คู่มือครูระดับประถม หลักสูตร Computing ของประเทศอังกฤษ

COMPUTING AT SCHOOLEDUCATE • ENGAGE • ENCOURAGE In collaboration with BCS, The Chartered Institute for ITComputing in thenational curriculumA guide for primary teachers

Computing in thenational curriculumA guide for primary teachers

Foreword Every effort has been made to trace copyright holders and obtain their permission for the use of copyright materials. The authors and publisher will gladly receive informationComputers are now part of everyday life. For most enabling them to rectify any error or omission in subsequent editions.of us, technology is essential to our lives, at home All facts are correct at the time of going to press. All referenced websites were correct at theand at work. ‘Computational thinking’ is a skill time this book went to press.children must be taught if they are to be ready forthe workplace and able to participate effectively in Text © Computing at School.this digital world. Published 2013.The new national curriculum for computing hasbeen developed to equip young people in England Author: Miles Berry.with the foundational skills, knowledge and Consultants: Amanda Jackson, Penny Patterson and Dave Smith of Havering Schoolunderstanding of computing they will need for the Improvement Services.rest of their lives. Through the new programme Text design, Typesetting and Cover Design: Burville-Riley Partnership.of study for computing, they will learn how Photography: Ron Coello.computers and computer systems work, they willdesign and build programs, develop their ideas Computing at School are grateful to the following contributors: Phil Bagge, Andrea Carr, Emmausing technology and create a range of content. Davis, Graham Hastings, Lance G. Howarth, Simon Humphreys, Chris Mairs, Joe McCrossan, SimonBut what does this mean for primary schools? Peyton-Jones. Thanks to the children and teachers of Ringwood Infants School and RingwoodHow should school leaders be planning for the Junior School, Ringwood, Abbotswood Junior School, Totton and Gordonbrock Primary School,new curriculum and how can teachers develop the Lewisham.additional skills they will need?The programme of study is expressed in precise We would like to acknowledge and thank ARM Holdings and Raspberry Pi Foundation for theirbut perhaps unfamiliar language. This guide has kind financial support without which the production of this guide would not have been possible.been written especially for primary teachers, todemystify the programme of study for primary This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0schools. It will enable teachers to get to grips Unported License.with the new requirements quickly and to buildon current practice. It includes help for schools British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data.with planning and gives guidance on how best to A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library.develop teachers’ skills.The new national curriculum for computing ISBN: 978-1-78339-143-1provides schools with an exciting opportunityto reinvigorate teaching and learning in this Printed by Newnorth Print, Ltd. Bedford.important area of the curriculum. We hope thisguide will help you on your way.To find out more about Computing At School,please visit us atwww.computingatschool.org.uk/primaryYou will also find an eBook version of this guidethere, which can be freely shared with colleagues.Simon Peyton-JonesChairman, Computing At School 2

ContentsIntroduction 4Getting started 5Subject knowledge 7 Key stage 1 7 Key stage 2 10Planning 14 Starting with the programme of study 15 Starting with projects 16 Using a pre-written scheme of work 16 Using a pupil-centred approach 16Resourcing 17Teaching 18 Technologically enhanced learning 20 Inclusion 20 Gifted and talented pupils 21 Informal learning 21Assessment 22 Formative assessment 22 Summative assessment 23Concluding remarks 26Glossary 27Resources 28 Background 28 Subject knowledge 28 Teaching resources and ideas 29 Media 29Support 30Background 31

INTRODUCTION There is more to computer science than programming, though. It incorporates techniquesIntroduction and methods for solving problems and advancing knowledge, and includes a distinct way ofThe 2014 national curriculum introduces a new thinking and working that sets it apart from othersubject, computing, which replaces ICT. This disciplines. Every core principle can be taught orrepresents continuity and change, challenge illustrated without relying on the use of a specificand opportunity. It gives schools the chance to technology.review and enhance current approaches in order The role of programming in computer scienceto provide an even more exciting and rigorous is similar to that of practical work in the othercurriculum that addresses the challenges and sciences – it provides motivation, and a contextopportunities offered by the technologically rich within which ideas are brought to life.world in which we live. Information technology deals with applyingComputing is concerned with how computers computer systems to solve real-world problems.and computer systems work, and how they are Things that have long been part of ICT in schools,designed and programmed. Pupils studying such as finding things out, exchanging and sharingcomputing will gain an understanding of information, and reviewing, modifying andcomputational systems of all kinds, whether evaluating work, remain as important now, foror not they include computers. Computational a broad and balanced technological education,thinking provides insights into many areas of the as they ever were. The new programme of studycurriculum, and influences work at the cutting provides ample scope for pupils to developedge of a wide range of disciplines. understanding, knowledge and skills in theseWhy is computational thinking so important? It areas, as you’ll see from some of the examples inallows us to solve problems, design systems, and this guide.understand the power and limits of human and Primary teachers currently equip pupils with high-machine intelligence. It is a skill that empowers, level skills in using ICT, preparing them to applyand one that all pupils should be aware of and these across the curriculum in secondary education.develop competence in. Pupils who can think It’s unclear whether pupils leave primary schoolcomputationally are better able to conceptualise, with much knowledge of how computers, software,understand and use computer-based technology, the internet, the web and search engines work,and so are better prepared for today’s world and or a critical understanding of the impact of thesethe future. technologies on their lives and on society.Computing is a practical subject, in which As teachers, we are competent and confidentinvention and resourcefulness are encouraged. users of technology in our own personal andThe ideas of computing are applied to professional lives, and yet relatively few of us areunderstanding real-world systems and creating sure how the software running on our computerspurposeful products. This combination of works, what the difference is between the webprinciples, practice and invention makes and the internet, or how search results arecomputing an extraordinarily useful and intensely ordered, and we’re even less sure of how to teachcreative subject, suffused with excitement, both these things to our pupils. However, with helpvisceral (‘it works!’) and intellectual (‘that is so from the web, new publications and resources,beautiful’).1 and colleagues (and pupils!) willing to support us,The focus of the new programme of study it is time to give it a go.undeniably moves towards programming and Note: throughout the guide we have highlightedother aspects of computer science. Programming computing terms in orange. The definitions ofhas been part of the primary national curriculum these terms are in the glossary on page 27.right from the start, as ‘control’ or ‘sequencinginstructions’, although this has too often beenoverlooked or treated superficially.1Adapted from A Curriculum Framework for Computer Science and Information Technology:www.computingatschool.org.uk/data/uploads/Curriculum%20Framework%20for%20CS%20and%20IT.pdf 4

GETTING STARTEDGetting started One way of thinking about these aspects is as the foundations, applications and implications ofAs with other subjects in the new national computing. The aims for the subject as a wholecurriculum, the programme of study document reflect this distinction.for computing2 begins with a brief introduction.It presents the subject as one lens through which [All pupils] can understand and apply thepupils can understand the world. There is a focus fundamental principles and concepts of computeron computational thinking and creativity, as well science, including abstraction, logic, algorithmsas opportunities for creative work in programming and data representation. (CS)and digital media. [All pupils] can analyse problems in computationalThe introduction also makes clear the three terms, and have repeated practical experience ofaspects of the computing curriculum: computer writing computer programs in order to solve suchscience (CS), information technology (IT) and problems. (CS)digital literacy (DL). [All pupils] can evaluate and apply informationThe core of computing is computer science, technology, including new or unfamiliarin which pupils are taught the principles of technologies, analytically to solve problems. (IT)information and computation, how digital systemswork and how to put this knowledge to use [All pupils] are responsible, competent,through programming. Building on this knowledge confident and creative users of information andand understanding, pupils are equipped to use communication technology. (DL)information technology to create programs,systems and a range of content. Computing also It’s worth noting that computer science aims toensures that pupils become digitally literate – able cover two distinct, but related, aspects. There’sto use, and express themselves and develop their a focus on computer science itself (the ideas andideas through, information and communication principles that underpin how digital technologytechnology – at a level suitable for the future works) but this sits alongside the practicalworkplace and as active participants in a digital experience of programming, almost certainlyworld. the best way for primary pupils to learn about computer science. Your school has a statutory duty to offer a broad and balanced curriculum that prepares pupils to ‘use computational thinking and creativity to understand and change the world’.3 Therefore, as your school develops its scheme of work for computing, it would be unwise to ignore any of these aspects, or to give too much emphasis to one to the detriment of the others. That said, you have the freedom to decide how much time you spend on any aspect of the programme of study, and there’s no implication that the number of bullet points or words should be proportional to the time spent on any aspect, as long as pupils have been taught all the content by the end of the key stage. 2 and 3 See www.gov.uk/government/publications/national- curriculum-in-england-computing-programmes-of-study/ national-curriculum-in-england-computing-programmes-of- study5

