average fitness are encouraged to exercise between 40 and 60 percent TI. Active individuals in the good or excellent categories should exercise between 60 and 85 percent TI. Light-intensity cardiorespiratory training zone (30% to 40% TI): to bpm Moderate-intensity cardiorespiratory training zone (40% to 60% TI): to bpm Vigorous-intensity cardiorespiratory training zone (60% to 85% TI): to bpm Mode of Exercise: List any activity or combination of aerobic activities that you will use in your cardiorespiratory train- ing program: Duration of Exercise: Indicate the length of your exercise sessions: minutes Frequency of Exercise: Indicate the days you will exercise: Student’s Signature: Date: Chapter 3 Exercise Prescription 93

ACTIVITY 3.3 Exercise Prescription Forms (continued) II. Strength-Training Prescription Design your own strength-training program using a minimum of eight exercises. Indicate the number of sets, repetitions, and approximate resistance that you will use. Also, state the days of the week, time, and facility that will be used for this program. Strength-training days: M T W Th F Sa Su Time of day: Facility: Exercise Sets / Reps / Resistance 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 94 Fitness and Wellness

ACTIVITY 3.3 Exercise Prescription Forms (continued) Name Date Course Section III. Muscular Flexibility Prescription Perform all of the recommended flexibility exercises given on pages 270–272. Use a combination of slow-sustained and proprio- ceptive neuromuscular facilitation stretching techniques. Indicate the technique(s) used for each exercise and, where applicable, the number of repetitions performed and the length of time that the final degree of stretch was held. Stretching Schedule (Indicate days, time, and place where you will stretch): Flexibility-training days: M T W Th F Sa Su Time of day: Place: Stretching Exercises S tretc hing R epetitions Length of E xerc ise Tec hnique Fina l S tretc h Lateral head tilt NA* Arm circles NA Side stretch Body rotation Chest stretch Shoulder hyperextension stretch Shoulder rotation stretch NA Quad stretch Heel cord stretch Adductor stretch Sitting adductor stretch Sit-and-reach stretch Triceps stretch *Not Applicable Chapter 3 Exercise Prescription 95

ACTIVITY 3.3 Exercise Prescription Forms (continued) IV. Low Back Conditioning Program Perform all of the recommended exercises for the prevention and rehabilitation of low back pain given in Appendix C, pages 271–273. Indicate the number of repetitions performed for each exercise. Exercise Repetitions Hip flexors stretch Single-knee-to-chest stretch Double-knee-to-chest stretch Upper and lower back stretch Sit-and-reach stretch Gluteal stretch Back extension stretch Trunk rotation and lower back stretch Pelvic tilt Cat stretch Abdominal crunch or abdominal curl-up Proper Body Mechanics Perform the following tasks using the proper body mechanics given in Figure 3.7 (page 83). Check off each item as you perform the task: Standing (carriage) position Resting position for tired and painful back Sitting position Lifting an object Bed posture Behavior Modification Using Figure 3.7 on page 83, indicate what changes you need to make in daily activities to improve posture and body mechanics and prevent low-back pain.

ACTIVITY 3.4 Goal-Setting Form and Exercise Logs Name Date Course Section I. Instructions Indicate your general goal for the four health-related components of fitness and write the specific objectives you will use to ac- complish these goals in the next few weeks. Cardiorespiratory endurance goal: Specific objectives: 1. 2. 3. Muscular strength/endurance goal: Specific objectives: 1. 2. 3. Muscular flexibility goal: Specific objectives: 1. 2. 3. Body composition goal: Specific objectives: 1. 2. 3. My signature Witness signature Today’s date Date of completion Chapter 3 Exercise Prescription 97

ACTIVITY 3.4 Goal-Setting Form and Exercise Logs (continued) II. Aerobic Exercise Log Date Body Exercise Type of Distance Time Daily 1 Weight Heart Rate Exercise in Miles Hrs./Min. Steps* 2 3 Total 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 *Daily steps can be determined using a pedometer. 98 Fitness and Wellness

Goal-Setting Form and Exercise Logs (continued) ACTIVITY 3.4 Name Course Section III. Strength-Training Log Date St/Reps/Res* St/Reps/Res* St/Reps/Res* St/Reps/Res* St/Reps/Res* St/Reps/Res* St/Reps/Res* Exercise *St/Reps/Res Sets, Repetitions, and Resistance (e.g., 1/10/12 1 set of 10 repetitions with 12 pounds) Chapter 3 Exercise Prescription 99

Goal-Setting Form and Exercise Logs (continued) ACTIVITY 3.4 Name Course Section III. Strength-Training Log Date St/Reps/Res* St/Reps/Res* St/Reps/Res* St/Reps/Res* St/Reps/Res* St/Reps/Res* St/Reps/Res* Exercise *St/Reps/Res Sets, Repetitions, and Resistance (e.g., 1/10/12 1 set of 10 repetitions with 12 pounds) 100 Fitness and Wellness

Evaluating Fitness Activities Chapter 4 OBJECTIVES ▶ UNDERSTAND the sequence of ▶ LEARN the benefits and advan- a standard aerobic workout. tages of selected aerobic ▶ LEARN ways to enhance your activities. aerobic workouts. ▶ LEARN to rate the fitness bene- Log on to CengageNOW at fits of aerobic activities. www.cengage.com/login to find innovative study tools—including ▶ EVALUATE the contributions of pre- and post-tests, personalized study plans, activities, labs, and the personal change skill-related fitness activities. planner. JupiterImages 101

102 Fitness and Wellness REAL LIFE STORY © michaeljung, 2009. Used under license from Shutterstock.com Sunitha’s Exercise Routine cise life” than running all the time. I really enjoyed spin- The extent of my exercise program was all jogging. I ning, swimming, and stair like to jog because I ran track my first year in high stepping. Doing different ac- school. Always running, however, was sometimes tivities took away the mo- boring and I wasn’t enjoying it as much as when I ran notony of my exercise rou- track with friends. Sometimes I dreaded going out tine and I found out that because I wasn’t motivated to go by myself or it was exercise is much more fun either too cold or too hot to exercise. After enrolling this way. I also discovered that I am exercising longer in a college fitness and wellness course, we were re- and more often than before. I really do feel that cross- quired to try a minimum of five other aerobic activi- training is the way to go if one feels stale or bored of ties. I quickly learned that there was more to “exer- the same exercise routine all the time. One of the fun aspects of exercise is the sheer vari- Walking ety of activities promoting fitness that are available to you. You can select one or a combination of ac- The most natural, easiest, safest, and least expensive tivities for your program—your choice should be form of aerobic exercise is walking. For years, many based on personal enjoyment, convenience, and fitness practitioners believed that walking was not availability. A summary of the most popular physi- vigorous enough to improve cardiorespiratory func- cal activities in the United States and the percent- tioning, but brisk walking at speeds of 4 miles per age of adults who participate in them are presented hour or faster does improve cardiorespiratory fit- in Figure 4.1. ness. From a health fitness viewpoint, a regular walking program can prolong life significantly (see Aerobic Activities © Fitness & Wellness, Inc. Most people who exercise pick and adhere to a Walking is the most natural aerobic physical single mode, such as walking, swimming, or jog- activity. ging. Yet, no single activity develops total fitness. Many activities contribute to cardiorespiratory de- velopment, but the extent of contribution to other fitness components is limited and varies among the activities. For total fitness, aerobic activities should be supplemented with strength and flexi- bility exercises. Cross-training can add enjoyment to the program, decrease the risk of incurring inju- ries from overuse, and keep exercise from becom- ing monotonous. Exercise sessions should be convenient. To enjoy exercise, you should select a time when you will not be rushed and a location that is nearby. People do not enjoy driving across town to get to the gym, health club, track, or pool. If parking is a problem, you may get discouraged quickly and quit. All of these factors can supply excuses not to stick to an exercise program.

Chapter 4 Evaluating Fitness Activities 103 Figure 4.1 Most popular adult physical activities in the United States. Walking for exercise 43.2 Gardening/yard work 28.1 Stretching exercises 27.2 Strength training 15.5 Bicycling or exercise bicycle 12.3 Jogging 10.6 Stair climbing for exercise 6.6 Aerobics 6.3 Basketball 5.9 Swimming 5.6 Golf 4.9 Bowling 3.2 Baseball or softball 2.9 Tennis 1.7 Volleyball 1.7 Football 1.5 Soccer 1.4 Handball, racquetball, or squash 0.8 Downhill skiing 0.5 Water skiing 0.3 Cross-country skiing 0.2 0 10 20 30 40 50 Note: Data are weighted to the 1998 U.S. population and age-adjusted to the year 2000 population standard. “Participation” = activity reported as being done at least once during the past 2 weeks. SOURCE: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Health Interview Survey (NHIS), 1998, Atlanta. the discussion of cardiovascular diseases in Chapter spiratory system, extra weights or loads are not rec- 8). Although walking obviously takes longer than ommended for people who have or are at risk for jogging, the caloric cost of brisk walking is only cardiovascular disease. about 10 percent lower than jogging the same distance. Walking in chest-deep water is an excellent form of aerobic activity, particularly for people who have Walking is perhaps the best activity to start a con- leg and back problems. Because of the buoyancy of ditioning program for the cardiorespiratory system. water, individuals submerged in water to armpit Inactive people should start with 1-mile walks four level weigh only about 10 percent to 20 percent of or five times per week. Walk times can be increased their weight outside the water. The resistance the gradually by 5 minutes each week. Following 3 to water creates as a person walks in the pool adds to 4 weeks of conditioning, a person should be able to the intensity of the activity and provides a good car- walk 2 miles at a 4-mile-per-hour pace, five times diorespiratory workout. per week. Greater aerobic benefits accrue from walk- ing longer and swinging the arms faster than nor- Hiking mal. Light hand weights, a backpack (4 to 6 pounds), walking poles, or tension belts that add load to the Hiking is an excellent activity for the entire family, upper body (arms) also add to the intensity of walk- especially during the summer and on summer vaca- ing. Because of the additional load on the cardiore- tions. Many people feel guilty if they are unable to

