Biomechanics and Exercise Physiology - Arthur T. Johnson

490 increment for numerical solution, 151 sense of, 292 Thermoelectric cooler, 434 to exhaustion, see Performance, time Thermogenesis, see Heat production Time constant: Thermoneutral environment, 361, 363, 403, of baroreceptors, 140, 142 of brain blood flow, 307 436 of carbon dioxide production, 240 Thermoreceptor(s), 268, 403, 425. See also of cardiac output change, 306, 3 10 of exhalation, 219, 334 Cold receptors; Warm receptors of heart response, 25, 126 distribution, 403 of lung filling, 286 inputs by various body segments, 432 of the lung, 219 model, 405 of lung segments, 191, 219 Thermoregulation, 24, 223, 363, 403 of macromolecule diffusion, 274–275 different levels, 407–408 of oxygen uptake, 20–21, 25, 240 equations, 421, 431, 435 of rectal temperature change, 441, 443 external, see External thermoregulation of respiratory muscle pressure, 295–296 Thickness of clothing, see Clothing, of respiratory response, 25, 240, 330–331 of respiratory system, 219, 261–262 effective thickness of respiratory ventilation, 240–242 Thick-walled vessel, 134 of sweating, 413 Thighs: of thermal response, 25 of vascular control, 145 skin temperature, 386 of vascular segments, 145 surface area, 386 Time delay: sweating, 386 for body temperature change, 402, 441– weight, 32 Thixotropic fluids, 79 442 Thoracic cage, 175, 238 circulation, 318 Thoracic cavity, 147, 173 in dead volume gas, 256 Thorax: heart rate, 125–126 aorta, 144 between lung and brain, 307, 315 arteries, 131–132, 146 between lung and tissue, 307 blood flow, 146 in oxygen response, 248 blood volume, 177 respiratory response, 330–331 compartments, 147 sweating, 413 gas volume, 208 Tissue: muscles, 175 blood flow, 104 pressure, see Intrathoracic pressure compartment 300, 320–321 shape, 173, 220 heat transfer, 364 stiffness, 216 necrosis, 112 veins, 146 pH, 108 volume, 238 thermal properties, 369 wall, see Chest wall volumes, 323 Threshold: TLC, see Total lung capacity (or Tender detection, see Weber–Fechner Law level, 225, 405 loving care) loading, 253 Toluene diffusion constant, 186 pressure, 100 Tongue thermoreceptors, 405 stimuli, 235–237, 405 Torque: temperature, 405, 410 Thyroid and carbohydrate ingestion, 10 balance on body, 31 Thyroid gland, 415–417 on joint, 37, 39, 61, 67 Thyroxin: sign convention, 31 and exercise, 24, 418 Torso rigidity, 166 and heart rate, 108 Total lung capacity, 175–177 and heat production, 415–416 Total respiratory cycle work, 260 Tidal volume, 175–177, 189, 233, 259, 323, Trachea, 168–169, 173, 175, 281 air composition, 182 332 air flow, 181 with elastic loading, 253 mechanics, 281 in exercise, 252 Reynolds number, 283 irregularity, 318 related to chemoreceptors, 253 related to mechanoreceptors, 253 Time: domain, 154

491 Tripalmitin metabolism, 183 Tropical rain forest solar load, 380 Tracheobronchial receptors, 230 Tropical savanna solar load, 380 Tracheostomy tube, 236 Trousers thermal conductance, 371 Track, 45 Trucks, cost of transport, 51–52 Training: Truncation error, 150 Trunk: effect: on acclimatization, 416 blood flow, 428 on BMR, 392 contribution to BMR. 392 on heart rate, 95 heat production, 428 on heart size, 109 mass, 428 on heart weight, 95–96 surface area, 427 on maximal heart rate, 109 sweating, 413 on maximum oxygen uptake, 15, 94 thermal conductivity, 428 on metabolism, 392 volume, 427 on muscle capillary beds, 74 Tube: on respiratory pressure loading, 254 characteristic, 211–212 on stroke volume, 95 narrowing, 211 on thermal stress, 417 resistance, 82–83 rigidity, 211 and respiratory sensation, 255 Tundra solar load, 380 Trajectory determination, 60 Turbulence, 