Third Edition Physical Education for Lifelong Fitness The Physical Best Teacher's Guide

Basic Training Principles  39 a b Figure 3.1   Students demonstrate progression by increasing the intensity by moving from (a) a modified push-up to (b) a regular push-up. knee extension, to develop muscular strength or The regularity principle, based on the old muscular endurance of the quadriceps. Similarly, adage “Use it, or lose it,” states that physical a student interested in increasing hamstring flex- activity must be performed on a regular basis to ibility would need to include several stretches tar- be effective. Any fitness gains achieved through geting that muscle group such as the back-saver physical activity will be lost if the person does sit-and-reach stretch. When training for aerobic not continue to be active. This basic training fitness, a distance runner would employ a training principle helps to reinforce the importance of program involving runs of longer duration and physical activity across the life span because any lesser intensity when compared with the program improvements in fitness performance gained of a sprinter. In other words, the physical activity during an active childhood or adolescence are program should always reflect the desired train- transient and will be lost following years of adult ing outcome or adaptation. inactivity.

40  Physical Education for Lifelong Fitness The individuality principle takes into making regarding the application of the FITT account that people enter into physical activity guidelines. The precise manner in which those programs with different biological potentials decisions are implemented will vary based on a for change, personal goals and interests, cur- number of factors including the program goals rent activity patterns, fitness levels, psychosocial and outcomes, the physical activity setting or con- characteristics, and environmental determinants. text, the developmental readiness of participants, Giving children plenty of opportunities to make and the instructor’s qualifications. More specific choices in physical education regarding the FITT FITT guidelines for each area of health-related guidelines is an important way to help them fitness are discussed in chapters 5 through 8 of develop physical activity patterns that may carry this book. across the life span. In the most complex form, student choice could involve an elective physical Frequency education program at a high school where stu- dents select from a number of lifetime leisure pur- Frequency describes how often a person performs suits like rock climbing, tennis, golf, and weight the targeted physical activity. For each component training. In its simplest form, the choice could of health-related fitness, the beneficial and safe occur during a fitness tag game at the elementary frequency is generally three to five days per week, level where the students select from a list of simple and aerobic fitness activities can be performed to complex alternatives to perform when tagged all or most days of the week. The exceptions (e.g., line jumps, cone jumps, rope jumps). are activities intended for increasing muscular strength and endurance. Most experts believe Applying the Basic that these activities should be limited to three Training Principles nonconsecutive days per week, unless different muscle groups are exercised on alternating days. The American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM, 2006) Web site (www.acsm.org/AM/Template. Intensity cfm?Section=Home) defines exercise prescrip- tion as the process of designing an individual- Intensity describes how hard a person exercises ized physical activity program to enhance fitness, and represents one of the most critical decisions reduce risk factors for chronic degenerative dis- in program design. The selection of appropriate ease, and ensure participant safety. When devel- exercise intensity depends on a number of factors oping an exercise prescription, the practitioner including the participant’s developmental readi- must make key decisions regarding the FITT ness, personal goals, and current physical activ- guidelines (frequency, intensity, time, and type) ity and fitness levels. For example, participants and an appropriate rate of progression. These who have a goal of improving sport performance decisions need to take into account a variety of would need to exercise at a higher intensity when issues including the participant’s health status, compared with those trying to achieve general current activity levels, past experience, personal health benefits. Furthermore, a student who is preference, fitness goals, and so forth. already physically active on a regular basis would be better prepared to tolerate higher exercise FITT Guidelines intensities than someone who was previously sedentary. When working with students with low The FITT guidelines represent how the basic initial physical activity or fitness levels, teachers training principles are applied during physical should use activities of lower intensity to provide activity program design. Whether the program a more enjoyable experience and minimize any is designed for a college student–athlete, a high potential discomfort or soreness. school student enrolled in a personal wellness course, or an elementary student joining an Time after-school fitness education club, the physical educator needs to facilitate responsible decision Time, or duration, describes how long the activity should be performed. As with other aspects of the FITT guidelines, time varies depending on the

Basic Training Principles  41 targeted health-related fitness component, and that elevate the heart rate for an extended period. it is inversely related to intensity. Primary-grade Muscular fitness may be developed by contracting children will have more difficulty understanding a muscle or muscle group against an external resis- this concept than will older children and will be tance provided by free weights, variable resistance less able than older children and adolescents to machines, elastic tubing, body weight, medicine complete intense physical activities in a single balls, or a partner. Flexibility may be enhanced by bout. repeatedly stretching a muscle beyond its normal resting length using several training modes includ- Type ing static and dynamic stretches. Most important, physical educators should encourage students to Type refers to mode or what kind of activity a select activities that they enjoy and that target person chooses to perform for each component of their personal health, fitness, or sport performance health-related fitness (see figure 3.2). For example, goals. Instructors of elementary and middle school a person may improve aerobic fitness by walking, students should provide a variety of activities that riding a bike, in-line skating, stair climbing, or will facilitate responsible decision-making at the engaging in any number of other physical activities high school level and in the future. ab Valeriy Pistryy/fotolia.com cd Figure 3.2  All of these different types of activities improve students’ health-related fitness. Best of all, they're having fun doing them!

42  Physical Education for Lifelong Fitness FITT Age Differences do not respond to structured exercise in the same manner as adults do (Rowland, 2007). As a result, Many physical educators know how these basic the lifetime activity model, which emphasizes training principles and FITT guidelines apply to the accumulation of moderate physical activity adults, but they fail to keep in mind that children in a less structured manner, represents a more respond differently from adults and that the tra- appropriate application of the FITT guidelines ditional idea of an exercise prescription should not for most children (NASPE, 2004b). When adher- be rigorously applied to young children. Physical ing to the lifetime activity model, a child would educators should use instructional approaches be encouraged to accumulate at least one hour, that reinforce the process of engaging in enjoy- and up to several hours, of play each day through able activity rather than the product of becoming participation in a range of lifestyle activities, active physically fit through more structured forms of aerobics, active sports, flexibility exercises, and exercise training (NASPE, 2004b). Most studies muscular exercises while minimizing long periods indicate that habitual physical activity is not a of sedentary living. The physical activity pyramid strong predictor of fitness in children and that they (Lambdin et al., 2010; Corbin & Lindsey, 2007) a Figure 3.3  The physical activity pyramid, (a) for children and (b) for teenagers, is a tool that will help your students understand how to address each component of health-related fitness. The children’s version is available for full-size printing on the Physical Best Activity Guide: Elementary Level CD-ROM. The teen’s version is available forEf4u7ll3-6s/iNzAeSpPrEinTtiGnFgIGo3n.3th/3e63P3h78y/spiucllaeld/Br1est Activity Guide: Middle and High School Levels CD-ROM. Figure 3.3a; Reprinted, by permission, from D. Lambdin et al., 2010, Fitness for life: Elementary school classroom guide kindergarten classroom guide (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 11.

Basic Training Principles  43 is an effective tool for teaching students how to intensity physical activity should occur on at weigh each component of health-related fitness least three days per week. while incorporating sufficient variation in their personal physical activity programs (see figure 3.3). NASPE (2004b) guidelines for elementary school aged children state the following: Aerobic fitness activities form a large segment of the physical activity pyramid (see figure 3.3) 1. Children should accumulate at least 60 min- which parallels activity recommendations by the utes, and up to several hours, of age-appropri- International Consensus Conference on Physical ate physical activity on all or most days of the Activity Guidelines for Adolescents (Sallis & Pat- week. This daily accumulation should include rick, 1994), and NASPE guidelines for elementary moderate and vigorous physical activity with school aged children (NASPE, 2004b). The follow- the majority being intermittent in nature. ing is recommended for children and adolescents (6–17 years of age) (PCPF, 2008): 2. Children should participate in several bouts of physical activity lasting 15 minutes or more 1. Children and adolescents should do 60 min- each day. utes (1 hour) or more of physical activity daily. 3. Children should participate each day in a 2. Most of the 60 or more minutes each day variety of age-appropriate physical activities should be either moderate- or vigorous-inten- designed to achieve optimal health, wellness, sity aerobic physical activity, and vigorous- fitness, and performance benefits. Level 4 Rest or inactivity Watching TV Computer games Exercise Exercise for flexibility for strength and muscular Stretching endurance Level 3 Resistance training Calisthenics Level 2 Active Active sports aerobics and recreation Aerobics Tennis Jogging Basketball Biking In-line skating Level 1 Lifestyle physical activity Walk rather than ride Climb the stairs Do yard work Play golf Go bowling Go fishing b Figure 3.3  (continued) Figure 3.3b; Reprinted, by permission, from C.B. Corbin and R. Lindsey, 2007, Fitness for life: Middle school (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 4. E4736/NASPE TG/fig 3.3b/363379/pulled/r1

44  Physical Education for Lifelong Fitness 4. Extended periods (periods of two hours or appropriate, the following definitions are pro- more) of inactivity are discouraged for chil- vided by NASPE (2004b). Developmentally dren, especially during daytime hours (pp. appropriate physical activity “refers to activity 9–10). of a frequency, intensity, duration and type that leads to optimal child growth and development NASPE (2004b) suggests 11 guidelines for pro- and contributes to the development of future moting physical activity in schools and physical physically active lifestyles” (p. 8). Moderate phys- education. As a physical educator, you can use ical activity is defined as “activity of an intensity these guidelines to enhance your lessons and to equal to brisk walking . . . and can be performed promote active lifestyles outside of the physical for relatively long periods of time without fatigue” education setting. (NASPE, 2004b, 7). The authors suggest brisk walking, bike riding, some chores or housework, ffProvide time for activity throughout the low-intensity games such as hopscotch or four- school day—include recess and short activity square, and playing low-activity positions such breaks that supplement the allotted time for as goalie or outfield. Vigorous physical activ- physical education. ity is defined as “movement that expends more energy or is performed at a higher intensity than ffEncourage self-monitoring of physical activ- brisk walking. Some forms of vigorous activity, ity. such as running, can be done for relatively long periods of time while others may be so vigorous ffIndividualize activity. (e.g., sprinting) that frequent rests are necessary” (NASPE, 2004b, 8). For examples of moderate and ffExpose children to a variety of physical vigorous aerobic fitness and muscle- and bone- activities. strengthening activities, see table 3.1. ffOffer feedback that reinforces regular par- Although the FITT guidelines are still appli- ticipation and encourages children to give cable when using the lifetime activity model for their best effort; avoid giving feedback on program design, they are being used in a less how fast the performance was or how many structured manner, which is thought to be suit- repetitions were completed. able for younger children and inactive adults. At the elementary level, teachers should remove the ffDo not sacrifice class time for fitness-only stringent three-day-per-week training require- activities—include fundamental skill devel- ment, place less emphasis on minimum intensity opment. levels, remove time limits frequently suggested as minimums for the development of fitness, ffBe an active role model. and emphasize increased daily physical activity. Certainly, the adult model FITT guidelines can ffCare about the attitudes of your students. be presented, but the emphasis should be on Help them set goals and then provide achiev- increasing physical activity. To prevent students able challenges to meet those goals. from losing interest, or to keep them from losing the desire to become more physically fit, help each ffEnhance exercise self-efficacy by teaching the student explore a variety of recreational activities value of various activities and ways to develop and different ways to vary their physical activity personalized exercise or activity programs choices. Encourage students to become involved that can be achieved. in school athletic programs and before- or after- school fitness or activity programs. Demonstrate ffPromote activity outside the school environ- active behavior and be a role model for your ment. students. Take the stairs, park away from the building, or take your classes outside and walk ffConsider lifetime activities that will carry the longest distance to the activity area. Explain into adulthood such as walking, jogging, hiking, or cycling. Physical Best provides an opportunity for students to learn why activi- ties are important and what the benefits of the activity are for today and in the future. To assist teachers in determining what activi- ties are considered moderate, vigorous, or age

Basic Training Principles  45 Table 3.1  Examples of Moderate- and Vigorous-Intensity Aerobic Physical Activities and Muscle- and Bone-Strengthening Activities for Children and Adolescents Type of physical Age group activity Children Adolescents Moderate-intensity • Active recreation, such as hiking, • Active recreation, such as canoeing, hiking, aerobic skateboarding, in-line skating skateboarding, in-line skating • Bicycle riding • Brisk walking • Brisk walking • Bicycle riding (stationary or road bike) • Housework and yard work, such as sweeping or pushing a lawnmower • Games that require catching and throwing, such as baseball and softball Vigorous-intensity • Active games involving running and • Active games involving running and aerobic chasing, such as tag chasing, such as flag football • Bicycle riding • Bicycle riding • Jumping rope • Jumping rope • Martial arts, such as karate • Martial arts, such as karate • Running • Running • Sports such as soccer, ice or field hockey, • Sports such as soccer, ice or field hockey, basketball, swimming, tennis basketball, swimming, tennis • Cross-country skiing • Vigorous dancing • Cross-country skiing Muscle • Games such as tug-of-war • Games such as tug-of-war strengthening • Modified push-ups (with knees on the floor) • Push-ups and pull-ups • Resistance exercises using body weight or • Resistance exercises with exercise bands, resistance bands weight machines, hand-held weights • Rope or tree climbing • Climbing wall • Curl-ups or crunches • Curl-ups or crunches • Swinging on playground equipment or bars Bone • Games such as hopscotch • Hopping, skipping, jumping strengthening • Hopping, skipping, jumping • Jumping rope • Jumping rope • Running • Running • Sports such as gymnastics, basketball, • Sports such as gymnastics, basketball, volleyball, tennis volleyball, tennis Note: Some activities, such as bicycling, can be moderate or vigorous intensity, depending on level of effort. From US Department of Health and Human Services 2008. to your students the importance of adding these programs available in your community away from activities to their lifestyles and the way in which the school setting (such as sport leagues, health it directly relates to them. For example, explain clubs, and park district activities). how improved aerobic fitness will enable them to play longer without getting tired. Discuss If a child, parent, and physical educator agree how improved muscular strength will help them that a more structured, adultlike exercise pre- perform their daily chores, such as taking out the scription is needed to enhance a child’s fitness trash, or how extra strength can help them play on or sport performance, then the program must the playground bars and equipment. In addition, adhere to the basic training principles and the act as a liaison between the student and the com- FITT guidelines must be applied based on the munity by pointing out the various recreational individual’s stage of maturation rather than chronological age (Bompa, 2000). As a rule,