104 Fitness and Wellness An 8-hour hike can burn as many calories as a 20-mile © Fitness & Wellness, Inc. walk or jog. © Fitness & Wellness, Inc. Jogging is one the most popular forms of aerobic exercise. continue their exercise routine during vacations. The proximately 15 miles per week is sufficient to reach intensity of hiking over uneven terrain is greater an excellent level of cardiorespiratory fitness. than walking. An 8-hour hike can burn as many calories as a 20-mile walk or jog. A good pair of shoes is a must for joggers. Many foot, knee, and leg problems originate from improp- Another benefit of hiking is the relaxing effects of erly fitted or worn-out shoes. A good pair of shoes beautiful scenery. This is an ideal activity for highly should offer lateral stability and not lean to either side stressed people who live near woods and hills. A when placed on a flat surface. The shoe also should rough day at the office can fade quickly in the peace- bend at the ball of the foot, not at midfoot. Worn-out fulness and beauty of the outdoors. shoes should be replaced. After 500 miles of use, jog- ging shoes lose about a third of their shock absorption Jogging capabilities. If you suddenly have problems, check your shoes first. It may be time for a new pair. Next to walking, jogging is one of the most accessi- ble forms of exercise. A person can find places to jog For safety reasons, joggers (and walkers) should almost everywhere. The lone requirement to prevent follow these precautions: injuries is a good pair of jogging shoes. 1. Stay away from high-speed roads. The popularity of jogging in the United States 2. Do not wear headphones so that you can be started shortly after publication of Dr. Kenneth Cooper’s first Aerobics book in 1968. Jim Fixx’s Com- aware of your surroundings. Using a head- plete Book of Running, listed for 11 weeks in 1977 as phone may keep you from hearing a car horn, No. 1 on the best-selling list, further contributed to a voice, or a potential attacker. the phenomenal growth of jogging as a fitness activ- 3. Go against the traffic so that you can spot and ity in the United States. avoid all oncoming traffic. 4. Do not wear dark clothes. Reflective clothing or Jogging three to five times a week is one of fluorescent material worn on different parts of the fastest ways to improve cardiorespiratory fit- the body is highly recommended. A flashlight, ness. The risk of injury, however—especially in particularly an LED light, not only alerts driv- beginners—is higher with jogging than walking. For ers of your presence, but they also help illumi- proper conditioning, jogging programs should start nate the street. Motorists can see a light from a with 1 to 2 weeks of walking. As fitness improves, greater distance than they can spot the reflec- walking and jogging can be combined, gradually tive material. increasing the jogging segment until it fills the full 5. Wear a billed cap and clear glasses in the 20 to 30 minutes. dark. The billed cap will hit a branch or other object before such hits your head. Clear glasses A word of caution when it comes to jogging: The can protect your eyes from unseen objects or risk of injury increases greatly as speed (running insects. instead of jogging) and mileage go up. Jogging ap-

Chapter 4 Evaluating Fitness Activities 105 6. Run behind vehicles at intersections. Drivers Image not available due to copyright restrictions often look only in the direction of oncoming traffic and do not look in the opposite direction before proceeding onto the street. 7. Select different routes. A potential attacker may lie in wait if you are predictable in your run- ning route. Running with a partner is also pref- erable because there is always strength in num- bers. And do not wear your hair in a ponytail as such provides an easy grip for a potential attacker. 8. Avoid walking or jogging in unfamiliar areas. When visiting a new area, always inquire as to safe areas to walk or jog. Deep-Water Jogging surfaces. As a result, several alternative forms of An alternative form of jogging, especially for injured aerobics have been developed. people, those with chronic back problems, and over- weight individuals, is deep-water jogging—jogging In low-impact aerobics (LIA), the impact is re- in place while treading water. Deep-water jogging is duced because each foot contacts the surface sepa- almost as strenuous as jogging on land. In deep- rately, but the recommended intensity of exercise is water jogging, the jogging motions used on land are more difficult to maintain than with HIA. To help accentuated by pumping the arms and legs hard elevate the exercise heart rate, all arm movements through a full range of motion. The participant usu- and weight-bearing actions that lower the center of ally wears a flotation vest to help maintain the body gravity should be accentuated. Sustained movement in an upright position. Many elite athletes train fre- throughout the program is also crucial to keep the quently in water to lessen the wear and tear on the heart rate in the target cardiorespiratory zone. body caused by long-distance running. These ath- letes have been able to maintain high oxygen uptake Step aerobics (SA) is an activity in which partici- values through rigorous water jogging programs. pants step up and down from a bench. Benches range in height from 2 to 10 inches. SA adds another Aerobics dimension to the aerobics program. As noted previ- ously, variety adds enjoyment to aerobic workouts. Aerobics is a very popular fitness activity for women SA is considered a high-intensity but low-impact in the United States. Routines consist of a combina- activity. The intensity of the activity can be con- tion of stepping, walking, jogging, skipping, kick- trolled easily by the height of the bench. Aerobic ing, and arm swinging movements performed to benches or plates can be stacked together safely to music. It is a fun way to exercise and promote car- adjust the height of the steps. Beginners are encour- diorespiratory development at the same time. aged to use the lowest stepping height and then ad- vance gradually to a higher bench. This will decrease High-impact aerobics (HIA) is the traditional the risk for injury. Even though one foot is always in form of aerobics. The movements exert a great amount of vertical force on the feet as they contact KEY TERMS the floor. Proper leg conditioning through other forms of weight-bearing aerobic exercises (brisk Aerobics A series of exercise routines that include a combination walking and jogging), as well as strength training, of stepping, walking, jogging, skipping, kicking, and arm swinging are recommended prior to participating in HIA. movements performed to music. HIA is an intense activity, and it produces the High-impact aerobics (HIA) Exercises incorporating movements highest rate of aerobics injuries. Shin splints, stress in which both feet are off the ground at the same time momentarily. fractures, low-back pain, and tendinitis are all too common in HIA enthusiasts. These injuries are Low-impact aerobics (LIA) Exercises in which at least one foot is caused by the constant impact of the feet on firm in contact with the ground or floor at all times. Step aerobics (SA) A form of exercise that combines stepping up and down from a bench with arm movements.

106 Fitness and Wellness contact with the floor or bench during step aerobics, Some exercise specialists recommend that this this activity is not recommended for individuals difference in maximal heart rate (10 to 13 bpm) be with ankle, knee, or hip problems. subtracted prior to determining cardiorespiratory training intensities. For example, the estimated max- Other forms of aerobics include a combination of imal swimming heart rate for a 20-year-old would HIA and LIA, as well as moderate-impact aerobics be approximately 180 bpm [207 Ϫ (.7 ϫ 20) Ϫ 13]. (MIA). MIA incorporates plyometric training. This Studies are inconclusive as to whether this decrease type of training is used frequently by jumpers (high, in heart rate in water also occurs at submaximal in- long, and triple jumpers) and athletes in sports that tensities below 70 percent of maximal heart rate.1 require quick jumping ability, such as basketball and gymnastics. With MIA, one foot is in contact with the To produce better training benefits during swim- ground most of the time. Participants, however, con- ming, swimmers should minimize gliding periods tinually try to recover from all lower-body flexion such as those in the breast stroke and side stroke. actions. This is done by extending the hip, knee, and Achieving proper training intensities with these ankle joints quickly without allowing the foot (or strokes is difficult. The forward crawl is recom- feet) to leave the ground. These quick movements mended for better aerobic results. make the exercise intensity of MIA quite high. Overweight individuals have to swim fast enough Swimming to achieve an adequate training intensity. Excessive body fat makes the body more buoyant, and often the Swimming, another excellent form of aerobic exer- tendency is to float along. This may be good for reduc- cise, uses many of the major muscle groups in the ing stress and relaxing, but it does not greatly increase body. This provides a good training stimulus for the caloric expenditure to aid with weight loss. Walking heart and lungs. Swimming is a great exercise option or jogging in waist- or armpit-deep water is a better for individuals who cannot jog or walk for extended choice for overweight individuals who cannot walk or periods. jog on land for an extended period of time. Compared to other activities, the risk of injuries With reference to the principle of specificity of from swimming is low. The aquatic medium helps to training, cardiorespiratory improvements from support the body, taking pressure off bones and swimming cannot be measured adequately with a joints in the lower extremities and the back. land-based walk/jog test. This is because most of the work with swimming is done by the upper body Maximal heart rates during swimming are ap- musculature. proximately 10 to 13 beats per minute (bpm) lower than during running. The horizontal position of the Although the heart’s ability to pump more blood body is thought to aid blood flow distribution improves significantly with any type of aerobic activ- throughout the body, decreasing the demand on the ity, the primary increase in the ability of cells to utilize cardiorespiratory system. Cool water temperatures oxygen (VO2, or oxygen uptake) with swimming oc- and direct contact with the water seem to help dis- curs in the upper body and not the lower extremities. sipate body heat more efficiently, further decreasing Therefore, fitness improvements with swimming are the strain on the heart. best attained by comparing changes in distance a person swims in a given time, say, 12 minutes. © Fitness & Wellness, Inc. CRITICAL THINKING Swimming is a relatively injury-free activity. Participation in sports is a good predictor of adherence to exercise later in life. ● What previous experiences have you had with participation in sports? ● Were these experiences positive, and what effect do they have on your current physical activity patterns? Water Aerobics Water aerobics is fun and safe for people of all ages. Besides developing fitness, it provides an opportu- nity for socialization and fun in a comfortable, re- freshing setting.