206 Transdiaphragmatic pressure, 174 Turbulent flow, 82, 93, 176, 191, 203–204, Transient increase: 210 in blood lactate, 250 Turbulent friction pressure loss, 283 in ventilation, 240–241 Tympanic membrane temperature, see Ear Transient response to blood pH, 244 Transient time, blood circulation, 321 drum temperature Transition: from laminar to turbulent flow, see Ulna, 36 Unconscious clues to dyspnea, 271 Laminar to turbulent transition Unconsciousness, 104–105, 222 from nose to mouth breathing, see Nasal Unconscious responses to heat 361 Undamped natural frequency, 219 to mouth breathing transition Underdamped system, 218 from rest to exercise, 240, 265 Underwear thermal conductance, 371 speed from walking to running, 54, 58 Unequal lung filling, 286 zone, respiratory, 169–170 Universal gas constant, 180 zone in airway cast model, 283 Unsteady flow, 83 Transit time: Upper airway, 276 blood through muscles, 73 pulmonary blood, 173, 194 pressure–flow nonlinearities, 203–204 Translational motion, 38 resistance, see Resistance, airway(s); Transmembrane potential, 33, 292 Transmission line, 118 Resistance, upper airway Transmissivity, 373 stiffness, 208 Transmural pressure of blood vessels, 145, volume, 278 Upper airways limiting flow, 212 147 Urinary nitrogen equivalence of protein, 185 Transport time, lung-to-brain, see Time, Urinary output, 108, 183 Urine concentrations, units of, 245 delay between lung and brain Useful work, 166 Transpulmonary pressure, 295. See also Vagal afferent sources, 101, 233 Respiration, muscle pressures Vagal tone, 93 Trapezoidal integration, 150 Vagus: Trauma, 82 Treadmill: discharge, 236 effect, 105 load carrying, 66 nerve, 101–102, 105, 140, 230, 232 running, 64 nerve and respiratory sensation, 255 walking, 437 Valves, 82, 90, 131–132, 144. See also walking heart rate, 129 Triceps: Aortic, valve; Mitral valve; Veins extensor cubiti muscle, 394 muscle, 33, 36 Trigeminal nerve, 101 Triiodothyronine and heat production, 415– 416

492 distribution, 207 during exercise, see Hyperpnea Van't Hoff equation, 391 high frequency, 189 Vapor: and inhaled CO2, 309, 311, 318, 320, 328 rate after exercise, 250 diffusion constants, 186 rate during exercise, 17, 240–241, 309 pressure of water, see Saturation, pressure and respiratory exchange ratio, see Respiration, exchange ratio, and minute for water vapor volume transmission, 364 Ventilation/perfusion ratio, 177–178, 194 Vascular innervation, 104 distribution, 177 Vascular models, 117–119, 131–132 regulation, 179 Vascular pressure, 231 Ventilatory compensation, 251, 253 Vascular resistance, 91, 98–100, 103–104, Ventilatory loading, 252 Ventilatory perfusion, 177–178, 196, 239 107, 116, 122, 131–132, 148, 325 rate distribution, 177 in cold, 112 Ventilatory response to hemoglobin control, 145 and epinephrine, 108 saturation, 248–249 during exercise, 105, 145 Ventral respiratory neurons, 232 increase after standing, 105 Ventricle, 89, 93, 96, 112–113, 131 nonlinearities, 147 Vasoconstriction, 74,102, 104 blood volume, 144 alveolar, 179 compliance, see Compliance, ventricular cerebral, 149, 246 ejection period, 123 cutaneous, 369 ejection pressure, 98, 114 and vasodilation compared, 413 energy and power, 99, 118 Vasodilation, 101, 104, 108, 131 filling, 96 cerebral, 104,108 isovolume contraction, 123 cutaneous, see Cutaneous, vasodilation model, 112, 114, 118–119 Vasomotor: muscle length, see Myocardium, length center, 99, 101–102, 104, 140 pressure, 113, 115, 122–123, 133, 144 responses, 363. See also Vasoconstriction; receptors, 107 resistance, see Resistance, ventricular Vasodilation volume, 114 tone, 101 wall, 134 VC, see Vital capacity Venule, 81–82, 