46  Physical Education for Lifelong Fitness however, teachers and coaches of younger chil- be used to prepare the cardiorespiratory and dren should focus on age-appropriate activities musculoskeletal systems for the sport-specific that give all participants an equal opportunity segment of the warm-up and the main physical to play, make friends, improve social skills, and activity that follows. The specific warm-up may at the same time enhance their fitness. At the include a combination of static and dynamic middle and high school levels, students are closer stretches like walking lunges and high knees. to adulthood and respond to training and con- The specific warm-up is also more effective if the ditioning more like adults. At this point teach- activities target the primary muscles that will be ers can begin to transition to adultlike physical used to perform the main physical activity. This activity programs by helping students apply the type of structured warm-up routine offers the FITT guidelines in a more prescriptive manner. following benefits: Components of a ffIncreases active muscle blood flow Physical Activity ffIncreases blood flow to the heart Session ffRaises body temperature and may reduce the Every physical activity session should follow a sys- risk of muscular injury and soreness tematic approach that includes a warm-up, main physical activity, and cool-down. This approach ffFacilitates temperature regulation by caus- helps to ensure participant safety by preparing ing earlier sweating the body for the demands of physical activity and by providing a mechanism for a gradual Physical education classes, however, do not reduction in workload at the end of the session. lend themselves to structured warm-up routines Properly warming up before and cooling down in many instances. In a 40-minute elementary after physical activity may also prevent injuries physical education class, the allocation of 10 to and aid in postexercise recovery, respectively. The 15 minutes for an extended warm-up may not main physical activity must also be conducted represent the best use of instructional time. appropriately for students to feel and understand, Furthermore, in this context committing large through participation, the importance of being chunks of lesson time to less active types of exer- physically active. cise such as static stretching is not advisable. As an alternative approach, the Physical Best activi- Warm-Up ties can be used throughout the year as warm- up activities during other units besides fitness A warm-up is a low-intensity activity done before education. For example, if throwing is the main a full effort and should be organized to meet the activity, a general warm-up such as Power Ball goals of the main physical activity. The primary Hunt in Physical Best Activity Guide: Elementary purpose of the warm-up is to prepare the par- Level, Third Edition) could be used to explain to ticipant for the moderate to vigorous physical students, in age-appropriate ways, that warm- activity that will occur during the session. For ing up properly prepares the body for the main example, a person intending to engage in a vig- activity by gradually increasing heart rate and orous physical activity, like a game of full-court blood flow to the muscles and tissues of the basketball, would need to complete a more thor- body. A more specific warm-up could incorpo- ough warm-up than someone simply going out for rate dynamic movements that target the prime a brisk walk. This type of structured basketball movers acting on the shoulder joint including warm-up would incorporate a general warm-up jumping jacks, arm swings in multiple planes of followed by a specific warm-up incorporating movement, and pull-up and push-up variations sport-related stretches and movement patterns to prepare the arms for throwing activities. performed at progressively increasing intensities. Although gentle stretching and walking or A general warm-up—including activities such slow jogging for about five minutes are common as walking, jogging, swimming, or cycling—may and safe warm-up activities, you must vary the warm-up to prevent boredom and carelessness in the routine. For younger children (and to prevent

Basic Training Principles  47 discipline problems), plan and lead warm-ups to slow down and return to near resting levels. that provide instant activity as the students arrive Students must understand that the body needs at the lesson site (Graham, 2008). This might this gradual recovery following exercise to reduce include challenge activities such as how many muscle stiffness and soreness, remove lactic acid, times students can jump back and forth across a and prevent light-headedness, dizziness, or even line, how many successive turns of a jump rope fainting. Teach them to resist the urge to sit or lie the students can complete, a short circuit train- down after physical activity; instead, they should ing course, or a dribbling activity. These instant gradually slow down their activity by walking or activities may also work for older students by jogging for three to five minutes, or until the heart providing an opportunity for students to social- rate returns to near resting level. Continued light ize while warming up. Also, for older students, activity facilitates recovery by “milking” blood in post the warm-up in the locker rooms or at the the veins back toward the heart. An abrupt ces- lesson site and make the students responsible for sation of exercise facilitates pooling of blood in carrying it out independently. the extremities and decreases the return flow of blood to the heart, and subsequently to the brain, Main Physical Activity leaving the person susceptible to fainting. Stretch- ing exercises should also be performed during The main physical activity represents the core the cool-down because muscles are warmest and of the lesson or physical activity session and is most pliable then, providing maximum benefit intended to improve or maintain one or more toward improving flexibility. Refer to chapter 7 of the health-related fitness components. The in this book and to the Physical Best Activity Guides frequency, intensity, time, and type of physical for examples of stretching exercises and activities. activity depend on the goals of the lesson, the The cool-down is also an opportunity for the length of the class period, and the current fit- teacher to bring closure to the lesson by reviewing ness level of individual students. Whether teach- key concepts learned and facilitating student self- ing kindergarteners or high school seniors, you evaluation of personalized goals for the workout. should explain the purpose of the lesson and how the day’s activity will help students reach class or Social Support personalized goals. and Safety Guidelines Children, like adults, will express and act on Besides using the basic training principles, FITT preferences among the many physical activities guidelines, and components of a physical activity available. We strongly encourage you to provide session in a developmentally appropriate manner, a wide variety of activities and to allow a wide physical educators must be careful to provide range of personal choice in your program, but you their students with a teaching and learning must ensure that your students understand the environment that is both socially supportive and need to address each component of health-related safe. In the absence of these key features, physical fitness. In short, emphasize the importance of education programs are not likely to influence total fitness and the need to engage in an activ- physical activity and other health-related behav- ity for each component of health-related fitness. iors in a positive direction. The student who elects to swim laps instead of going cross-country skiing is addressing aerobic Providing Social Support fitness appropriately, but both of these students still need to work on flexibility, muscular strength Adhering to the basic principles of training and endurance (for muscle groups not addressed involves more than the physical aspects of train- by the activities), and body composition at some ing and conditioning or simply increasing physi- point. cal activity level; psychosocial components must also be considered. Generally, children do not Cool-Down choose to exercise or remain physically active for the associated health benefits, but they are more A proper cool-down includes a period of light activity following exercise that allows the body

48  Physical Education for Lifelong Fitness likely to be physically active if they perceive their For more information on physical activity behav- physical abilities as high (NASPE, 2004b). As a ior and motivation, refer to chapter 2. result, children must experience some measure of success when being introduced to new physical Establishing a Safe Environment activities. Activities that are initially of excessive intensity or difficulty may prove discouraging. Because a number of dangers are inherent to physical activity participation, teachers must The role of the physical education teacher as a be careful to establish a teaching and learning primary source of social support is paramount. environment that minimizes risk of injury. This Physical Best emphasizes development of lifetime responsibility includes regular inspection and physical activity and education by calling atten- maintenance of all facilities and equipment. Pre- tion to fitness as a lifelong process rather than a ventive maintenance is of particular importance product of isolated training and conditioning. in those high-risk areas where the potential for The literature demonstrates that physical educa- catastrophic injury exists (e.g., swimming pools, tion and sport in the schools can make meaning- weight rooms, climbing walls, playground equip- ful contributions to the development of lifestyle ment). Furthermore, meaningful preinstructional physical activity and health-related fitness, fun- planning, effective teaching methods, and quali- damental movement skills, social responsibility, fied supervision should be considered mandatory self-esteem and proschool attitudes, and perhaps in any physical education program. Physical edu- cognitive development and academic achievement cators should have a written emergency response under the appropriate circumstances (Bailey, plan posted, and they should practice it on a 2006). These positive outcomes are not the direct routine basis. The maintenance of current first result of participation in regular physical activity, aid and CPR certification is recommended for all however, and we must be careful to acknowledge physical education professionals. that “the effects are likely to be mediated by the nature of the interactions between students and Physical educators should also teach their their teachers, parents, and coaches who work students to become accountable for their own with them” (Bailey, 2006, p. 397). In short, Bailey safety. Students seeking any level of health-related asserts that these important learning outcomes fitness must be encouraged to listen to their are most likely to be realized if the physical edu- bodies and slow down if they feel overtired or cation environment is positive and characterized suffer from soreness that is intense or lasts more by high levels of student engagement, enjoyment, than a day or so. diversity, and social support from knowledgeable practitioners and well-informed parents. Doing too much too fast, weakness, lack of flexibility, biomechanical problems, and improper Furthermore, self-perceptions of competence footwear are common causes of injury. Teach stu- decline as children get older. Jacobs and Eccles dents to use proper pacing—beginning gradually (2000) and Jacobs et al. (2002) indicate that as and at low intensity and then slowly progressing children become aware of other children’s levels to activities that are more intense and longer in of competence, they begin to realize where they duration. These concepts are difficult to commu- stand in relation to other students. Also, as the nicate, especially with younger children who still child gets older, fewer opportunities are available gauge success by winners and losers of competi- for success in sport and activity because the level tion. Beginners frequently ignore early warning of competition increases. The child becomes selec- signs of overtraining and fail to recognize that tive, participating in the few activities that he or they are overdoing it until it is too late to prevent she believes offer opportunities to be successful. injury or avoid undue fatigue. In regard to flex- Physical Best activities provide many opportuni- ibility and muscular strength and endurance, ties for positive encouragement of individuals students must understand that concentrating and provide success for each child, which fosters on only a few muscle groups and neglecting improved self-esteem and perceived competence. others can make an individual more susceptible

Basic Training Principles  49 to injury. For example, working only on pushing sonable choices of how intense they will work movements like bench press and shoulder press during a given physical activity session, based on during resistance training can lead to muscle their personal goals. Keep in mind that fitness is a imbalances that increase risk of injury. Encourage journey, not a destination. All teachers want to see students to take a whole-body approach to physi- students develop lifelong health-related physical cal activity and health-related fitness. activity habits. Moreover, students must under- stand the principles of training and the FITT Summary guidelines so that, ultimately, they can choose to increase their performance and fitness levels Remember, the discussion is about health-related as they desire—and know how to do so safely. The physical activity—not Olympic training. Students, goal is to progress toward self-assessment and regardless of age, should be presented with rea- self-delivery of health-related fitness activities.

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Chapter Contents chapter Foundations of a Healthy Diet 4 Categories of Nutrients Nutrition Carbohydrate Protein Linda Nickson Fat Vitamins The science of nutrition examines food, the level of Minerals nutrients and other chemicals in foods, and the way Water in which these are used in the body. The substances in food affect growth as well as health. All people Dietary Tools have the same general needs (DRIs, or dietary refer- Food Guide Pyramid ence intake), but the amounts of specific nutrients Food Labels needed may increase or decrease because of gender, Dietary Guidelines age, growth, disease, or activity level. One of the fac- tors that make applying good nutrition principles Consequences of an Unhealthy Diet more challenging is that food serves many purposes in our society other than nourishment. Americans Summary eat to celebrate, to mourn, for entertainment, out of boredom, and for a myriad of other reasons. The key to good nutrition is for people to strive to meet their individual nutrient needs while still remembering that they should enjoy food. 51

52  Physical Education for Lifelong Fitness Foundations ffSocioeconomic factors such as cost of food of a Healthy Diet and availability of food Diet is the total intake of food and beverages con- ffAdvertising sumed. No single food item or meal defines the diet. Good nutrition is vital to good health and is ffEthnicity essential for the healthy growth and development of children and adolescents (Dietary Guidelines for ffLearned behaviors Americans, 2005). Food habits are learned early and change throughout life. But parents and ffGenetics family tend to shape food habits early in life, and these habits may prove long lasting. Peers and ffHealth factors marketing also affect these patterns as children mature into adolescence. Eating habits and pref- ffAbility to shop and cook erences established by adolescence tend to carry into adulthood. ffTaste Many factors can affect food choices: Most foods have nutrient value and may fit into a healthful diet. In making sure that a person ffHabit takes in good nutrition, the primary goals are to ffEmotional factors such as happiness or stress ffprovide a variety of nutrient-dense foods and beverages, ffConvenience ffsupply all the nutrients in adequate amounts ffNutrition knowledge by adopting a balanced eating pattern, and ffTime limitations ffsupply a recommended caloric intake within energy needs to maintain an ideal body ffReligious beliefs weight. The childhood years offer the best chance for parents and teachers to influence not only current but also future food choices, and thus to develop Bananastock Nutrient requirements may vary by age and activity level, but good nutrition is essential to optimal health throughout life.

Nutrition  53 good eating behaviors. Food habits developed in misinformation, on nutrition from personal, childhood and adolescence often continue into immediate experiences. They are concerned with adulthood. Parents are the gatekeepers; they how food choices can improve their lives and control and influence the availability and choices looks now, so they may engage in crash dieting or of food in their children’s environment. Physical the latest fad in weight gain or loss. Conversely, educators must help educate parents about nutri- increased calorie consumption is also commonly tion and the concept of energy balance. Parents seen, especially of fat and carbohydrate, among and teachers should do what they can to help adolescents. establish good eating and activity habits at the elementary school level and make students aware A kilocalorie is a measure of heat energy. of the relationship among nutrition, activity, and Technically, a kilocalorie is the amount of energy health, both now and for the future. The concept required to raise the temperature of one kilogram of balance and moderation in eating combined of water one degree Celsius. Popular sources often with an active lifestyle is crucial to maintaining shorten the term kilocalories to simply calories. Dif- an appropriate body weight as well as maintain- ferent types of food have different energy values ing optimal health. for equal weights. A person’s total nutrient needs are greater Nutrient density refers to the amount of a during adolescence than at any other time of life, given nutrient per calorie. Nutrient-dense foods except perhaps during pregnancy and lactation. are those that provide substantial amounts of Caloric ranges are based on both age and, more vitamins and minerals and relatively few calories. important, activity level. Students need to deter- A variety of foods with high nutrient densities mine their activity level (sedentary, moderately should make up most of a diet. A sample listing active, or active) to determine their estimated of foods and nutritional information for each is caloric needs. Nutrient needs rise throughout included in table 4.1. As you can see, the reduced- adolescence and then level off, or possibly even fat Monterey Jack cheese is more nutrient dense diminish slightly, as an adolescent becomes an than the American cheese. adult (Institute of Medicine of the National Academies, 2001). Categories of Nutrients Of course, adolescents make many more choices for themselves than young children do, Many people consume more calories than they about both how active they are and what they need without meeting recommended nutritional eat. Social or peer pressures may push them to intake. Meeting nutrient recommendations should make both good and bad choices. Children and go hand in hand with keeping total calories under adolescents acquire information, and sometimes Table 4.1  Common Food Values Food Kilocalories Protein* Fat* Vitamin C** Calcium** Fiber* American cheese (2 oz, or 60 g) 213 13 18 0 349 0 Reduced-fat Monterey Jack cheese 120 12 8 0 360 0 (1 1/2 oz, or 45 g) Turkey pot pie (one) 410 16 24 0 80 0 Roasted turkey, white meat (3 oz, or 90 g) 134 25 3 0 16 0 White corn (1/2 cup) 66 21 5 25 Corn chips (13 chips) 160 2 11 0 72 1 *Indicates grams **Indicates milligrams Note the difference in nutrient density between the foods.