GETTING STARTEDWe will look in more detail at the programmeof study, but a quick scan of the subject contentshows expectations for the three aspects ofcomputing at each key stage. The content hasbeen adapted below to show how it can be brokendown into three sub-sections. KS1 KS2 Understand what algorithms are; how Design, write and debug programs that accomplish specific goals, they are implemented as programs on including controlling or simulating physical systems; solve problems digital devices; and that programs execute by decomposing them into smaller parts by following precise and unambiguous instructions Use sequence, selection, and repetition in programs; work with variables and various forms of input and outputCS Create and debug simple programs Use logical reasoning to predict the Use logical reasoning to explain how some simple algorithms work and to detect and correct errors in algorithms and programs behaviour of simple programs Understand computer networks including the internet; how they can provide multiple services, such as the World Wide Web Appreciate how [search] results are selected and ranked Use technology purposefully to create, Use search technologies effectively organise, store, manipulate and retrieveIT digital content Select, use and combine a variety of software (including internet services) on a range of digital devices to design and create a range of programs, systems and content that accomplish given goals, including collecting, analysing, evaluating and presenting data and information Recognise common uses of information Understand the opportunities [networks] offer for communication and technology beyond school collaboration Use technology safely and respectfully, Be discerning in evaluating digital content keeping personal information private;DL identify where to go for help and support Use technology safely, respectfully and responsibly; recognise when they have concerns about content acceptable/unacceptable behaviour; identify a range of ways to report or contact on the internet or other online concerns about content and contact technologiesIt should be noted that the statutory requirementsare not labelled under these three headings in theprogramme of study, and the distinction betweeninformation technology and digital literacy is opento some interpretation. The important thing is tocover the content in a balanced, stimulating andcreative way rather than being overly concernedabout the specifics of terminology.There are big changes in assessment, too, aswith other subjects of the national curriculum.The old system of levels will be abolished andis not being replaced. How your school choosesto assess, record and report pupils’ masteryof the curriculum content is your decision, butwe explore some possible approaches in theAssessment section. 6

Subject SUBJECT KNOWLEDGEknowledge There are many different programming languages. They each have their own vocabulary, grammar and features that make them appropriate for particular tasks. The current favourites in primary schools are Scratch, Logo and Kodu.The statements in the programme of study are Programs are made up of statements in a limited,brief. Let’s take a slightly more detailed look at the but precisely understood, vocabulary. Eachconcepts each statement refers to. statement in the program has one particular meaning. The computer follows the instructionsKey stage 1 given: nothing more and, almost always, nothing less.Understand what algorithms are; how A ‘computer’ is not just a traditional desktop orthey are implemented as programs on laptop PC; it is any device that accepts input,digital devices; and that programs execute processes it according to a stored program, andby following precise and unambiguous produces an output. The input, stored programinstructions and output are all encoded as numbers, making these devices ‘digital’. Digital devices include theAn algorithm is a precisely defined procedure – controller in your car or microwave oven, youra sequence of instructions, or a set of rules, for mobile phone, tablet, laptop and desktop, as wellperforming a specific task (e.g. instructions for as high-end supercomputers and ‘virtual’ serverschanging a wheel or making a sandwich). While in the ‘cloud’.all correct algorithms should produce the right Create and debug simple programsanswer, some algorithms are more efficient than The best way for pupils to learn what an algorithmothers. Computer scientists are interested in is, and how it can be implemented as a program, isfinding better algorithms, partly out of intellectual to write some programs themselves. Programmingcuriosity, and partly because improvements in involves taking an idea for doing something andalgorithms can result in massive savings in terms turning it into instructions the computer canof both cost and time. understand. In the infant classroom this could be writing a set of commands for a Bee-Bot, Pro-Computer programs, like algorithms, are Bot or Roamer, or snapping on-screen programcomprised of sets of rules or instructions, but building blocks together in Scratch.they differ in that they need to be written in a When you write a program you need to have aprecise language a computer can ‘understand’. clear idea of what it will do and how it should doA computer’s central processor understands a it. This is where algorithms come in, and thinkingvery limited set of simple instructions written in algorithmically is an integral part of the craft ofmachine code. Very few programmers work at programming.this level, so computer scientists have developed Most programs don’t work as they should firstprogramming languages, which sit somewhere time round; professional programmers have thisbetween the ideas in the algorithm and the experience all the time! One of the most rewardingcomputer’s machine code. aspects of programming is finding and fixing these mistakes. Mistakes in programs are called ‘bugs’,A programmer can turn an algorithm into code and finding and fixing them is ‘debugging’. using a programming language that has The process of debugging often involves identifying enough in common with the English that there is a fault, working out which bit of the language to make it easy to program (or underlying algorithm) has caused the read, remember and write. The problem, and then thinking logically about how programming language takes to fix it. In the classroom, this can provide a great care of the minute details, like opportunity for collaborative work. how to do multiplication or where data should be stored in the computer’s memory, which means the programmer can focus on the big picture. 7

SUBJECT KNOWLEDGEAs a teacher, you should identify clear steps that and video (including animations), writing computerpupils can follow so that they can fix their code. programs, and creating online content such as blogThese might involve identifying what the fault is, posts, forum contributions, wiki entries and socialfinding out which part of the code is creating the network updates. This creative work is digitisedproblem, and then working towards a fix. (i.e. converted to numbers) once it’s on the computer.Pupils should be encouraged to work together The sheer quantity of digital information makesto identify bugs, as programmers are often the skill of organising digital content moreblind to their own mistakes. Although it might important than ever. In more practical terms, webe appropriate to help pupils compare code might think of how to bring together differentor identify which section to look at, it is rarely digital media, how to order a series of paragraphs,helpful for you to fix a bug for pupils until they how to organise the files in our documentshave worked through the stages of debugging directory, or how to tag photos and posts online.themselves. Debugging code develops valuable Storing digital content is perhaps something welearning skills that are transferable right across the take for granted. Knowing where a file is saved incurriculum, such as independence, resilience and the directory structure is important. It’s vital topersistence. be able to distinguish between the hard disk (or solid state storage) inside the computer itself, theUse logical reasoning to predict the behaviour school’s network server, USB disks or memoryof simple programs cards, and online storage via the internet. Content is stored digitally. Size is measured inComputers are deterministic machines. We bytes, one byte being the amount of informationcan predict exactly how they’ll behave through needed to encode a single character of text. Arepeated experience or by developing an internal kilobyte (kB) is 1000 bytes, 1000 kB is a megabytemodel of how a piece of software works. Stepping (MB), 1000 MB is a gigabyte (GB) and 1000 GB isthrough the program can give a clear sense of one terabyte (TB). The list continues beyond that.what it does, and how it does it, giving a feel for A short word-processed document might bethe algorithm that’s been implemented. 25 kB, a digital photo 5 MB, a feature-length, high- definition film 4 GB and the data on a computerIn the classroom, getting one pupil to role-play hard drive 1 TB.a floor turtle or screen sprite while another Manipulating digital content is likely to involvesteps through the program can give a far more using one or more application programs, suchimmediate sense of what’s going on. When as word-processors, presentation software, orworking with a computer, encourage pupils to image-, audio- or video-editing packages. Themake a prediction about what the program will do pupil makes changes to the digital content,before they press return or click the button, and which might include combining content fromto explain their prediction logically; this is part of multiple sources. The skill here is not just usingcomputer science. the software tools, but also knowing how best to change the content for the audience and purpose,Logical reasoning also implies that pupils are and to take into account principles of good design.following a set of rules when making predictions. Retrieving digital content could be seen as thePupils who step outside the boundaries of these reverse of storing: the skills of opening and savingrules are not using logical reasoning. A pupil who documents are similar. Retrieving content requiresexpects a roamer to jump doesn’t understand you to know what you called the file, what filethe constraints of its programming language or type it is, and where you stored it.hardware.Use technology purposefully to create,organise, store, manipulate and retrievedigital contentCreating digital content has many practical Finding files can be time-consuming, especiallypossibilities. These include commonplace tasks when the filing system is not well organised.such as word-processing, creating pictures using Computer filing systems have search featurespaint packages, working with digital photographs to make this easier, but are reliant on the user 8

SUBJECT KNOWLEDGEremembering enough about the file to be able to Use technology safely and respectfully,search for it. The problem of finding a particular file keeping personal information private; identifyis harder on the web, although the links between where to go for help and support when theyweb pages help, and these are at the centre of have concerns about content or contact onGoogle’s algorithm for ranking search results. the internet or other online technologiesRecognise common uses of information This statement covers the key principles of pupils’technology beyond school e-safety. Pupils should be aware of the main risks associated with the internet, and recognise thatDigital technology is a part of all our lives, with they should not share certain types of personalalmost no sphere untouched by it. A key stage 1 information online.pupil might be woken by a digital alarm clock, Young children have little awareness of whohave a bowl of microwaved porridge for breakfast, can access online information, so it is best toand then watch digital TV or play an iPad game teach them not to communicate any personalbefore travelling to school, their journey guided or information online. Pupils should develop theirtracked via GPS. sensitivity to others online, treating them with respect, and showing respect for their privacy. Pupils should have an age-appropriate understanding of their responsibilities under the school’s acceptable use policy. As pupils may inadvertently access inappropriate content on the web, they need to know how to report a worry, and they should be encouraged to talk to teachers or parents about their concerns.While they’re at school, their attendance, progress Adults worry about extreme content, but pupils’and lunch are tracked through the management worries are often at a lower level, related toinformation system, they engage in activities on material they consider unfair or unkind. In ordertablets, and research things on the web. Their for pupils to feel supported, it is importantparents use digital technology at work, perhaps that adults empathise with, and address, theseusing computerised control and monitoring worries, and there should normally be no blameequipment in manufacturing, productivity suites attached to a pupil reporting such concerns.in an office, or high-end digital tools in creative Pupils must have a clear understanding of whatindustries. to do if they have concerns about inappropriate online behaviour (such as unwelcome contact or cyberbullying). Telling a teacher or parent should normally be the first response, but pupils should also know that they can talk directly and confidentially to Childline about such matters.The ingredients for the evening meal may have You must follow your school’s child protectionbeen ordered online, or a parent may have policy, and your child protection lead must bescanned them at the supermarket, whose supply informed about any potential abuse, whetherchain is controlled by smart systems. Evening online or offline. This may include informing theentertainment might be computer gaming with a Child Exploitation and Online Protection CentreWii or Kinect. Parents and older siblings socialise (CEOP).4 Further information for teachers onon smartphones or laptops, and the book at e-safety is available on CEOP’s Thinkuknow5 site.bedtime might be read on an e-book reader.There are many opportunities for pupils to 4See www.ceop.police.ukconsider the applications of algorithms, programs 5See www.thinkuknow.co.uk/teachers/and systems.9