Chapter 4 Evaluating Fitness Activities 107 Chuck Scheer, Boise State University Another benefit is the reduction of pain and fear of injuries common to many people who initiate ex- Water aerobics offers fitness and fun in an environment rel- ercise programs. Water aerobics provides a relatively atively low in risk for injury. safe environment for injury-free participation in ex- ercise. The cushioned environment of the water al- Water aerobics incorporates a combination of lows patients recovering from leg and back injuries, rhythmic arm and leg actions performed in a vertical individuals with joint problems, injured athletes, position while submerged in waist- to armpit-deep pregnant women, and obese people to benefit from water. The vigorous limb movements against the water aerobics. water’s resistance during water aerobics provide the training stimuli for cardiorespiratory development. Similar to swimming, maximal heart rates achieved during water aerobics are lower than dur- The popularity of water aerobics as an exercise ing running. The difference between water aerobics modality to develop the cardiorespiratory system and running is about 10 bpm.2 Further, research can be attributed to several factors: comparing physiological differences between self- paced treadmill running and self-paced water aero- 1. Water buoyancy reduces weight-bearing bics exercise showed that even though individuals stress on joints and thereby lessens the risk work at a lower heart rate intensity in water, the for injuries. oxygen uptake level was the same for both treadmill and water exercise modalities.3 Apparently healthy 2. Water aerobics is a more feasible type of exer- people, therefore, can sustain land-based exercise cise for overweight individuals and those with intensities during a water aerobics workout and ex- arthritic conditions who may not be able to perience fitness benefits similar to or greater than participate in weight-bearing activities such as during land aerobics.4 walking, jogging, and aerobics. Cycling 3. Water aerobics is an excellent exercise modality to improve functional fitness in older adults Most people learn cycling in their youth. Because it is (see Chapter 9, pages 249–251). a non-weight-bearing activity, cycling is a good exer- cise modality for people with lower-body or lower- 4. Heat dissipation in water is beneficial to obese back injuries. Cycling helps to develop the cardiore- participants, who seem to undergo a higher spiratory system, as well as muscular strength and heat strain than average-weight individuals. endurance in the lower extremities. 5. Water aerobics is available to swimmers and As a non-weight-bearing activity, raising the heart nonswimmers alike. rate to the proper training intensity is more difficult with cycling. As the amount of muscle mass in- The exercises used during water aerobics are de- volved during aerobic exercise decreases, so does signed to elevate the heart rate, which contributes to the demand placed on the cardiorespiratory system. cardiorespiratory development. In addition, the The thigh muscles do most of the work in cycling, aquatic medium provides increased resistance for making it harder to achieve and maintain a high strength improvement with virtually no impact. Be- cardiorespiratory training intensity. cause of this resistance to movement, strength gains with water aerobics seem to be better than with Maintaining a continuous pedaling motion and land-based aerobic activities. eliminating coasting periods helps the participant achieve a faster heart rate. Exercising for longer periods also helps to compensate for the lower heart KEY TERMS Moderate-impact aerobics (MIA) Aerobics that include plyo- metric training. Plyometric training A form of exercise that requires forceful jumps or springing off the ground immediately after landing from a previous jump.

108 Fitness and Wellness rate intensity during cycling. Comparing cycling 3. Don’t ride side by side with another rider; sin- to jogging, similar aerobic benefits take roughly gle file is safer. three times the distance at twice the speed of jog- ging. Cycling, however, puts less stress on muscles 4. Be aware of turning vehicles and cars backing and joints than jogging does, making the former a out of alleys and parking lots; always yield to good exercise modality for people who cannot walk motorists in these situations. or jog. 5. Be on the lookout for storm drains, railroad The height of the bike seat should be adjusted so tracks, and cattle guards, which can cause un- the knee is flexed at about 30 degrees when the foot pleasant surprises. Front wheels can get caught is at the bottom of the pedaling cycle. The body and riders may be thrown from the bike if should not sway from side to side as the person these hazards are not crossed at the proper an- rides. The cycling cadence also is important for gle (preferably 90 degrees). maximal efficiency. Bike tension or gears should be set at a moderate level so the rider can achieve about 6. Wear a good helmet, certified by the Snell Me- 60 to 100 revolutions per minute. morial Foundation or the American National Standards Institute. Many serious accidents Safety is a key issue in road cycling. More than a and even deaths have been prevented by the million bicycle injuries occur each year. Proper use of helmets. Fashion, aesthetics, comfort, or equipment and common sense are necessary. A well- price should not be a factor when selecting and designed and well-maintained bike is easier to ma- using a helmet for road cycling. Health and life neuver. Toe clips are recommended to keep feet from are too precious to give up because of vanity sliding and to maintain equal upward and down- and thriftiness. ward force on the pedals. 7. Wear appropriate clothes and shoes. Clothing Skill is important in both road and mountain cy- should be bright, very visible, lightweight, and cling. Cyclists must be in control of the bicycle at all not restrict movement. Cycling shorts are rec- times. They have to be able to maneuver the bike in ommended to prevent skin irritation. For traffic, maintain balance at slow speeds, switch greater comfort, the shorts have extra padding gears, apply the brakes, watch for pedestrians and sewn into the seat and crotch areas. They do stop lights, ride through congested areas, and over- not tend to wrinkle and they wick away perspi- come a variety of obstacles in the mountains. Sta- ration from the skin. Shorts should be long tionary cycling, in contrast, does not require special enough to keep the skin from rubbing against skills. Nearly everyone can do it. the seat. Experienced cyclists also wear special shoes with a cleat that snaps directly onto the Bike riders must follow the same rules as motor- pedal. ists. Many accidents happen because cyclists run traffic lights and stop signs. Some further sugges- 8. Take extra warm clothing in a backpack during tions are as follows: the winter months in case you have a break- down and have to walk a long distance for 1. Select the right bike. Frame size is important. assistance. The size is determined by standing flatfooted while straddling the bike. Regular bikes (road 9. Watch out for ice in cold weather. If you see ice bikes) should have a 1- to 2-inch clearance be- on car windows, expect ice on the road. Be es- tween the groin and the top tube of the frame. pecially careful on and under bridges, because On mountain bikes, the clearance should be they tend to have ice even when the roads else- about 3 inches. The recommended height of where are dry. the handlebars is about 1 inch below the top of the seat. Upright handlebars are available 10. Use the brightest bicycle lights you can when for individuals with neck or back problems. riding in the dark, and always keep the batter- Hard, narrow seats on road or racing bikes ies well charged. For additional safety, wear re- tend to be especially uncomfortable for flectors on the upper torso, arms, and legs, so women. To avoid saddle soreness, use wider passing motorists are alerted to you. Stay on and more cushioned seats such as gel-filled streets that have good lighting and plenty of saddles. room on the side of the road, even if that means riding an extra few minutes to get to 2. Use bike hand signals to let the traffic around your destination. you know of your intended actions. 11. Take a cell phone if you have one, and let someone else know where you are going and when to expect you back.

Chapter 4 Evaluating Fitness Activities 109 Tips for People Who Have © Fitness & Wellness, Inc. Been Inactive for a While Spinning is a vigorous-intensity aerobic activity • Take the sensible approach by starting slowly. performed on specially designed spinner bikes. • Begin by choosing moderate-intensity activities with clips, adjustable seats, and a resistance knob to you enjoy the most. By choosing activities you control the intensity of the workout. Use of an exer- enjoy, you’ll be more likely to stick with them. cise heart rate monitor is also encouraged to monitor • Gradually build up the time spent exercising the intensity of the various stages of the workout. by adding a few minutes every few days or so until you can comfortably perform a minimum Spinning programs typically combine five basic recommended amount of exercise (20 minutes movements and five workout stages with the under- per day). standing that participants’ exercise needs and goals • As the minimum amount becomes easier, vary. The five exercise movements are: gradually increase either the length of time ex- ercising or the intensity of the activity, or both. 1. Seated flat—pedaling in the basic seated bike • Vary your activities, both for interest and to position broaden the range of benefits. • Explore new physical activities. 2. Seated hill climb—pedaling in the basic seated position but with increased resistance applied • Reward and acknowledge your efforts. 3. Standing running—pedaling while standing up SOURCE: Adapted from Centers for Disease Control and Preven- 4. Standing hill climb—pedaling standing up but tion, Atlanta, 2005. with a more challenging resistance level Try It Fill out the cardiorespiratory exercise pre- 5. Jumping—surging out of the saddle using ei- scription in Activity 3.3. In your Online Journal or class notebook, describe how well you implement ther controlled movements and a constant the above suggestions. speed or at a fast pace, as during a breakaway in a bike race. Before buying a stationary bike, though, be sure to try the activity for a few days. If you enjoy it, you The five workout stages, also known as energy may want to purchase one. Invest with caution. If zones, are used to simulate actual cycling training you opt to buy a lower priced model, you may be and racing. The workouts are divided into endur- disappointed. Good stationary bikes have comfort- ance, all-terrain, strength, recovery, and advanced able seats, are stable, and provide a smooth and training. Cadence, exercise movements, and exercise uniform pedaling motion. A sticky bike that is hard heart rate dictate the differences between the various to pedal leads to discouragement and ends up being zones. Workouts are planned according to each stored in the corner of a basement. Spinning® Spinning is a low-impact activity typically per- formed under the direction of a certified instructor in a room or studio with dim lights, motivational music, and the noise of many bikes working to- gether. This exercise modality gained immediate popularity upon its introduction in the mid-1990s. Spinning, sometimes referred to as “studio” or “indoor cycling,” is performed on specially designed Spinner bikes that include racing handlebars, pedals

110 Fitness and Wellness person’s fitness level and selected percentages of maximal heart rate during each stage. These work- outs provide a challenging program for people of all ages and fitness levels. The social aspect of this activ- ity makes Spinning appealing to many exercisers. Cross-Training Photos © Fitness & Wellness, Inc. Cross-training combines two or more activities. This Cross-training enhances fitness, decreases the rate of type of training is designed to enhance fitness, pro- injuries, and eliminates the monotony of single-activity vide needed rest for tired muscles, decrease injuries, programs. and eliminate the monotony and burnout of single- activity programs. Cross-training may combine aer- As with high-impact aerobics, a major concern of obic and nonaerobic activities such as moderate rope skipping is the stress placed on the lower ex- jogging, speed training, and strength training. tremities. Skipping with one foot at a time decreases the impact somewhat, but it does not eliminate the Cross-training can produce better workouts than risk of injuries. Fitness experts recommend that a single activity. For example, jogging develops the skipping be used sparingly, primarily as a supple- lower body and swimming builds the upper body. ment to an aerobic exercise program. Rowing contributes to upper-body development and cycling builds the legs. Combining activities Cross-Country Skiing such as these provides good overall conditioning and at the same time helps to improve or maintain Many people consider cross-country skiing as the fitness. Cross-training also offers an opportunity to ultimate aerobic exercise because it requires vigor- develop skill and have fun with differing activities. ous lower- and upper-body movements. The large amount of muscle mass involved in cross-country Speed training often is coupled with cross- training. Faster performance times in aerobic activi- ties (running, cycling) are generated with speed or interval training. People who want to improve their running times often run shorter intervals at faster speeds than the actual racing pace. For example, a person wanting to run a 6-minute mile may run four 440-yard intervals at a speed of 1 minute and 20 seconds per interval. A 440-yard walk/jog can become a recovery interval between fast runs. Strength training is used commonly with cross- training. It helps to condition muscles, tendons, and ligaments. Improved strength enhances overall per- formance in many activities and sports. For example, although road cyclists in one study who trained with weights showed no improvement in aerobic capacity, the cyclists’ riding time to exhaustion im- proved 33 percent when exercising at 75 percent of their maximal capacity.5 Rope Skipping Rope skipping not only contributes to cardiorespira- tory fitness, but it also helps to increase reaction time, coordination, agility, dynamic balance, and muscular strength in the lower extremities. At first, rope skipping may appear to be a highly strenuous form of aerobic exercise. As skill improves, however, the energy demands decrease considerably.