54  Physical Education for Lifelong Fitness control. Doing so provides many important ben- Carbohydrate efits including normal growth and development of children, health promotion for people of all Carbohydrate constitutes the majority of energy ages, and reduction of risk for a number of chronic for people across the world. Carbohydrate also diseases that are major public health problems. represents the preferred source of energy for the The six categories of nutrients are carbohydrate, body, particularly the brain, and is categorized protein, fat, vitamins, minerals, and water. Mac- as being either simple or complex. Simple carbo- ronutrients provide the greatest amount of energy hydrate is food that is high in sugar. In general, and include carbohydrate, protein, and fat. Micro- simple carbohydrate is high in calories and low nutrients include vitamins and minerals that are in nutrients. Simple carbohydrate also tends to required in the human diet in very small amounts. provide a short, rapid burst of energy. Simple Phytonutrients are components found in plants carbohydrate includes foods such as cakes, can- that are thought to promote health. Fruits, veg- dies, sodas, table sugar, and juices (figure 4.1a). etables, grains, legumes, nuts, and teas are rich The USDA recommends choosing and preparing sources of phytonutrients. Phytonutrients can be foods and beverages with little added sugar or divided into several major classes. We currently caloric sweeteners. have the most information about carotenoids found in red, yellow, and orange pigments of Complex carbohydrate includes foods such as fruits and vegetables. These fruits and vegetables pasta, cereals, breads, and grains (figure 4.1b). In high in carotenoids appear to protect humans general, complex carbohydrate provides a longer, against certain cancers, heart disease, and age- sustained supply of energy, which is optimal for related macular degeneration (USDA Agricultural physical activity. Whole grains are the preferred Research Services, 2005). More research is needed type of complex carbohydrate. Whole grains are in this area to establish support of the nutritional higher in nutrients as well as fiber. Fiber may help value of the various phytochemicals. Phytonutri- to reduce the risk of colon diseases and possibly ents are thought to serve as antioxidants, enhance help to lower blood cholesterol levels. All car- the immune system, convert vitamin A, and repair bohydrate contains four kilocalories per gram. damage caused by smoking and other toxic expo- sures—all of which reduce the risk of cancer and heart disease. All these nutrients are essential for good health. ab Figure 4.1  Foods containing (a) simple carbohydrate and (b) complex carbohydrate.

Nutrition  55 Current recommendations are that 45 to 65% of beans, nuts, and soy products (figure 4.2b). In the the diet should consist of carbohydrate, primarily United States, most protein, approximately 65%, complex carbohydrate. People should be encour- comes from animal sources. In contrast, the rest aged to choose fiber-rich fruits, vegetables, and of the world obtains only 35% of its protein from whole grains. animal sources. Unfortunately, animal sources of protein are usually higher in saturated fat than Protein other sources (Wardlaw, 2002). Current recom- mendations are that 10 to 15% of the diet should Protein is a constituent of vital body parts. Every consist of protein. Protein, like carbohydrate, cell contains proteins—muscles, blood-clotting provides four kilocalories per gram. factors, immune cells, and so on. Protein is the basic building block for the body but constitutes a Fat relatively small amount of the daily calorie intake. The body’s preferred use for protein is growth The human body needs fat, but not as much as and cell replacement. The body can use protein most people eat. Fat provides energy, supports cell for energy if no carbohydrate is available. Pro- growth, absorbs some nutrients, and produces tein sources can be either animal or plant based. important hormones. Its key role is to help protect Examples of animal sources of protein include organs and keep the body warm. meats, cheeses, milk, and eggs (figure 4.2a). Examples of plant sources of protein include Fat in the body provides a concentrated supply of calories, or energy, in a limited volume. Unlike ab Figure 4.2  Protein from (a) animal and (b) plant sources.

56  Physical Education for Lifelong Fitness protein or carbohydrate, fat provides nine kilo- cessing in which liquid oils are converted into calories per gram. Because of the calorie content, solid fat, a process called hydrogenation. This consuming high levels of fat, regardless of the process creates oils that keep food fresh longer. type, can result in excessive intake of calories, The dilemma is that these hydrogenated (or par- leading to weight gain, being overweight, or tially hydrogenated) oils contain trans fat, which being overfat. Fat also gives food some pleasant can increase low-density lipoprotein (LDL cho- sensory qualities. Fat makes food tender and lesterol) and decrease high-density lipoprotein adds a lovely smell when cooking. Think of the (HDL cholesterol), both indicated risk factors savory smell of bacon wafting across the kitchen. for heart disease. The source of trans fatty acid Fat can be more or less healthful depending on includes hydrogenated and partially hydroge- its level of saturation. Saturated fat, the main nated vegetable oil used in making shortening contributor of high cholesterol, tends to be hard and commercially prepared baked goods, snack at room temperature and comes predominantly foods, fried foods, and margarine. from animal sources. Examples of saturated fat include lard, butter, and marbling in steaks and Excess intake of saturated fat has been found meats. Palm oil, palm kernel, and coconut oils to contribute to chronic diseases such as heart represent the only major plant sources of satu- disease, cancer, stroke, and obesity. rated fat (figure 4.3a). Unsaturated fat is liquid at room temperature and comes from plant According to the American Heart Association, sources. Examples of unsaturated fat include knowing which fats raise LDL cholesterol and olive, soybean, peanut, and canola oils (figure which ones don’t is the first step in lowering the 4.3b). Unsaturated fat is divided into polyun- risk of heart disease. Besides the LDL produced saturated and monounsaturated fat. Both forms naturally by the body, saturated fat, trans fatty of unsaturated fat can help to lower cholesterol acid, and dietary cholesterol can also raise blood levels and are beneficial when consumed in cholesterol. Monounsaturated fat and polyun- moderation. Trans fatty acid, or trans fat, is saturated fat appear not to raise LDL cholesterol; unsaturated fatty acid created during food pro- some studies suggest that they might even help lower LDL cholesterol slightly when eaten as part of a diet low in saturated fat. ab Figure 4.3  Sources of (a) saturated fat and (b) unsaturated fat.

Nutrition  57 The American Heart Association’s Nutrition facilitate chemical reactions within the body that Committee strongly advises these fat guidelines often yield energy (Wardlaw, 2002). Vitamins can for healthy Americans over age two: be either fat soluble or water soluble. ffLimit total fat intake to less than 25 to 35% The fat-soluble vitamins are vitamins A, D, E, of total calories each day. and K. They dissolve in fat and can be stored in the body. Not surprisingly, the fat-soluble vita- ffLimit saturated fat intake to less than 7% of mins are found in high-fat foods such as fatty total daily calories. fish, oils, and nuts. The water-soluble vitamins are the numerous B-complex vitamins (such as ffLimit trans fat intake to less than 1% of total B6, B12, niacin, riboflavin, and folate) and vita- daily calories. min C. These vitamins need to dissolve in water before the body can absorb them. Because of this, ffThe remaining fat should come from sources the body does not store these vitamins and any of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated vitamin not used by the body passes through the fats such as nuts, seeds, fish, and vegetable system. The water-soluble vitamins are found in oil. enriched and whole grains, fruits, and vegetables. A fresh supply of these vitamins is needed every ffMost people should limit cholesterol intake day. Eating a variety of foods and food colors is to less than 300 milligrams per day. Those the best way to get all the vitamins and minerals who have coronary heart disease or an LDL needed each day. Vitamin supplements are widely cholesterol level of 100 mg/dL or greater available. Multivitamins are a good source of should limit cholesterol intake to less than dietary insurance but should never be used as a 200 milligrams a day. substitute for a good diet. From American Heart Association 2010. Minerals The CDC’s Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2005 Minerals are nonorganic substances that are recommends that Americans maintain total fat necessary for normal functioning of the body. intake within the following limits: Minerals are needed for growth and maintenance. Minerals are classified as either major miner- ffChildren ages 2 to 3—30 to 35% of total als (the body needs larger amounts of these) or calories trace minerals (the body needs only very small amounts of them each day). Major minerals are ffChildren and adolescents ages 4 to 18—25 to classified as such if their daily requirement is 35% of total calories over 100 milligrams or 1/50 teaspoon (Wardlaw, 2002). The risk of mineral toxicity is fairly high ffAdults ages 19 and older—20 to 35% of total when using high doses of supplements, so know- calories ing the recommended dietary intake (RDI) is important. Exceeding the RDI when choosing Cultures with diets high in animal products, mineral supplements is not advised unless under such as the United States, tend to have higher the supervision of a health care provider. levels of saturated fat intake. Items high in satu- rated fat also usually contain cholesterol. Both Major minerals contribute to high levels of blood cholesterol. ffSodium Vitamins ffPotassium Vitamins and minerals allow people’s bodies to work properly. They boost the immune system, ffChloride support normal growth and development, and help cells and organs do their jobs. Although ffCalcium vitamins and minerals are provided by the foods eaten every day, some foods have more vitamins ffPhosphorus and minerals than others do. Vitamins and minerals are organic substances that contribute ffMagnesium to the normal functioning of the body and are essential for normal growth and maintenance. ffSulfur Although vitamins contain no calories, they

58  Physical Education for Lifelong Fitness Trace minerals body weight, including not becoming excessively thin, and performing weight-bearing activity ffIron stimulates bone production and helps prevent osteoporosis and brittle bones (see figure 4.4, a ffZinc and b). Dairy foods are the primary source of calcium for children and adolescents. ffSelenium The importance of calcium in the body brings ffIodide up an important example of how nutrients like minerals and vitamins work together. The body ffCopper needs vitamin D to aid in absorption of cal- cium. Without enough vitamin D in the body, ffFluoride insufficient calcium is absorbed from the diet. Under these circumstances, the body must take ffChromium calcium from its stores in the skeleton, which weakens existing bone and prevents the forma- ffManganese tion of strong new bone. Recent research also suggests that vitamin D may provide protection ffMolybdenum from hypertension and some forms of cancer, boost immune function, reduce inflammation, Minerals, like vitamins, contain zero calories. and promote healthy neuromuscular function. Less than 2,400 mg (approximately 1 teaspoon Many foods in our diet are fortified with vitamin of salt) of sodium should be consumed per day D. One of the best ways to get vitamin D is to (based on a 2,000-calorie intake), and foods spend 10 to 15 minutes a day outside in the sun should be chosen and prepared with little salt. At without sunscreen. In instances of low intake, the same time, consuming potassium-rich foods supplementation is indicated. A health care pro- such as fruits and vegetables is important. vider should be consulted for recommendations regarding any needed supplementation. Eating One of the most important minerals to ath- a variety of foods, of a variety of colors, is the letes, particularly females, is calcium. Through- best way to get all the vitamins and minerals out life, the body continuously builds and breaks needed each day. down bone. Humans turn over their skeleton every 7 to 10 years. The bone is built from miner- Water als, primarily calcium. In fact, 99% of the calcium in the body is found in the skeleton (Zeigler & Many people are surprised to learn that water is Filer, 2000). Nutritional factors affecting bone an essential nutrient. It makes up 50 to 70% of density include calcium, vitamin D, and fluoride, which build the mineral matrix that forms the hard interior of the bone. Weight-bearing exercises and certain hormones stimulate the synthesis of bone. In females with low body fat, the response to female hormones is limited, leading to brittle bones and osteoporosis. Maintaining a healthy ab Reproduced from J Bone Miner Res 1986:1:14-21 Figure 4.4   View of (a) osteoporotic bone and (b) healthy bone. with permission of the American Society for Bone and Mineral Research. Photos provided by D.W. Dempster.

Nutrition  59 the weight of the human body and serves multiple process also triggers the body to release the functions in the body: hormone aldosterone, which causes water and sodium retention. With continued dehydration, ffWater contributes to temperature regulation the cardiovascular, respiratory, renal, and temper- (each liter of sweat represents 600 kilocalo- ature regulation systems are compromised. With ries of energy lost). a continued loss of up to 20% of body weight in fluids, coma or death is imminent (Kleiner, 1999). ffWater forms lubricants for the joints. Bottled water is not just H2O anymore; store ffWater is the basis for saliva and bile. shelves and vending machines are filled with vita- min or fitness waters, which are fortified with vari- ffWater helps to eliminate wastes through ous vitamins and other additives. Most are low in urine. Most people produce one to two quarts calories and pose little threat. Most manufactures (liters) of urine per day (Wardlaw, 2002). identify the waters by flavor or ingredients, by benefit (Immunity), or by the target audience Water can be obtained from various food and (Athletic Performance). People who eat a balanced beverage sources, but the best source is just simple diet will not likely benefit from drinking vitamin water, tap or bottled. Items such as coffee, tea, water (Mayo Clinic, 2009). The real question is and soda should not be considered good sources whether fitness waters are any better than plain of water. These may contain caffeine, which is a water. The simple answer is that they are better diuretic. A diuretic causes increased fluid loss and only if they help people meet their needs for fluid. increased urine volume. This process becomes Otherwise, plain water is fine. especially important during exercise when fluid loss is already high because of perspiration. Many high-powered energy drinks are being Although consuming beverages that contain marketed to young adults today. Manufacturers caffeine can contribute to total water intake, promote beverages containing ingredients that thus helping to meet dietary recommendations, have pseudoscientific names, but most of the fluids with reduced caffeine or reduced sugar are energy from these drinks comes from the sugar preferred. The latest Institute of Medicine (IOM) and caffeine, not from the unnecessary extras that report addresses the use of alcoholic and caffein- are unfamiliar to most people. Most of the high- ated beverages: “While consumption of beverages energy drinks contain ingredients whose safety containing caffeine and alcohol have been shown and effectiveness have not been tested. Some con- in some studies to have diuretic effects, available tain herbal supplements that are not regulated by information indicates that this may be transient the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), have in nature, and that such beverages can contrib- little or no value, and can be potentially harmful ute to total water intake and thus can be used in in large amounts. Although one cup (240 ml) of meeting recommendations for dietary intake of coffee has about 125 to 150 milligrams of caffeine total water” (Institute of Medicine, 2004, p. S-5). and a 12-ounce (360 ml) can of ordinary cola has 35 to 38 milligrams, an 8-ounce (240 ml) energy In general, people need approximately 1 milli­ drink contains about 280 milligrams of caffeine. liter of water for every kilocalorie ingested. So a Energy drinks lack nutritional value and can con- person who eats 2,000 kilocalories a day needs to tain hundreds of calories. Caffeine can cause side consume a minimum of 8 cups (1,920 milliliters) effects like jitters, upset stomach, headaches, and of water per day (1 cup = 240 milliliters). By the sleep problems, all of which can decrease energy, time a person loses as little as 1% of his or her not help a person power up. body weight in fluids, the person is becoming thirsty. Even mild dehydration interferes with Dietary Tools both mental and physical performance. The early symptoms of dehydration include headache, Tools are available to help people make optimal thirst, fatigue, dry eyes and mouth, loss of appe- food choices. These include the food guide pyra- tite, and dark-colored urine. If a person continues mid, dietary guidelines, and food-labeling regu- to ignore thirst, the body will release antidiuretic lations. The U.S. government created these tools, hormone (ADH), which causes the kidneys to conserve water and concentrate the urine. This