SUBJECT KNOWLEDGEKey stage 2 Use sequence, selection, and repetition in programs; work with variables and variousDesign, write and debug programs that forms of input and outputaccomplish specific goals, including controllingor simulating physical systems; solve problems Sequence in this context is the step-by-stepby decomposing them into smaller parts nature of computer programs, mirroring the sequence of steps the algorithm would list.The focus on algorithms at key stage 1 leads pupilsinto the design stage of programming at key stage 2. Selection refers to instructions such as if ... then ...Algorithms are the necessary start of the process otherwise decisions in which the operation (whatof creating working code, and identifying the steps the program does) depends on whether or notneeded to solve any problem is essential. certain conditions are met. For example, a quiz provides different feedback if the player answersSplitting problems into smaller parts is part of the question correctly or incorrectly. It is helpfulcomputational thinking. For example, designing to refer pupils to selections (choices) they makea game in Scratch will involve thinking about in everyday life; for example, if it rains in thealgorithms, programming, drawing sprites and morning, then I will wear my anorak to school,backgrounds, making animations, and even otherwise I won’t.composing music or recording sound effects. Repetition is a programming structure such as aWe think of computers as boxes with keyboards, repeat ... until loop in which the computer runsmice and displays, but built-in computers (or part of the program a certain number of times or‘embedded control systems’) are an increasingly until a particular condition is met.significant application of information technology.Pupils can gain valuable insights into how In the case of the quiz, we might want to askcomputers are used to monitor and control real- ten questions, or keep going until the player hasworld systems by using sensors, switches, motors scored five correct answers. Again, it is useful toand lights. Computers also make it possible to refer pupils to loops or repetition in daily routines.explore real-world situations that would be too For example, the traffic lights on a pelican crossingdifficult, too expensive or too dangerous to create will stay green until someone presses the buttonin real life. to cross the road; an oven heats up until it reaches the right temperature. There are many loops in the wider world, such as the days of the week or the moon travelling around the Earth. 10

SUBJECT KNOWLEDGEVariables are used to keep track of the things that Understand computer networks, includingcan change while a program is running. They are a the internet; how they can providebit like x or y in algebra, in that the values may not multiple services, such as the World Wideinitially be known. Variables are not just used for Web, and the opportunities they offer fornumbers. They can also hold text, including whole communication and collaborationsentences (‘strings’), or the logical values ‘true’or ‘false’. For our quiz we would use variables to This is a challenge because most of us havekeep track of the player’s score and the number not thought about how these ever-presentof questions they attempt. Variables are like technologies do what they do.boxes, in that the computer can use them to storeinformation that can be changed by the user, the Computer networks, including the internet, areprogram or by another variable. made up of computers connected together. The computers include fast, dedicated machinesWe may think of input as keyboard and mouse that pass on data that’s not intended for them(or touch screen), and output as the computer (called ‘routers’, ‘gateways’, ‘hubs’ or ‘switches’,display, but pupils’ experiences should be depending on particular roles), and ‘servers’widened beyond this. Working with sound (always-on machines looking after emails, webis straightforward, as laptops have built-in pages and files that other computers might ask formicrophones and speakers. The latest version from time to time). The connections between theof Scratch provides support for using webcams. computers in a network may consist of radio orDigital cameras allow interesting work using satellite signals, copper wires or fibre-optic cables.image files. Information stored on computers and informationThe reference in the programme of study to travelling over networks must be digitised‘controlling physical systems’ implies the use (i.e. represented as numerical data). The computerof sensors, motors and perhaps robotics. Midi network in your school and the internet use theinstruments like an electronic keyboard, and same method or ‘protocol’ to send and receivedevices such as MaKey MaKey6 and Microsoft this data. The data is broken up into smallKinect provide yet further experience of working ‘packets’, each with identifying information, whichwith various forms of input. includes the IP (internet protocol) address of the sender and recipient.Use logical reasoning to explain how somesimple algorithms work and to detect and These packets of information make their way acrosscorrect errors in algorithms and programs the internet from source to recipient. At the far end, the packets get stitched back together in theKey stage 2 pupils should be able to explain the right order and the email is delivered, the websitethinking behind their algorithms, talking through is accessed, or the Skype call gets connected. Manythe steps and explaining why they’ve solved a of these packets, travelling at near light-speed, areproblem the way they have. They also need to generated by web servers returning web pages tobe able to look at a simple programming project the browser requesting them.and explain what’s going on. This is made easierwith languages like Scratch, Kodu and Logo, By connecting people around the world andwhich feature an on-screen sprite or turtle. The passing on packets of data from sender toimmediate feedback helps pupils to understand recipient, the internet has created manyand debug their programs. Pupils might also be opportunities. These range from communicationexpected to look at someone else’s algorithm and (such as email, video conferencing, blogs, forums,explain how it does what it does. social networks) and collaboration, such as wikis (including Wikipedia), to real-time collaborativeThinking through programs and algorithms helps editing, Creative Commons media (permissiondevelop pupils’ abilities to think logically and to share and use creative work with conditionsalgorithmically, which leads to planned debugging stated by the creator) and open-source software,of code rather than just a trial-and-error approach. which is available for us to use and change. 6See www.makeymakey.com11

SUBJECT KNOWLEDGEUse search technologies effectively, Select, use and combine a variety of softwareappreciate how results are selected and (including internet services) on a range ofranked, and be discerning in evaluating digital devices to design and create a rangedigital content of programs, systems and content thatUsing search technologies involves aspects of accomplish given goals, including collecting,computer science, information technology and analysing, evaluating and presenting datadigital literacy. Effective use of search engines and informationgets the results you want. It relies on specifyingthe right keyword, skimming and scanning the This is something of a catch-all requirement,results to see which seems most relevant, and bringing together various aspects of thedistinguishing between the main results and computing curriculum. Pupils might typically beadverts presented as sponsored results. It may expected to demonstrate progression by:also involve using other features7 of the searchengine, including searching for phrases rather than • using software under the control of the teacherkeywords, or limiting searches to a particular time • then, using software with increasingframe, language, reading level or website.In order to return results, search engines use independence‘web crawler’ programs. These programs visit the • then, combining software (e.g. importing anpages of the web, follow the links they find andcan make a copy of each page visited. The pages edited image or video into a presentation orare indexed, keeping track of keywords on each web page)page. When you enter a search query, the search • then, selecting software themselves (perhapsengine returns pages from its index on which your from the full range of applications installed onkeyword(s) or phrase appears. computers, smartphones and tablets at homeSearch engines take many factors into account. or at school, or available to them via the web).At the heart of Google’s algorithms8 is ‘PageRank’,which determines the quality and rank of a page Internet services might include, for example,based on the quality of the pages that link to it. learning platforms, school, class or individualTheir quality is, in turn, determined by the quality blogs, and cloud-based tools such as Google Drive,of the pages that link to them, and so on. Office 365 or image-editing sites.Just because a page has a high rank in Googleor another search engine for a particular query, The reference to ‘a range of digital devices’it doesn’t mean that the content is true, age- encompasses using both fixed and mobileappropriate or relevant to a particular project. technologies. It also includes running softwarePupils need to develop skills in evaluating (such as that described in the previous paragraph)digital content, including how trustworthy the on web servers via the internet.information is (perhaps by verifying it withanother independent source), whether it’s There is also recognition that design and creativitysomething that the audience for a project would in computing encompass many forms, frombe able to grasp, and why the content was posted the content familiar to many from the old ICTin the first place (e.g. to give a balanced overview, programme of study, the programming as requiredor simply to advance one side of an argument). by earlier statements in the new programme of study, to more complex, system-level ideas,7See, for example, www.google.com/advanced_search combining software and hardware to achieve a well-8There’s an overview of some of Google’s algorithms at defined goal with a particular audience in mind.www.google.co.uk/intl/en/insidesearch/howsearchworks/algorithms.html There is an important distinction between data and information at GCSE and A level, where information is defined as structured data that has been processed and has meaning attached to it. At key stage 2 it might be more helpful to think of data as numbers and information as richer media such as text, images, audio, and video or 3D representations. However, it is worth remembering that both data and information are digitised by computers (i.e. stored in the form of numbers). 12