Chapter 4 Evaluating Fitness Activities 111 © MCD Sports, Inc. © Fitness & Wellness, Inc. In-line skating is a low-impact fitness activity. Cross-country skiing requires more oxygen and Intensity of the activity is regulated by how hard energy than most other aerobic activities. you blade. The key to effective cardiorespiratory training is to maintain a constant and rhythmic pat- skiing makes the intensity of the activity high, yet it tern, using arms and legs, and minimizing the glid- places little strain on muscles and joints. One of the ing phase. Because this is a weight-bearing activity, highest maximal oxygen uptakes ever measured in-line bladders also develop superior leg strength. (85 mL/kg/min) was found in an elite cross-country skier. Instruction is necessary to achieve a minimum level of proficiency in this sport. Bladders commonly In addition to being an excellent aerobic activity, encounter hazards—potholes, cracks, rocks, gravel, cross-country skiing is soothing. Skiing through the sticks, oil, street curbs, and driveways. Unskilled beauty of the snow-covered countryside can be bladders are more prone to falls and injuries. highly enjoyable. Although the need for snow is an obvious limitation, simulation equipment for year- Good equipment will make the activity safer and round cross-country training is available at many more enjoyable. An adequate blade should provide sporting goods stores. strong ankle support; soft and flexible boots do not provide enough support. Small wheels offer more Some skill is necessary to be proficient at cross- stability, and larger wheels enable greater speed. country skiing. Poorly skilled individuals are not Blades should be purchased from stores that under- able to elevate the heart rate enough to cause ade- stand the sport and can provide sound advice ac- quate aerobic development. Individuals contemplat- cording to your skill level and needs. ing this activity should seek instruction to be able to fully enjoy and reap the rewards of cross-country Protective equipment is a must for in-line skating. skiing. Similar to road cycling, a good helmet that meets the safety standards set by the Snell Memorial Founda- In-Line Skating tion or the American National Standards Institute is important to protect yourself in case of a fall. Wrist In-line skating has its origin in ice skating. Because guards and knee and elbow pads also are recom- warm-weather ice skating was not feasible, blades mended, because the kneecaps and the elbows are were replaced by wheels for summertime participa- tion. The in-line concept took hold in the United KEY TERMS States in 1980, when hockey skates were adapted for road-skating. Interval training A repeated series of exercise work bouts (inter- vals) interspersed with low-intensity or rest intervals. In-line skating is an excellent activity to develop cardiorespiratory fitness and lower-body strength.

112 Fitness and Wellness © Fitness & Wellness, Inc. Racquet Sports In addition to aerobic development, rowing also contrib- In racquet sports such as tennis, racquetball, squash, utes to good strength development. and badminton, the aerobic benefits are dictated by players’ skill, the intensity of the game, and the easily injured in a fall. Nighttime bladers should length of time spent playing. Skill is necessary to wear light-colored clothing and reflective tape. participate effectively in these sports and also is cru- cial to sustain continuous play. Frequent pauses dur- Rowing ing play do not allow people to maintain the heart rate in the appropriate target zone to stimulate car- Rowing is a low-impact activity that provides a com- diorespiratory development. plete body workout. It mobilizes most major muscle groups, including those in the arms, legs, hips, abdo- Many people who participate in racquet sports do men, trunk, and shoulders. Rowing is a good form so for enjoyment, social fulfilment, and relaxation. of aerobic exercise and also, because of the nature of For cardiorespiratory fitness development, these peo- the activity (constant pushing and pulling against ple supplement the sport with other forms of aerobic resistance) promotes strength development. exercise such as jogging, cycling, or swimming. To accommodate different fitness levels, work- If a racquet sport is the main form of aerobic ex- loads can be regulated on most rowing machines. ercise, participants need to try to run hard, fast, and Stationary rowing, however, is not among the most as constantly as possible during play. They should popular forms of aerobic exercise. Similar to station- not have to spend much time retrieving balls (or, in ary bicycles, people should try the activity for a few badminton, the bird or shuttlecock). Similar to low- weeks before purchasing a unit. impact aerobics, all movements should be accentu- ated by reaching out and bending more than usual, for better cardiorespiratory development. CRITICAL THINKING In your own experience with personal fitness programs throughout the years, what factors have motivated you and helped you the most to stay with a program? ● What factors have kept you from being physically active, and what can you do to change these factors? Stair Climbing/Elliptical Training © Fitness & Wellness, Inc. If sustained for at least 20 minutes, stair climbing Elliptical training provides a rigorous aerobic workout. and elliptical training are very efficient forms of aerobic exercise. Precisely because of the high inten- sity of stair climbing, many people stay away from stairs and instead take escalators and elevators. Many people dislike living in two-story homes be- cause they have to climb the stairs frequently. Stair climbing and elliptical training seem to be relatively safe exercise modalities. Because the feet never leave the climbing surface, they are consid- ered low-impact activities. Joints and ligaments are not strained during climbing. The intensity of exer- cise is controlled easily, because the equipment can be programmed to regulate the workload.

Chapter 4 Evaluating Fitness Activities 113 Eric Risberg impact aerobics). Table 4.1 includes a starting fitness level for each aerobic activity. Beginners should start Racquet sports require rhythmic with low-intensity activities that have a minimum and continuous activity to provide risk for injuries. In some cases, such as in high- cardiorespiratory benefit. impact aerobics and rope skipping, the risk of inju- ries remains high despite adequate conditioning. Rating the Fitness Benefits These activities should be used only to supplement training and are not recommended for beginners or of Aerobic Activities as the sole mode of exercise. The fitness contributions of the aerobic activities Physicians who work with cardiac patients fre- discussed in this chapter vary according to the quently use METs to measure activity levels. One specific activity and the individual. As noted pre- MET represents the body’s energy requirement at viously, the health-related components of physical rest, or the equivalent of a VO2 of 3.5 mL/kg/min. fitness are cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular A 10-MET activity requires a tenfold increase in strength and endurance, muscular flexibility, and the resting energy requirement, or approximately body composition. Although accurately assessing 35 mL/kg/min. MET levels for a given activity the contributions to each fitness component is dif- vary according to the individual’s effort. The harder ficult, a summary of likely benefits of these activi- a person exercises, the higher the MET level. The ties is provided in Table 4.1. Instead of a single MET ranges for the various activities is included in rating or number, ranges are given for some of the Table 4.1. categories because the benefits derived are based on the person’s effort while participating in the The various aerobic activities’ effectiveness in activity. aiding weight management also is indicated in Table 4.1. As a rule, the greater the muscle mass involved Regular participation in aerobic activities pro- during exercise, the better the results. Rhythmic and vides notable health benefits, including an increase continuous activities that involve considerable mus- in cardiorespiratory endurance, quality of life, and cle mass are most effective in burning calories. longevity. The extent of cardiorespiratory develop- ment (improvement in VO2max) depends on the in- Higher-intensity activities burn more calories as tensity, duration, and frequency of the activity. The well. Increasing exercise time will compensate for nature of the activity often dictates potential aerobic lower intensities. If carried out long enough (60 to development. For example, jogging is much more 90 minutes, five to six times per week), even brisk strenuous than walking. walking can be a good exercise mode to lose weight. Additional information on a comprehensive weight The effort during exercise also influences the management program is given in Chapter 6. amount of physiological development. The training benefits of just going through the motions of a low- Skill-Related Fitness impact aerobics routine are less than those of accen- tuating all motions (see earlier discussion of low- Skill-related fitness is needed for success in athletics and effective performance of lifetime sports and ac- tivities. The components of skill-related fitness, de- fined in Chapter 1, are agility, balance, coordination, power, speed, and reaction time. All of these are im- portant, to varying degrees, in sports and athletics. For example, outstanding gymnasts must achieve good skill-related fitness in all components. Signifi- cant agility is necessary to perform a double back somersault with a full twist—a skill in which the athlete must rotate simultaneously around one axis KEY TERMS MET Short for metabolic equivalent, the rate of energy expendi- ture at rest, or the equivalent of a VO2 of 3.5 mL/kg/min.