60  Physical Education for Lifelong Fitness and information on each is readily available. ity and eat right to stay healthy (see figure 4.5). Nutrition software programs as well as online The redesign of the pyramid shows a person sites like www.mypyramid.gov are available to climbing up stairs to illustrate how physical activ- help people monitor their nutritional needs and ity can be as important as food when it comes behaviors. to health. The six colored bands (view online to see colors) representing the five food groups and Food Guide Pyramid oils are wider at the bottom of the pyramid than they are at the top. The different-colored bands The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) reinforce the message that eating many different updated the food guide pyramid to depict graphi- foods is important to obtaining a good balance of cally that people need to engage in physical activ- nutrients. Eating foods in moderation is shown Figure 4.5  The USDA’s new MyPyramid represents healthy lifestyle choices, symbolizes a personalized approach to physical activity, and promotes healthy eating. From USDA. E4736/NASPE TG/ g 4.5/363388/pulled/r1

Nutrition  61 by different widths of the food bands. The wider erages, and increased consumption of between- the band is, the more food a person should choose meal snacks. The amount of food that counts as from that group. a serving in each category is listed in table 4.2. If a person eats a larger amount than that listed The food guide pyramid should be used as a in table 4.2, it counts as more than one serving. general guide for healthful eating. In addition, For example, an average restaurant portion of the diet should allow for maintenance of an spaghetti counts as two to three servings on the appropriate weight. Obesity is now at epidemic food guide pyramid. One of the problems with proportions in the United States. According to weight control in the United States is the supersiz- the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, ing of food in restaurants and fast-food chains. more than 66.5% of adults are overweight or Table 4.2 is a portion guide that can translate to obese, and the percentage of young people who are our everyday eating habits. When the food guide overweight has more than tripled in the last three pyramid lists a serving of a given food, this is what decades. For Americans ages 2 through 5 and ages that serving should look like. 12 through 19, obesity has more than doubled, and it has more than tripled among children ages Food Labels 6 through 11. The current statistics show that of children ages 2 through 5, 12.4% are overweight. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regu- In children ages 6 through 11, that number lates food labeling (see figure 4.6 on page 62). The increases to 17%, and among adolescents ages 12 Nutrition Labeling and Education Act of 1990 through 16, about 18% are considered overweight (NLEA) revamped the food label. The new food (USDA Agricultural Research Services, 2005). label design reflects current health concerns and For more details, refer to the “Obesity” section makes them easier to understand. The consistent in chapter 8. design allows consumers to compare nutritional values of similar products so that they can make Potential contributors to the obesity epidemic sound nutritional decisions. The new label, titled include people’s difficulty with judging appropri- Nutrition Facts, is an effort to simplify and ate portion size and decreased daily activity. Over encourage the use of nutritional information. the past 20 to 30 years, a significant increase in Nutritional labeling is now mandatory for most average daily caloric consumption has occurred. packaged foods; the panel has been redesigned to Men are consuming, on average, an additional describe similar serving sizes and nutrients. The 168 to 268 calories per day, and women are con- terminology for nutrition content claims used on suming an additional 143 to 335 calories per packaging has been standardized with specific day (CDC, 2004). Many factors have contributed FDA definitions such as low fat, fat free, and to this increase including consumption of food reduced calorie. Ingredient lists are required on away from home, particularly fast food, increased portion sizes, increased intake of sweetened bev- Table 4.2  Serving Sizes to Use With the Food Guide Pyramid Food Serving size guideline Fruits Tennis ball Nonstarchy vegetables Baseball Natural carbohydrates (rice, pasta, cereal) Your cupped hand 3 oz (90 g) of meat, fish, or poultry Deck of playing cards Pancakes or small waffle Compact disc 1/2 cup raw veggies, cooked rice, pasta, or cut fruit Rounded handful 1/4 cup dried fruit or nuts Golf ball or large egg 1 tsp butter or peanut butter End of your thumb

62  Physical Education for Lifelong Fitness Nutrition Facts Nutrition Facts Serving Size 8 fl oz 244g (244 g) Serving Size 1 value order 227g (227 g) Amount Per Serving Amount Per Serving Calories 110 Calories from Fat 25 Calories 412 Calories from Fat 211 % Daily Value* % Daily Value* Total Fat 3g 4% Total Fat 23g 36% Saturated Fat 1g 7% Saturated Fat 15g 77% Trans Fat Trans Fat 1g Cholesterol 10mg 3% Cholesterol 71mg 24% Sodium 125mg 5% Sodium 160mg 7% Total Carbohydrate 12g 4% Total Carbohydrate 42g Dietary Fiber 0g 0% Dietary Fiber 1g 14% Sugars 11g Sugars 34g 2% Protein 8g Protein 9g Vitamin A 10% Vitamin C 4% Vitamin A 17% Vitamin C 0% Calcium 30% Iron 0% Calcium 23% Iron 1% *Percent Daily Values are based on a 2,000 calorie diet. *Percent Daily Values are based on a 2,000 calorie diet. Your daily values may be higher or lower depending on Your daily values may be higher or lower depending on your calorie needs. your calorie needs. © www.NutritionData.com © www.NutritionData.com Figure 4.6  The standard format for food labeling, as developed by the Food and Drug Administration. Standard food label formatting makes it easy to compare the nutritional value of a healthy dairy choice and a tasty dairy treat. E4736/NASPE TG/fig 4.6b/387147/pulled/r1 E4736/NASPE TG/fig 4.6a/363390/pulled/r1 labels of all foods with more than one ingredient; the NLEA requirements, nutrition labeling is the ingredients are listed in descending order of required for most foods. Labeling of meat and weight. Nutrition content claims differ from the poultry products is regulated by the USDA. Vol- Nutrition Facts label, which lists specific nutri- untary nutrition information is also available ent amounts. Together, nutrient content claims for fish and for the 20 most frequently eaten raw and the Nutrition Facts label help consumers fruits and vegetables. In addition, information compare one food with another and choose foods is available for the 45 best-selling cuts of meat. for a healthy diet. This information is available to the stores to post through these programs. Most major grocery Besides being able to consult food labels, chains offer nutrition-based tours for public people who shop in grocery stores will be more groups. Contact the local store manager to see likely to find out whether the head of lettuce whether this service is available in your area. that they are buying was grown in Mexico or the United States. The country of origin labeling Under FDA regulations, food manufacturers requires most food retailers to disclose where are required to provide information about certain many types of meat, produce, and other food nutrients. Information on other nutrients can products come from. The goal of these rules is be provided on a voluntary basis. The sidebar to make it easier for customers to know whether shows a list of each. RDA amounts can’t be used food was imported. in food labeling because they’re written specifi- cally for specific age groups and genders. Food The FDA also standardized and established labels require something more generic that can criteria for the health claims and nutrient con- be used across populations. The daily values (DV) tent claims that appear on food labels. Under

Nutrition  63 Mandatory and Optional ffAt least half from complex carbohydrate, Nutrient Listings for a including at least 11.5 grams of fiber per Food Label 1,000 calories 1. Calories or total calories; ffProtein based on 10 to 15% of calories 2. calories from fat; 3. calories from saturated fat (voluntary); The DV reference diet of 2,000 calories rep- 4. total fat; resents less than 65 grams of fat, less than 20 5. saturated fat; grams of saturated fat, less than 300 milligrams 6. polyunsaturated fat (voluntary); of cholesterol, and less than 2,400 milligrams 7. monounsaturated fat (voluntary); of sodium (FDA, 2008). Daily values is a new 8. cholesterol; dietary reference term that will appear on the 9. sodium; food label; it is made up of two sets of references, 10. potassium (voluntary); DRVs (daily reference values) and RDIs (reference 11. total carbohydrate (including sugars daily intakes), based on the recommended dietary allowances for essential vitamins and minerals (mono- and disaccharides), oligosaccha- and, in selected groups, protein. The term RDI rides, starch, fiber, and organic acids); replaces the term U.S. RDA. 12. dietary fiber; 13. fiber (voluntary); The FDA also regulates the claims that food 14. insoluble fiber (voluntary); manufacturers can make on their products, such 15. sugars; as “low fat” or “light.” Appendix B lists claims and 16. sugar alcohol (voluntary); the requirements that a food must meet before 17. other carbohydrate (voluntary); such claims can be put on product labels. 18. protein; and 19. vitamins and minerals Dietary Guidelines Those nutrients that can be declared volun- The USDA and USDHHS jointly collaborate to tarily must be declared when a nutrient con- produce Dietary Guidelines for Americans, an overall tent or health claim is made. set of guidelines for building a healthy, balanced lifestyle. These dietary guidelines are best used From, “Federal Register Advance Notice of Proposed Rulemaking in conjunction with the food guide pyramid. The (Food Labeling) 72 FR 62149 November 2, 2007: Revision of Reference guidelines encourage moderation as well as vari- Values and Mandatory Nutrients” [Federal Register: November 2, 2007 ety in the diet. They also promote moderate intake (Volume 72, Number 212)] [Page 62149-62175] From the Federal Register of fat and cholesterol. Finally, they recommend Online via GPO Access [wais.access.gpo.gov] [DOCID:fr02no07-16] moderate intake of sugar, sodium, and alcohol. If followed, these guidelines will minimize the risk were established by the FDA for just this purpose. of obesity and decrease risk for chronic disease The daily values are based on a 2,000-calorie diet, in the future. Visit www.usda.gov for additional which is an average intake. Of this 2,000-calorie information. intake, the daily values represent the following: To maintain body weight in a healthy range, ffFat based on 25 to 30% of total calories people must balance calories from foods and ffNo more than 10% from saturated fat beverages with the number of calories expended; ffCarbohydrate based on 50 to 60% of total those who attain this state are in energy balance. To reduce the risk of chronic disease in adult- calories hood, people should engage in at least 30 minutes of moderate-intensity physical activity, above usual activity, at work or home on most days of the week. The CDC recommends that adolescents engage in at least 60 minutes of activity every day. To avoid a gradual weight gain over time, people should make small decreases in food and beverage calories and increase physical activity.

64  Physical Education for Lifelong Fitness The surgeon general’s report on physical activ- Discretionary calorie allowance is the bal- ity and health offered these conclusions: ance of calories remaining in a person’s energy allowance after accounting for the calories needed ffAll adolescents should be physically active to meet the recommended nutrient intakes. The daily, or nearly every day, as part of play, discretionary calorie allowance may be used in games, sports, work, transportation, recre- selecting foods that are not nutrient dense, such ation, physical education, or planned exer- as whole milk rather than reduced or fat-free milk, cise, in the context of family, school, and salad dressings, sugar, and butter. Such foods community activities. contain what are known as empty calories. Empty calories lack health-promoting nutrients and are ffAdolescents should engage in three or more often referred to as junk food. sessions per week of activities that last 20 minutes or more at a time that require mod- There are six relevant dietary guidelines: erate to vigorous levels of exertion. ffEat a variety of foods. ffElementary school-aged children should accumulate at least 30 to 60 minutes of age- ffBalance the food eaten with physical activity appropriate and developmentally appropri- to maintain or improve body weight. ate physical activity on all or most days of the week. ffChoose a diet with plenty of whole grains, vegetables, and fruits. ffChildren should not have extended periods of inactivity (www.health.gov/PAGuidelines/ ffChoose a diet low in fat, saturated fat, and factsheetprof.aspx). cholesterol. Dietary Guidelines ffChoose a diet moderate in sugars. for Americans ffChoose a diet moderate in salt and sodium. Aim for fitness Consequences ••Aim for a healthy weight. of an Unhealthy Diet ••Be physically active each day. A lack of certain vitamins can cause deficiency Build a healthy base diseases, and lack of certain minerals can cause other problems, such as brittle bones, anemia, or ••Let the pyramid guide your food choices. even irregular heartbeats. Taking in too much ••Choose a variety of grains daily, especially food overall, or too many high-calorie foods, can lead to obesity, which leads to a host of problems. whole grains. The prevalence of obesity continues to be a health ••Choose a variety of fruits and vegetables concern for adults, children, and adolescents in the United States. The rate of obesity raises con- daily. cern because of its implications for Americans’ ••Keep food safe to eat. health. Obesity raises the risk of many diseases and health conditions, including coronary heart Choose sensibly disease; stroke; type 2 diabetes; cancer including endometrial, breast, and colon; hypertension; liver ••Choose a diet that is low in saturated fat and gallbladder disease; sleep apnea and respira- and cholesterol and moderate in total fat. tory problems; osteoarthritis; and gynecological problems. According to the U.S. surgeon general’s ••Choose beverages and foods to moderate report Overweight and Obesity: Health Consequences, your intake of sugars. overweight children also have a higher rate of low self-esteem. Having a similarly unbalanced diet ••Choose and prepare foods with less salt. with all the calories coming from carbohydrate ••If you drink alcoholic beverages, do so in can lead to insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes. moderation. From USDHHS and USDA.

Nutrition  65 The prolonged illness and disabilities associated so the weight loss is not a reduction in fat—it’s with many chronic diseases also decrease the only a loss of water. If the diet is based on claims quality of life for millions of Americans. Much of that taking special pills, powders, or herbs will the chronic disease burden is preventable. suppress appetite or block the absorption of fat, sugar, or carbohydrate, people should realize When it comes to weight loss, we don’t have to that no reliable, scientific research backs up these look far to find a fad diet promising fast results. claims. Dieting in this way is especially risky But these diets can be unhealthy, can limit nutri- for children and teens because we don’t know tional intake, and tend to fail or result in danger- much about how these supplements will affect ous weight cycling. Some common diet types are growing bodies. If the diet requires spending a listed in table 4.3. lot of money on pills, seminars, or prepackaged meals, it is probably too good to be true. Diets Most of today’s popular diets take advantage that completely cut out a needed food group of people who are often willing to try anything to or require eating only specific foods in certain drop weight quickly. Unfortunately, although the combinations may not provide all the nutrients quick fix may work for a short time, most people that are needed, especially when children are still are not able to keep up with the diet’s demands. growing. If a fad diet requires skipping meals or People who use fad diets often gain back any replacing meals with special drinks or food bars, weight that they initially lost. Numerous clues nutritional levels may not be met and the enjoy- can help people avoid diets or diet products that ment of sharing a meal with family and friends promote empty promises of weight loss. In gen- will disappear. The final red flags in regard to fad eral, they should stay away from diets that are diets are any suggestion of losing more than 1 or based on dramatically cutting back calories. The natural response of the body is to dump water, Table 4.3  Unhealthy, Fad Diets Diet type Some examples Controlled carbohydrate • Dr. Atkins’ New Diet Revolution High carbohydrate and low fat • The Carbohydrate Addict’s Diet • Protein Power Controlled portion sizes • Sugar Busters Food combining • The Zone Liquid diets Diet pills and herbal remedies • Dr. Dean Ornish: Eat More, Weight Less • The Good Carbohydrate Revolution Other • The Pritkin Principle • Dr. Shapiro’s Picture Perfect Weight Loss • Volumetrics Weight Control Plan • Fit for Life • Suzanne Somers’ Somersizing • Cambridge Diet • Slim-Fast • Dexatrim Natural • Hydroxycut • Metabolife 356 • Eat Right for Your Type: The Blood Type Diet • Macrobiotics • Mayo Clinic Diet* *Although many diet plans use this name, none of them were created by the Mayo Clinic nor are they approved by the Mayo Clinic. The Mayo Clinic Healthy Weight Pyramid is the only diet plan created by the Mayo Clinic.