SUBJECT KNOWLEDGECollecting, analysing, evaluating and presenting of their legal and ethical responsibilities, suchdata is an important application of computers. as showing respect for intellectual propertyPupils should gain experience of working with data rights (e.g. musical, literary and artistic works),they have generated or collected for themselves, keeping passwords and personal data secure,as well as big, public datasets.9 and observing the terms and conditions for webPupils have an opportunity to develop a more services they use (such as the 13+ age restrictioncritical media literacy as they work with tools on most US websites, including Facebook,that, until relatively recently, were the domain resulting from COPPA10 legislation).of professionals. Tools for recording audio and Pupils should also develop some awareness ofvideo, and for creating animation, web pages, their digital footprint: the data automaticallydigital photos, digital music and 3D models, are all generated when they use the internet and otheravailable to primary schools for low (often zero) communication services, and how this is, or couldcost. Providing a potentially global audience for be, used.the pupils’ work is tremendously motivating. Pupils should be aware of, and abide by, the school’s acceptable use policy, as well as the requirements of any other services they use. Encourage pupils to think twice, and to check terms and conditions, before signing up for internet-based services. As in key stage 1, pupils should report any concerns to a parent or teacher. They should also be aware that they can talk directly to the police, report their concern to CEOP, or talk in confidence to counsellors at Childline. Your designated child protection lead might, depending on the nature of the concern, raise the matter with local social services, the police or CEOP.Use technology safely, respectfully andresponsibly; recognise acceptable/unacceptable behaviour; identify a range ofways to report concerns about content andcontactSafe and responsible use of technology at key 9See http://data.gov.uk/ and www.theguardian.com/news/stage 2 builds on skills learned in key stage 1. As datablog/interactive/2013/jan/14/all-our-datasets-indexwell as requiring pupils to keep themselves safeand to treat others with respect, the programme 10The Children’s Online Privacy Protection Act, which prohibitsof study at key stage 2 introduces an emphasis on companies in the United States from storing any information onresponsible use of technology. under 13s: see www.coppa.org/coppa.htmPupils need to consider how their online actionsimpact other people. They need to be aware13

PLANNINGPlanning This looks to be a lot harder for computing because of the discrete subject knowledgeHow can we turn the requirements of the expectations, but it’s certainly not impossible. Inprogramme of study into engaging lessons? fact, there are wide applications of computationalHere are four things to keep in mind. thinking (such as looking at algorithms and• The programme of study is a minimum decomposing problems into smaller steps) across the curriculum, and there’s plenty of scope for entitlement – there’s nothing that imposes any using other subject areas to provide interesting limits on what schools, teachers or pupils can objectives for pupils’ programming projects. cover in computing.• The programme of study is not a scheme of National curriculum or national curriculum work – it’s up to you, as a school, to determine ‘plus’? Remember that the national curriculum how you cover this content, in what order, in is the minimum. Will you choose to include what contexts and with what resources. additional content? If so, what other things might• Schemes of work are not lesson plans – that be added to the list? There are arguments that level of planning comes later, with the ideas for the key stage 2 curriculum should also include an each unit of work getting translated into the explicit requirement for creative work with html. detail of specific objectives, resources, activities Note that these things are not prohibited, and you and assessment. might like to include these, or other, elements• There is a far greater focus now on learning when developing your own scheme of work. about computers and computation, not simply learning how to use technology. Themes? As you read through the programmeThe opportunity to do something really creative of study, what overarching themes suggestis there for the taking. A number of strategic themselves to you? Do these provide a structuredecisions need to be made before work can that ensures both progression and continuityproperly begin on developing a scheme of work as pupils move through primary school? Mightfor computing, and it would be wise to consult these be one way of fitting different parts of thewith stakeholders and potential partners before computing curriculum together?committing to any one path. You’ll need toconsider the following areas. Grid? How detailed should the scheme of workDiscrete or embedded? There were strong be? Many schools adopt a half-termly grid, butarguments for adopting an ‘embedded’ approach a more flexible structure might suit your schoolto the old ICT programme of study, in which ICT better. Similarly, consider whether the schemecapability was covered in meaningful contexts of work needs to specify the order in which eachderived from other subject areas. year’s units are studied. Is the order important for progression? Should individual class teachers be able to decide? Format? In practical terms, what should the final document look like? A single table, tables for each year/half term, or simply text laid out in paragraphs? Will you need to print a copy or can it be entirely online, perhaps as a collaborative document (e.g. in Google Drive, a wiki or on GitHub11) for you and your colleagues to revisit and revise in the light of the experience gained from teaching it. 11See https://github.com/ 14

PLANNINGAlso think about how much detail needs to be Perhaps the most obvious set of themes isspecified – as a rule of thumb, include enough for computer science, information technology anda teacher lacking in confidence to feel that they digital literacy. You could further divide thecan do a good job, but not so much that the most computer science aspect into Programmingconfident feel limited by what’s there. Depending and Other elements of computer science.on the decisions above, it would be reasonable to The ‘foundations, applications, implications’expect a scheme of work to include: characterisation of these elements would provide• topic title a similar overall structure.• curriculum coverage• learning objectives Another approach identifies six aspects: Coding,• outline of activities Computer science, Networks and the internet,• resources Communication and collaboration, Creativity and• cross-curricular links Productivity. This leads to a half-termly grid, with• assessment opportunities. each aspect being the focus for half a term.There are several ways to go about implementing A fourth option might be to look beyond thea scheme of work for computing. computer science/information technology/• Top down, starting from the programme of digital literacy taxonomy to broader themes across the subject. Dividing the curriculum into study itself. Computational thinking, Design and Criticality and• Bottom up, starting with ideas for projects and responsibility would be one approach. Whichever themes you select, revisiting these units of work, which include cross-curricular areas in each year can ensure both continuity and and embedded approaches. progression for pupils, and make it easier to plan• Off the shelf, using a commercial, free or individual units of work. There should be a clear crowd-sourced scheme, perhaps with some sense of what pupils have already experienced, modifications. and what subsequent steps in learning are likely• A more pupil-centred, enquiry-led approach, to involve. A whole-school programming strand although a scheme of work in this context might might look something like this. merely suggest possible projects, resources Year 1 Solving problems with Bee-Bots and a consistent approach to monitoring Year 2 Turtle graphics on the floor and screen achievement and curriculum coverage. Year 3 Scripted animationsLet’s consider these approaches in turn. Year 4 A maths quiz Year 5 Computer gamesStarting with the Year 6 Developing applications for theprogramme of study mobile phoneThe programme of study gives a clear list of the The above is intended for illustration only. It’scontent that should be covered in each key stage, important to remember that the focus is onto which you might like to add further elements of developing an understanding of programming,your own. One advantage of using the programme rather than developing skills in using just oneof study as your starting point is that it’s relatively programming language. A similar sequence ofeasy to translate the content into specific half-termly units could be developed for otherobjectives, because it’s clear what needs to be themes.covered, and when.In planning a scheme of work, it’s sensible to lookfor themes that can provide a structure, making iteasier to ensure progression and continuity overthe time a pupil is at primary school.15

PLANNINGStarting with projects Using a pre-written scheme of workAn alternative approach is to start with ideas forindividual projects, perhaps with each being half a It is likely that various organisations andterm in length. individuals will develop schemes of work for theIf this is the approach you’ve used until now for new computing curriculum. It’s perhaps preferableplanning ICT, you might find that you can use to think in terms of adapting, rather thanmany of your existing ICT projects to cover some adopting, schemes of work developed by others,of the computing curriculum. This is particularly whether commercial or otherwise. A sensibletrue for the information technology and digital approach would be to use an existing plan as aliteracy elements, although you may have to starting point, and then edit it so that it draws onmake some changes to allow space for the new the expertise and enthusiasm of your colleagues,computer science content, including the additional fits well with other areas of your curriculum,expectations for programming. makes use of the resources you have and, vitally,Some of your existing units will perhaps appeals to your pupils.need modifying to focus on knowledge and The internet, of course, makes it easy tounderstanding rather than skills. For example, if collaborate on documents, so there’s no needyou have a current unit on email, that could be to do all this planning on your own. Joining withmodified to develop pupils’ understanding of how like-minded colleagues in a local network, vianetworks, including the internet, work, how they a subject association, or in informal groups viaprovide services such as email, and how this can Twitter or other social networks, will allow yoube used for communication and collaboration. to draw on others’ insights and experience, andYou could also cover key issues in e-safety such as your contribution may impact on pupils’ learningspam, malware in attachments, and spoofed links. beyond your own school. The Computing at SchoolA project-based approach allows ample scope (CAS) Community12 is a good resource – eitherfor exploiting the connections between the online or through its network of local hubs.different aspects of computing, perhaps using the‘foundations, applications, implications’ model as Using a pupil-centreda starting point for planning some of these units approachof work.Projects could be linked to other areas of the One way of going about this might be to develop acurriculum, perhaps using themes from your set of modular projects for pupils to choose from,school’s ‘creative curriculum’ to suggest related structured so that there is a clear progressioncomputing topics. Similarly, this approach would from easier to harder projects.work if you’ve decided to adopt an embedded Another pupil-centred method would be to use anor integrated approach to computing, with enquiry-based approach at the beginning of eachcomputing content covered through topics drawn half-termly unit: briefing pupils on the overallfrom other curriculum areas. topic, and then establishing what they already know and what they’d like to find out. The unitFor example, there are links between algorithms can then be planned in detail around areas ofand maths. Creating a Scratch script for a maths particular interest to pupils.game that tests a player on adding fractions would There are ample resources available to supportdevelop an understanding of the algorithm for a more independent approach to learningfractions, as well as the sequencing, selection, computing. Scratch and Kodu have vibrant userrepetition and variables requirements of the communities; online interactive tutorials providecomputing programme of study. an introduction to programming languages such as Ruby13 and Javascript,14 and there are many12See http://community.computingatschool.org.uk/door tutorials and walkthroughs on Khan Academy1513See http://tryruby.org/levels/1/challenges/0 and YouTube.14See www.codecademy.com15See www.khanacademy.org/science/computer-science 16