114 Fitness and Wellness Table 4.1 Ratings of Selected Aerobic Activities Activity Recommended Starting Caloric Fitness Level1 Injury Risk2 Expenditure Potential Cardiorespiratory (cal/hour)4,6 Endurance Development (VO2MAX)3,4 Upper Body Strength Development3 Lower Body Strength Development3 Upper Body Flexibility Development3 Lower Body Flexibility Development3 Weight Management3 MET Level4,5,6 Aerobics A H 3–4 2 4 3 2 4 6–12 450–900 High-Impact Aerobics I Moderate-Impact Aerobics B M 2–4 2 3 3 2 3 6–12 450–900 Low-Impact Aerobics I Step Aerobics B L 2–4 2 3 3 2 3 5–10 375–750 I Cross-Country Skiing M 2–4 2 3–4 3 2 3–4 5–12 375–900 Cross-Training I Cycling B M 4–5 4 4 2 2 4–5 10–16 750–1,200 B Road I M 3–5 2–3 3–4 2–3 1–2 3–5 6–15 450–1,125 Stationary I Hiking A M 2–5 1 4 1 1 3 6–12 450–900 In-Line Skating I Jogging I L 2–4 1 4 1 1 3 6–10 450–750 Jogging, Deep Water B Racquet Sports I L 2–4 1 3 1 1 3 6–10 450–750 Rope Skipping B Rowing B M 2–4 2 4 2 2 3 6–10 450–750 Spinning B Stair Climbing I M 3–5 1 3 1 1 5 6–15 450–1,125 Swimming (front crawl) B Walking L 3–5 2 2 1 1 5 8–15 600–1,125 Walking, Water, Chest-Deep Water Aerobics M 2–4 3 3 3 2 3 6–10 450–750 H 3–5 2 4 1 2 3–5 8–15 600–1,125 L 3–5 4 2 3 1 4 8–14 600–1,050 L 4–5 1 4 1 1 4 8–15 600–1,125 L 3–5 1 4 1 1 4–5 8–15 600–1,125 L 3–5 4 2 3 1 3 6–12 450–900 L 1–2 1 2 1 1 3 4–6 300–450 L 2–4 2 3 1 1 3 6–10 450–750 L 2–4 3 3 3 2 3 6–12 450–900 1B ϭ Beginner, I ϭ Intermediate, A ϭ Advanced 2L ϭ Low, M ϭ Moderate, H ϭ High 31 ϭ Low, 2 ϭ Fair, 3 ϭ Average, 4 ϭ Good, 5 ϭ Excellent 4Varies according to the person’s effort (intensity) during exercise. 51 MET represents the rate of energy expenditure at rest (3.5 mL/kg/min). Each additional MET is a multiple of the resting value. For example, 5 METs represents an energy expenditure equivalent to five times the resting value, or about 17.5 mL/kg/min. 6Varies according to body weight. and twist around a different one. Static balance is ing degrees of difficulty. Power and speed are needed essential for maintaining a handstand or a scale. to propel the body into the air, such as when tum- Dynamic balance is needed to perform many of the bling or vaulting. Quick reaction time is necessary in gymnastics routines (for example, balance beam, determining when to end rotation upon a visual parallel bars, pommel horse). clue, such as spotting the floor on a dismount. Coordination is important to successfully inte- As with the health-related fitness components, grate into one routine various skills requiring vary- the principle of specificity of training applies to skill-

Chapter 4 Evaluating Fitness Activities 115 related components. According to this principle, the © Fitness & Wellness, Inc. Although we do not know how much skill- training program must be specific to the type of skill related fitness is desirable, everyone should at- the individual is trying to achieve. tempt to develop and maintain a better-than-aver- age level. This type of fitness is crucial for athletes Development of agility, balance, coordination, and also is important in leading a better and hap- and reaction time is highly task specific. To attain a pier life. Improving skill-related fitness affords an certain skill, the individual must practice the same individual more enjoyment and success in a wider task many times. There is little crossover learning variety of lifetime sports (for instance, basketball, effect from one skill to another. tennis, and racquetball) and also can help a person cope more effectively in emergency situations. For For instance, proper practice of a handstand (bal- example: ance) eventually will lead to successful performance of that skill, but complete mastery of the skill does 1. Good reaction time, balance, coordination, and not ensure that the person will immediately be able agility can help you avoid a fall or break a fall to transfer this mastery to other static balance posi- and thereby minimize injury. tions in gymnastics. Power and speed may be im- proved with a specific strength-training program or 2. The ability to generate maximum force in a frequent repetition of the specific task to be im- short time (power) may be crucial to ameliorate proved, or both. injury or even preserve life in a situation in which you may be called upon to move a per- The rate of learning in skill-related fitness varies son out of danger or lift a heavy object that has from person to person, mainly because these com- fallen. ponents seem to be determined to a large extent by hereditary factors. Individuals with good skill- 3. In our society, with an expanding average life- related fitness tend to do better and learn faster span, maintaining speed can be especially im- when performing a wide variety of skills. Never- portant for older adults. Many of them and, for theless, few individuals enjoy complete success in that matter, many unfit and overweight young all skill-related components. Furthermore, though people no longer have the speed they need to skill-related fitness can be enhanced with practice, cross an intersection safely before the light improvements in reaction time and speed are lim- changes for oncoming traffic. ited and seem to be related primarily to genetic endowment. Regular participation in a health-related fitness program can heighten performance of skill-related A 54-year-old athlete with a high level of skill fitness com- components, and vice versa. For example, signifi- peting in the sport of luge at the world-class level. cantly overweight people do not have good agility or speed. Because participating in aerobic and strength-training programs helps take off body fat, an overweight individual who loses weight through an exercise program may also improve agility and speed. A sound flexibility program decreases resis- tance to motion around body joints, which may in- crease agility, balance, and overall coordination. Im- provements in strength definitely help develop power. Similar to the fitness benefits of the aerobic activi- ties discussed previously in this chapter and given in Table 4.1, the contributions of skill-related activi- ties also vary among activities and individuals. The extent to which an activity helps develop each skill- related component varies by the effort the individual makes and, most important, by proper execution (technique) of the skill (correct coaching is highly recommended) and the individual’s potential based on genetic endowment. A summary of potential con- tributions to skill-related fitness for selected activi- ties is provided in Table 4.2.

116 Fitness and Wellness Table 4.2 Contributions of Selected Activities creates responsibility—another incentive to exer- to Skill-Related Components cise, because you are expected to be there. Further- more, team sports foster lifetime friendships, Activity Agility strengthening the social and emotional dimensions Balance of wellness. Coordination Power For those who were not able to participate in Reaction Time youth sports, it’s never too late to start (see the dis- Speed cussion of behavior modification and motivation in Chapter 1). Don’t be afraid to select a new activity, Alpine Skiing 4 5 4 2 3 2 even if that means learning new skills. The fitness 1 and social rewards will be ample. Archery 12423 3 4 Tips to Enhance Badminton 43424 3 1 Your Aerobic Workout Baseball 32445 1 A typical aerobic workout is divided into three parts Basketball 43434 3 (see Figure 4.2): 3 Bowling 22411 3 1. A 5- to 10-minute warm-up phase during 3 which the heart rate is increased gradually to Cross-Country 3 4 3 2 2 4 the target zone Skiing 4 4 2. The actual aerobic workout, during which the Football 44444 4 heart rate is maintained in the target zone for 3 20 to 60 minutes Golf 1 2 5 3 1 3 3 3. A 10-minute aerobic cool-down, when the heart Gymnastics 55543 1 rate is lowered gradually toward the resting 4 level Ice Skating 55533 To monitor the target training zone, you will have In-Line Skating 4 4 4 3 2 to check your exercise heart rate. As described in Chapter 2, the pulse can be checked on the radial or Judo/Karate 55545 the carotid artery. When you check the heart rate, begin with zero and count the number of beats in a Racquetball 54445 10-second period, then multiply by 6 to get the per- minute pulse rate. You should take your exercise Soccer 53553 heart rate for 10 seconds rather than a full minute because the heart rate begins to slow down 15 sec- Table Tennis 53535 onds after you stop exercising. Tennis 43535 Feeling the pulse while exercising is difficult. Therefore, participants should stop during exercise Volleyball 43545 to check the pulse. If the heart rate is too low, in- crease the intensity of the exercise. If the rate is too Water Skiing 3 4 3 2 2 high, slow down. You may want to practice taking your pulse several times during the day to become Wrestling 55545 familiar with the technique. Inexpensive heart rate monitors can also be obtained at sporting good 1 ϭ Low, 2 ϭ Fair, 3 ϭ Average, 4 ϭ Good, 5 ϭ Excellent stores or through the Internet. These monitors in- crease the accuracy of monitoring the heart rate dur- Team Sports ing exercise. Choosing activities that you enjoy will greatly en- For the first few weeks of your program, you hance your adherence to exercise. People tend to should monitor your heart rate several times during repeat things they enjoy doing. Enjoyment by itself is a reward. Therefore, combining individual activi- ties (such as jogging or swimming) with team sports can deepen your commitment to fitness. People with good skill-related fitness usually participate in lifetime sports and games, which in turn helps develop health-related fitness. Individu- als who enjoyed basketball or soccer in their youth tend to stick to those activities later in life. The availability of teams and community leagues may be all that is needed to stop contemplating and start participating. The social element of team sports pro- vides added incentive to participate. Team sports offer an opportunity to interact with people who share a common interest. Being a member of a team

Chapter 4 Evaluating Fitness Activities 117 Figure 4.2 Typical aerobic workout pattern. Heart rate (beats/min) 193 Maximal heart rate Age=20 180 MHR=193 174 85% HRR* Vigorous-intensity training zone RHR=68 Moderate-intensity training zone 143 60% HRR* Light-intensity training zone 118 40% HRR* 106 30% HRR* 80 Resting heart rate 60 Warm-up phase AEROBIC PHASE Cool-down phase 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 Time (minutes) *HRR = Heart rate reserve Reproduced with permission of Schering Corporation. All rights reserved. the exercise session. As you become familiar with psychological point of view, you may not be able to your body’s response to exercise, you may have to carry out an exercise session for a full 20 to 30 min- monitor the heart rate only twice—once at 5 to utes. For the first 2 to 3 weeks, therefore, you may 7 minutes into the exercise session and a second time just want to take a few 10-minute daily walks. As near the end of the workout. your body adapts physically and mentally, you may increase the length and intensity of the exercise ses- Another technique sometimes used to determine sions gradually. your exercise intensity is simply to talk during exer- cise and then take your pulse immediately after that. Most important, learn to listen to your body. At Learning to associate the amount of difficulty when times you will feel unusually fatigued or have much talking with the actual exercise heart rate will allow discomfort. Pain is the body’s way of letting you you to develop a sense of how hard you are work- know that something is wrong. If you have pain or ing. Generally, if you can talk easily, you are not undue discomfort during or after exercise, you need working hard enough. If you can talk but are slightly to slow down or discontinue your exercise program breathless, you should be close to the target range. If and notify the course instructor. The instructor may you cannot talk at all, you are working too hard. be able to pinpoint the reason for the discomfort or recommend that you consult your physician. You If you have difficulty keeping up with your exer- also will be able to prevent potential injuries by pay- cise program, you may need to reconsider your ob- ing attention to pain signals and making adjust- jectives and start much more slowly. Behavior modi- ments accordingly. fication is a process. From a physiological and Web Interactive “Let’s Get Physical” Challenge gram designed to educate people of all ages and abilities. You can do it! This site describes an 8-week, Interactive program de- signed to help individuals participate in regular, moder- http://www.physicalfitness.org/lgp.html ate physical activity. This is a fun, noncompetitive pro-