66  Physical Education for Lifelong Fitness 2 pounds (.5 to 1 kg) per week, claims based on the Healthier U.S. School Challenge goals. The before and after photos, testimonials, or limits on goal is to decrease the amount of sugar, fat, food choices. The key is not a short-term dietary and salt in school meals; increase the amount change but rather a lifestyle that includes healthy of whole grains; and double the amount of pro- eating and balancing the calories consumed with duce served. The new legislation will allow the the calories expended. Department of Agriculture to create new stan- dards for all foods in schools, including vending The health benefits of staying at a healthy machine items, to give students healthier meal weight are huge and well worth the effort. Being options. The new standards are expected to make either overweight or underweight carries a variety popular foods healthier. Pizza can be made with of health risks. Being underweight (below the whole-wheat crust and low-fat mozzarella, and standard weight range for a given height) carries hamburgers can be made with leaner meat. Vend- a variety of high-risk health factors including ing machines can be stocked with less candy and bone loss and osteoporosis, anemia and nutri- fewer high-calorie sodas. These new guidelines ent deficiencies, as well as amenorrhea. Other will require all stakeholders to promote healthy health risks for those underweight include having eating behaviors. trouble fighting off disease and delayed wound healing. When people choose not to eat the proper Establishing healthy eating habits at a young number of calories, vulnerability to infection age is critical to proper growth and development, and disease increases. The warning signs that including healthy bones, skin, and energy levels; low body weight is becoming a problem include and a lowered risk of dental cavities, eating disor- lethargy, depression, loss of lean body mass, and ders, malnutrition, and iron-deficiency anemia. loose, elastic skin. Some people are thin because Healthy eating habits also contribute to the likeli- of a fast metabolism or genetics. Others are thin hood that youth will continue to make healthy because they are not getting the calories and nutrition choices into adulthood. nutrients that their growing bodies need or they are exercising excessively to burn calories. There are no magic pills when it comes to maintaining an ideal diet. At the end of the day, Research shows that good nutrition can help it comes down to calories ingested being equal to lower the risk for many chronic diseases. Research calories expended. This concept is called energy also suggests that not having breakfast can affect balance. Calorie requirements, however, will children’s intellectual performance. Unhealthy increase during periods of growth, and this need eating habits that contribute to health problems must be accommodated as well. But if a person tend to be established early in life; young people eats more than physiologically required, then that who have unhealthy habits tend to maintain these person will gain weight. One pound (.45 kg) of fat habits as they age. is equivalent to 3,500 kilocalories. An additional 10 calories per day over a person’s daily needs One-third of all children born in 2000 or can result in a gain of a pound over a year! Also, later will suffer from diabetes at some point in people should know that all calories are equal, no their lives; many others will face chronic obesity- matter what food they were contained in. Low-fat related health problems like heart disease, high diets will result in weight gain if they contain blood pressure, cancer, and asthma (Let’s Move, excessive calories. 2010). On February 9, 2010, First Lady Michelle Obama announced the ambitious national goal Teachers can use many strategies to help chil- of solving the challenge of childhood obesity. The dren and young adults learn good eating habits. nationwide campaign Let’s Move is designed to Nutrition-related activities with students should help achieve a healthier generation of kids. emphasize the following: Because many children consume as many ffIndividual eating habits should respect as half of their daily calories at school, good family lifestyles. nutrition at school is more important than ever. This initiative includes a new commitment ffBegin the day with breakfast to provide from school food suppliers to take steps to meet energy and nutrients.

Nutrition  67 ffControl calorie consumption by spacing Other nutrition sources include programs meals throughout the course of the day. such as Power of Choice, which was developed by the U.S. Department of Health and Human ffMost nutritional needs should be met with Services, the Food and Drug Administration, regular meals, supplemented by snacks. and USDA’s Food and Nutrition Service in 2003. It is intended for after-school program leaders ffFind pleasure in food while being aware of working with young adolescents. For more infor- the nutrient and caloric content in food. mation, see www.fns.usda.gov/tn/Resources/ power_of_choice.html. ffPractice balance, variety, and moderation. Summary ffEnjoy food. Enjoy good health. Enjoy life. The most serious consequence of a person’s poor The following Web sites provide additional diet is an ongoing failure to achieve his or her information on nutrition: physical best. The diet provides both energy and building blocks for everyone, regardless of activ- ffwww.nutrition.gov—Comprehensive online ity level. Building aerobic fitness is impossible resource for government-based nutrition without having sufficient energy to keep the heart information, including Dietary Guidelines for rate elevated. Muscular strength and endurance Americans, food labeling information, and require building new muscle tissue with nutrients. the food guide pyramids Good flexibility requires a healthy skeleton, also built up from nutrients. An ideal body composi- ffwww.eatright.org—Web site for the American tion clearly depends on an appropriate diet. Good Dietetic Association diet alone cannot create fitness, and neither can activity alone. The interactions of physical activ- ffwww.fda.gov/Food/Dietary Supplements/ ity and nutrition are important in the life of every default.htm—FDA information on supple- person. People need physical activity as much as ments and food labeling they need to have all 45 nutrients in their diets. A good diet optimizes physical activity and pro- ffw w w. fd a .gov/ Fo o d / L a b e l i ng Nut r it ion / motes health. Use the information in this chapter default.htm—Food labeling standards to teach students about these connections. ffwww.foodinsight.org—Nutrition and Food As Surgeon General Regina M. Benjamin said, Safety Resources, the New Food Label Edu- “the real reward is invigorating, energizing, joyous cation Program health. It is a level of health that allows people to embrace each day and live their lives to the fullest ffwww.fns.usda.gov—Nutrition education without disease or disability.” and information on an integrated, behavior- based, comprehensive plan for promoting the nutritional health of children ffwww.health.gov/dietaryguidelines—Dietary Guidelines for Americans ffwww.mypyramid.gov—Information on the food guide pyramid

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IIPart Components of Health-Related Fitness Part II covers the basic concepts and ­applications related to the components of health-related fitness for K through 12 programming. Each chapter defines a component of health-related fitness and provides teaching guidelines and training methods related to that component. Chap- ter 5 focuses on aerobic fitness. Updated information is provided throughout this part of the book, including, in this chapter, a new target heart rate zone formula. Chapter 6 focuses on muscular strength and endur- ance. Muscular fitness is often taught as two separate components with adults, but strength and endurance are combined in the Physical Best program because it is develop- mentally appropriate to do so with children in a physical education setting. Chapter 7 explores flexibility training for youth, and chapter 8 covers body composition educa- tion, measurement, and related issues as well as new Fitnessgram body composition standards. 69

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chapter 5 Chapter Contents Aerobic Fitness Importance of Aerobic Fitness Jan Bishop Defining and Measuring Aerobic Fitness Aerobic fitness is just one component of health- related fitness, but it is generally considered the most Teaching Guidelines for Aerobic Fitness important physiological indicator of good health and physical condition. The many benefits of good aerobic Determining How Much Physical Activity Is fitness include those outlined in chapter 1. Needed A number of other terms are frequently used to Aerobic Fitness Training Principles describe this component of health-related fitness, such as cardiorespiratory fitness, aerobic endurance, Monitoring Intensity aerobic capacity, aerobic power, cardiorespiratory endur- Taking the Pulse ance, cardiovascular fitness, and cardiovascular endurance. Target Heart Rate Zones Throughout this chapter and text, the simpler term Using Heart Rate Monitors aerobic fitness is used. Using Pedometers Cross-Discipline Ideas Training Methods for Aerobic Fitness Continuous Training Interval Training Circuit Training Addressing Motor Skills Through Aerobic Fitness Activities Safety Guidelines for Aerobic Fitness Activities Summary 71

72  Physical Education for Lifelong Fitness To understand the concept of aerobic fitness (USDHHS, 2008, p. 16). What is important to (the ability to perform aerobic activities), it is note is that children’s normal movement activity important to understand the difference between is not prolonged. Children like to use intermittent aerobic activity and physical activity. Physical activity with short rests. In recognition of the way activity can be defined as any bodily movement that children tend to play, the guidelines for the that results in energy expenditure. Aerobic means aerobic activity of children and adolescents expand “with oxygen”; therefore, aerobic activity is that the definition to include “activities in short bursts, which uses oxygen to produce energy for move- which may not technically be aerobic activities” (p. ment. These types of activities build aerobic fit- 16). By counting these “brief activities” the work- ness, which is “the ability to perform large muscle, ing definition of aerobic activity draws a bit closer dynamic, moderate-to-high intensity exercise for to that of physical activity. Children commonly prolonged periods” (ACSM, 2010). Aerobic activi- combine aerobic movement with muscle- and ties include distance running, swimming, and bone-building movement; just picture a youngster cross-country skiing. These activities are quite running around the playground, swinging across different from anaerobic activities such as push- the monkey bars, jumping to the ground, and ups and sprints. All aerobic activity is physical running again. In this context, aerobic fitness can activity, but not all physical activity (e.g., a push- be thought of as the ability to exercise or play for up) is aerobic. extended periods without getting tired. To gain health benefits from aerobic activity, a In the remainder of this chapter, aerobic fit- person has to perform it at an appropriate inten- ness guidelines will be discussed in terms of sity. There are two ways to assess aerobic inten- both physical activity appropriate to children sity—in absolute or relative terms (USDHHS, and adolescents (ages 6–17) and aerobic activity 2008). An absolute measure refers to things defined in relative terms (i.e., heart rate, oxygen like walking at 3 to 4 miles per hour (4.8 to 6.4 consumption) that is appropriate for high school kph) or running a 12-minute mile (7 1/2-minute students. km). A relative measure determines intensity as a percentage of maximum heart rate, heart rate Importance reserve, or aerobic capacity reserve. In the first case of Aerobic Fitness everyone works at a specified intensity, like a brisk walk. In the latter, the intensity is adjusted to the The importance of increased physical activity individual’s level of fitness (i.e., using an indi- and enhanced fitness in youth cannot be overem- vidualized training heart rate zone). The advisory phasized. In fact, Healthy People 2010 (USDHHS, committee for the 2008 Physical Activity Guidelines 2000a) lists physical activity as one of the nation’s for Americans examined the relationship between 10 leading health indicators, and two of the plan’s health benefits and aerobic activity measured in objectives specifically target increased physical both absolute and relative terms. Their goal was activity for youth. Objective 22-6 targets moder- to translate scientific evidence concerning inten- ate physical activity, and the goal is to increase the sity into user-friendly guidelines. They concluded proportion of adolescents who engage in moder- that guidelines expressed in accrued minutes of ate physical activity for at least 30 minutes on five moderate- and vigorous-intensity activity would or more days of the week. Objective 22-7 targets be easy to follow and would result in the achieve- vigorous physical activity, striving to increase ment of substantial health benefits by those who the proportion of adolescents who engage in followed them. vigorous physical activity that promotes aerobic fitness three or more days per week for 20 or more The portion of the 2008 Physical Activity Guide- minutes per occasion. lines for Americans that addresses guidelines for children and adolescents describes aerobic activi- The 2008 Physical Activity Guidelines for Ameri- ties as “those in which young people rhythmically cans (USDHHS, 2008) calls for children and move their large muscles. Running, hopping, adolescents to do 60 minutes or more of physical skipping, jumping rope, swimming, dancing, and activity a day, spending most of this time in either bicycling are all examples of aerobic activities”

Aerobic Fitness  73 moderate- or vigorous-intensity aerobic physi- ability of the muscle cells to extract and use the cal activity and performing vigorous-intensity oxygen for energy production, and the ability physical activity on at least three days a week. of the circulatory system to return blood to the Muscle-strengthening and bone-strengthening heart. The amount of oxygen that a person uses activities should also be included as part of the per minute is called oxygen consumption. For recommendation that children and adolescents aisdumltasxtihmeaclroitxeryigoennmcoeanssuurme opftiaoenro(bV.icOf2imtnaexs)s. engage in 60 minutes of physical activity a day on This quantity is the maximum amount of oxygen three days of the week. For examples of aerobic, that a person can use to produce energy during muscle-strengthening, and bone-strengthening physical activity. During a laboratory test, oxygen physical activities, refer to table 3.1 in chapter 3. consumption is measured while the individual exercises at increasingly higher workloads. At Lack of physical activity during adolescence may some point, despite an increase in workload, have long-term health implications when people mogexanyxegereadnlloycuointn.csIrunemanspeotsriwomniathldohfieetsnalentshosytanianddcuirslettashseeV.r;Oeift2omhreaaaxs reach adulthood. There is a known increase in BcghoeicoladdurmseenelaaasnbuodrreVa. Ootof2rmayeVar.oOxbf2oimcllafoixtwntseesisntss.taAhreednniseocxtutpssrseaiocctntiioconanl. morbidity and mortality in adults attributable to for the public, it is fortunate that many valid and chronic disease and sedentary lifestyles (USDHHS, rVP.eOhliy2asmbiclaeaxlfifBerloedsmtteessxutcsblmuasraeivxaeilmvyaaiellnaabdeloerrotsbheisactFficittannneesspssrgteerdsaitmcst. 2000a). Research (Guo et al., 1994) also shows an (developed by the Cooper Institute) and all related association between overweight adolescents and an fmmiteannteetrsiisnasl(stsreauenmdchepnraotpdttouerecst1tsi3am)s.atThteeeaVs.cOuhb2emmrsaaxxmiamanydalcaahesrosoeobsssiec- increased risk of being overweight as an adult; in the PACER (progressive aerobic cardiovascular addition, Janz et al. (2002) state that maintenance endurance run), mile run, or the mile walk test of physical fitness through puberty has favorable depending on the age and ability of the student. health benefits in later years. Further rationale for promoting increased physical activity during Although the Fitnessgram PACER test is rec- childhood stems from the National Health and Nutri- ommended for all ages, it is the preferred test for tion Examination Survey, Phase I, 1988–1991 (McDow- participants in grades K through 3 and should ell et al., 1994). Data indicate that increased caloric be administered with an emphasis on having intake is not solely responsible for the increased fun. Participation should be a pleasant experi- prevalence of overweight youth and that lack of ence. The PACER also serves as an excellent tool physical activity may be a contributing factor. for teaching the concept of pacing for the mile Many organizations, including the National Asso- crauampnoa.nbAginlitthaydetdtohictroieomenapaelarrfoeebaritecusfurietlntosef(sVFs. Oitte2nsmetssa.sxAgersasytmoimuisaretteahsde) ciation for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE, and use the Fitnessgram test manual, note that 2004b), the Centers for Disease Control and Pre- the Cooper Institute (creators of Fitnessgram) vention (CDC, 2010), the American Academy of uses the term aerobic capacity instead of aerobic Pediatrics (AAP, 2000b), and the U.S. Department fitness. As previously noted, however, the terms of Health and Human Services (USDHHS, 2008), are often used interchangeably. Aerobic capacity advocate increasing childhood physical activity is used in the test manual because this term refers that will carry into adulthood, thereby reducing more specifically to the volume of oxygen being health problems associated with inactivity. This consumed, whereas aerobic fitness refers to the is where Physical Best can help provide students amount of exercise that can be sustained using with the knowledge, skills, values, and confidence that oxygen. they need to engage in physical activity now and in the future through fun and enjoyable activities. Defining and Measuring Aerobic Fitness A person’s level of aerobic fitness is contingent on the ability of the heart and lungs to circulate oxygen-rich blood to the exercising tissues, the