93, 104 Veins, 81–82, 93, 104 Vertebral extensor muscles, 174 Velocity: Vertical force component, 54 profile, 83, 191, 204–205, 210 Vertical jump, 40 profile in airways, 206 Very heavy loads, 438 of shortening, see Muscle, shortening rate Very heavy work, 397–398 Very light work, 397–398 and tension Vibration and inhalation, 236 Vena cava, 81–82, 89, 91, 93, 131–132 Viscera, 102, 109,131 Venae comitantes, 414 mass, 428 Venous blood, 74, 77, 82, 143, 267 Viscoelastic fluids, 79 Viscosity, blood, see Blood, viscosity gas partial pressures, 181, 193 Viscous dissipation of energy, 203, 211 pressure, 82, 105, 111, 144 Viscous power, see Resistance, power return, 82, 90–91, 100 Viscous pressure drop, 84, 203, 282. See return in exercise, 109 volume, 144, 147 also Friction Venous collapse, see Collapse, of blood Visible light, 372 Vital capacity, 175–177, 215, 314 vessels Venous compliance, see Compliance, with elastic loading, 254 Vocal cords, 175 venous, Voice: Venous inertance, see Inertance, venous Venous model, 116, 143, 145 box, see Larynx Venous pCO2, 108 pitch analysis, 255 Venous pO2, 109 Volume: Venous resistance, see Resistance, venous fractions of air constituents, 180 Venous return path for blood in heat, 414 lower airways, 279 Venous valves, 82, 131–132, 147 Venous weight, 81 Ventilation: and baroreflex, 107 control, 24, 238

493 Weight of various organs, 81 Wetted clothes, 390 lung, see Lung volume Wetted skin area, 440 receptors, 100 Whale, 218 tube, 279 Wheel, 54 Volume–pressure curve: Wheelbarrow, 34 for abdomen–diaphragm, 273–274 White blood cells, 72 for chest wall, 217, 273–274 Wind instrument players, 176 for lung tissue, 217, 274, 276 Windkessel vessels, 82 for respiratory system, 215 Windpipe, see Trachea slope, 215 Wing, 53–54 Voluntary control of respiration, 166, 257 Winslow equation for ambient conductance, Vomiting and metabolic acidosis, 244 378 Walking, 2–5, 43, 45, 47–52, 55, 57 Women, speed compared to men, 4–5 downhill, 437 Wood emissivity, 373 efficiency, 52, 401 Work, 3, 52, 218 energy, 53, 58–59, 66, 399, 401, 436 energy by various muscle groups, 431 of breathing, 220–221 heart rate, 129 dynamic, 13, 15 speed,46, 54, 58–59 in energy model, 23 equivalent to heat energy, see First law of Wall effect in blood vessels, 84 Warm-blooded animals, see Homeotherms thermodynamics Warm receptors, 403–404. See also history of subjects, 239 intensity classification, 3, 397–398 Thermoreceptor of posture maintenance, 220 Water: rate: emissivity, 373 for cardiovascular limited exercise, 24 filtration, 82 during experimental studies, 25 of hydration, 183 and heat accumulation, 26 latent heat of vaporization, 382 impulse, 330 mass diffusivity, 386 ramp increase, 19, 330 vapor, respiratory, 72, 181, 384 for respiratory limited exercise, 26 vapor collision diameter, 187 sinusoidal, 241 vapor diffusion constant, 186, 189 step change, 241, 330 vapor diffusion volume, 188 for thermal limitation to exercise, 26 vapor force constant, 187 and respiration, 240–241 vapor mass diffusivity, 386 static, 13, 15 vapor partial pressure in lungs, blood, and Wrestling, 33 Wyndham–Atkins thermoregulatory model, muscle, 181 422 vapor pressure, 180, 383–384, 390, 440 vapor saturation pressure, see Saturation, Yamamoto CO2 model, 320 Yamashiro and Livnat ventricular model, pressure for water vapor vapor transmission through clothes, 385, 118 Yawning, 172 439 Yield stress, 179 Waves, 112 Yoga breathing exercises, 250 Wave-speed formulation, 211, 282 Young's modulus, 42 Weather data, 379–380 Weber–Fechner law, 254, 292 for biological materials, 42 Weibel respiratory model, 168–169, 281 for bone, 42 Weight-lifting, 33, 65, 166, 395