118 Fitness and Wellness Assess Your Behavior Log on to http://www.cengage.com/login 2. Do you participate in recreational sports as a and take a wellness inventory to assess means to further enhance fitness and add enjoy- the behaviors that might benefit most from healthy ment to your exercise program? change. 1. Are you able to incorporate a variety of activities 3. Do you have an alternate plan in case of inclement into your exercise program? weather (rain/cold) or injury that would keep you from your regular training program (jogging, cycling)? Assess Your Knowledge Log on to http://www.cengage.com/login 6. Which of the following is not a basic movement in to assess your understanding of this spinning? chapter’s topics by taking the Student Practice Test and a. Seated running exploring the modules recommended in your Personal- b. Standing hill climb ized Study Plan. c. Seated flat 1. Using a combination of aerobic activities to de- d. Jumping velop overall fitness is known as e. All of the above are exercise movements in a. health-related fitness. spinning. b. circuit training. c. plyometric exercises. 7. Cross-country skiing d. cross-training. a. is a high-impact activity. e. skill-related fitness. b. is primarily an anaerobic activity. 2. The best aerobic activity choice for individuals c. places great strain on muscles and joints. with leg or back injuries is d. is a low-intensity activity. a. walking in chest-deep water. e. All are incorrect choices. b. jogging. c. step aerobics. 8. A MET represents d. rope skipping. a. the symbol used to indicate that the exercise e. cross-country skiing. goal has been met. 3. The approximate jogging mileage to reach the ex- b. a unit of measure that is used to express the cellent cardiorespiratory fitness classification is value achieved during the Metabolic Exercise a. 5 miles. Test. b. 10 miles. c. the Maximal Exercise Time achieved. c. 15 miles. d. the rate of energy expenditure at rest. d. 25 miles. e. All choices are incorrect. e. 50 miles. 4. To help elevate the exercise heart rate during low- 9. Which of the following is not a component of skill- impact aerobics, a person should related fitness? a. accentuate arm movements. a. Mobility b. sustain movement throughout the program. b. Coordination c. accentuate weight-bearing actions. c. Reaction time d. All of the above. d. Agility e. None of the above. e. All are skill-related components. 5. Achieved maximal heart rates during swimming are approximately _____ beats per minute (bpm) 10. When checking exercise heart rate, one should lower than during running. a. continue to exercise at the prescribed rate while a. 2–4 checking the heart rate. b. 5–9 b. stop exercising and take the pulse for no longer c. 10–13 than 15 seconds. d. 14–20 c. exercise at a low-to-moderate intensity. e. 20–25 d. stop exercise and take the heart rate for a full minute. e. All choices are valid ways to check exercise heart rate. Correct answers can be found at the back of the book.

ACTIVITY 4.1 My Personal Fitness Program Date Section Name Course I. In the spaces below, provide a list of five activities in which you have participated during the last 6 months. In addition to fitness activities (jogging, aerobics, swimming, strength training), you may list other activities in which you frequently participate that require physical effort (for example, walking, cycling, sweeping, vacuuming, gardening). According to your own effort of participation, rate each activity for its health-related and motor skill-related benefits (1 low, 2 fair, 3 average, 4 good, 5 excellent). Also indicate the frequency and duration of participation (list times per week, month, or 6 months) and add comments regarding your personal feelings related to your participation in the respective activity (liked it, was fun, too hard, got hurt, need more skill, could do it forever, etc.). Cardiorespiratory Endurance Muscular Strength Muscular Flexibility Weight Management Agility Balance Coordination Power Reaction Time Speed 1. Comments 2. Comments 3. Comments 4. Comments Chapter 4 Evaluating Fitness Activities 119

ACTIVITY 4.1 My Personal Fitness Program (continued) Cardiorespiratory Endurance Muscular Strength Muscular Flexibility Weight Management Agility Balance Coordination Power Reaction Time Speed 5. Comments II. On a separate sheet of paper, keep a 7-day log of all physical activities that you perform. On a daily basis, keep a record of the exact minutes throughout the day that you are active and rate each activity according to its intensity (moderate- or vigorous- intensity). Total your minutes for each day and compute a daily average for all activities. Attach the log to this activity and then answer the following questions: A. Did you exercise aerobically at least 3 times per week for 20 to 30 minutes each session? ______ Yes ______ No B. Did you accumulate an average of 60 minutes of daily physical activity? ______ Yes ______ No C. What percentage of your total physical activity was moderate intensity, ______ % and what percentage was vigorous intensity? ______ % III. According to items I and II above, evaluate your current level of physical activity. State how you feel about your results and indicate if your program is primarily conducive to health fitness or physical fitness (or neither). Do you deem any changes necessary to meet previously stated goals (see Activity 3.4, pages 97–100)?

Nutrition for Wellness Chapter 5 OBJECTIVES ▶ BECOME familiar with eating Log on to CengageNOW at www.cengage.com/login ▶ DEFINE nutrition and describe disorders and with their associ- to find innovative study tools—including ated medical problems and be- pre- and post-tests, personalized study plans, its relationship to health and havior patterns. activities, labs, and the personal change well-being. planner. ▶ IDENTIFY myths and fallacies ▶ LEARN the functions of nutri- 121 regarding nutrition. ents in the human body. ▶ LEARN the 2005 Dietary Guide- ▶ BECOME familiar with nutrients, lines for Americans. food groups, and nutrient stan- JupiterImages dards, and learn how to achieve a balanced diet through the use the USDA MyPyramid guidelines.

122 Fitness and Wellness REAL LIFE STORY Brandon’s Diet proximately 300 daily calo- © Tony Wear, 2009. Used under license from ries. I knew that my diet was Shutterstock.com My parents didn’t like to cook. They both worked, partially responsible for my and the last thing on their minds was to fix an eve- weight problem, but I had ning meal. We ate a lot of prepackaged meals at home no clue that the way I was or fast foods were brought in for the evening meal. I eating was also seriously in- didn’t mind it that much as I enjoyed fast foods a creasing my own risk for whole lot. In our family, we all struggle with weight. high blood pressure, heart My parents, now in their early 50s, are prediabetic disease, and even cancer. Although I can still make and my dad has high blood pressure. I have been improvements—and I do crave fast foods, I make it a working for several years but I am now back part- point to plan my meals and shop wisely. I eat many time in school. I never really knew much about nutri- fruits, vegetables, and whole grains on most days of tion until I took my lifetime fitness course. My in- the week. I limit my consumption of red meat and structor was very dynamic and enthusiastic. You whole milk products, and I get my protein mostly could tell that he believed and practiced what he was from skinless chicken and fish. As much as I crave teaching. them, I avoid processed and prepackaged foods, and I no longer eat out often. I have lost 15 pounds this As a course requirement, we had to do a 3-day nu- last year, I have more energy, and I am sure that trient analysis. Was that a shock to me! I was consum- healthwise I am doing much better. I have learned ing 42 percent of my calories in the form of fat, about that eating healthy takes planning and preparation a third of them in the form of saturated fat and about and lots of discipline if you are not used to it. I am 4 grams of daily trans fat. My sodium intake was very happy that I took that fitness course—and as far over 5,000 mg per day, fiber intake was only 10 grams as I am concerned, it has made a difference in my life. per day, and I exceeded my caloric allowance by ap- Good nutrition is clearly linked by scientific studies United States eat no fruit, and almost a fourth eat no to overall health and well-being. Proper nutrition vegetables. means that one’s diet supplies all the essential nutri- ents to carry out normal tissue growth, repair, and Diet and nutrition often play a crucial role in the maintenance. It also implies that the diet will pro- development and progression of chronic diseases. A vide enough substrates to produce the energy nec- diet high in saturated fat, trans fat, and cholesterol essary for work, physical activity, and relaxation. increases the risk for atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease. In sodium-sensitive individuals, high Too much or too little of any nutrient can precipi- salt intake has been linked to high blood pressure. tate serious health problems. The typical U.S. diet is As many as 30 to 50 percent of all cancers may be too high in calories, sugar, saturated fat, trans fat, diet related. Obesity, diabetes, and osteoporosis also and sodium, and not high enough in whole grains, have been associated with faulty nutrition. fruits, and vegetables—factors that undermine good health. Food availability is not the problem. The Essential Nutrients problem is overconsumption. The essential nutrients the human body requires are According to the office of the U.S. Surgeon Gen- carbohydrates, fats, protein, vitamins, minerals, and eral, diseases of dietary excess and imbalance are water. Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and water are among the leading causes of death in the United termed macronutrients because people need to take States. Similar trends are observed in developed in proportionately large amounts daily. Nutritionists countries throughout the world. In the report, based refer to vitamins and minerals as micronutrients on more than 2,000 scientific studies, the Surgeon because the body requires them in relatively small General said that dietary changes can bring better amounts. health to all Americans. Other surveys reveal that on a given day, nearly half of the people in the