74  Physical Education for Lifelong Fitness For more information on the administration of be minimally active and still have a good score the three aerobic tests, refer to the latest edition of the Fitnessgram Test Administration Manual by the (Pangrazi & Corbin, 2008). Similarly, a person Cooper Institute. For a full discussion concerning aerobic capacity and analysis of the three aerobic who has inherited a good memory may not have tests, refer to chapter 9 of the Fitnessgram Reference Guide. A free online copy can be found by going to practice much to spell words correctly, whereas to the Web site www.fitnessgram.net and clicking on “Reference Guide” in the left-hand column. an individual with poor memory functioning Physical Best also supports the use of the could practice a great deal and still not do well Brockport Physical Fitness Test (BPFT) for people with disabilities. The BPFT is a health-related on a spelling test. An important difference is that fitness assessment that can be easily customized through selection of any of its 27 items orga- with physical activity the act of doing it provides nized in three domains: aerobic function, body composition, and musculoskeletal function. The benefits; therefore, students accumulating appro- BPFT “may be used to identify the present level of performance, identify unique needs, and establish priate amounts of regular moderate to vigorous annual goals including short-term objectives” (Winnick 1999, p. 6). Therefore, this test can serve activity (regardless of test scores) will benefit. as a valuable tool not only for fitness testing but also for the development of an individualized Therefore, test scores, especially for elementary education plan for students with disabilities. It is beyond the scope of this chapter to describe students, should be deemphasized and participa- the BPFT in detail, but chapter 11 contains much information for assessing the fitness of people tion should be highlighted. with disabilities. For more information, refer to the Brockport Physical Fitness Test Manual (Winnick Even if adult training guidelines are applied, it & Short, 1999a). ∙aisemrdoiinfbf−ii1cc)ufiislttndteuosesktanosotmwraehianosiwunrgmedourbcyhsiVmo. Ofpt2lmhyetaoixni(cnmrcelrae∙sakesgie−ns1 Teaching Guidelines for Aerobic Fitness in body size and maraetuursaetdiowni.tWh hV.eOn2mboadxymseizae- and body scaling The concept of aerobic fitness can be taught to students of all ages, but the practice of aerobic sures, children have been found to have modest training must take into consideration develop- mental differences. Children are not little adults; increases in aerobic fitness, about a third of that therefore, adult strategies of continuous exercise, use of the FITT guidelines, and interpretation seen in adults (Rowland, 2005). When teaching of test results are not the same for children. The score that a student attains on an aerobic fitness children about aerobic fitness, teachers should test does not correlate well to the amount of aerobic activity that a child gets. Age, heredity, keep in mind that genetics, developmental fac- and maturation all play a role in aerobic capac- ity (aerobic fitness). Therefore, teachers should tors, body composition, and psychological factors be careful not to assume that children with strong PACER or mile run scores are more active and like motivation as well as activity levels influence that those with weaker scores are less active. For example, a child with the right genetics may differences in performance on any aerobic fitness assessment. The goal of the Physical Best program is to promote noncompetitive, self-enhancing, and fun activities that encourage students to be physi- cally active now and later, as adults (see sample activities in figure 5.1). Even if the relationship is not strong between increased physical activity and aerobic fitness in children (Rowland, 2005; Pangrazi & Corbin, 2008), the program aspires to promote active children to become active adults for whom aerobic training (following the FITT guidelines) yields improvements in aerobic fitness and enhanced health benefits. Parents, teachers, and coaches should encourage participation in a wide variety of enjoyable and available activities. In general, NASPE recommends sport sampling over sport specialization early in life (NASPE, 2010). There is some evidence to suggest that early sport specialization is the preferred approach in sports when elite performance is achieved before puberty (e.g., figure skating, gymnastics), but this research is sparse, and therefore some caution should be given before drawing conclu-

Aerobic Fitness  75 iStockphoto/Alberto Pomares iStockphoto/Edwin Verin Figure 5.1  Sample activities that can help students improve aerobic fitness. sions (Carson, Blankenship, & Landers, in press; parallel a child’s natural play pattern. Circuit NASPE, 2010). training provides an excellent challenge whereby children can independently explore movement, When preparing to teach students about physi- develop fundamental motor skills, and develop cal activity and fitness, remember that the level areas of health-related fitness. Circuits or sta- and tempo of a child’s play activity are charac- tion activities also provide opportunities for all terized by alternating cycles of vigorous activity children to be successful. Stations may be set followed by a recovery period (Bailey et al., 1995; up with various challenge levels, and students Corbin and Pangrazi, 2002). Plan multiple activi- may explore and self-select activities to promote ties with rest periods to provide variety and to

76  Physical Education for Lifelong Fitness ­success. This type of activity removes the element which students have medical conditions that you of competition and the necessity to determine a should be aware of, such as orthopedic problems, winner and a loser of the activity. Many Physical asthma, epilepsy, diabetes, or other disabilities. Best activities use stations or are designed so that Proper screening of your students will help you most children are active at the same time. Fitness develop a well-rounded program that addresses concepts should be taught through physical activ- the needs of all students, including those who ity and classroom lessons in which the number of should use extra caution when engaging in aero- inactive students is minimized, especially if the bic fitness activities. class meets only once or twice per week. Focus on a single concept each day rather than multiple Aerobic Fitness concepts. You can teach the concept of venous Training Principles return during the cool-down or simulate the circulatory system by using a jogging course in The training principles (progression, overload, which the students act as blood traveling through specificity, individuality, and regularity) outlined the heart, arteries, or veins. Cross-discipline les- in chapter 3 should be followed when developing sons and homework may serve as other avenues aerobic fitness. These guidelines are especially to teach fitness concepts. helpful for older children, but Welk and Blair (2008) point out that “just because children CAN Determining adapt to physical training does not mean they How Much Physical should be encouraged or required to do so” (p. Activity Is Needed 14). Postpubescent children will respond more favorably to training and conditioning than will Aerobic fitness lessons should include segments younger prepubescent and pubescent children in which teachers help students explore practical (Payne and Morrow, 1993). Rather than empha- applications such as logging free-time aerobic size the adult exercise prescription model, the aim fitness activities or lifestyle activities in a jour- with children should be to foster and maintain a nal, learning to take their pulse, or organizing physically active lifestyle, as previously outlined. a school fitness night for families and friends. A It is beyond the scope of this text to explain the school can also purchase the latest Fitnessgram physiological changes that affect aerobic fitness software and teach students how to use the and performance in children during aerobic train- computer-based logging materials as well as the ing. For more information on the trainability of fitness assessments. This software can produce children and endurance performance, refer to fitness reports that can be shared with parents or Children’s Exercise Physiology (Rowland, 2005) or guardians and help document progress toward a Total Training for Young Champions (Bompa, 2000). goal. Be sure that students who are new to aerobic activity start slowly. The recommended approach Although the lifetime physical activity model is to increase a single variable (frequency, inten- provides guidelines for aerobic fitness training sity, time, or type) gradually rather than increase sufficient for good health, you may encounter all four variables. For the less-fit individual, it is students who want to achieve higher levels of better to increase time (duration) first instead of fitness. Providing accurate and helpful informa- intensity. Children are less likely to become dis- tion to assist interested students in reaching their couraged and more likely to adhere to an activity aerobic fitness goals safely is important, but the or exercise program if it does not cause extreme five training principles are applicable only to fatigue and soreness. Long periods of continuous older, postpubescent children. Table 5.1 provides vigorous activity are not recommended for chil- information on how to apply the FITT guidelines dren ages 6 through 12 unless chosen by the child for younger (5 to 12 years old) and adolescent and not prescribed by an adult (NASPE, 2004b). (11 years old and older) children as well as older youth participating in athletics. Note that table To reduce the risk of injury or medical compli- 5.1 includes some overlap in age, allowing for cations, work with the school nurse to determine changes in the guidelines based on individual developmental age, not chronological age.

Aerobic Fitness  77 Table 5.1  FITT Guidelines Applied to Aerobic Fitness Children (5–12 years)a Adolescents (≥11 years)b Middle and high school youth who participate in athleticsc Frequency • Developmentally appropriate • Daily or nearly every day 5 or 6 days per week physical activity on all or most • Three or more sessions per week days of the week • 60–90% heart rate • Moderate to vigorous activity. max (MHR) or 50–85% • Several bouts of physical activity Maintaining a target heart rate is heart rate reserve lasting 15 min or more daily not expected at this level. (HRR) Intensity • Mixture of moderate and vigorous • Rating of perceived exertion: • Rating of perceived intermittent activity 7–10 (Borg)d, 1–3 (OMNI)e exertion: 12–16 (Borg), • Moderate includes low-intensity 5–7 (OMNI) games (hopscotch, foursquare), low-activity positions (goalie, outfielders), some chores, and yard work • Vigorous includes games involving running or chasing and playing sports (level 2 of activity pyramid) Time • Accumulation of at least 60 min, • 30–60 min daily activity 20–60 min and up to several hours, of activity • 20 min or more in a single session • Up to 50% of accumulated minutes should be accumulated in bouts of 15 min or more Type • Variety of activities • Play, games, sports, work, Activities that use large • Activities should be selected from transportation, recreation, physical muscles and are used in education, or planned exercise in a rhythmical fashion (e.g., the first three levels of the activity the context of family, school, and brisk walking, jogging, pyramid community activit­ies stair climbing, basketball, • Continuous activity should not be racket sports, soccer, expected for most chil­dren • Brisk walking, jogging, stair dance, lap swimming, climbing, basketball, racket sports, skating, and cycling) soccer, dance, lap swimming, skating, lawn mowing, and cycling aNational Association for Sport and Physical Education. (2004). Physical activity for children: A statement of guidelines for children ages 5−12, 2nd edition (Reston, VA: Author). bCorbin, C .B., and Pangrazi, R.P. (2002). Physical activity for children: how much is enough? In G. J. Welk, R.J. Morrow, & H.B. Falls (Eds), Fitnessgram Reference Guide (p. 7 Internet Resource). Dallas, TX: The Cooper Institute. cAmerican College of Sports Medicine (2000). ACSM’s guidelines for exercise testing and prescription. 6th Ed., Lippincott, Wil­ liams, and Wilkins: Philadelphia. dBorg, G. (1998). Borg’s perceived exertion and pain scales (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 47. eRobertson, R.J. (2004). Perceived exertion for practitioners: Rating effort with the OMNI pictures system (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 141-150. From National Association for Sport and Physical Education 2004; Corbin and Pangrazi 2002; American College of Sports Medicine 2000; Borg 1998. Monitoring Intensity beat. As the intensity of exercise increases they will feel and see (free hand) their heart speeding An important question concerns how hard stu- up. Older children can be taught to count their dents should exercise. Teachers can use several pulse (see “Taking the Pulse”), and high school methods to teach about and monitor the intensity students can learn how to calculate exercise of aerobic activity. Young children can be asked to within a target heart rate zone. In this way young place one hand on their heart and make a fist with children can link heart rate to the intensity of an their free hand every time they feel their heart activity, and older students can be taught that an

78  Physical Education for Lifelong Fitness increasing heart rate correlates with increasing estimate of how hard or easy a person feels that oxygen consumption, which is the measure of she or he is working. Table 5.2 depicts the OMNI aerobic capacity. scales for rating perceived exertion for children (ages 8 through 15) and adults (ages 16 and older). Two other methods of monitoring intensity These scales were developed using pictures of exer- are the talk test and ratings of perceived exer- tion as well as words and numbers. The pictures, tion (RPE). The talk test simply stipulates that provided in reproducible form in appendix A, are your intensity is appropriate if you can talk but especially helpful with elementary and middle not sing. If you are too out of breath to talk the school children (see figure 5.2, a and b). This is intensity is too high; if you can sing the intensity because they may rate their level of perceived exer- is too low. A rating of perceived exertion is an Table 5.2  Verbal Cues for OMNI RPE Scales Adults Children Extremely easy = 0 Not tired at all = 0 Easy = 2 A little tired = 2 Somewhat easy = 4 Getting more tired = 4 Somewhat hard = 6 Tired = 6 Hard = 8 Really tired = 8 Extremely hard = 10 Very, very tired = 10 Reprinted, by permission, from V.H. Heyward, 2010, Advanced fitness assessment and exercise prescription, 6th edition (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 69. Children’s omni sCale adult’s omni sCale Rate Your Perceived Exertion Rate Your Perceived Exertion Name_______________________________________________________Date______________________________ Name_______________________________________________________Date______________________________ Identify the picture, word phrase, or number that best describes how you are feeling during the activity. For an For each activity, circle the picture, word phrase, or number that best describes how you are feeling during overall RPE, focus on how the body feels as a whole. For chest or limbs RPE, focus on that part of the body. the activity. For an overall RPE, focus on how the body feels as a whole. For chest or limbs RPE, focus on that part of the body. Very, very Extremely tired hard Really Hard tired Tired Somewhat hard Getting more Somewhat tired easy A little Easy tired Not tired Extremely at all easy E4736/NASPE TG/art A.1/399252/pulled/R1 Very, very E4736/NASPE TG/art A.5/399257/pulled/R1 Extremely tired hard Hard Really Somewhat tired hard Tired Somewhat easy Getting more Easy tired A little Extremely tired easy Not tired at all For use with ages 8 to 15 (continued) For use with ages 16 and older (continued) From NASPE, 2011, Physical education for lifelong fitness: The Physical Best teacher’s guide, 3rd edition (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics). Reprinted From NASPE, 2011, Physical education for lifelong fitness: The Physical Best teacher’s guide, 3rd edition (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics). Reprinted from R. Robertson, 2004, Perceived exertion for practitioners: Rating effort with the OMNI picture system (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 145, 146. By permission of R. Robertson. from R. Robertson, 2004, Perceived exertion for practitioners: Rating effort with the OMNI picture system (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 141, 142. By a264 b E4736/NASPE TG/art A.6/399258/pulled/R1 permission of R. Robertson. E4736/NASPE TG/art A.2/399253/pulled/R1 263 265 Figure 5.2  The (a) children’s and (b) adult’s OMNI RPE scales allow students to use the scale pictorially. Reproducible versions of these scales are available in appendix A. Reprinted from R. Robertson, 2004, Perceived exertion for practitioners: Rating effort with the OMNI pictures system (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 141, 142, 145, 146. By permission of R. Robertson.