RESOURCINGResourcing You’ll need some tools with which pupils can program their computers. MIT’s Scratch, forAlongside any curriculum development work, example, provides all the tools needed to coversome thought needs to be given to providing the the programming requirements of the newresources necessary for teaching. Despite the curriculum.opportunity to use resources like the excellent Alternatives are available: Kodu is a rich, game-materials provided by New Zealand-based CS like environment providing a graphical ‘way in’ toUnplugged,16 you will probably need a set of programming; Logo has a very long history as ancomputers for teaching computing. General- introductory programming language, although aspurpose laptops and desktops are ideal, and it it’s text-based there’s plenty more scope for bugsreally doesn’t matter if you’re using Windows PCs in code through typing or spelling errors. Someor Macs, or even Linux, for the primary computing leading primary practitioners are introducingcurriculum. The Raspberry Pi offers a great pupils to text-based programming using Python.platform for programming and developing pupils’ While the programming expectations for key stageunderstanding of networks and the web. 1 can be met using screen-based programming tools such as Scratch, there’s much to be said forFor many activities, pupils may need access to working with programmable toys at this age,the internet, particularly the web. You’ll need such as Bee-Bots, Roamers, Pro-Bots and Bigto make sure the usual safeguards are in place, Traks, although there’s certainly no requirementbut Ofsted’s recommendation17 is not to be too to do so.restrictive; they advocate a managed, rather than At key stage 2, if you want to go down thea ‘locked down’, approach. They recommend that ‘controlling physical systems’ route, you’ll needpupils need to learn how to use technology safely, some cheap components (sensors, lights andrespectfully and responsibly, not to have their motors) and some way of connecting these toresponsibility for this taken on by others. a computer. The FlowGo interface can be used with Windows PCs. LEGO®’s WeDo interfaces nicely with Scratch 1.4, and there are interesting, perhaps more demanding, possibilities using platforms such as Arduino or Raspberry Pi. At key stage 2, pupils are expected to use other digital devices, which could be as simple as digital cameras or audio recorders, but could also include more complex devices such as smartphones or tablets. There is also an expectation that pupils will have access to internet-based services, such as the school’s learning platform, a blog, or cloud-based software such as Google Drive or Office 365.16See www.csunplugged.org Many schools are considering providing pupils17See www.ofsted.gov.uk/sites/default/files/documents/surveys- with access to tablets. They can enhance learningand-good-practice/t/The%20safe%20use%20of%20new%20 across the curriculum, particularly if coupled withtechnologies.pdf corresponding pedagogic developments. Although18See http://antsict.wordpress.com/2013/02/23/coding- tablets were not intended as a programmingcomputer-science-and-ipads-my-current-view/ for a good platform, there are a growing number of apps18overview. that provide an introduction to programming.19See http://snap.berkeley.edu/snapsource/snap.html, a close It’s also possible to access HTML5-based onlinevariant of Scratch. programming tools such as Snap!1917

TEACHINGTeaching • Pupils will learn to use information technology more effectively if they’re doing somethingSeymour Papert (1928–) is seen by many as the creative, such as making a presentation,pioneer of computing in schools. He is probably website or video, especially if this is to bebest known as the co-developer of the Logo shown to others.programming language in the late 1960s. • Pupils will develop a richer digital literacy ifLogo introduced the idea of turtle graphics, they document what they know and learn forin which a computer-controlled robot ‘turtle’, others through blog posts, audio recordings orequipped with a pen, moves, turns and draws screencasts.to make shapes on paper. A child who isprogramming Logo can define their own ‘words’ When teaching the computing curriculum, look(procedures) so, for example, the turtle could wherever you can for practical, creative projectsbe programmed to make a square by giving the that pupils can work on, perhaps individually,command, ‘Move forward and turn 90°’ four times. perhaps with a partner, or as part of a small group: this, after all, is how programming andPapert saw Logo as more than a programming information technology happens in the ‘reallanguage, though; he believed it was a powerful world’ and on most university courses. Thetool for pupils to develop their thinking skills. projects you set are more likely to be motivating if they’re linked to your pupils’ own interests andI began to see how children who had learned enthusiasms. These might be to do with otherto program computers could use very concrete curriculum areas, the life of the school, or theircomputer models to think about thinking and to interests beyond school.learn about learning and in doing so, enhance their Also, look for an audience for pupils’ work,powers as psychologists and as epistemologists.20 whether they’re presenting to one another, writing for a public blog, creating software orInsights such as this lie at the heart of the changes digital content for younger pupils, or planning toin the curriculum from ICT to computing. Many upload their work for others to see, via Scratch orteachers may recall Logo from their own school a school YouTube account.days, and Logo was a key influence on Scratch,which was developed by one of Papert’s PhDstudents.Inspired by his work with Logo was Papert’s theoryof learning: constructionism. Put simply, this isthe theory that people learn best through makingthings for other people.Learning as ‘building knowledge structures’ . . .happens especially felicitously in a context wherethe learner is consciously engaged in constructinga public entity.21Pupils learn more when they write about a topicthan when they read about it, especially if theyknow that you, and perhaps others, will bereading what they write. It seems likely that this istrue of every aspect of computing.• Pupils will learn computer science far more effectively by writing programs to show to others.20Papert, S., Mindstorms: Children, Computers, and Powerful Ideas, 18(Basic Books, 1993), p.21.21See www.papert.org/articles/SituatingConstructionism.html

TEACHING Many other ideas for creative projects will suggest themselves, either starting from, or ending with, the programme of study content. American educationalist David Jonassen22 coined the term ‘meaningful learning’ to describe projects such as these. He identified five essential aspects for learning to be described as ‘meaningful’, and these might help in considering what makes for effective learning in computing. Active: Pupils should be actively engaged in their learning – typically this will be doing something on a computer, but it could also be taking part in a discussion or an activity away from the computer, such as role-play to illustrate how packets of data travel across the internet.Games can be very motivating, and pupils Constructive: This can be understood both in theoften enjoy evaluating each other’s work. sense of constructing meaning, developing pupils’Remember, though, that such projects are not mental model of computation and technologies,an end in themselves: the focus should remain and in the sense of making something, whetheron developing knowledge and understanding this is a computer program, a presentation or aof computing through such activities, however blog post.engaging they may be. Your role as a teacher Intentional: Ideally, pupils should have someextends beyond setting the challenge and degree of choice over how they tackle a task orproviding support in projects, to helping pupils project, or perhaps even over the task or projectunderstand the ideas that lie at the heart of the itself. It is unlikely they will learn much fromcreative work in which they’re engaged, and to copying a worked solution off an IWB screen, andhelping pupils make the connection between many projects can be constructed or adapted tothese concepts. allow plenty of scope for individual creativity.Here are a few examples of projects. Authentic: Wherever possible, try to link activities with pupils’ own experiences, both within and beyond school: cross-curricular projects work very well, as do those linked to the life of the school itself, or to pupils’ experiences of technology.• Making and editing a cookery video in which Cooperative: Computing, in both industrial and the algorithm of a recipe is clearly illustrated. academic contexts, is a collaborative endeavour. Where possible, construct activities so that pupils• Creating a video game using characters and can work together, supporting one another in settings from a shared reading book. their learning. This is not to say that creative, collaborative• Developing educational software for younger projects are the only, or in some circumstances pupils to practise mental arithmetic. even the best, approaches to teaching computing. There are many topics where pupils will learn• Creating a scripted or stop-motion animation a lot through classroom discussion, teacher telling the story of an email’s journey from demonstration or watching high-quality media. sender to recipient. 22Howland, J. L., Jonassen, D. H. and Marra, R. M., Meaningful• Adding content to the Simple English Wikipedia Learning with Technology (Pearson, 2011). to explain computing concepts (or concepts from other topics pupils are studying) to a global audience.• Developing a micro-site for the school on how to use the web safely, respectfully and responsibly.19