Chapter 5 Nutrition for Wellness 123 Depending on the amount of nutrients and calo- ries they contain, foods can be classified as high- nutrient density or low-nutrient density. Foods with high-nutrient density contain a low or moderate amount of calories but are packed with nutrients. Foods that are high in calories but contain few nutri- ents are of low-nutrient density and commonly are called “junk food.” Carbohydrates © Fitness & Wellness, Inc. Carbohydrates are the major source of calories the High-fiber foods are essential in a healthy diet. body uses to provide energy for work, cell mainte- nance, and heat. They also help regulate fat and Complex carbohydrates provide many valuable metabolize protein. Each gram of carbohydrates nutrients and also are an excellent source of fiber. provides the human body with 4 calories. The major sources of carbohydrates are breads, cereals, fruits, Fiber vegetables, and milk and other dairy products. Car- Fiber is a form of complex carbohydrate. A high-fiber bohydrates are classified as simple carbohydrates diet gives a person a feeling of fullness without added and complex carbohydrates. calories. Dietary fiber is present mainly in plant leaves, skins, roots, and seeds. Processing and refining foods Simple Carbohydrates removes almost all of the natural fiber. Simple carbohydrates (such as candy, soda, and cakes), commonly denoted as sugars, have little nu- In the American diet, the main sources of fiber are tritive value. These carbohydrates are divided into whole-grain cereals and breads, fruits, vegetables, two groups: and legumes. Fiber is important in the diet because • Monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, and KEY TERMS galactose) Nutrition The science that studies the relationship of foods to op- • Disaccharides (sucrose, lactose, and maltose) timal health and performance. Nutrients Substances found in food that provide energy, regulate Simple carbohydrates often take the place of more metabolism, and help with growth and repair of body tissues. nutritive foods in the diet. Substrates Foods that are used as energy sources (carbohydrates, fat, protein). Complex Carbohydrates Essential nutrients Carbohydrates, fats, protein, vitamins, Complex carbohydrates are formed when simple minerals, and water—the nutrients the human body requires for carbohydrate molecules are linked together. Three survival. types of complex carbohydrates are: Macronutrients The nutrients the body needs in proportionately large amounts: carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and water. • Starches, found commonly in seeds, corn, nuts, Micronutrients The nutrients the body needs in small quanti- grains, roots, potatoes, and legumes ties—vitamins and minerals—that serve specific roles in transfor- mation of energy and body tissue synthesis. • Dextrins, formed from the breakdown of large Calorie The amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of starch molecules exposed to dry heat, such 1 gram of water 1° centigrade; used to measure the energy value of as when bread is baked or cold cereals are food and the cost of physical activity. manufactured Carbohydrates Compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen that the body uses as its major source of energy. • Glycogen, the animal polysaccharide synthesized Fiber Plant material that human digestive enzymes cannot digest. from glucose and found in only small amounts in meats. Glycogen constitutes the body’s reservoir of glucose. Many hundreds to thousands of glu- cose molecules are linked to be stored as glycogen in the liver and muscles. When a surge of energy is needed, enzymes in the muscle and the liver break down glycogen and thus make glucose readily available for energy transformation.

124 Fitness and Wellness it decreases the risk for cardiovascular disease and provided strong evidence linking increased fiber in- cancer. Increased fiber intake also may lower the risk take of 30 grams per day to a significant reduction in for coronary heart disease because saturated fats of- heart attacks, cancer of the colon, breast cancer, dia- ten take the place of fiber in the diet, thus increasing betes, and diverticulitis. Table 5.1 provides the fiber the absorption and formation of cholesterol. Other content of selected foods. health disorders that have been tied to low intake of fiber are constipation, diverticulitis, hemorrhoids, Fibers are typically classified according to their gallbladder disease, and obesity. solubility in water. Soluble fiber dissolves in water and forms a gel-like substance that encloses food The daily recommended amount of fiber intake particles. This property allows soluble fiber to bind for adults 50 years and younger is 25 grams for and excrete fats from the body. Soluble fiber has women and 38 grams for men. Most people in the been shown to decrease blood cholesterol and blood United States eat only 15 grams of fiber per day, put- sugar levels. Soluble fibers are found primarily in ting them at increased risk for disease. A person can oats, fruits, barley, and legumes. increase fiber intake by eating more fruits, vegeta- bles, legumes, grains, and cereals. A 6-year study Insoluble fiber is not easily dissolved in water, and the body cannot digest it. This fiber is important Table 5.1 Fiber Content of Selected Foods because it binds water, resulting in a softer and bulkier stool that increases peristalsis (involuntary Food (gm) Serving Dietary muscle contractions of intestinal walls), forcing the Size Fiber stool onward, and allows food residues to pass Almonds, shelled through the intestinal tract more quickly. Speeding Apple 1⁄4 cup 3.9 the passage of food residues through the intestines Banana 1 medium 3.7 seems to lower the risk for colon cancer, mainly be- Beans (red, kidney) 1.2 cause cancer-causing agents are not in contact as Blackberries 1 small 8.2 long with the intestinal wall. Insoluble fiber also is Beets, red, canned (cooked) 1⁄2 cup 4.9 thought to bind with carcinogens (cancer-producing Brazil nuts 1⁄2 cup 1.4 substances), and more water in the stool may dilute Broccoli (cooked) 1⁄2 cup 2.5 the cancer-causing agents, lessening their potency. Brown rice (cooked) 1 oz 3.3 Sources of insoluble fiber include wheat, cereals, Carrots (cooked) 1⁄2 cup 1.7 vegetables, and skins of fruits. Cauliflower (cooked) 1⁄2 cup 3.3 Cereal 1⁄2 cup 5.0 A practical guideline to obtain your fiber intake is 1⁄2 cup to eat at least five daily servings of fruits and vege- All Bran 8.5 tables and three servings of whole-grain foods Cheerios 1 oz 1.1 (whole-grain bread, cereal, and rice). Cornflakes 1 oz 0.5 Fruit and Fibre 1 oz 4.0 Fats Fruit Wheats 1 oz 2.0 Just Right 1 oz 2.0 Fats, or lipids, are the most concentrated source of Wheaties 1 oz 2.0 energy. Each gram of fat supplies 9 calories to the Corn (cooked) 1 oz 2.2 body. Fats, also part of the cell structure, are used as Eggplant (cooked) 1⁄2 cup 3.0 stored energy and as an insulator to preserve body Lettuce (chopped) 1⁄2 cup 0.5 heat. They absorb shock, supply essential fatty acids, Orange 1⁄2 cup 4.3 and carry the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K. Parsnips (cooked) 1 medium 2.1 The main sources of dietary fat are milk and other Pear 1⁄2 cup 4.5 dairy products, and meats and alternatives. Fats are Peas (cooked) 1 medium 4.4 classified into simple, compound, and derived fats. Popcorn (plain) 1⁄2 cup 1.2 Potato (baked) 1 cup 4.9 Simple Fats Strawberries 1 medium 1.6 Simple fats consist of a glyceride molecule linked to Summer squash (cooked) 1⁄2 cup 1.6 one, two, or three units of fatty acids. According to Watermelon 1⁄2 cup 0.1 the number of fatty acids attached, simple fats are 1 cup divided into monoglycerides (one fatty acid), diglyc- erides (two fatty acids), and triglycerides (three fatty acids). More than 90 percent of the weight of fat in

Chapter 5 Nutrition for Wellness 125 Tips to Increase Fiber in Your Diet are meats, meat fat, lard, whole milk, cream, butter, cheese, ice cream, hydrogenated oils (a process that • Eat more vegetables, either raw or steamed makes oils saturated), coconut oil, and palm oils. • Eat salads daily that include a wide variety of Saturated fats tend to be solids that typically do not melt at room temperature. Coconut and palm oils vegetables are exceptions. In general, saturated fats raise the • Eat more fruit, including the skin blood cholesterol level. The jury on coconut and • Choose whole-wheat and whole-grain products palm oils is still out, because recent research indi- • Choose breakfast cereals with more than 3 grams cates that these oils may be neutral in terms of their effects on cholesterol and may actually provide some of fiber per serving health benefits. • Sprinkle a teaspoon or two of unprocessed bran In unsaturated fatty acids (unsaturated fats), dou- or 100 percent bran cereal on your favorite break- ble bonds form between the unsaturated carbons. fast cereal Monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) have only one • Add high-fiber cereals to casseroles and desserts double bond along the chain. Examples are olive, • Add beans to soups, salads, and stews canola, rapeseed, peanut, and sesame oils. Polyun- • Add vegetables to sandwiches: sprouts, green saturated fatty acids (PUFA) contain two or more and red pepper strips, diced carrots, sliced cu- double bonds between unsaturated carbon atoms cumbers, red cabbage, onions along the chain. Corn, cottonseed, safflower, walnut, • Add vegetables to spaghetti: broccoli, cauli- sunflower, and soybean oils are high in polyunsatu- flower, sliced carrots, mushrooms rated fatty acids. Unsaturated fats are usually liquid • Experiment with unfamiliar fruits and at room temperature. vegetables—collards, kale, broccoflower, asparagus, papaya, mango, kiwi, starfruit Another type of fat, trans fatty acids, are receiv- • Blend fruit juice with small pieces of fruit and ing a lot of attention in recent years. Hydrogen of- crushed ice ten is added to monounsaturated and polyunsatu- • When increasing fiber in your diet, drink plenty rated fats to increase shelf life and to solidify them of fluids so they are more spreadable. During this process, called “partial hydrogenation,” the position of hy- Try It Do you know your average daily fiber in- drogen atoms may be changed along the carbon take? If you do not know, keep a 3-day record of chain, transforming the fat into a trans fatty acid. daily fiber intake. How do you fare against the rec- Some margarines, spreads, shortening, pastries, ommended guidelines? If your intake is low, how nut butters, crackers, cookies, frozen breakfast can you change your diet to increase your daily fi- foods, dairy products, snacks and chips, cake mixes, ber intake? meats, processed foods, and fast foods contain trans fatty acids. foods and more than 95 percent of the stored fat in the human body is in the form of triglycerides. Trans fatty acids are not essential and provide no known health benefit. In truth, health-conscious The length of the carbon atom chain and the people minimize their intake of these types of fats amount of hydrogen saturation in fatty acids vary. because diets high in trans fatty acids increase rigid- Based on the extent of saturation, fatty acids are said ity of the coronary arteries, elevate cholesterol, and to be saturated or unsaturated. Unsaturated fatty contribute to the formation of blood clots that may acids are classified further into monounsaturated lead to heart attacks and strokes. and polyunsaturated fats. Saturated fatty acids are mainly of animal origin. Unsaturated fats are found Paying attention to food labels is important, be- mostly in plant products. cause the words “partially hydrogenated” and “trans fatty acids” indicate that the product carries In saturated fatty acids, the carbon atoms are a health risk just as high or higher than that of satu- fully saturated with hydrogen; only single bonds rated fat. link the carbon atoms on the chain. These saturated fatty acids are more commonly known as saturated KEY TERMS fats. Examples of foods high in saturated fatty acids Fats (lipids) A class of nutrients that the body uses as a source of energy.