Aerobic Fitness  79 tion more accurately by pointing to a picture than an alternate method, the children look straight by selecting a number or word phrase. Note that ahead and place two fingers on the bone behind the children’s word phrases are different from the the bottom earlobe (mastoid process). They then adult’s phrases. The OMNI scales can be used gently press and slowly slide the fingers down and to determine an RPE for the whole body, for the forward until they feel the heartbeat. The fingers limbs, or for the chest, and are therefore useful will naturally follow the angle of the jaw and end for teaching about intensity in both aerobic and up to the right of the Adam’s apple. (K through resistance exercise. 3 children may place a hand over the left side of the chest to feel the heartbeat.) Be sure that each Taking the Pulse student is capable of feeling his or her heart beat- ing. Make sure that students do not press too hard To use heart rate as an estimate of aerobic inten- or massage the neck because doing so will slow sity, students first need to learn how to take their the heart rate; they should never palpate both pulse accurately. Two common sites used to count arteries at the same time because reduced blood heart rate are the carotid artery (on the neck) flow to the brain may cause them to faint. Teach and the radial artery (wrist, thumb side). First, older students to use the radial artery at the wrist teach students to locate the pulse by placing the by placing the first two fingers of either hand on first two fingers of the right hand lightly on the the opposite wrist (palm facing up), just below the right side of the neck, below and to the right of base of the thumb (figure 5.3b). Students should the Adam’s apple (figure 5.3a). The Adam’s apple move their fingers around until they locate the is not prominent in children, especially girls. In pulse. Students should not use the thumb to ab Figure 5.3  Two methods of taking a pulse: (a) the carotid artery (neck) method and (b) the radial artery (wrist) method.

80  Physical Education for Lifelong Fitness p­ alpate the pulse because the thumb has a pulse Target Heart Rate Zones in it and a double count may occur. When stu- dents are first learning to palpate the pulse, it is The target heart rate zone (THRZ) is a range of helpful to have them be active for a couple min- heart rates between which a person wants to work utes so that the heartbeat is more pronounced. out to achieve optimal aerobic training. The low end of the zone is often referred to as the thresh- Heartbeat is often counted for one minute old of training. Two formulas, the maximum when measuring resting heart rate; shorter time heart rate formula and the Karvonen (or heart intervals are used to measure exercise heart rate. rate reserve) formula can be used to determine a If the first heartbeat is counted while simultane- person’s THRZ. To use these formulas, maximal ously starting the stopwatch, the first beat should heart rate (MHR) must first be calculated. There be counted as zero. If the stopwatch is running, are two ways to do this, one newer than the other. the first beat should be counted as one (Heyward, Researchers have found some inherent difficulties 2010). Students may either count their pulse for 6 in estimating MHR using the common formula seconds and multiply by 10 (simply add a zero to (220 minus age) and subsequently calculating an the number they counted), count for 10 seconds exercise heart rate as a marker of training inten- and multiply by 6 (see table 5.3), or count for 15 sity in children. Children’s maximal heart rates seconds and multiply by 4. Fitness professionals are age independent and generally range from 195 generally prefer the 10-second count because it to 205 beats per minute; the range for maximal tends to be the most accurate. To avoid having to heart rate does not change with age until the late multiply the 10-second count by 6, which can be teens (Rowland, 2005). difficult to do in your head, students can either refer to a chart (see table 5.3) or divide their TRHZ Recent research (Tanaka, Monahan, and Seals, by 6 and use a range for beats per 10 seconds. For 2001) suggests a new formula for estimating example, the range calculated earlier, 153 to 165 maximal heart rate: 208 – (.7 × age). Even newer beats per minute, is 25 to 27 beats per 10 seconds. research (Gellish et al., 2007) corroborates the previous formula with a slight change from 208 to Table 5.3  Heart Rate Based on a 10-Second 207, making the formula read 207 – (.7 × age). The Count American College of Sports Medicine is endors- ing this formula in their 8th edition of Guidelines Beats Heart rate Beats Heart rate for Exercise Testing and Prescription (ACSM, 2010). per 10 (bpm) per 10 (bpm) Although children were not used as participants seconds seconds in the development of the new formula, this pro- cedure estimates maximal heart rates in children 10 60 22 132 more in line with the range of 195 to 205 beats per minute reported by other researchers (Armstrong 11 66 23 138 et al., 1991; Bailey et al., 1978; Cumming, Everatt, and Hastman, 1978; Rowland, 1996). Although 12 72 24 144 the old formula was simpler to use, it generally overpredicted MHR in those 20 to 40 years of 13 78 25 150 age and underpredicted MHR in those over 40 years of age (Tanaka, Monahan, and Seals, 2001). 14 84 26 156 Although this new formula does not have a direct effect on school-age children, graduating seniors 15 90 27 162 will move into that population within a couple of years. 16 96 28 168 Therefore, for high school students, the new 17 102 29 174 formula, MHR = 207 – (.7 × age), should be used to calculate exercise heart rates. Younger 18 108 30 180 children (ages 6 to 14 years) should not use exer- cise heart rate thresholds or zones; they should 19 114 31 186 20 120 32 192 21 126 33 198

Aerobic Fitness  81 simply engage in activity following the previ- students, you can begin to teach concepts of ously discussed 2008 Physical Activity Guidelines intensity and heart rate monitoring by providing (USDHHS, 2008) and NASPE (2004b) guidelines opportunities to compare resting heart rate with for elementary school children or the guidelines exercise heart rate, to learn basic anatomy of the for adolescents (Sallis & Patrick, 1994). cardiovascular and respiratory systems, and to learn how increased physical activity helps them As mentioned, long periods of vigorous con- play longer without getting tired. Reserve calcu- tinuous activity are not considered age- and lations and goals of meeting a specified target developmentally appropriate for children 6 to 12 heart rate for high school students (or at least late years old unless the child self-selects the activity teen years). Primary-grade students can begin to (NASPE, 2004b). High-intensity activity may monitor their intensity levels by placing a hand discourage children from being active because over the heart before, during, and after moderate exercising at this level is generally unpleasant. to vigorous physical activity; they can note the The emphasis for children should be on having general speed of the heartbeat using terms such fun and developing the locomotor skills neces- as slow, medium, and fast or turtle and race car. sary to succeed in more advanced activity or sport Students in the fourth through sixth grade can later in life. Malina (1996) suggests that activities begin to locate the carotid and radial arteries to performed in adulthood are based on locomotor count heart rate, but they should not use target and leisure skills learned early in a child’s life. If heart rate zones. Most students in seventh grade a child is confident in the skills developed during and up can be expected to calculate target heart childhood, she or he is more likely to continue rate values, but you should still avoid the use of those activities into adulthood. In addition, target heart rate zones (THRZ) as requirements self-perception of competence declines as chil- for participation in physical activities. dren get older (Jacobs et al., 2002), and children who underestimate their physical competence High school students can begin to use the may discontinue participation in sport or may THRZ to guide them in monitoring intensity of have low levels of physical achievement (Weiss & activity. Refer to tables 5.3 and 5.4 for selecting Horn, 1990). This information is important when the appropriate percentage to monitor intensity. working with children. Exercising at specified After intensity has been selected, begin by teach- training heart rates or performing continuous ing the maximum heart rate method (Gellish high-intensity activity should be reserved for high et al., 2007), which is the simpler of the two school students. methods of calculating the THRZ. To save class time, students can perform this calculation as a For students beyond age 14, teachers may begin homework assignment. The second method, the to introduce the calculation of target heart rates Karvonen or heart rate reserve (HRR) method using the maximal heart rate formula or the (ACSM, 2010; Gellish et al., 2007) takes into heart rate reserve (HRR) method. For younger Table 5.4  Progression of Activity Frequency, Intensity, and Time Based on Fitness Level Low fitness Marginal fitness Good fitness Frequency 3 days a week 3 to 5 days a week 3 to 6 days a week Heart rate reserve (HRR) 40–50% Intensity 60–85% 50–60% Maximum heart rate (max HR) 55–65% 65–75% 75–90% Relative perceived exertion (RPE) 12–13 (Borg)a, 5 (OMNI)b 13–14 (Borg), 5–6 (OMNI) 14–16 (Borg), 6–7 (OMNI) Time 10–30 min 20–40 min 30–60 min aBorg, G. (1998). Borg’s perceived exertion and pain scales (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 47. bRobertson, R.J. (2004). Perceived exertion for practitioners: Rating effort with the OMNI pictures system (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics). From Corbin et al. 2004.

82  Physical Education for Lifelong Fitness account the individual’s resting heart rate. Refer time. Using this self-testing, older students can to the section “Calculating Maximum Heart Rate try various pacing levels and see what pace keeps and Target Heart Rate Zones for Middle or High them in their target heart rate zone. At the middle School Students.” and high school levels, monitors used to check calculated target heart rate or exercise intensity If teachers working with young children (6–14 can help teach students about individualizing years old) must make use of a target heart rate, their aerobic fitness programs. they should use 85% of maximum heart rate max (MHR = 200 beats per minute) (Rowland, Using Pedometers 1996). This is equal to approximately 170 beats per minute (T.W. Rowland, personal communica- Pedometers are a fun and motivating way to chal- tion, December 2002). This heart rate provides a lenge students to be more active. Both practitio- goal for students to attain but does not neces- ners and researchers endorse the usefulness of sarily relate to the intensity necessary for fitness pedometers for measuring and promoting physi- improvement. Rowland’s Children’s Exercise Physi- cal activity (Beighle, Pangrazi, & Vincent, 2001; ology (2005) provides further explanation of the Tudor-Locke et. al., 2004; Cuddihy, Pangrazi, & physiological changes and the high-intensity exer- Tomson, 2005). They provide an inexpensive, easy cise required to elicit those changes in children. to obtain, objective measure of physical activity. Remember that specifying target heart rates is This method is especially helpful when working not recommended for elementary-level children. with children because they often have difficulty discerning how much moderate to vigorous activ- Using Heart Rate Monitors ity they perform. Increasing research is being done on pedometers. Although not all pedometers Although heart rate monitors are not necessary, perform equally well, the research generally finds they are a popular and exciting way to teach stu- electronic pedometers to be reliable and valid dents about aerobic fitness concepts. Heart rate indicators of physical activity (Crouter et al., monitors provide accurate information, whereas 2003; Schneider, Crouter, & Bassett, 2004; Sch- some students may have difficulty manually pal- neider, Crouter, Lukajic, & Bassett, 2003; Beets, pating the pulse, especially children below the Patton, & Edwards, 2005). The most accurate are fourth grade. If you are using heart rate monitors Japanese made (Barfield, Rowe, & Michael, 2004; at the elementary level, make sure to use them for Tudor-Locke et al., 2008). Although the brand of fun and for teaching aerobic fitness concepts, not pedometer may result in variations, pedometers for attaining a specified target heart rate. You may tend to be an accurate means of assessing steps, try activities such as asking students, “Who can less accurate at assessing distance, and even less get their heart rate to 140 beats per minute?” “150 accurate at assessing kilocalories (Crouter et al., beats per minute?” and so on. Follow the activity 2003). with a rest period. Then repeat the sequence using different heart rate goals. This routine provides Distance is based on the number of steps short bursts of activity, is considered vigorous taken and the stride length programmed into the activity when higher heart rates are used, and pedometer; therefore, error can sneak in if stride provides a goal for elementary students to attain length changes with the speed of a walk or run. for brief periods. Heart rate monitors are also Another issue worth noting is that pedometers useful tools for teaching students of all ages about tend to underestimate steps taken at a slow pace, pacing. Students can run, try to guess their heart around 2 miles per hour (54 m/min) (Crouter et rates, and then check their estimates against the al., 2003; Le Masurier et al., 2004). At a slow pace monitor. They can also learn pacing by trying to people may not produce enough vertical motion traverse a certain distance in a designated time. to trigger a step count (Beets et al., 2005; Crouter For example, jogging 1/8 mile (.2 km) in 1 minute et al., 2003). Teachers who encourage their stu- is an 8-minute-per-mile (5 min per km) pace. dents to move briskly help ensure a more accurate Students can set the stopwatch on the HRM, jog, step count. Young children or the elderly with less and then see whether they are close to a 1-minute bounce in their steps may still lose steps, as will

Aerobic Fitness  83 Calculating Maximum Heart Rate and Target Heart Rate Zones for Middle or High School Students Maximum Heart Rate Method This method, also known as the heart rate reserve (HRR) method, involves multiple steps. HRR is The first step when using this method is to calcu- calculated by subtracting resting heart rate from late the maximal heart rate (MHR) using the new maximal heart rate. After this is completed, the stu- formula: 207 − (.7 × age). Then, to calculate a dent follows the same procedures in selecting two target heart rate zone (THRZ), select a percent- percentages, but the range of possible percentages age between 55 or 60 to 90%. This becomes the is slightly different (50–85%) and the final step is threshold percentage for the calculation of target to add back in resting heart rate. For example, the heart rate. Next, select a second percentage 10% same 16-year-old student, with a resting heart rate higher than the threshold percentage. For example, of 70 and seeking a basic level of fitness (at 65–75% a student who is 16 years old seeking a basic level MHR) would find his or her THRZ as follows: of fitness (at 65–75% MHR) would find his or her THRZ as follows: MHR = 207 − (.7 × 16) = 195.8 or 196 MHR = 207 – (.7 × 16) = 195.8 or 196 Calculate the THRZ by subtracting resting heart rate from maximal heart rate, and complete the Calculate the THRZ by changing the selected following formula where HRR is heart rate reserve percentages to decimals and multiplying them by and RHR is resting heart rate. In this example, rest- the MHR: ing heart rate is 70 beats per minute. .65 × 196 = 127.4 or 127 HRR = [207 − (.7 × AGE) – RHR] and THRZ is [([207 − (.7 × AGE)] − RHR) × %] + RHR .75 × 196 = 147 HRR = [207 − (.7 × 16) − 70] = 125.8 Rounded to the nearest whole number, this student’s THRZ for maintaining or improving basic THRZ = [([207 − (.7 × 16)] − 70) × .65] + 70 = aerobic fitness is 127 to 147 heartbeats per minute. 151.77 or 152 Karvonen Method (Heart Rate Reserve THRZ = [([207 − (.7 × 16)] − 70) × .75] + 70 = [HRR]) 164.35 or 164 This method takes into account an individual’s Rounded to the nearest whole number, this fitness level and resting heart rate. For high school student’s THRZ for maintaining or improving basic students, this method can be taught and used to aerobic fitness is 152 to 164 heartbeats per minute. demonstrate how intensity can be modified as fitness improves and resting heart rate decreases. those with unusual gait patterns. If a pedometer Award (PALA) using steps per day, the President’s is ineffective with a gait pattern (or wheelchair), Council on Physical Fitness and Sport (2008b) students can be paired and the count from the requires girls to log at least 11,000 steps and boys normal-gait student used for both. at least 13,000 steps for five days for six weeks. These numbers are the result of studies examin- One of the big questions is, How many steps ing activity patterns of youth with pedometers are enough? A number of studies including both (Le Masurier et al., 2005; Vincent et al., 2003). adults and children have been conducted in an Tudor-Locke and colleagues (2004) examined attempt to link daily step counts to health ben- the relationship of steps per day to body mass efits and recommended levels of physical activity. index (BMI). They found that girls and boys Because children are naturally more active than ages 6 through 12 who accumulated 12,000 and adults are, the adult standard of 10,000 steps 15,000 steps respectively tended to be under the (Hatano, 1993; Welk et al., 2000) may be low international BMI standard for being overweight for them. To earn the Physical Activity Lifestyle