TEACHINGTechnologically Think carefully about whether any groups of pupilsenhanced learning are excluded from, or disadvantaged by, activities you plan. For example, basing lessons on mobileThere are many high-quality, often interactive, phone apps or computer games may disadvantageresources available via the web to support pupils’ those without access to such technology at home;learning in computing. providing resources or activities for pupils toTyping error messages into a search engine will access online from home seems unfair to thoseoften give a pointer towards a solution, and without internet access at home. Introducingprovide some opportunity for ‘just-in-time’ lunchtime and after-school clubs is a practicallearning in the process. way of making access available to all. If fundsYouTube hosts countless ‘walkthrough’ tutorials allow, consider providing pupils without their ownfor a wide variety of software packages, including computer with an old school computer that theyprogramming toolkits such as Scratch. Your pupils can use at home.might add their own.Wikipedia23 provides comprehensive coverage of Gender and inclusioncomputing topics and links for further study, as It is important to counter the stereotypes oftenwell as promoting a more thoughtful evaluation associated with information technology andof online information and a potential audience for computing (e.g. that it is a male-only field). Effortspupils’ own contributions. should be made, for example, in the selection ofThere are plenty of opportunities for pupils to historical or contemporary case studies, to reflectseek help, get feedback, provide support to others the positive contributions of female practitionersand share their work with an audience beyond the such as Ada Lovelace, Grace Hopper or Dameclassroom through your school learning platform, Wendy Hall. Project topics should also be carefullyweb space provided by your local authority or considered to appeal to both genders.regional broadband consortium, and onlinecommunities based around particular software.24 Assistive technologyPupils can put into practice what they know As with other areas of the curriculum, computingabout using technology safely, respectfully and can be made more accessible to pupils with specialresponsibly, as well as developing these skills in an educational needs or disabilities through the useimmediately meaningful context. of assistive technology – from adapted mice orCommunities like these feature prominently in the keyboards, to screen readers and Braille displays.work of computing professionals, many of whom Within the curriculum, pupils might evaluateare generous in sharing their work, expertise and whether software and digital content, includingexperience.25 those they create themselves, are accessible to users with special needs. At key stage 2, pupilsInclusion might learn about assistive technology as examples of ‘forms of input and output’.The digital divideIt is important to help pupils realise that access to English as an additional languagetechnology can bring benefits and power, but that Technology can also facilitate the inclusion ofnot everyone has easy access. Lack of access to pupils learning English as an additional language.technology can disadvantage particular groups or The user interface of the operating system orindividuals within society. application software can be set to languages other than English. Scratch and Snap! programs, for example, can be written in a variety of languages. Machine translation may also be useful for project work in which pupils learn about the opportunities offered by the internet.26 23See http://simple.wikipedia.org/ for the Simple English version of Wikipedia. 24See, for example, http://scratch.mit.edu/discuss/ 25See, for example, https://github.com/ and http://stackoverflow.com/ 26This section on inclusion is based on the Naace/CAS joint guidance: http://naacecasjointguidance.wikispaces.com/Terminology 20

TEACHINGGifted and talented pupils You can also provide, or allow pupils to choose, different sets of tools. For instance, programmingThere are many opportunities for enrichment in tasks accomplished by most pupils in Scratchcomputing, which need not be limited to talented could be tackled in Logo or Python by particularlyor gifted pupils. There are perhaps parallels with advanced pupils, or they might use Adobemusic education, where it is not uncommon for Premiere Elements for video editing undertaken inprimary pupils to be accomplished musicians Movie Maker by the rest of the class.in their own right, through independent study Many schools have implemented successfuloutside of school. The school can support and ‘Digital Leaders’ schemes, in which some pupilsencourage by celebrating achievements and take responsibility for aspects of technology in theproviding opportunities for pupils to pursue their classroom or school. Although talented or giftedinterests. pupils can be a useful source of technical supportThere is a range of possibilities for independent or peer mentoring, it’s important to ensure thatlearning, perhaps using resources or online they too are making progress.communities to provide stimulus or supportbeyond what your school can offer. Your role Informal learningmight encompass steering very able pupilstowards the best resources, providing critical There is scope for pupils to learn more aboutfeedback on their work, or setting further computing for themselves outside of school, andchallenges. it would be good to encourage and celebrate this in school. Many of the resources suitable for teaching computing in school are available free for pupils to use at home if they have a computer of their own. Many schools have set up Code Clubs, often with external support, perhaps through someone working in the information technology industry. Code Club27 make available carefully constructed resources and plans, and help manage DBS clearance for volunteers wanting to help schools in this way.Look for ways to enrich pupils’ experience of Other face-to-face events, such as Raspberry Jams,computing rather than accelerating them through Young Rewired State and CoderDojo, are perhapsthe syllabus. The provisional nature of work on more suitable for secondary pupils. However, theycomputers allows scope for work to be refined have no lower age limit, although some parentaland developed. Encouraging pupils to think about involvement would be expected.the algorithms and programs of applications they Scratch and Kodu have vibrant online forums,use is an effective way to develop some aspects with ample opportunity for primary pupils to learnof computational thinking, for instance by asking from others and to share their expertise as part ofthem to predict what will happen when they a moderated, global community.adopt a particular strategy in a computer game, orto consider how an image file changes when thebrightness or colour is adjusted. 27See www.codeclub.org.uk21

ASSESSMENT ‘Why’ and ‘how’ questions work well: Why did Google place that result at the top? How doesAssessment your program work? Why might that not be a safe website?, etc.Formative assessmentThere are certainly some challenges to assessing • Discussion with peers: Encouraging pupils tocomputing. use similar open questions can be effective in• It’s hard for teachers to judge pupils’ knowledge allowing them to focus on what they’ve learned, rather than only on what they’ve done. Moving and understanding based on the outcomes of some of this discussion online, and perhaps practical tasks alone. involving pupils in other schools or countries,• If pupils work collaboratively, it can be hard to would be one powerful way to illustrate the identify each individual’s contribution. opportunities offered by computer networks for• If the teaching of computing is embedded in communication and collaboration. other subjects, it’s often difficult to separate attainment in computing from that in the host • Target setting: Project management skills such subject. as planning, organising, motivating others andDespite these challenges, the assessment for allocating resources, are of great importancelearning (AfL) techniques that you’re familiar with in real-world projects, and they can be widelyin other subjects still apply. Let’s look at some of applied in education. The ‘decomposition’the AfL approaches and consider how they can be aspect of computational thinking, in which largeapplied to computing. problems are broken down into small tasks, is a• Self-assessment: The curriculum expects necessary part of managing all but the smallest pupils to debug their own programs, use of projects. logical reasoning to explain simple algorithms (including their own), and detect and correct • KWL: Using lists to identify what pupils errors in both algorithms and programs. already know, what they want to learn and One way to encourage self-assessment is for subsequently what they have learned is a pupils to maintain a blog or video log of their useful technique that can be used to support work in computing, incorporating a reflective independent learning in computing. In commentary alongside examples of what particular, this can be applied to the logical they’ve done. reasoning needed to explain algorithms and• Peer-assessment: The ideas for self-assessment to detect and correct errors, with pupils first suggested above translate naturally into peer- establishing a firm foundation, before exploring assessment, with pupils working with a partner alternatives and subsequently reviewing what to review, and help correct, algorithms and they have learned, rather than only what they programs, or providing critical, constructive have done. feedback on digital content. Methods used by professional software developers, such as programming in pairs28 and reviewing code, translate easily into the classroom. Online feedback and discussion, whether in the Scratch community or on pupils’ blogs, also facilitate peer-based assessment.• Open questioning: Pupils’ knowledge of the 28Williams, L. A. and Kessler, R. R., All I Really Need to Know concepts covered by the programme of study About Pair Programming I Learned in Kindergarten, pp.108–114 may not be immediately apparent in the (Communications of the ACM, 43(5) 2000). work they produce. The use of open questioning is one way in which you can both assess and develop their grasp of concepts. 22

ASSESSMENTUsing technologically enhanced learning can be This establishes a direct link between the contentsparticularly effective in assessment for learning, as of the programme of study and its assessment.some of the above suggestions indicate. Perhaps Subsequent DfE guidance has made clear that:the most immediate opportunities are through thefollowing. Schools will be able to introduce their own• Blogs: There are now many examples of English approaches to formative assessment, to support pupil attainment and progression. The assessment primary pupils routinely recording and sharing framework should be built into the school their learning with a global audience through curriculum, so that schools can check what pupils the use of class blogs. Individual pupil blogs have learned and whether they are on track to can be a powerful tool to encourage self- and meet expectations at the end of the key stage, and peer-assessment, track progress, give feedback, so that they can report regularly to parents.33 collate evidence, and share work with parents. It’s now unnecessary to print off work from Perhaps the most obvious way to address this is computing lessons when work can be attached to adopt an entirely criteria-based approach to to a reflective commentary on a pupil’s blog, assessment, with teachers forming a judgement as or saved to an area of the network or learning to whether each child has learned all the content platform. of the programme of study by the end of the key• Automatic feedback: A number of sites offer stage. interactive tutorials in programming languages, providing immediate feedback on the success or The evidence to support this judgement can failure of code in response to simple challenge be assembled over the course of the key stage questions. While few of these sites are aimed and need not be an onerous burden: as a child at primary school pupils, they may be of use for demonstrates their mastery of part of the gifted or talented pupils eager to learn more curriculum the statement could be ‘ticked off’, programming independently.29 with evidence of this achievement forming part of the child’s computing portfolio or blog. It’s likelySummative assessment that many pupils will assemble a lot of evidence for some statements and less for others, but someNational curriculum assessment has undergone evidence of mastering each element should sufficeconsiderable change for the new framework. to demonstrate meeting the expectations of theThe national curriculum review expert panel attainment targets.recommended that:Attainment Targets in the presently established Moreover, as a pupil’s profile of achievementlevel descriptor form should not be retained.30 is built up, the statements yet to be achieved should provide a clear guide for planning, showing exactly where the ‘gaps’ are in each pupil’s knowledge, skills and understanding, and thus where subsequent teaching should be targeted.Responding to their report in June 2012, MichaelGove confirmed that:In order to ensure that every child is expected to 29See, for example, www.khanacademy.org/cs/programming,master this content, I have ... decided that the www.codeavengers.com/#learner or www.tryhaskell.orgcurrent system of levels and level descriptors 30See www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/should be removed and not replaced.31 attachment_data/file/175439/NCR-Expert_Panel_Report.pdf (p.9).So the attainment targets in all national 31See http://media.education.gov.uk/assets/files/pdf/l/curriculum subjects merely state: secretary%20of%20state%20letter%20to%20tim%20oates%20 regarding%20the%20national%20curriculum%20review%20By the end of each key stage, pupils are expected 11%20june%202012.pdf (p.3).to know, apply and understand the matters, skills 32See www.gov.uk/government/publications/national-and processes specified in the relevant programme curriculum-in-england-computing-programmes-of-study/of study.32 national-curriculum-in-england-computing-programmes-of- study 33See www.education.gov.uk/schools/teachingandlearning/ curriculum/nationalcurriculum2014/a00225864/ assessingwithout-levels23