126 Fitness and Wellness Minerals Compound Fats Minerals serve several important functions. They are Compound fats are a combination of simple fats and constituents of all cells, especially those in hard parts other chemicals. Examples are phospholipids, gluco- of the body (bones, nails, teeth). They are crucial in lipids, and lipoproteins. maintaining water balance and the acid-base bal- ance. They are essential components of respiratory Derived Fats pigments, enzymes, and enzyme systems, and they Derived fats combine simple and compound fats. regulate muscular and nervous tissue excitability. Sterols are an example. Although sterols contain no fatty acids, they are considered lipids because Water they do not dissolve in water. The most often men- tioned sterol is cholesterol, which is found in many Water, the most important nutrient, is involved in foods and is manufactured from saturated fats in almost every vital body process. Water is used in di- the body. gesting and absorbing food, in the circulatory pro- cess, in removing waste products, in building and Proteins rebuilding cells, and in transporting other nutrients. Proteins are used to build and repair tissues includ- Water is contained in almost all foods, but primar- ing muscles, blood, internal organs, skin, hair, nails, ily in liquid foods, fruits, and vegetables. Although and bones. They are a part of hormones, enzymes, for decades the recommendation was to consume at and antibodies, and help maintain a normal balance least 8 cups of water per day, a panel of scientists of of body fluids. Proteins can also be used as a source the Institute of Medicine of the National Academy of of energy, but only if not enough carbohydrates are Sciences indicated that people are getting enough available. The primary sources are meats, meat alter- water from the liquids (milk, juices, sodas, coffee) natives, milk, and other dairy products. and the moisture content of solid foods. Caffeine- containing drinks are also acceptable as a water Proteins are composed of amino acids, containing source because data indicate that people who regu- nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Because larly consume such beverages do not have a greater the body cannot produce them, 9 of the 20 amino 24-hour urine output than those who don’t. acids are called essential amino acids. The other 11, termed nonessential amino acids, can be manufac- Most Americans and Canadians remain well hy- tured in the body if food proteins in the diet provide drated simply by using thirst as their guide. An excep- enough nitrogen. For normal body function, all tion to this practice, however, is when an individual amino acids must be present in the diet. exercises in the heat or does so for an extended time. Water lost under these conditions must be replenished A deficiency in protein is not a problem in the regularly, without waiting for the onset of thirst. usual American diet. Two glasses of skim milk combined with about 4 ounces of poultry or fish Nutrition Standards meet the daily protein requirement. Protein defi- ciency, however, could be a concern in some vege- Nutritionists use a variety of nutrient standards. The tarian diets (see discussion on vegetarianism, pages most widely known is the Recommended Dietary 132–133). Allowance (RDA). This is not the only standard, though. Nutrition standards include the Dietary Vitamins Reference Intakes and the Daily Values on food la- bels. Each standard has a different purpose and uti- Vitamins function as antioxidants and as coen- lization in dietary planning and assessment. zymes (primarily the B complex), which regulate the work of enzymes; and vitamin D even functions as a Dietary Reference Intakes hormone. To help people meet dietary guidelines, the National Based on their solubility, vitamins are classified Academy of Sciences has developed a set of dietary into two types: fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) nutrient intakes for healthy people in the United and water-soluble vitamins (B complex and C). The States and Canada, the Dietary Reference Intakes body cannot manufacture vitamins; they can be ob- tained only through a well-balanced diet. Additional information on the importance of vitamins is pre- sented later in this chapter.

Chapter 5 Nutrition for Wellness 127 (DRIs). The DRIs are based on a review of the most adverse effects. The established ULs for selected current research on adequate amounts and maxi- nutrients are presented in Table 5.3. mum safe nutrient intakes of healthy people. The DRI reports are written by the Food and Nutrition Daily Values Board of the Institute of Medicine in cooperation with scientists from Canada. The Daily Values (DVs) are reference values for nutrients and food components for use on commer- Within the umbrella of DRI are four types of refer- cial food labels. The DVs are based on a 2,000-calorie ence values for planning and assessing diets: diet and may therefore require adjustments depend- ing on an individual’s daily Estimated Energy Re- 1. Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) quirement (EER) in calories. 2. Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) 3. Adequate Intake (AI) For example, on a 2,000-calorie diet (EER), recom- 4. Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) mended carbohydrate intake is about 300 grams (about 60 percent of EER), and fat is less than The type of reference value used for a given nutri- 65 grams (about 30 percent of EER) (see Figure 5.1). ent and a specific age/gender group is determined The vitamin, mineral, and protein DVs were adapted according to available scientific information and the from the RDAs. The DVs are also not as specific for intended use of the dietary standard. age and gender groups as are the DRIs. The Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) is KEY TERMS the amount of nutrient that is estimated to meet the nutrient requirement of half the healthy people in Proteins A class of nutrients that the body uses to build and re- specific age and gender groups. At this nutrient in- pair body tissues. take level, the nutritional requirements of the upper Amino acids The basic building blocks of protein. 50 percent of the people are not met. Vitamins Organic substances essential for normal bodily metabo- lism, growth, and development. The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) Antioxidants Compounds that prevent oxygen from combining sets forth the daily amount of a nutrient considered with other substances it might damage. adequate to meet the known nutrient needs of nearly Minerals Inorganic elements needed by the body. all healthy people in the United States. The RDAs for Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) Four types of nutrient selected nutrients are presented in Table 5.2. Because standards that are used to establish adequate amounts the committee must decide what level of intake to and maximum safe nutrient intakes in the diet: Estimated recommend for everybody, the RDA is set well Average Requirement (EAR), Recommended Dietary Allowance above the EAR and covers about 98 percent of the (RDA), Adequate Intake (AI), and Tolerable Upper Intake population. Stated another way, the RDA recom- Level (UL). mendation for any nutrient is well above almost Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) The amount of a nutri- everyone’s actual requirement. ent that meets the dietary needs in half the people. Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) The daily amount of The RDA could be considered a goal for adequate a nutrient (statistically determined from the EARs) considered ade- intake. The process for determining the RDA de- quate to meet the known nutrient needs of almost 98 percent of pends on being able to set an EAR. RDAs are statisti- all healthy people in the United States. cally determined from the EAR values. If an EAR Adequate Intake (AI) The recommended amount of a nutrient cannot be set, no RDA can be established. intake when sufficient evidence is not available to calculate the EAR and subsequent RDA. When data are insufficient or inadequate to set Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) The highest level of nutrient an EAR, an Adequate Intake (AI) value is deter- intake that appears to be safe for most healthy people without an mined instead of the RDA. The AI value is derived increased risk of adverse effects. from approximations of observed nutrient intakes Daily Values (DVs) Reference values for nutrients and food com- by a group or groups of healthy people. The AI ponents used in food labels. value for children and adults is expected to meet or Estimated Energy Requirement (EER) The average dietary en- exceed the nutritional requirements of a specific ergy (caloric) intake that is predicted to maintain energy balance in healthy population. a healthy adult of defined age, gender, weight, height, and level of physical activity, consistent with good health. The Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL), which eventually will be available for all nutrients, estab- lishes the highest level of nutrient intake that seems to be safe for most healthy people and beyond which there is an increased risk for adverse effects. As in- takes increase above the UL, so does the risk for

128 Fitness and Wellness Table 5.2 Recommended Dietary Allowances and Adequate Intakes for Selected Nutrients Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) Adequate Intakes (AIs) Thiamin (mg) Riboflavin (mg) Niacin (mg NE) Vitamin B6 (mg) Folate (mcg DFE) Vitamin B12 (mcg) Phosphorus (mg) Magnesium (mg) Vitamin A (mcg) Vitamin C (mg) Vitamin E (mg) Selenium (mcg) Iron (mg) Calcium (mg) Vitamin D (mcg) Fluoride (mg) Pantothenic acid (mg) Biotin (mg) Choline (mg) Males 1.2 1.3 16 1.3 400 2.4 1,250 410 900 75 15 55 11 1,300 5 3 5.0 25 550 14–18 1.2 1.3 16 1.3 400 2.4 700 400 900 90 15 55 8 1,000 5 4 5.0 30 550 19–30 1.2 1.3 16 1.3 400 2.4 700 420 900 90 15 55 8 1,000 5 4 5.0 30 550 31–50 1.2 1.3 16 1.7 400 2.4 700 420 900 90 15 55 8 1,200 10 4 5.0 30 550 51–70 1.2 1.3 16 1.7 400 2.4 700 420 900 90 15 55 8 1,200 15 4 5.0 30 550 Ͼ70 Females 14–18 1.0 1.0 14 1.2 400 2.4 1,250 360 700 65 15 55 15 1,300 5 3 5.0 25 400 1,000 5 3 5.0 30 425 19–30 1.1 1.1 14 1.3 400 2.4 700 310 700 75 15 55 18 1,000 5 3 5.0 30 425 1,200 10 3 5.0 30 425 31–50 1.1 1.1 14 1.3 400 2.4 700 320 700 75 15 55 18 1,200 15 3 5.0 30 425 51–70 1.1 1.1 14 1.5 400 2.4 700 320 700 75 15 55 8 Ͼ70 1.1 1.1 14 1.5 400 2.4 700 320 700 75 15 55 8 Pregnant 1.4 1.4 18 1.9 600 2.6 * ϩ40 750 85 15 60 27 * * 3 6.0 30 450 Lactating 1.5 1.6 17 2.0 500 2.8 * * 1,300 120 19 70 10 * * 3 7.0 35 550 *Values for these nutrients do not change with pregnancy or lactation. Use the value listed for women of comparable age. SOURCE: Adapted with permission from Recommended Dietary Allowances, 10th Edition, and the Dietary Reference Intakes series. Copyright © 1989 and 2002, respectively, by the National Academy of Sciences. Courtesy of the National Academies Press, Washington, DC. Table 5.3 Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs) The food label is a good guide for planning a of Selected Nutrients for Adults daily diet. For example, if the DV for carbohydrates (19–70 years) in a given meal adds up to only 35 percent, you know that several additional high-carbohydrate Nutrient UL per Day food items are required throughout that day to reach the 100 percent DV. Further, if the DV for fat Calcium 2.5 gr from another food item is 60 percent or 70 percent, Phosphorus 4.0 gr* you should limit your fat intake during the rest of Magnesium 350 mg that day. Vitamin D 50 mcg Fluoride 10 mg Both the DRIs and the DVs apply only to healthy Niacin 35 mg adults. They are not intended for people who are Iron 45 mg ill and may require additional nutrients or dietary Vitamin B6 100 mg adjustments. Folate 1,000 mcg Choline 3.5 gr CRITICAL THINKING Vitamin A 3,000 mcg Vitamin C 2,000 mg What do the nutrition standards mean to you? ● How Vitamin E 1,000 mg much of a challenge would it be to apply those stan- Selenium 400 mcg dards in your daily life? *3.5 gr per day for pregnant women.