84  Physical Education for Lifelong Fitness Physical Activity Lifestyle or 1,000 steps in 20 minutes (1,000/20 = 50 SPM). Award (PALA) The assumption is that the more steps a person takes per minute, the more intense the activity is. The Physical Activity Lifestyle Award (PALA) Information on adults is included in the follow- was developed by the President’s Council on ing discussion because older high school students Physical Fitness and Sport (PCPFS) with the will soon want to know how to use pedometers purpose of motivating and rewarding people as a method to track lifelong activity. For adults, who regularly participate in physical activity. moderate-intensity walking is approximately Achieving a specific level of physical fitness equal to at least 100 steps per minute (Marshall is not required. Thus, the PALA supports the et al., 2009). To meet the current adult guideline goal of increasing the number of active healthy of 150 minutes of moderate-intensity physical U.S. citizens. For more information go to www. activity, the person could take 3,000 steps in 30 presidentschallenge.org or call 800-258-8146. minutes or 1,000 steps in three 10-minute bouts (Marshall et al., 2009). Graser, Pangrazi, and or obese. Additional research is needed to address Vincent (2009) tested 10- through 12-year-olds questions such as whether healthier children walking on a treadmill at moderate to vigorous simply take more steps or whether taking a cer- walking paces and determined that a range of tain number of steps results in healthier children. 120 to 140 SPM for both genders is a reasonable Note that pedometers do not log physical activity measure of moderate to vigorous physical activity done during activities such as biking and swim- (MVPA). Special populations such as those with ming. high levels of body fat may benefit more by trying to improve their SPM count rather than using the To address individual differences, Pangrazi, 120 to 140 guideline. Pedometers with the steps Beighle, and Sidman (2003) suggest the following per minute feature are an excellent way to teach baseline and goal-setting approach. A baseline all students about intensity, baseline recording, count is determined by wearing the pedometer and goal setting. for four days (children) or eight days (adults and adolescents) and determining the average number The recommended location for the pedometer of steps per day. A 10% increase in steps is then is at the waistline directly in line with the mid- calculated and added to the step goal amount point of the front of the thigh. But if abdominal every two weeks. The overall goal is to achieve fat or a loose waistband allows a spring-loaded about 4,000 to 6,000 steps above baseline. For pedometer to tilt forward 10 degrees or more, example, a student whose baseline is 6,000 steps the step count will become less accurate and an will increase this amount by 600 steps every two alternative location may work better (Crouter, weeks until he or she reaches 10,000 to 12,000 Schneider, & Bassett, 2005; Duncan et al., 2007). steps per day. One solution for this problem is to have elastic belts that the pedometer can be placed on. This Until recently one of the biggest drawbacks to also solves the problem of fitting the pedometer pedometers was their inability to estimate inten- clip over a waistband edge that is too thick. A sity. One thousand walking steps was counted student can also move the pedometer to the the same as 1,000 running steps despite an obvi- side or to the small of the back. Count steps and ous difference in intensity. Newer pedometers check the pedometer to see which location gives allow students to collect the amount of time the most accurate count. In some cases moving (minutes) they are active as well as the number the pedometer to the side or back has solved the of accumulated steps. Students can be taught to problem of pedometer tilt, but then the student divide the total number of steps they take by the cannot read the pedometer independently. To test number of minutes they are active to obtain their pedometer placement and accuracy, Cuddihy et steps per minute (SPM). Extending our example al. (2005) recommend placing the pedometer on of 1,000 steps, a student could be performing the waistband above the midpoint of the right 1,000 steps in 10 minutes (1,000/10 = 100 SPM) thigh, walking 100 steps, and then checking the pedometer count. If the pedometer count is off

Aerobic Fitness  85 by 3 or more steps, place the pedometer more to features used most. Then put them to use; many the right (slightly in front of or over the hip) and creative, instructional, and motivating lessons repeat the test. If the count is still off by 3 or more can be generated using pedometers (Lubans, steps, place the pedometer on the waistband to the Morgan, & Tudor-Locke, 2009; Pangrazi, Beighle, back or on an elastic belt. This test assumes that & Sidman, 2003, 2007). the pedometer is accurate within 3 steps when properly placed. Three styles of voice announce- Cross-Discipline Ideas ment pedometers for visually impaired students worked best when worn on the right side (Beets Many opportunities are available to use a cross- et al., 2007). disciplinary approach when teaching aerobic fitness concepts. Collaboration with classroom Pedometers are most effective when the teacher teachers allows nonactive supporting activities to has an efficient method for handing them out, be taught in the classroom and physically active recording steps, and collecting them. If numbers supporting activities to be taught during physical are assigned ahead of time, students can come in, education. For example, math teachers can have quickly pick up their pedometers from a storage students calculate the target heart rates (at the unit, and use peers to get them on. Having stu- middle or high school level), and then students dents track steps on their own recording sheets in physical education can practice moving in the is much quicker than having the teacher record target zone. Elementary students can be asked all the steps. To prevent breakage, encourage the to keep track of, add up, and chart the number use of the safety leashes and have students put of minutes that they are active during physical the pedometers on while kneeling or sitting down education class, recess, and at home. Math stu- (at least in the beginning) so that dropping them dents can predict the number of pedometer steps is less likely to cause damage. Pedometers cur- required to go a certain distance and then jog or rently available offer a variety of tracking features walk the distance and compare the results. including steps, distance, calories, continuous minute bouts, and total activity time. Select a In language arts, students can write about a pedometer type based on the reliability of the physical activity in which they’ve engaged. Then Pulse Math 3. Which person is more likely to be jogging, Sun or Deandre? (Deandre.) Which person To promote interdisciplinary learning, you can is more likely to be sitting in class? (Sun.) easily create math problems based on calculating heart rate by having students count their pulse for Because this is a practical way to integrate various intervals. To add interest, make up prob- math across the curriculum, fourth-, fifth-, and lems such as the following: sixth-grade classroom teachers may be willing to help you construct similar problems or may pro- 1. Sun counted 35 heartbeats in 30 seconds. vide time in math class for students to learn and What is Sun’s heart rate? complete this type of work. Some students may also be able to design problems for themselves or 60 seconds ÷ 30 seconds = 2 peers to complete. These kinds of calculations, when presented creatively, may also provide an So you multiply 35 heartbeats by 2: engaging activity for students who may be sitting 35 heartbeats × 2 = 70 heartbeats per minute out of physical education class for health reasons. 2. Deandre counted 27 heartbeats in 10 sec- onds. What is Deandre’s heart rate? 60 seconds ÷ 10 seconds = 6 So you multiply 27 heartbeats by 6: 27 heartbeats × 6 = 162 heartbeats per minute

86  Physical Education for Lifelong Fitness Teaching Tip: Teaching age, ability, and fitness level of each student. About Aerobic Fitness Building personal choice into each activity can do some of this individualizing for you. For example, Many students, particularly young children, offer a longer rest option during interval training will understand and monitor their heart rates or allow students to assist in the development of more effectively when you provide some extra aerobic fitness circuits. Remember that students context. For example, you might use a metro- can monitor heart rates, but calculations and nome for teaching about heart rate. Students target heart rate zones should be used only for will better understand what 200 beats per older students, as previously discussed. minute sounds like. Continuous Training Another fun method to reinforce how hard the heart works is to ask the students to cal- Continuous training is performing the same culate how many beats their hearts have made activity or exercise over an extended period. This since birth. Figure out how many heartbeats style of activity is not common for children. Con- occur per minute, then per hour, per day, per tinuous activity is defined as “movement that week, per year, and then years since birth. lasts at least several minutes without rest periods” Encourage students to be as exact as their (NASPE, 2004b, 6). As stated previously, vigor- ages and abilities allow. ous continuous activity is not recommended for children 6 to 12 years old, but some continuous Carolyn Masterson, Associate Professor moderate activity is appropriate (NASPE, 2004b). If you use continuous activity at the elementary Montclair State University level, build plenty of rest periods into the activ- Upper Montclair, New Jersey ity. Continuous activity of 3 to 5 minutes at moderate intensity may be the limit for primary in physical education, they can convert poetry grades or low-fit students, whereas 10 minutes into movement. Science teachers can teach may be a good limit for older (grades 3 through students how a drop of blood f lows through 5) elementary students. Twenty minutes or more the heart, lungs, and to the exercising muscles, of continuous activity, depending on fitness level and physical educators can have students move and goals, is appropriate for students in middle through a diagram of the heart drawn on the school and high school. Table 5.1 provides infor- playground. Music teachers can teach about mation on using the FITT guidelines for youth rhythm, and physical educators can have students of various ages. create rhythmic aerobic routines. Geography and map reading can be integrated with orienteering. For students at the high school level, calculat- History can be recreated in a game. The possibili- ing and monitoring exercise heart rate becomes ties are endless, and the rewards can be great as important. At the middle school level, students students experience practical applications and can calculate heart rate but should not be the integrated nature of knowledge. For more required to maintain a set range. Activity at high interdisciplinary ideas, consult the elementary intensity can become discouraging, so limit the and middle and secondary activity guides. time spent performing high-intensity activity, which is often more appropriate for training and Training Methods conditioning athletes. Middle and high school for Aerobic Fitness students may use the adult model and calculate target heart rates or simply perform the activity Three main training methods are used to main- at a pace at which they can comfortably converse. tain or increase aerobic fitness: continuous, interval, and circuit training. You must adjust To apply the principles of overload and pro- application of these methods depending on the gression, one can increase any of the components of the FITT principle (i.e., frequency, intensity, time, or type), but be careful of losing the enjoy- ment factor by increasing these variables too

Aerobic Fitness  87 quickly. When a person is in the initial stages are not systematically controlled as they are in of an exercise program, it is recommended to interval training. True fartlek training should increase duration first. After an individual has be reserved for coaches and athletes and should been exercising regularly for a month or more, the not be used in physical education classes. This frequency, intensity, and time can be gradually type of training (traversing over hills) develops adjusted upwards (ACSM, 2010). How to adjust technique, strength, muscular endurance, general the variable depends on the student; involve the aerobic endurance, and mental fitness (Greene & student in goal setting and exercise planning. Pate, 1997); these benefits are not attributes that Active, low-organization games are fun ways to physical educators are trying to develop in the provide continuous physical activity. Teach games classroom. This training should be used only by and activities that students will want to play in coaches working with serious athletes who want their free time. Middle and high school students to increase speed in a particular sport such as may find that a mix of aerobic activities that sus- basketball. Despite the negative aspects of true tain a target elevated heart rate for a designated fartlek training, a modified version of it may period will be more enjoyable and therefore more be used at the elementary level by placing stress beneficial to their overall fitness level. on different muscle groups through frequent changes in level and direction (Virgilio, 1997). Fartlek training is a modification of con- Figure 5.4 shows a sample fartlek training course tinuous training in which periods of increased appropriate for older, reasonably well-conditioned intensity are interspersed with continuous activ- elementary students. A similar modified activity ity over varying and natural terrain. The word can be designed for older students especially if fartlek comes from the Swedish word for “speed choice of intensity is built into the activity. play,” and the bursts of higher intensity exercise 3 to 4 Jog feet apart Run Step on truck tires Low hurdle 2 feet high Jog Run Leap over river Step quickly through hoops Step around each cone n through co nes Jog Ru Crawl through Finish tunnel Run Start 2 forward rolls on mat Jog Figure 5.4  Sample fartlek training course. Students who use a course like this one should be older elementary age and reasonably well conditioned. Adapted, by permission, from S. Virgilio, 1997, Fitness education for children (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 149. E4736/NASPE TG/fig5.3/363400/alw/pulled-r1

88  Physical Education for Lifelong Fitness Interval Training training (speed play) rather than true interval training because it is continuous in nature. An Interval training is based on the concept that example of this might be alternating medium- more activity can be performed at higher exer- and fast-paced rope jumping. In an example of cise intensity with the same or even less fatigue true intervals, the student would jump rope at compared with continuous training. This type of a relatively high intensity for a short amount of training involves alternating short bursts of activ- time and then rest until the music restarted. ity with rest periods. Young children naturally engage in this type of activity; you must simply Start each station with the same number of ensure that the students have a rest period between students and plan equipment and space for three activity bursts. This type of training may also or four extra students per station. Most students serve as an opportunity for older students to have will naturally want to move to the next station, a choice of how quickly the exercise period begins. especially if the activities are fun. Older students After middle and high school students know how are capable of engaging in more structured inter- to palpate heart rate, you can have them count val training, but this should not be part of your their preexercise heart rate and use that number physical education lesson. The trick is to make to determine when the next activity begins. For this type of training interesting. Leave running this approach to be effective, you must limit the wind sprints for the track coach and have your number of students at any one station. Otherwise, students, for example, pass a soccer ball between when a student’s heart rate has decreased, signal- partners, running as fast as they can downfield. ing that it is time to move on, she or he must wait Interval training can be designed to develop until a spot opens up at the next station. aerobic fitness by matching activity time (gener- ally three to four minutes) with an equivalent Aerobic interval training involves alternating rest interval (three to four minutes of rest) or by the intensity of an activity between the low and using one-half of the work period as the time high ends of the aerobic zone without using rest interval for the rest period (one and a half to two intervals. Technically this is a form of fartlek minutes of rest). Interval training is more than wind sprints. Here students jump rope to music that alternates between faster and slower tempos.