ASSESSMENTComparing individual profiles, and the evidence (IT) and digital literacy (DL) components of theon which they’re based, at the beginning and end programme of study.of the year, should provide ample evidence of Alternatively, bearing in mind the emphasis onprogress, of a far more meaningful nature than a direct link between what’s taught and what’s‘two sub-levels’, specifying exactly what has been assessed, it’s possible to take the statementslearned that year that wasn’t already known. from the programme of study and arrange themFor this to work effectively, it might be sensible to into some sort of order, from easier to harderbreak down the programme of study statements statements. A somewhat arbitrary numberinginto their constituent clauses. As pupils achieve might suggest a structure similar to the levelsindividual clauses, or perhaps as they achieve of the old attainment targets. For example,all the components of a statement from the see the table on the next page. Note that thisprogramme of study, their achievement could be table is meant for illustration only, without anyrecognised through some form of badge. Mozilla’s implication that these stages equate to old levels.OpenBadges system34 provides one possible Another approach to levelling, although perhapssolution. not in the spirit of the DfE’s guidance, is to look at the nature of activities and the capabilities demonstrated by pupils separated from the subject content itself, perhaps using Bloom’s revised taxonomy, or something similar, as a guide. • Remembering • Understanding • Applying • Analysing • Evaluating • CreatingWhile the DfE and others make a strong case forthe abolition of attainment levels, their use isingrained in many teachers’ professional practice,as well as in the systems schools have in placeto monitor pupils’ progress. Nothing in the DfE’sguidance prevents schools from continuing to uselevels to monitor progress, and it seems likely thatsome schools will choose to do so, at least for theshort to medium term.In developing its computer science curriculum,Computing at School produced a set of leveldescriptors35 for computer science, which mightbe used, perhaps with a little modification,alongside some statements from the old ICTattainment targets36 to report progression on thecomputer science (CS), information technology34See www.openbadges.org/35See www.computingatschool.org.uk/data/uploads/ComputingCurric.pdf (pp.21–22).36See http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20110813032310/http://qcda.gov.uk/libraryAssets/media/Level_Descriptions_-_ICT.pdf for the mostrecent proposed revision. 24

ASSESSMENT CS IT DL Understand what algorithms are Use technology purposefully to create Use technology safely Create simple programs digital content Keep personal information private Recognise common uses of information1 Use technology purposefully to store technology beyond school digital content Use technology purposefully to retrieve digital content Understand that algorithms are Use technology purposefully to organise Use technology respectfully implemented as programs on digital digital content devices Identify where to go for help and support Use technology purposefully to when they have concerns about content Understand that programs execute by manipulate digital content or contact on the internet or other online technologies2 following precise and unambiguous instructions Debug simple programs Use logical reasoning to predict the behaviour of simple programsWrite programs that accomplish specific Use search technologies effectively Use technology responsiblygoals Use a variety of software to accomplish Identify a range of ways to report concerns about contact Use sequence in programs given goals Collect information3 Work with various forms of inputWork with various forms of output Design and create content Present informationDesign programs that accomplish specific Select a variety of software to accomplish Understand the opportunities computergoals given goals networks offer for communicationDesign and create programs Select, use and combine internet services Identify a range of ways to reportDebug programs that accomplish specific Analyse information concerns about contentgoals Evaluate information Recognise acceptable/unacceptableUse repetition in programs Collect data behaviour4 Control or simulate physical systems Present dataUse logical reasoning to detect andcorrect errors in programsUnderstand how computer networks canprovide multiple services, such as theWorld Wide WebAppreciate how search results areselectedSolve problems by decomposing them Combine a variety of software to Understand the opportunities computerinto smaller parts accomplish given goals networks offer for collaboration Use selection in programs Select, use and combine software on a Be discerning in evaluating digital range of digital devices content Work with variables Analyse data Use logical reasoning to explain how Evaluate data5 some simple algorithms work Design and create systems Use logical reasoning to detect and correct errors in algorithmsUnderstand computer networks,including the internetAppreciate how search results are ranked 25

CONCLUDING REMARKSConcludingremarksThis is a really exciting time to be a pupil atprimary school. The opportunities that advancesin technology will bring to your pupils as theygrow up are hard to imagine. The curiosity,creativity and courage that you nurture in themnow should endure as they move on througheducation and into adult life. To exploit fully theopportunities that current and future technologyoffers them, pupils will draw on the understandingof computing you provide them with, as well asconfidence gained through working on a rangeof meaningful projects throughout their primaryeducation.It’s a really exciting time to be a primary schoolteacher, too. Don’t be daunted by the changes inthe move from ICT to computing. Rather, see thisas an opportunity to develop your own knowledgeabout computing and to learn to program, ifyou’ve never had the chance before. Althoughthis might sound like hard work, it’s actuallygreat fun. You’ll find that you make better use ofthe technology you have at home and in school,and also that you start to think a bit differently,looking at systems and problems in the same waya computer scientist does. 26

GLOSSARYGlossary program – a stored set of instructions encoded in a language understood by the computer that doesalgorithm – an unambiguous procedure or precise some form of computation, processing input and/step-by-step guide to solve a problem or achieve a or stored data to generate output.particular objective. repetition – a programming construct in whichcomputer networks – the computers and the one or more instructions are repeated, perhapsconnecting hardware (wifi access points, cables, a certain number of times, until a condition isfibres, switches and routers) that make it satisfied or until the program is stopped.possible to transfer data using an agreed method search – to identify data that satisfies one or more(‘protocol’). conditions, such as web pages containing suppliedcontrol – using computers to move or otherwise keywords, or files on a computer with certainchange ‘physical’ systems. The computer can be properties.hidden inside the system or connected to it. selection – a programming construct in which thedata – a structured set of numbers, representing instructions that are executed are determined bydigitised text, images, sound or video, which can whether a particular condition is met.be processed or transmitted by a computer. sequence – to place programming instructions indebug – to detect and correct the errors in a order, with each executed one after the other.computer program. services – programs running on computers,digital content – any media created, edited or typically those connected to the internet, whichviewed on a computer, such as text (including the provide functionality in response to requests; forhypertext of a web page), images, sound, video example, to transmit a web page, deliver an email(including animation), or virtual environments, or allow a text, voice or video conversation.and combinations of these (i.e. multimedia). simulation – using a computer to model theinformation – the meaning or interpretation given state and behaviour of real-world (or imaginary)to a set of data by its users, or which results from systems, including physical and social systems; andata being processed. integral part of most computer games.input – data provided to a computer system, such software – computer programs, including bothas via a keyboard, mouse, microphone, camera or application software (such as office programs,physical sensors. web browsers, media editors and games) and theinternet – the global collection of computer computer operating system. The term also appliesnetworks and their connections, all using shared to ‘apps’ running on mobile devices and to web-protocols (TCP/IP) to communicate. based services.logical reasoning – a systematic approach to variables – a way in which computer programssolving problems or deducing information using can store, retrieve or change simple data, such asa set of universally applicable and totally reliable a score, the time left, or the user’s name.rules. World Wide Web – a service provided byoutput – the information produced by a computer computers connected to the internet (websystem for its user, typically on a screen, through servers), in which pages of hypertext (web pages)speakers or on a printer, but possibly though the are transmitted to users; the pages typicallycontrol of motors in physical systems. include links to other web pages and may be generated by programs automatically.37 37Phil Bagge provides a useful glossary with more detailed explanations of some of these terms: see http://code-it.co.uk/ csvocab.html27

RESOURCES Subject knowledgeResources Armoni, M. and Ben-Ari, M., Computer Science Concepts in Scratch (Michal Armoni and Moti Ben-Background Ari, 2013).Computing at School Working Group, Computer Bentley, P.J., Digitized: The Science of ComputersScience: A Curriculum for Schools (Cambridge, and How it Shapes our World (Oxford University2012), available at: www.computingatschool.org. Press, 2012).uk/data/uploads/ComputingCurric.pdf Berners-Lee, T., Answers for Young People, available at: www.w3.org/People/Berners-Lee/The Royal Society, Shut Down or Restart? The Way Kids.htmlForward for Computing in UK Schools (London, Blum, A., Tubes: Behind the Scenes at the Internet2012), available at: http://royalsociety.org/ (Penguin, 2013).uploadedFiles/Royal_Society_Content/education/ Brennan, K. and Resnick, M., ‘New frameworkspolicy/computing-in-schools/2012-01-12- for studying and assessing the development ofcomputing-in-Schools.pdf computational thinking’ (2012), available at: http://web.media.mit.edu/~kbrennan/files/Rushkoff, D., Program or be Programmed: Ten Brennan_Resnick_AERA2012_CT.pdfCommands for a Digital Age (OR Books, 2009). Computing at School, The Raspberry Pi Education Manual (CAS, 2012), available at: http://pi.cs.Teaching Agency, Subject Knowledge man.ac.uk/download/Raspberry_Pi_Education_Requirements for Entry into Computer Science Manual.pdfTeacher Training (London, 2012), available at: Papert, S., Mindstorms: Children, Computers, andhttp://academy.bcs.org/sites/academy.bcs.org/ Powerful Ideas (Basic Books, 1993).files/subject%20knowledge%20requirements%20for%20entry%20into%20cs%20teacher%20training.pdf Petzold, C., Code: The Hidden Language of Computer Hardware and Software (Microsoft Press, 2009). 28

RESOURCESTeaching resources Mediaand ideas Mainstream television often broadcastsCode Club provides detailed plans and resources programmes relevant to topics in computing,for extra-curricular clubs, which might be adapted and YouTube has a range of material, from videofor use within the school curriculum. Free tutorials to academic lectures.registration required: see www.codeclub.org.uk BBC Learning produced a collection of clipsNew Zealand-based Computer Science (CS) relating to computing in real-world contexts, andUnplugged produce an excellent collection of companion pieces exploring these in classroomresources exploring computer science ideas contexts: see www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/through classroom-based, rather than computer- b01r9tww/clipsbased, activities: see http://csunplugged.org/ The 2008 Royal Institution Christmas LecturesComputing at School (CAS) hosts a large resource were given by computer scientist Chris Bishop.bank of plans, resources and activities. CAS is free These can be watched at www.richannel.org/to join: see www.computingatschool.org.uk christmas-lectures/2008/2008-chris-bishopCAS Primary Master Teachers; for example, TED has many high-quality 20-minute talksone teacher has shared detailed lesson plans for on computing topics that would be accessiblecomputer science and digital literacy topics via his to primary school pupils: see www.ted.com/website at www.code-it.co.uk topics/technology and http://ed.ted.com/CAS has made available a large collection of lesson lessons?category=technology for a curatedplans and other resources through the Digital collection of videos for schools.Schoolhouse project, based at Langley Grammar The first two episodes of the BBC’s VirtualSchool: see www.digitalschoolhouse.org.uk Revolution are available online. These provideNaace (the ICT association) and CAS have some excellent background material on thedeveloped joint guidance on the new computing internet and the web: see www.bbc.co.uk/curriculum: see http://naacecasjointguidance. virtualrevolution/archive.shtmlwikispaces.com/homeA group of teachers and teacher trainers convenedby the NCTL worked together to curate resourcesfor initial teacher training for the computingcurriculum, many of which may be useful for CPDand classroom use: see http://bit.ly/ittcompThere are excellent resources available for Compared to ten years ago, there is nowteaching with MIT’s Scratch programming toolkit, a wealth of programming environmentstogether with an online support community, on designed specifically for primary schools.the ScratchEd site: see http://scratched.media. You may well have heard of Logo, Scratchmit.edu/ and Kodu, but there many others, each withResources for teaching safe, respectful and a different flavour and focus. You can findresponsible use of technology are widely a growing list on the Computing At Schoolavailable. Good starting points for exploring these website (www.computingatschool.org.uk/topics are www.childnet.com/teachers-and- primary). Remember – programming atprofessionals and https://www.thinkuknow.co.uk/ primary is now well-supported, engagingteachers/ and fun!29

SUPPORTSupportComputing at School (CAS), as the subjectassociation for computer science, has been akey influence on the development of the newcomputing curriculum. CAS has a vibrant supportcommunity, including members from industry andfrom all phases of education. There’s a dedicatedforum for members in primary education, andmany local and regional events. Seewww.computingatschool.org.uk for moreinformation or to join (free membership).Naace is the ICT association concerned withadvancing education through the use oftechnology, both within and beyond thecomputing curriculum. Naace members share avision for the role of technology in transforminglearning and teaching. Its members includeteachers, school leaders, advisors and consultantsworking within and across all phases of UKeducation. Membership requires an annualsubscription but many resources are availablefree: see www.naace.co.ukCAS has worked in collaboration with the BritishComputer Society (BCS) to establish a Networkof Teaching Excellence in Computer Science.The network coordinates and provides trainingopportunities for serving and trainee teachers.The initiative is supported by the DfE, OCR(examination board), CPHC (Council of Professorsand Heads of Computing), Microsoft and Google.The programme aims to build a high-quality,sustainable CPD infrastructure at low cost bynurturing long-term collaboration betweenemployers, universities, professional bodies,schools and teachers: seewww.computingatschool.org.uk/index.php?id=noeMany local authorities and CLCs (City LearningCentres) provide support and advice for schoolsand teachers on all aspects of the curriculum,including computing. Contact your local advisorsor consultants for details of events and support inyour area.Twitter is a great informal source of ideasand advice once you’ve built up a useful list ofcontacts. The CAS Twitter account: @compatsch,its followers: https://twitter.com/CompAtSch/followers and those it follows: https://twitter.com/CompAtSch/following may be helpful indeveloping your own personal learning network. 30

BACKGROUNDBackground 1999) came to be seen as developing pupils’ skills with a set of office-productivity programs, or theirLooking back at the last thirty years or so of educational equivalent. This provided much scopecomputers in primary schools, there are two quite for creative work, some grasp of how informationdistinct threads: learning about computers and can be structured and some good problem-solvinglearning with computers. While this publication activities, but arguably little insight into computerand the computing programme of study are science.concerned with the former, the latter has a In recent years, many primary educators havecrucial role in teaching and learning in the third favoured an ‘embedded’ approach to ICT, in whichmillennium. ICT capability could be developed through usingIn the earliest days of BBC Micros in primary computers in the meaning-rich contexts of otherschools, creative programmers (many of them subjects. In their 2008 and 2011 reports, Ofstedteachers) developed highly engaging educational reported positively on the quality of teaching andsoftware, from simple programs to practise achievement in ICT in primary schools in general,arithmetic and spelling, through simulations and but warned of weaknesses in some aspects of therudimentary virtual worlds, to tools to think with ICT curriculum, such as control and data handling.such as Logo. At the same time, a growing number Ofsted did, however, highlight positive examplesof pupils were being bought home computers, of primary practice, such as game design projectsmainly as games consoles, and dabbling with using Scratch.typing in and debugging (correcting) lines of code. The ‘Next Gen’ report, commissioned by theWhile programming or ‘control’ was an intrinsic Department of Culture, Media and Sport onpart of the first national curriculum (1990), in the state of the UK games and visual effectswhich Information Technology Capability formed industries, recommended that computer sciencepart of ‘Technology’ as a subject, there was be brought into the national curriculum as analready reference to using software applications essential discipline. Furthermore, in his speech atfor tasks such as creating databases, word- the Edinburgh Television Festival in 2011, Google’sprocessing, presenting work and modelling. executive chairman Eric Schmidt described himselfIn most schools, for much of the following two as ‘flabbergasted’ that computer science wasn’tdecades, ICT (as the subject became known in taught as standard, and that England thus risked throwing away its great ‘computing heritage’. BBC Micro Computer, c. 1980s. Copyright Science and Society Picture Library, Getty Images. Editorial #90766368.31

BACKGROUNDThe Royal Society was commissioned by the UK Subsequently the DfE announced that the Britishcomputing community to investigate the state of Computer Society and the Royal Academy ofcomputing education in schools, publishing their Engineering would coordinate the draftingShut Down or Restart? report in January 2012. of this new programme of study, drawing onTheir recommendations included a rebranding stakeholders from computing and education. Thisof ICT, suggesting a possible split of the subject draft was subsequently revised by the DfE, withinto digital literacy, information technology and the subject name changing from ICT to computing.computer science, and proposing ‘computing’ as There were further revisions after publican umbrella term for the subject as a whole. consultations, with the final version publishedWith these concerns in mind, the Secretary of in September 2013, ready to take effect in allState for Education announced at the 2012 BETT maintained schools in September 2014.Show that he would ‘disapply’ the old programme Although the change of name, from ICT toof study and attainment targets for ICT from computing, does reflect a change in emphasis,September 2012, allowing schools to develop it’s important to remember that there’s moretheir own schemes of work, and giving them the to computing than computer science, andopportunity to teach programming and other that there’s more to computer science thanaspects of computer science. Responding to the programming. Much that we’ve taught in the pastconsultation on disapplication, the Secretary in ICT will fit within the information technologyof State announced that ICT was to continue and digital literacy aspects of the computingas a national curriculum subject with a new curriculum, and schools that have taught theprogramme of study. ‘sequencing instructions’ aspects of the old programme of study will be able to build on this foundation as they address the new computer science content. 32

COMPUTING AT SCHOOL Naace promotes the appropriate use of computing to support learning, teaching and EDUCATE • ENGAGE • ENCOURAGE school organisation. Our aim is to support In collaboration with BCS, The Chartered Institute for IT and challenge all teachers and schools and also those who provide services to schools.Computing At School promotes the teaching Naace has existed as an advocate in thisof computing in schools. Our aim is to support area for 30 years and makes a small chargeall teachers and all schools, and to develop for annual membership.excellence in the teaching of computing intheir classrooms. We provide resources, Visit www.naace.co.uk/membership to jointraining, local conferences and workshops, and to find out more about the ICT Qualityregional hub meetings, online community Mark and Third Millennium Learning Award.forums and so much more! Computing AtSchool is free to join. Sign up and find outabout events in your area by visiting us atwww.computingatschool.org.uk/primary.An eBook version of this guide, I S B N 978-1-78339-143-1which can be freely shared with 9 781783 391431colleagues, is available at:www.computingatschool.org.uk/primaryThis work is licensed under a Creative CommonsAttribution-Non-Commercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Licence.