INTROD OF ENGLISH SYNTAX

INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH SYNTAX EDITOR: Faizal Risdianto, S.S,M.Hum 201 9

TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v vii TABLE OF CONTENTS 1 15 CHAPTER I Parts of Speech 21 26 CHAPTER II Understanding Verbs: Verb Tenses 35 43 CHAPTER III English Passive Voice 50 61 CHAPTER IV Head and Modifier 68 78 CHAPTER V Constituent Structure 84 94 CHAPTER VI Construction 99 viii CHAPTER VII Word Class ix X CHAPTER VIII The Lexicon xi xii CHAPTER IX Clauses I CHAPTER X Clauses II CHAPTER XI Grammatical Function CHAPTER XII Syntactic Linkage CHAPTER XIII Immediate Constituent Analysis Bibliography Appendix I Appendix Ii Appendix Iii About The Writer

INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH SYNTAX 2019 CHAPTER 1 PARTS OF SPEECH Parts of Speech are “words classified according to their functions in sentences”, for purposes of traditional grammatical analysis. According to traditional grammars EIGHT PARTS OF SPEECH are usually identified: nouns, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, pronouns, verbs, and interjections. NO PARTS OF SPEECH EXAMPLES 1 Noun girl, man, dog, orange, truth ... 2 Pronoun I, she, everyone, nothing, who ... 3 Verb be, become, take, look, sing ... 4 Adjective small, happy, young, wooden ... 5 Adverb slowly, very, here, afterwards, nevertheless 6 Preposition at, in, by, on, for, with, from, to ... 7 Conjunction and, but, because, although, while ... 8 Interjection ouch, oh, alas, grrr, psst ... 1

INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH SYNTAX 2019 Most of the major language groups spoken today, notably the Indo-European languages and Semitic languages, use almost the identical categories; Chinese, however, has fewer parts of speech than English.1 The part of speech classification is the center of all traditional grammars. Traditional grammars generally provide short definitions for each part of speech, while many modern grammars, using the same categories, refer to them as “word-classes” or “form-classes”. To preface our discussion, we will do the same: 1.1 NOUNS A noun (Latin nomen, “name”) is usually defined as a word denoting a thing, place, person, quality, or action and functioning in a sentence as the subject or object of action expressed by a verb or as the object of a preposition. In modern English, proper nouns, which are always capitalized and denote individuals and personifications, are distinguished from common nouns. Nouns and verbs may sometimes take the same form, as in Polynesian languages. Verbal nouns, or gerunds, combine features of both parts of speech. They occur in the Semitic and Indo-European languages and in English most commonly with words ending in -ing. Nouns may be inflected to indicate gender (masculine, feminine, and neuter), number, and case. In modern English, however, gender has been eliminated, and only two forms, singular and plural, indicate number (how many perform or receive an action). Some languages have three numbers: a singular form (indicating, for example, one book), a plural form (indicating three or more books), and a dual form (indicating, specifically, two books). English has three cases of nouns: nominative (subject), genitive 1 See: Huddleston, R. - Introduction to the grammar of English . pp.90. [Cambridge University Press, 1984]. 2

INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH SYNTAX 2019 (possessive), and objective (indicating the relationship between the noun and other words). 1.2 ADJECTIVES An adjective is a word that modifies, or qualifies, a noun or pronoun, in one of three forms of comparative degree: positive (strong, beautiful), comparative (stronger, more beautiful), or superlative (strongest, most beautiful). In many languages, the form of an adjective changes to correspond with the number and gender of the noun or pronoun it modifies. 1.3 ADVERBS An adverb is a word that modifies a verb (he walked slowly), an adjective (a very good book), or another adverb (he walked very slowly). Adverbs may indicate place or direction (where, whence), time (ever, immediately), degree (very, almost), manner (thus, and words ending in -ly, such as wisely), and belief or doubt (perhaps, no). Like adjectives, they too may be comparative (wisely, more wisely, most wisely). 1.4 PREPOSITIONS Words that combine with a noun or pronoun to form a phrase are termed prepositions. In languages such as Latin or German, they change the form of the noun or pronoun to the objective case (as in the equivalent of the English phrase “give to me”), or to the possessive case (as in the phrase “the roof of the house”). 1.5 CONJUNCTIONS Conjunctions are the words that connect sentences, clauses, phrases, or words, and sometimes paragraphs. Coordinate conjunctions (and, but, or, however, nevertheless, neither … nor) join independent clauses, or parts of a sentence; subordinate conjunctions introduce subordinate clauses (where, when, after, while, because, if, unless, since, whether). 1.6 PRONOUNS A pronoun is an identifying word used instead of a noun and inflected in the same way nouns are. Personal pronouns, in English, are I, you, he/she/it, we, you (plural), and they. Demonstrative pronouns are thus, that, and such. Introducing questions, who and which are interrogative pronouns; when introducing clauses they are called relative pronouns. Indefinite pronouns are each, either, some, any, many, few, and all. 3

INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH SYNTAX 2019 1.7 VERBS Words that express some form of action are called verbs. Their inflection, known as conjugation, is simpler in English than in most other languages. Conjugation in general involves changes of form according to person and number (who and how many performed the action), tense (when the action was performed), voice (indicating whether the subject of the verb performed or received the action), and mood (indicating the frame of mind of the performer). In English grammar, verbs have three moods: the indicative, which expresses actuality; the subjunctive, which expresses contingency; and the imperative, which expresses command (I walk; I might walk; Walk!) Certain words, derived from verbs but not functioning as such, are called verbals. In addition to verbal nouns, or gerunds, participles can serve as adjectives (the written word), and infinitives often serve as nouns (to err is human). 1.8 INTERJECTIONS Interjections are exclamations such as oh, alas, ugh, or well (often printed with an exclamation point). Used for emphasis or to express an emotional reaction, they do not truly function as grammatical elements of a sentence.2 It is useful to make a distinction and consider words as falling into two broad categories; closed class words and open class words. The former consists of classes that are finite (and often small) with membership that is relatively stable and unchanging in the language. These words play a major part in English grammar, often corresponding to inflections in some other languages, and they are sometimes referred to as ‘grammatical words’, ‘function words’, or ‘structure words’. These terms also stress their function in the grammatical sense, as structural markers, thus a determiner typically signals the beginning of a noun phrase, a preposition the beginning of a prepositional phrase, a conjunction the beginning of a clause. Closed classes are: pronoun /she, they/, determiner /the, a/, primary verb /be/, modal verb /can, might/, preposition /in, of/, and conjunction /and, or/. Open classes are: noun /room, hospital/, adjective /happy, new/, full verb /grow, search/, and adverb /really, steadily/. To these two lesser categories may be added: numerals /one, first/, and 2 See: \"Parts of Speech,\" Microsoft (R) Encarta. 1994 Microsoft Corporation. [Funk & Wagnall's Corp.1994]. 4

INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH SYNTAX 2019 interjections /oh, aha/; and finally a small number of words of unique function which do not easily fit into any of these classes /eg.: the negative particle not and the infinite marker to/. Quirk and Greenbaum3 point out the ambiguity of the term word, for words are enrolled in their classes in their ‘dictionary form’, and not as they might appear in sentences when they function as constituents of phrases. Since words in their various grammatical forms appear in sentences that are normal usage, it is more correct if we refer to them as lexical items. Thus, a lexical item is a word as it occurs in a dictionary, where work, works, working, worked will all be counted as different grammatical forms of the word work. This distinction however is not always necessary, for it is only important with certain a part of speech that have inflections; that is endings or modifications that change the word-form into another. These are nouns /answer, answers/, verbs /give, given/, pronouns /they, theirs/, adjectives /large, largest/, and a few adverbs /soon, sooner/ and determiners /few, fewer/. A word may belong to more than one class; for example round is also a preposition /”drive round the corner”/ and an adjective /”she has a round face”/. In such cases we can say that the same morphological form is a realization of more than one lexical item. A morphological form may be simple, consisting of a stem only /eg.: play/, or complex, consisting of more than one morpheme /eg.: playful/. The morphological form of a word is therefore defined as composition of stems and affixes. We assign words to their various classes according to their properties in entering phrasal or clausal structure. For example, determiners link up with nouns to form noun phrases /eg.: a soldier/; and pronouns can replace noun phrases /eg.: him/. This is not to deny the general validity of traditional definitions based on meaning. In fact it is impossible to separate grammatical form from semantic factors. The distinction between generic /the tiger lives/ and specific /these tigers/, unmarked and marked forms prove that. Another possible assignment is according to morphological characteristics, notably the occurrence of derivational suffixes, which marks a word as a member of a 3 See: Quirk & Greenbaum - A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language . pp.68. [Longman, 1983]. 5

INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH SYNTAX 2019 particular class. For example, the suffix -ness, marks an item as a noun /kindness/, while the suffix -less marks an item as an adjective /helpless/. Such indicators help to identify word classes without semantic factors. For the sake of completeness, it should also be added that a word also has a phonological and an orthographic form. Words which share the same phonological or orthographic “shape”, but are morphologically unrelated are called homonyms /eg.: rose (noun) and rose (past tense verb)/. Words with the same pronunciation are specified as homophones, and words with the same spelling are determined as homographs. Words which partake the same morphological form are called homomorphs /eg.: meeting (noun) and meeting (verb)/. There is also a correspondence between words with different morphological form, but same meaning. These are called synonyms. Of the three major kinds of equivalence, homonymy is phonological and/or graphic, and synonymy is semantic. We have to go back to the distinction of closed-class items and open-class items, because this introduces a peculiarity of great importance. That is, closed-class items are ‘closed’ in the sense that they cannot normally be extended by the creation of additional members. For example, it is very unlikely for a new pronoun to develop. It is also very easy to list all the members in a closed class. These items are said to be constitute a system in being mutually exclusive: the decision to use one item in a given structure excludes the possibility of using any other /the book or a book, but not *a the book/. These items are also reciprocally defining in meaning: it is less easy to state the meaning of any individual item than to define it in relation to the rest of the system. By contrast open class items belong to a class in that they have the same grammatical properties and structural possibilities as other members of the class (that is, as other nouns or verbs or adjectives or adverbs), but the class is ‘open’ in the sense that it is indefinitely extendible. New items can be created and no inventory can be made that would be complete. This ultimately affects the way in which we attempt to define any item in an open class; because while it is possible to relate the meaning of a noun to another with which it has semantic affinity /eg.: house = chamber/, one could not define it as not house, which is possible with closed class items /this = not that/. 6

INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH SYNTAX 2019 However, the distinction between ‘open’ and ‘closed’ parts of speech or word classes must not be treated incautiously. On the on hand, it is not very easy to create new words, and on the other, we must not overstate the extent to which we speak of ‘closedness’, for new prepositions like by way of 4are no means impossible. Although parts of speech have deceptively specific labels, words tend to be rather heterogeneous. The adverb and the verb are especially mixed classes, each having small and fairly well defined groups of closed-system items alongside the indefinitely large open-class items. So far as the verb is concerned, the closed-system subgroup is known be the well- established term “auxiliary”... Some mention must be finally made of two additional classes, numerals and interjections, which are common in the difficulty of classifying them as either closed or open classes. Numerals whether the cardinal numerals /one, two, three/, or the ordinal numerals /first, second, third/, must be placed somewhere between open-class and closed-class items: they resemble the former in that they make up a class of infinite membership; but they resemble the latter in that the semantic relations among them are mutually exclusive and mutually defining. Interjections might be considered a closed class on the grounds that those that are fully institutionalized are few in number. But unlike the closed classes, they are grammatically peripheral - they do not enter into constructions with other word classes, and they are only loosely connected to sentences with which they may be orthographically or phonologically associated. A further and related contrast between words, is the distinction between stative and dynamic. Broadly speaking, nouns can be characterized naturally as ‘stative’ in that they refer to entities that are regarded as stable, whether these are concrete /house, table/ or abstract /hope, length/. On the other hand verbs and adverbs can equally naturally be characterized as ‘dynamic’: verbs are fitted to indicate action, activity and temporary or changing conditions; and adverbs in so far as they add a particular condition of time, place, manner, etc. to the dynamic implication of the verb. But it is not uncommon to find verbs which may be used either dynamically or statically. If we say that “some specific tigers are living in a cramped cage”, we imply 4 See: Quirk & Greenbaum - A University Grammar of English . pp.20. [Longman, 1973]. 7

INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH SYNTAX 2019 that this is a temporary condition and the verb phrase is dynamic in its use. On the other hand, when we say that “a species of animal known as tiger lives in China”, the generic statement entails that this is not a temporary circumstance and the verb phrase is stative. Moreover some verbs cannot normally be used with the progressive aspect /*He is knowing English/ and therefore belong to the stative rather than the dynamic category. In contrast to verbs, most nouns and adjectives are stative in that they denote a phenomena or quality that is regarded for linguistic purposes as stable and indeed for all practical purposes permanent /Jack is an engineer - Jack is very tall/. Also adjectives can resemble verbs in referring to transitionary conditions of behavior or activity. /He is being a nuisance - He is being naughty/. The names of the parts of speech are traditional, however, and neither in themselves nor in relation to each other do these names give a safe guide to their meaning, which instead is best understood in terms of their grammatical properties. One fundamental relation is that grammar provides the means of referring back to an expression without repeating it. This is achieved by means of pro-forms. Participles and pronouns can serve as replacements for a noun /the big room and the small one/, more usually, however, pronouns replace noun phrases rather than nouns /their beautiful new car was badly damaged when it was struck be a falling tree/. The relationship which often obtains between a pronoun and its antecedent is not one which can be explained by the simple act of replacement. In some constructions we have repetition, which are by no means equivalent in meaning /Many students did better than many students expected/. In some constructions repetition can be avoided by ellipsis / They hoped they would play a Mozart quartet and they will/. Therefore the general term pro-form is best applied to words and word sequences which are essentially devices for rephrasing or anticipating the content of a neighboring expression, often with the effect of grammatical complexity. Such devices are not limited to pronouns and participles: the word such can described as a pro-form as there are pro-forms also for place, time and other adverbials under certain circumstances /M.is in London and J. is there too/. In older English and still sometimes in very formal English we find thus and so used as pro-forms for adverbials /He often behaved silly, but he did not always behave thus/so/. But so has a more 8

INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH SYNTAX 2019 important function in modern usage, namely to substitute with the ‘pro-verb’ do for a main verb and whatever follows it in the clause /He wished they would take him seriously for his ideas, but unfortunately they didn’t do so/. Do can also act as pro-form on its own /I told him about it - I did too/. Some pro-forms can refer forward to what not been stated rather than back to what has been stated. These are the WH-items. Indeed, WH-words, including what, which, who and when, may be regarded as a special set of pro-forms /Where is M.? - M. is in London. - J. is there too/. The paraphrase for wh-words is broad enough to explain also their use in subordinate clauses /I wonder what M. thinks/. Through the use of wh- words we can ask for the identification of subject, object, complement or adverbial of a sentence /They [S] make [V] him [O] the chairman [C] every year [A]. - Who [S] makes him...?/. Now that we have outlined the various aspects of Parts of Speech, according to traditional grammars, we will look at some other approaches and other specifications, without the sake of complexity, only to widen our views a little more on the subject: Otto Jespersen5 starts out from the point that all clauses consist of several words. One word is defined or modified by another word, which in turn may be defined or modified by a third word. This leads to the establishment of different ranks of words according to their mutual relations as defined or defining. In the combination “extremely hot weather” weather may be called a primary word or principal; hot is a secondary word or adjunct; and extremely is a tertiary word or subjunct. Primary and secondary words are superior in relation to tertiary words; secondary and tertiary words are inferior in relation to primary words. It is therefore possible to have two or more (coordinate) adjuncts to the same principal /that nice [A] young [A] lady [P]/. The logical basis of this system of subordination is the greater or lesser degree of specialization. Primary words are more special (apply to a smaller number of individuals) than secondary words, and these in their turn are less general than tertiary words. The word defined by another word, is in itself always more special than the word defining it, though the latter serves to render the former more special than it is in itself. Thus in the 5 See: Jespersen, O. - “The Three Ranks - Parts of Speech - Word Groups” in Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles . pp.65-74. [Allen and Ullwin, 1954] 9

INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH SYNTAX 2019 sentence “very clever student”, student is the most special idea, whereas clever can be applied to many more men, and very, which indicates only a high degree, can be applied any idea. Student is more special than clever, though clever student is more special than student; clever is more special than very, though very clever is more special than clever. It is a natural consequence of these definitions that proper nouns can only be used as principals, and while there are thus some words that can only stand as principals as expressing highly specialized ideas, there are other words that may be either primary and secondary words in different combinations /conservative Liberals - liberal Conservatives/. Further there are words of such general signification that they can never be used as primary words, like the articles. His further definitions of parts of speech fall under the categories of substantives (=principals), adjectives (=adjuncts), adverbs (=subjuncts), verbs (=verbs not subject to conjugation), verbids (=participles and infinitives), predicatives (=‘mediate adjuncts’; {most commonly}a verb connecting two ideas in such a way that the second becomes a kind of adjunct to the first (the object)./Eg.: the rose is red/), objects (=primary words, but more special as well as more general than the first principal /eg.: an owl sees a bird/.), and pronouns (= a separate “parts of speech”, understood differently according to the situation in which they are used). Lyons6 starts out from distinguishing formal and nominal definitions. Nominal definitions of the parts of speech may be used to determine the names, though not the membership, of the major syntactic classes of English. Creating syntactic classes on ‘formal’ distributional grounds, with all the members of each of them listed in the lexicon, associated with the grammar, will mean that though not all members of class X will denote persons, places and things; most of the lexical items which refer to persons, places and things will fall within it; and if this is so we may call X the class of nouns. In other words we have ‘formal’ class X and ‘notional’ class A; they are not co-extensive, but if A is wholly or mainly included in X, then X may be given the label suggested by the ‘notional’ definition of A. 6 See: Lyons - “Parts of Speech” in Introduction of Theoretical Linguistics . pp.317-333. 10

INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH SYNTAX 2019 He also points out the necessity of considering the distinction between deep and surface structure and define parts of speech not as classes of words in surface structure, but as deep-structure constituents of sentences. The distinction between deep and surface structures is not made explicitly in traditional grammar, but it is implied by the assumption that all clauses and phrases are derived from simple, modally ‘unmarked’ sentences. It is asserted that every simple sentence is made up of two parts: a subject and a predicate. The subject is necessarily a noun (or a pronoun standing for a noun). The predicate falls into one of three types according to the part of speech which occurs in it: 1. intransitive verb, 2. transitive verb with its object, 3. the ‘verb to be’ with its complement. The object, like the subject, must be a noun, while the complement must either be an adjective, or a noun. Deriving from these associations with particular parts of speech it is possible to determine traditional parts of speech or their function solely on the basis of constituent- structure relations. The class of nouns is the one constituent class which all sentences have in common at the highest level of constituent structure. The class of intransitive verbs is the only class which combines directly with nouns to form sentences. The class of transitive verbs combine with nouns and with no other class to form predicates. Be is the copula-class, since it combines with both nouns and the class of adjectives. This argument rests of course on the specific assumptions incorporated in the syntactic function of the parts of speech; namely the status of the copula or ‘verb to be’, and the universality of the distinction between verbs and adjectives. ‘To be’ is not itself a constituent of deep structure, but a semantically-empty “dummy verb” generated for the specification of certain distinctions (usually carried by the verb) when there is no other verbal element to carry these distinctions. Sentences that are temporally, modally and aspectually unmarked do not need the dummy carrier /M. is clever/. As for the distinction between verbs and adjectives it is traditionally referred to as to do with the surface phenomenon of inflection. The adjective, when it occurs in predicative position, does not take the verbal suffixes associated with distinctions of tense, mood and aspect, but instead a dummy verb is generated by the grammar to carry the necessary inflexional suffixes /M. is clever - *M. is clever-s/. The verb is less freely transformed to the position of modifier in the noun-phrase; but when 11

INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH SYNTAX 2019 it occurs in this syntactic position, unlike the adjective, it bears the suffix -ing /the clever man - the singing man - *the clever-ing man/. A distinction between stative verbs and verbs of action is also relevant to English. Stative verbs do not normally occur in the progressive form, while the majority of English verbs, which occur freely in the progressive are called verbs of action. This aspectual difference is matched by a similar difference in English adjectives. Most adjectives are stative, in the sense that they do not normally take progressive aspect when they occur in predicative position /M. is clever - *M. is being clever/, but there are a number of adjectives which occur freely with the progressive in the appropriate circumstances /M. is being silly now/. In other words, to be stative is normal for the class of adjectives, but abnormal for the verbs; to be non-stative is normal for verbs, but abnormal for adjectives. It is, however, the aspectual contrast which correlates with the notional definition of the verb and the adjective in terms of “action” and “quality”. To follow this argument Huddleston 7 points out that nothing said about inflection requires that all the forms of a lexeme should belong to the same part of speech. The main problem area concerns the traditional non-finite forms of verb lexemes, participles, the gerund and the infinitive. A participle is said to be a “verbal adjective”, while the gerund and the infinitive are “verbal nouns”. According to traditional doctrine, a gerund like writing in She likes writing letters is a noun because it is the object of the verb like. This would lead traditional grammarians to classify together as nouns words which are syntactically very different. /Eg.: Writing the letters took some time - The writing of the letters took some time/. Instead of saying that both are nouns because they are subject of took, he suggests that we call writing a verb in the former case, because it is the head of the extended verb phrase, and call it a noun in the latter case, because it is a head of the noun phrase. Since the relation between this later type of noun writing and the stem write is lexical rather than inflectional, he calls this a “deverbal noun”, for it is derived by a lexical-morphological process from a verb stem. 7 See: Huddleston - “The Parts of Speech” in Introduction to the Grammar of English . pp.90-122. 12

INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH SYNTAX 2019 The second problem area concerns possessives. In the traditional treatment of forms like John’s in John’s book is regarded as an inflectional form of the noun John but is also said to have the force of an adjective. This is easily resolved in the light of the analyses of ‘s as a clitic rather than an inflexional suffix: John’s is not syntactically a single word, not a form of John, so that the issue of whether a lexeme and a member of its paradigm belong to the same parts of speech does not arise. AN EXERCISE DEALING WITH PARTS OF SPEECH FILL THE BLANK BY USING THESE WORDS: Quranic, Garden, Subsequently, And, It, The, Built, On The Taj Mahal is located on the right bank of the Yamuna River in a vast Mughal (1)_________(N) that encompasses nearly 17 hectares, in District of Agra in Uttar Pradesh. (2) _______(Pro-N) was (3) _________(Verb) by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan in memoriam of his wife Mumtaz Mahal with construction starting in 1632 AD and completed in 1648 AD, with the mosque, the guest house and the main gateway (4)______(Prep.) the south, the outer courtyard and its cloisters were added (5)_____________(Adv.) and completed in 1653 AD. The existence of several historical and (6) _________(Adj.) inscriptions in Arabic script have facilitated setting the chronology of Taj Mahal. For its construction, masons, stone-cutters, inlayers, carvers, painters, calligraphers, dome builders and other artisans were requisitioned from the whole of the empire (7) ______(Conj.) also from (8) _____(Det.) the Central Asia and Iran. Ustad-Ahmad Lahori was the main architect of the Taj Mahal. 13

INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH SYNTAX 2019 NO FIND THE PARTS OF SPEECH OF THESE SENTENCES 1 It is a very interesting story. 2 The new store is open now. 3 Please, open the door for me. 14

INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH SYNTAX 2019 4 He ran so fast in the stadium 5 We hold fast our belief. 6 Why do Moslem fast in Ramadhan month? 7 I enjoy the come and the go of the seasons in India. 8 All the NASA satellite system are go. 9 It is a good start for the new singer. 10 The sudden clap of thunder caused everyone to start. CHAPTER 2 Understanding Verbs: Verb Tenses Each verb tense is composed of a time frame (past, present, future) and an aspect (simple, progressive, perfect, perfect progressive). Together, the time frame and the aspect make up the complete verb tense (past progressive, future perfect, etc . . .). 2.1 Time Frames Past, present and future are the three time frames that are used to describe or indicate verb tense. Past tense is used to describe actions that occurred in the past; present tense is used to describe actions that are currently taking place; and future tense is used to describe an action that will take place in the future. 2.2 Aspects Aspect refers to the state of action of a verb. There are four types of verb aspects: simple, progressive, perfect and perfect progressive. Simple tenses The simple tenses are used for actions that occurred at a specific time either in the present, past or future, but they do not state whether or not the action is finished. They are present (simple), past (simple) and future (simple). 15

INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH SYNTAX 2019 Progressive tenses The progressive tenses are used to indicate an unfinished action. They are present progressive, past progressive and future progressive. Perfect tenses The perfect tenses describe a finished action. They are present perfect, past perfect and future perfect. Perfect progressive tenses The perfect progressive tenses describe an action that was in progress but was then finished. They are present perfect progressive, past perfect progressive and future perfect progressive. Time Frames + Aspects = Complete Verb Tenses Complete Verb Tenses: Present The complete present verb tenses are typically used to describe actions that are taking place or have taken place repeatedly during the present time period. The four complete present verb tenses are Present + (Simple) = Present tense Present + Progressive = Present progressive tense Present + Perfect = Present perfect tense Present + Perfect Progressive = Present perfect progressive tense Present Verb Tenses Examples Present (Simple): The present tense describes I study accounting at the present state or condition of something or the University of a habitual action. Houston-Victoria. I am studying Present Progressive: The present progressive accounting at the tense describes an activity that is currently in University of progress. Houston-Victoria. Present Perfect: The present perfect tense I have studied 16

INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH SYNTAX 2019 describes an event that has already been accounting at the completed in the present. It may also be used University of with events that occurred at an unspecified Houston-Victoria. time in the past. Present Perfect Progressive: The present I have been studying perfect progressive tense describes something accounting at the that began in the past, continues into the University of present and may continue into the future. Houston-Victoria. Complete Verb Tenses: Past The complete past verb tenses are typically used to describe actions that took place during the past time period. The four complete past verb tenses are Past + (Simple) = Past tense Past + Progressive = Past progressive tense Past + Perfect = Past perfect tense Past + Perfect Progressive = Past perfect progressive Past Verb Tenses Examples Past (Simple): The past tense describes I studied accounting at the something which occurred in the past. University of Houston- Victoria. Past Progressive: The past progressive I was studying accounting tense describes an ongoing action in the at the University of past. Houston-Victoria. I had studied accounting at Past Perfect: The past perfect tense the University of Houston- describes an event that occurred before a Victoria before I changed specific time in the past. my major. 17

INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH SYNTAX 2019 Past Perfect Progressive: The past I had been studying perfect progressive tense describes accounting at the something that began in the past, University of Houston- continued in the past and concluded in Victoria. the past. Complete Verb Tenses: Future The complete future verb tenses are typically used to describe actions that will take place in the future or will continue on into the future. The four complete future verb tenses are Future + (Simple) = Future tense Future + Progressive = Future progressive Future + Perfect = Future perfect Future + Perfect Progressive = Future perfect progressive Future Verb Tenses Examples Future (Simple): The future tense I will study accounting at describes something that will occur in the the University of future. Houston-Victoria. I will be studying Future Progressive: The future progressive accounting at the tense describes an ongoing action in the University of Houston- future. Victoria. Future Perfect: The future perfect tense I will have studied describes an action that will be completed accounting at the by a specific time in the future. University of Houston- Victoria. Future Perfect Progressive: The future I will have been studying 18

INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH SYNTAX 2019 perfect progressive tense describes accounting at the something that begins in the present and University of Houston- continues into the future. Victoria. 1 I SING A SONG SING-SANG-SUNG I SING A SONG I WILL SING A SONG I AM SINGING A SONG I WILL BE SINGING A SONG I HAVE SUNG A SONG I WILL HAVE SUNG A SONG I HAVE BEEN SINGING A SONG I WILL HAVE BEEN SINGING A SONG I SANG A SONG I WOULD SING A SONG I WAS SINGING A SONG I WOULD BE SINGING A SONG I HAD SUNG A SONG I WOULD HAVE SUNG A SONG 19

I HAD BEEN SINGING A SONG INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH SYNTAX 2019 2 I BRING A BOOK I WOULD HAVE BEEN SINGING A I BRING A BOOK SONG ………. oh my TENSES I AM BRINGING A BOOK BRING-BROUGHT-BROUGHT I HAVE BROUGHT A BOOK I WILL BRING A BOOK I HAVE BEEN BRINGING A BOOK I WILL BE BRINGING A BOOK I WILL HAVE BROUGHT A BOOK I BROUGT A BOOK I WILL HAVE BEEN BRINGING A I WAS BRINGING A BOOK BOOK I HAD BROUGHT A BOOK I HAD BEEN BRINGING A BOOK I WOULD BRING A BOOK I WOULD BE BRINGING A BOOK 3 I LOVE ISLAM I WOULD HAVE BROUGHT A BOOK I LOVE ISLAM I WOULD HAVE BEEN BRINGING A I AM LOVING ISLAM BOOK …………. oh my BOOK I HAVE LOVED ISLAM LOVE-LOVED-LOVED I HAVE BEEN LOVING ISLAM I WILL LOVE ISLAM I WILL BE LOVING ISLAM I LOVED ISLAM I WILL HAVE LOVING ISLAM I WAS LOVING ISLAM I WILL HAVE BEEN LOVING ISLAM I HAD LOVED ISLAM I HAD BEEN LOVING ISLAM I WOULD LOVE ISLAM I WOULD BE LOVING ISLAM I WOULD HAVE LOVED ISLAM I WOULD HAVE BEEN LOVING ISLAM Oh my Islam…. 20

INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH SYNTAX 2019 CHAPTER 3 ENGLISH PASSIVE VOICE Verbs are also said to be either active (The executive committee approved the new policy) or passive (The new policy was approved by the executive committee) in voice. In the active voice, the subject and verb relationship is straightforward: the subject is a be-er or a do-er and the verb moves the sentence along. In the passive voice, the subject of the sentence is neither a do-er or a be-er, but is acted upon by some other agent or by something unnamed (The new policy was approved). Computerized grammar checkers can pick out a passive voice construction from miles away and ask you to revise it to a more active construction. There is nothing inherently wrong with the passive voice, but if you can say the same thing in the active mode, do so (see exceptions below). Your text will have more pizzazz as a result, since passive verb constructions tend to lie about in their pajamas and avoid actual work. We find an overabundance of the passive voice in sentences created by self- protective business interests, magniloquent educators, and bombastic military writers (who must get weary of this accusation), who use the passive voice to avoid responsibility for actions taken. Thus \"Cigarette ads were designed to appeal especially to children\" places the burden on the ads — as opposed to \"We designed the cigarette ads to appeal especially to children,\" in which \"we\" accepts responsibility. At a White House press briefing we might hear that \"The President was advised that certain members of Congress were being audited\" rather than \"The Head of the Internal Revenue service advised the President that her agency was auditing certain members of Congress\" because the passive construction avoids responsibility for advising and for auditing. One further caution about the passive voice: we should not mix active and passive constructions in the same sentence: \"The executive committee approved the new policy, and the calendar for next year's meetings was revised\" should be recast as \"The executive committee approved the new policy and revised the calendar for next year's meeting.\" Take the quiz (below) as an exercise in recognizing and changing passive verbs. 21

INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH SYNTAX 2019 The passive voice does exist for a reason, however, and its presence is not always to be despised. The passive is particularly useful (even recommended) in two situations: • When it is more important to draw our attention to the person or thing acted upon: The unidentified victim was apparently struck during the early morning hours. • When the actor in the situation is not important: The aurora borealis can be observed in the early morning hours. The passive voice is especially helpful (and even regarded as mandatory) in scientific or technical writing or lab reports, where the actor is not really important but the process or principle being described is of ultimate importance. Instead of writing \"I poured 20 cc of acid into the beaker,\" we would write \"Twenty cc of acid is/was poured into the beaker.\" The passive voice is also useful when describing, say, a mechanical process in which the details of process are much more important than anyone's taking responsibility for the action: \"The first coat of primer paint is applied immediately after the acid rinse.\" We use the passive voice to good effect in a paragraph in which we wish to shift emphasis from what was the object in a first sentence to what becomes the subject in subsequent sentences. The executive committee approved an entirely new policy for dealing with academic suspension and withdrawal. The policy had been written by a subcommittee on student behavior. If students withdraw from course work before suspension can take effect, the policy states, a mark of \"IW\" . . . . The paragraph is clearly about this new policy so it is appropriate that policy move from being the object in the first sentence to being the subject of the second sentence. The passive voice allows for this transition.† Passive Verb Formation The passive forms of a verb are created by combining a form of the \"to be verb\" with the past participle of the main verb. Other helping verbs are also sometimes present: \"The measure could have been killed in committee.\" The passive can be used, also, in various tenses. Let's take a look at the passive forms of \"design.\" 22

INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH SYNTAX 2019 Auxiliary Past Participle Tense Subject Singular Plural Present The car/cars is are designed. Present perfect The car/cars has been have been designed. Past The car/cars was were designed. Past perfect The car/cars had been had been designed. Future The car/cars will be will be designed. Future perfect The car/cars will have been will have been designed. Present progressive The car/cars is being are being designed. Past progressive The car/cars was being were being designed. A sentence cast in the passive voice will not always include an agent of the action. For instance if a gorilla crushes a tin can, we could say \"The tin can was crushed by the gorilla.\" But a perfectly good sentence would leave out the gorilla: \"The tin can was crushed.\" Also, when an active sentence with an indirect object is recast in the passive, the indirect object can take on the role of subject in the passive sentence: Active Professor Villa gave Jorge an A. Passive An A was given to Jorge by Professor Villa. Passive Jorge was given an A. Only transitive verbs (those that take objects) can be transformed into passive constructions. Furthermore, active sentences containing certain verbs cannot be transformed into passive structures. To have is the most important of these verbs. We 23

INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH SYNTAX 2019 can say \"He has a new car,\" but we cannot say \"A new car is had by him.\" We can say \"Josefina lacked finesse,\" but we cannot say \"Finesse was lacked.\" Here is a brief list of such verbs*: resemble look like equal agree with mean contain hold comprise lack suit fit Become Verbals in Passive Structures Verbals or verb forms can also take on features of the passive voice. An infinitive phrase in the passive voice, for instance, can perform various functions within a sentence (just like the active forms of the infinitive). • Subject: To be elected by my peers is a great honor. • Object: That child really likes to be read to by her mother. • Modifier: Grasso was the first woman to be elected governor in her own right. The same is true of passive gerunds. • Subject: Being elected by my peers was a great thrill. • Object: I really don't like being lectured to by my boss. • Object of preposition: I am so tired of being lectured to by my boss. With passive participles, part of the passive construction is often omitted, the result being a simple modifying participial phrase. • [Having been] designed for off-road performance, the Paths eeker does not always behave well on paved highways. 24

INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH SYNTAX 2019 25

INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH SYNTAX 2019 CHAPTER 4 HEAD AND MODIFIER Our discussion of syntax begins with two central ideas. The first is that certain relationships hold between words whereby one word, the head, controls the other words, the modifiers. A given head may have more than one modifier, and may have no modifier. The second idea is that words are grouped into phrases and that groupings typically bring together heads and their modifiers. Example: a. The large dog (the word dog is the head, and the and large are its modifiers). b. Barked loudly (the word barked is the head, and loudly the modifier) (Miller, 2002) 4.1 HEAD In linguistics, the head of a phrase is the words that determines the syntactic type of that phrase. For example: Boiling hot water. The head of noun phrase boiling hot water is the noun water. • Analogously, the head of a compound is the stem that determines the semantic category of that compound. For example: The head of the compound noun handbag is bag, since a handbag is a bag not a hand. In grammatical analysis, most phrases contain a key word that identifies the type and linguistics feature of the phrase; this is known as the head- word or the head. The syntactic category of the head is used to name the category of phrase, for example: • A phrase whose head is noun is called a noun phrase. • A phrase whose head is verb is called a verb phrase and so on. The remaining words in a phrase are called the dependents of the head. 26

INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH SYNTAX 2019 4.2 MODIFIERS A modifier is an adjective or adverb; or adjective clause or adverb clause, that “modifies” other words in a sentence to make it more descriptive. Some modifiers affect nouns, while others affect other verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. They are optional words that you can usually add or remove without affecting a sentence’s grammar; but they make sentences much more interesting, detailed, and revealing. A modifiers tell the time, place, or manner of the action. Very often it is a prepositional phrase. Propositional phrase is a group of word that begins with a preposition and ends with a noun. Modifiers of time usually comes last if more that one modifiers is present. Example of prepositional phrases: 1. In the morning, at the university, on the table. 2. Last night, hurriedly, next year, outdoors, yesterday NOTE: Every sentences does not require a modifier. A modifier answer the question when? Where? Or how? Example of modifier: ➢ John bought a book at the bookstore (Where did John buy a book?) Modifier of phrase (Where was Jill swimming?) (How was he driving?) ➢ Jill was swimming in the pool yesterday (Where is the milk?) Modifier of phrase (Where did she drive?) (Where did we eat dinner?) ➢ He was driving very fast Modifier of phrase ➢ The milk is in the refrigerator Modifier of phrase ➢ She drove the car on Main Street ➢ Modifier of phrase ➢ We ate dinner at seven o’clock Modifier of phrase 27

INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH SYNTAX 2019 NOTE: The modifier normally follows the complement, but not always. However, the modifier, especially when it is a prepositional phrase, usually cannot separate the verb and the complement. Incorrect: She drove on the street the car Verb Complement. Correct: She drove the car on thMheearissctiaerredferrotomve Verb Verb CompMleomrennintg. side to 1. Modifier of phrase MaisiLeeditrhovoen her caWr efrdonmesday. b. Types of Modifiers There are two tyMpoersnOinongfsWiwdeeodtrnodessdtahyat work as modifiers: adjectives and adverbs. Furthermore, pLheirtahsMoensaiasineddrcolvaeuses that serve as adjectives or adverbs Wednheesrdcaayr. bfr.om can also be modifiers. On WMedonrensindgasyide to a. Adjectives as ModifieMrasisiLeeditrho.vce. Maisie An adjective mhoedrifciaderrsofrvoaemhnerocuanr or a pronoun by making it more descriptive. Here’s aLMbeoiatrhsn.ioficrcnno.gsmMWseidnaeeitdsetineonecsdea: yThe dog went to the county fair to eat popcorn. droveMhoerrncianrgside to Now, with modifoienrsW: eLTedhintehe.sbdtiagyfriendly dog went to the county fair to eat from popcorn. Morningside to As you can see, bLeoitthh. stentences are grammatically correct and have the same basic meaning. But, adjective modifiers like “big” and “friendly” make the second sentence more detailed. b. Adverbs as Modifiers An adverb modifies a verb, adverb or adjective by answering questions of where, when, why and how. Oftentimes, adverbs explain a degree to which something is done, answering the question “to what extent?” So, let’s take the same sentence from above and add adverb modifiers: Yesterday the big, friendly dog went to the county fair only to eat popcorn. The big, friendly dog frequently went to the county fair to eat popcorn. 28

INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH SYNTAX 2019 The first sentence uses modifiers to share time (“yesterday”) and answer why? (“only”). In the second sentence, the modifier “frequently” lets us know how often the dog goes to the county fair, answering the question “to what extent?” c. Phrases and Clauses as Modifiers Modifiers are not only single words—they can be phrases and clauses too, so long as they act like adjectives or adverbs in a sentence. Remember, a clause needs a subject and verb. Here are some examples: The dog ate popcorn until he had a stomachache. Here, the clause “until he had a stomachache” serves is an adverb clause as a modifier answering how long the dog ate popcorn. Here’s another: I saw the dog that eats popcorn. This sentence uses the adjective clause “that eats popcorn” as a modifier to describe the dog. Now, let’s try phrases as modifiers. Remember, a phrase is a group of related words that don’t include a subject and a verb. The dog ate popcorn from the fair. The dog ran as fast as the wind. The phrases “popcorn from the fair” and “as fast as the wind” work as modifiers to describe what the dog ate and how fast he could run. 2. How to Avoid Mistakes with Modifiers Truthfully, mistakes with modifiers are pretty common, and most people probably don’t realize when they do it! As a rule, the modifier should be placed as close as possible to the word it modifies. That’s to avoid confusion about which word is being modified. Otherwise, your sentence can have a misplaced or dangling modifier. Dangling and misplaced modifiers can make your sentence ambiguous—in other words, the meaning could be unclear. Let’s learn how to avoid them. 3. Misplaced Modifier 29

INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH SYNTAX 2019 A misplaced modifier is a modifier that is (mis)placed next to the wrong subject or noun in a sentence. As a result, it’s unclear which word the modifier is supposed to be modifying. It happens with all types of modifiers. Here’s an example of a misplaced adjective: Fluffy and hungry, the man gave the dog popcorn. INCORRECT Here, the placement of the modifiers makes it sound like the man is fluffy and hungry! Really, we want to say that the dog is fluffy and hungry. Remember, the modifier needs to be as close as possible to the thing it is modifying. So, let’s make it clear: The man gave the fluffy and hungry dog popcorn. CORRECT Or, The man gave popcorn to the fluffy and hungry dog. CORRECT Here’s another example: We have a dog that eats popcorn named Sparky. INCORRECT In meaning of the first sentence is that the dog eats popcorn named Sparky—the modifier “named Sparky” is misplaced. The intended meaning is that the dog’s name is Sparky and he eats popcorn. So, let’s move the modifier closer to the subject it is supposed to modify: We have a dog named Sparky that eats popcorn. CORRECT Now, here’s what can happen with a misplaced adverb: 1. The dog only cooked the popcorn. All he did was cook the popcorn. 2. The dog cooked only the popcorn. The only thing he cooked was popcorn. Though both of these sentences are grammatically correct, it is unclear what the word “only” is modifying—that makes the sentence ambiguous. This is a really common mistake. If you want the meaning of Sentence 1, then the modifier is misplaced in Sentence 2, and vice versa. These revised sentences make the meaning clearer: 1. The dog only cooked the popcorn; he didn’t eat it. 2. The dog cooked only the popcorn; he didn’t make anything else. 30

INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH SYNTAX 2019 Dangling Modifier A dangling modifier is a modifier that can be mistakenly linked to the wrong word. Usually the subject is missing, so the modifier modifies an object instead. Here are some examples: While running towards the fair, the popcorn smelled deliciou. The popcorn smelled delicious while running towards the fair. Here, the subject that is supposed to be modified is missing—so, it is left “dangling” from the sentence with nothing to connect to. Instead, we link the modifier with the only object in the sentence (“popcorn”), so it seems like the popcorn is running towards the fair. Let’s correct them: While the dog was running towards the fair, the popcorn smelled delicious. Or, The popcorn smelled delicious while the dog was running towards the fair. Without “the dog”, the modifier is left “dangling” because it needs a proper subject to modify. 4.3 CLAUSE The technical term ‘clause’ has slipped into the discussion without being explained. Suppose we want to describe different paperweights. To distinguish them, we talk of their shape, height, weight and colour and the material from which they are made. Shape, height and so on are the basic units we use to describe the paperweights, but we might need other units that enable us to talk about height (inches, centimetres), weight (ounces and grammes) and colour (blue, green). In order to talk about syntax coherently, we need units for our analysis. One unit is the phrase, which enables us to describe the relationship between other units, namely heads and modifiers, as in the accountant, very unhappy and in behind the sofa. Another unit is the clause, which enables us to talk coherently aboutthe relationships between verbs and different types of phrase. An ideal clause contains a phrase referring to an action or state, a phrase or phrases referring to 31

INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH SYNTAX 2019 the people and things involved in the action or state, and possibly phrases referring to place and time. My mother bought a present is a clause. The phrase my mother refers to the buyer, bought refers to the action and a present refers to what was bought. We can add the phrase for Jeanie, which refers to the person benefiting from the action. Finally, we can tack on, or leave out, the place phrase in Jenners and the time phrase last Tuesday. 4.4 COMPLEMENT AND ADJUNCT 1. Complement Complement is a word, phrase or clause that is necessary to complete the meaning of a given sentence. They can complete the meaning of a subject, object or verb. a. Subject Complement A subject complement is usually a noun or an adjective that renames or defines the subject in some way. Subject complements always follow a linking verb. For example, Example: 1) Your sister is cute. 2) Slippery roads are dangerous. 3) You look happy. b. Object Complement An object complement modifies or refers to the direct object. It always follows the object of a sentence. An object complement is always a noun or an adjective. Example: 1) You made him lazy. 2) They call my brother Fatty. c. Verb Complement 32

INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH SYNTAX 2019 A verb complement is a noun or a noun phrase that occurs after the verb. Direct and indirect objects can also act as a verb complement. The meaning of the verb and the sentence will be incomplete without the complement. Example: 1) He wiped his face. 2) .He wanted a new car. 2. Adjunct Adjunct is an optional and structurally dispensable part of a sentence, clause or phrase. It is not necessary to the structure of the clause and removing it does not have a major effect on the rest of the sentence. Thus, an adjunct only adds extra information to a sentence. Adjunct always functions as an adverbial. Example: 1) He laughed at her mistake. 2) I met him in the park. 3) Yesterday, she gave me a letter. 4) I’ll come after I have had my breakfast. 5) Diane will leave tomorrow. 6) She wanted a new car for her birthday. 4.5 VERBS, COMPLEMENTS AND THE ORDER OF PHRASES This chapter finishes with one more technical term and one last fact about heads and complements. Heads and their modifiers typically cluster together to form a phrase, certainly in formal written language. In accordance with a long tradition in Europe, verbs are treated here as the head, not just of phrases, but of whole clauses. In clauses, the verb and its complements tend to occur close together, with the adjuncts pushed towards the outside of the clause. (Remember that the subject noun is regarded as a complement, since it is obligatory.) Example: 33

INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH SYNTAX 2019 a. Maisie drove her car from Morningside to Leith on Wednesday. b. On Wednesday Maisie drove her car from Morningside to Leith. c. Maisie drove her car on Wednesday from Morningside to Leith. The object her car is next to the verb, followed by the directional phrases from Morningside and to Leith. Objects and directional phrases are complements. The time-when phrase on Wednesday is at the end of the clause in (a). And at the beginning of the clause in (b). In (b), it is closer to drove, but this is not important. What is important is the fact that the adjunct does not come between the head and any of the complements. This does happen in (c), where on Wednesday separates the complement her car from the other complement to Leith. Example (c) is at the least awkward – although there might be contexts in which that order of phrases would be appropriate. (Miller, 2002) 4.6 HEADS AND MODIFIERS The relationships between heads and modifiers are called dependencies or dependency relations. (Miller, 2002) Relationships hold between words whereby one word, the head, controls the other words, the modifiers. A given head may have more than one modifier. The second idea is that words are grouped into phrases and that groupings typically bring together heads and their modifier. Example of heads and modifiers: A big house. (The word house is the head, and a and big are its modifier) THIS CHAPTER WAS COMPILED BY: PUTRI ARUM SARI, SITI FARIQOH, GALIH KUSUMA WARDHANI, NUKHA ZULFATUL MUFIDAH, SITI MUYASAROH, SASHANTI MAYA DEWANTI, LIA WARDHANI, NAASHIKHATUL UMAMI 34

INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH SYNTAX 2019 CHAPTER 5 CONSTITUENT STRUCTURE 5.1 Heads, modifiers and arrangements of words This task is made easier by the organization of words into phrases and clauses. Speakers and writers produce words and phrases one after the other. (It does not matter whether the writer sets out words from left to right, as in English texts, or right to left, as in Arabic texts.) Heads and modifiers tend to occur next to each other. For instance, in English, nouns can be modified by various types of words and phrases – adjectives, prepositional phrases and relative clauses, not to mention words such as a, the, this and some. Examples are given in (1). (1) a. the house b. the splendid house c. the house on the hilltop d. the house which they built out of reinforced concrete In (1a), house is modified by the definite article the; in (1b) it is modified by the definite article and by the adjective splendid. The definite article, the indefinite article a and demonstratives such as this and that precede their head noun, but certain modifiers follow their head noun. Examples are the prepositional phrase on the hilltop in (1c) and the relative clause which they built out of reinforced concrete in (1d). In noun phrases in some other languages, the order of head and modifiers follows a stricter pattern, with all modifiers either preceding or following the head. In French, for example, most adjectives and all prepositional phrases and relative clauses follow the noun, although the definite and indefinite articles precede it. This is demonstrated in (2). (2) a. la maison the house b. la maison splendide the house splendid ‘the splendid house’ c. la maison sur la colline the house on the hill ‘the house on the hill’ 35

INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH SYNTAX 2019 d. la maison qu’ ils ont construite en béton armé the house which they have built of concrete reinforced ‘the house which they built of reinforced concrete’ The adjective splendide, the prepositional phrase sur la colline and the relative clause qu’ils ont construite en béton armé all follow the head noun. At this point, we come up against one of the interesting (or annoying ☺) facts of French and indeed of all human languages: most patterns have exceptions. In French, a small number of adjectives precede their head noun, as in une jolie ville (a pretty town) and un jeune étudiant (a young student), but the large majority of adjectives follow their head noun. 5.2 Tests for phrases The arrangement of words into phrases and phrases into clauses may seem self-evident from the above discussion, particularly if you are a native speaker of English or a non- native speaker who knows English well. In fact, it is not always clear how the words in a given phrase are arranged or how the phrases are arranged in a given clause. Fortunately, tests have been developed to help analysts. 5.2.1 Transposition Many sequences of words can be moved together into different slots in a clause; this is evidence that the words form a phrase. Let us go back to (3a),Jeeves shimmered into the room. We can think of (3a) as being converted to (3c) by the words into the room being moved, or transposed, to the front of the clause. This transposition indicates that the three separate words combine into a larger block, a phrase. Transposition also applies to phrases without prepositions. The words the results in (5) can be moved to the front of the clause to give The results Barbara handed to Alan on Tuesday, a clause that is appropriate if the speaker or writer continues, for example, The actual scripts she kept until Friday. The above examples of transposition have to do with a sequence of words being moved from one position in a clause to another position without any other changes in the clause. (Remember the comment from Chapter 1 that the clause is a unit of analysis within which we can talk coherently about the order of phrases and the fact that phrases 36

INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH SYNTAX 2019 can occupy different positions.) Transposition is one of the tests that reveal whether a given sequence of words make up a phrase or are just words that happen to come one after the other. If you know English well, you may be tempted to think that such a test is unnecessary; but two facts speak against this temptation. One is that in spite of the vast amount of research on English syntax in the twentieth century we still come across examples whose structure is not obvious. The second fact is that many linguists work not just on languages other than English but on languages which have been little studied or not studied at all. In these circumstances, tests such as transposition are essential. The test of transposition is also applied in a slightly different fashion. Consider the active clause in (6a) and the passive clause in (6b). (6) a. The pupils in this maths class gave cakes to Margaret every Friday. b. Cakes were given to Margaret every Friday by the pupils in this maths class. The phrase the pupils in this maths classis at the beginning of the clause in (6a) and refers to the people doing the giving. The same sequence is at the end of the clause in (6b) and is the complement of the preposition by. In contrast with (3a) and (3b), the differences between (6a) and (6b) consist of more than just a group of words being moved from one position to another. Example (6a) contains gave, while (6b) contains the words were and given. Example (6b) also contains the prepositional phrase by the pupils in this maths class, whereas (6a) has no prepositional phrase. When we use ‘transposition’ with respect to examples such as (6a) and (6b), we are talking about sequences of words that turn up in a particular order in one position in one construction and about the same sequences of words turning up in the same order in another construction. The sequence the pupils in this maths class occurs in the different constructions in (6a) and (6b). 5.2.2 Substitution The essential idea behind this test is that a single word can substitute for a number of words hanging together as a phrase. This is demonstrated in (9). (9) a. Barbara handed the intriguing results of the latest examination to Alan on Tuesday. 37

INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH SYNTAX 2019 b. Barbara handed them to Alan on Tuesday. Them in (9b) substitutes for the intriguing results of the latest examination in (9a). Similarly, in (6a) and (6b) David can be substituted for the pupils in this maths class: David baked cakes for Margaret every Friday and Cakes were baked for Margaret every Friday by David. The test of substitution applies to sequences of words with adjectives, such as those in ; This parcel is very heavy, This parcel is astonishingly and frighteningly heavy or simply This parcel is heavy. The single adjective heavy substitutes for the sequences very heavy and astonishingly and frighteningly heavy but another type of substitution is possible, using the specialised substitution word so. Consider the dialogue in (10). (Here capital letters represent different speakers.) (10) A. This large parcel is very heavy. B. No it’s not. C. It is so. The test of so-substitution exemplified in (10) is straightforward in that the sequence very heavy is removed and so is dropped into the empty slot. Another type of so- substitution is rather indirect. Consider (11). (11) This large parcel is very heavy and so is this small packet. There is no doubt that so ‘stands for’ very heavy. The reason for calling this substitution ‘indirect’ is that so has not simply been dropped into the slot occupied by very heavy but has been moved to the front of the clause. Nonetheless, so-substitution is a good indication that sequences such as very heavy form a larger unit. Substitution can be applied to sequences introduced by prepositions, as in (12) and (13). (12) a. Vera is crocheting in the lounge. b. Vera is crocheting there. (13) a. Grandma is coming to Mr Chalky’s school tomorrow. b. Grandma is coming here tomorrow. There in (12b) substitutes for in the lounge in (12a), and here in (13b) substitutes for to Mr Chalky’s school in (13a). Examples in which a single preposition substitutes for a whole sequence are difficult to find. This is mainly because prepositions typically require a complement, but also because in standard written English there is a contrast between 38

INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH SYNTAX 2019 in for location and into for movement, and for many speakers there is a contrast between out of for movement and out for location. 5.2.3 Ellipsis Consider the examples in (17). (17) a. The terrier attacked the burglar. The terrier savaged the burglar’s ankles. b. The terrier attacked the burglar and the terrier savaged the burglar’s ankles. c. The terrier attacked the burglar and [ ] savaged the burglar’s ankles. Example (17a) contains two separate clauses. In (17b), the clauses are conjoined by and; this gives a single sentence consisting of two clauses, each beginning with the terrier. (See Chapter 6 for a discussion of clauses and sentences.) Example (17c) is produced by deleting the second occurrence of the terrier. The square brackets in (17c) mark the site of the missing words, which are said to have been ellipted. Example (17c) is an example of ellipsis. The important point about this type of ellipsis is that it applies only to complete phrases. Sentences such as *The fierce terrier attacked the burglar and terrier savaged the burglar’s ankles are incorrect, because terrier must be preceded by the. Example (17b) is peculiar because speakers and writers of English do not repeat phrases in this manner but either ellipt the second occurrence of the phrase as in (17c) or use a substitute such as he, she or it. The burglar occurs twice, once as the phrase at the beginning of (17b) and again in the bigger phrase the burglar’s ankles. In the latter phrase the burglar, or rather the burglar plus the possessive suffix ’s, is replaced by his: The terrier attacked the burglar and she savaged his ankles. 5.3 Phrases: words and slots At this point in the discussion, we need to comment on the concept of phrase. In everyday usage, the term ‘phrase’ is applied only to sequences of more than one word. This is easily demonstrated with (5), reproduced below as (18a) and (18b). (18) a. Barbara handed the results to Alan on Tuesday. b. Barbara handed them to Alan on Tuesday. Examples (18a) and (18b) both contain the phrases (in the everyday sense) to Alan and on Tuesday. In contrast, Barbara in (18a) and them in (18b) do not constitute everyday 39

INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH SYNTAX 2019 phrases because they each consist of just one word. In syntactic analysis, a distinction between ‘phrase’ and ‘word’ is observed, but it does not match the everyday distinction since both Barbara and the mare treated as phrases. What is meant by ‘phrase’ is a slot in which one or more words can occur, or indeed in which other phrases can occur. In (18b) the phrase them consists of only one word, but the term ‘phrase’ is used because what is being said is ‘Here is a slot in which it is possible for more than one word to occur’. The fact that there is only one word in the slot in this particular example is just an accident; them can be replaced by a longer sequence, say the results of the maths examination sat just before Christmas. In both (18a) and (18b), the first phrase consists of a single word, Barbara, but this too is an accident of these examples. Barbara could be replaced by Margaret’s hard-working colleague. Likewise, the phrase to Alan contains a noun phrase, Alan– just one word, but it could be replaced by her colleague who was collating the examination marks. And in the phrase on Tuesday, a longer sequence could be substituted for Tuesday, such as the day he forgot his coat and got absolutely drenched. 5.4 Coordination Words of the same type can be coordinated, that is, joined by special words such as and and or. Phrases of the same type can be coordinated, and clauses of the same type. In this section, we focus on words and phrases. In the clause John and his energetic wife landscaped the garden twice last year, John is a phrase consisting of a single word and his energetic wife is a phrase consisting of three words. In spite of the disparity in length, the two phrases are coordinated – John and his energetic wife. In the noun phrase the bright and incredibly sharp air over Doubtful Sound, the one-word adjective phrase bright is coordinated with the two-word adjective phrase incredibly sharp. The fact of the coordination is one of the reasons for recognising bright as a phrase. We finish the discussion in this chapter with five general comments. The first is simply that the tests of transposition and substitution apply inside clauses, although they are often said to apply inside sentences. This is one reason why the clause is a useful unit for our analysis; it enables us to handle the fact that sequences of words 40

INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH SYNTAX 2019 occur in different positions and to apply the tests to sequences whose status is not clear. Ellipsis too applies inside a clause, but its operation takes two or more clauses into account, since it deletes phrases that are repeated from one clause to the following one. The second comment concerns the different types of phrase. The labels ‘noun phrase’, ‘prepositional phrase’ and ‘adjective phrase’ are in general use. A phrase with a noun as its head is a noun phrase, for example, her colleague who was collecting the exam scripts; a phrase with a preposition as its head is a prepositional phrase, for example to Alan; a phrase with an adjective as its head is an adjective phrase, for example exceedingly sorry about the mistake. Sequences such as quickly and unbelievably quickly constitute adverbial phrases, that is, phrases in which the adverb – here, quickly – is the head. The question of verb phrases will be discussed in Chapter 10. The third comment concerns the fact that phrases can contain other phrases. The phrase to her colleague in the extended version of (18a) discussed in Section 2.3 is a prepositional phrase; inside it is the noun phrase her colleague. The fourth comment has to do with the title of this chapter, ‘Constituent Structure’. We have talked of words constituting phrases, and we can also talk of phrases constituting clauses. The final comment is that very little of the arrangement of words into phrases, phrases into bigger phrases, phrases into clauses and so on is signalled in either speech or writing. In many types of written text, writers signal how they organise clauses into sentences: they may signal boundaries between clauses by means of commas or semi- colons, and individual words are typically kept apart by a space. But there are no conventions of punctuation that point to the intricate structure of a complex noun phrase such as the very intriguing results of the examinations. In speech, especially spontaneous conversation, practically nothing is signalled. In the reading-aloud of written texts, the reader may pause between sentences, but typically does not do so between clauses and certainly not between individual words; speakers very seldom utter words one at a time and with a gap between each one. Even when carefully reading a text aloud, speakers may pause at the end of sentences, clauses or phrases but not after every word. Of course, we do leave a space between words when 41

INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH SYNTAX 2019 we write, but the spaces in written texts do not correspond to spaces in speech. If you listen to someone speaking a language you do not know, whether German, Finnish or Turkish, you will have no idea where words begin and end; if you pick up a text written in one of these languages, you will see the gaps between the words and will immediately be able to ask about the meaning of particular words. Equally, in spontaneous speech, speakers typically do not pause between clauses. When they do pause, they are just as likely to do so in the middle of clauses, in the middle of phrases or even in the middle of words, depending on rapidity of speech, emotional state, whether the speaker has just run up a flight of stairs or has been sitting quietly in an armchair, and so on. All these properties of speech point to the arrangement of words into phrases, phrases into clauses and so on as something abstract. Linguists put the arrangements, the structure, into their analysis of particular clauses, but ordinary native speakers of a given language carry knowledge of the arrangements in their heads. Faced with a line of words on the page or a sequence of sounds produced by a speaker, readers and hearers invest the sequence with structure; they ‘read’ into it the words, the organisation of words into phrases and so on. THIS CHAPTER WAS COMPILED BY: M.AZIS MAULANA, SYARIFUL WAHID, RIZA YUSUF, RENDRA AUFAR, SAJIDAH, ADINDA MAHANI ,SRI MULYANI ,SISKA MEILINDA 42

INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH SYNTAX 2019 CHAPTER 6 CONSTRUCTION A construction is a characteristic formal pattern of syntactic categories or features, usually associated with some meaning and / or discourse function. The use of the word pattern here is an attempt to be as theory-neutral as possible, a pattern might be a structure, or a template, or the output of a rule. In some theories word order is a primitive of grammar, while in other theories word order is derived from structure, such that structure, but not linear order, would count as a formal property. The notion syntactic category is intended to include major parts of speech but also minor or functional categories such as the class of English verb- particles, or the class of determiners. The notion syntactic features in the definition is meant to include morpho-syntactic features such as the past participle or dative case but also semantics-syntactic features such as negation or wh\" (borne by interrogative expression like what and who). Together syntactic categories or features includes function words such as infinitival to and bound formatives such as possessive’s, on any analysis. 6.1 Different constructions and different meanings 1. a. The wealthy young man bought that piano for his secret fiancée. b. Did the wealthy young man buy that piano for his secret fiancée? Those both example (1a) and (1b) are clearly related. They are related semantically in that they both have to do with a situation in which one person, a wealthy young man, bought something, a piano, for another person, his time, and both present the event as completed. Note that although (1a) contains bought and (1b) contains buy these are both forms of one and same lexical item. Both examples share past tense, which is marked on bought in (1a) and on did in (1b). The two examples differ in that (1b) has did at the beginning of the clause while (1a) does not. The presence or absence of did is immaterial for the 43

INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH SYNTAX 2019 semantics as discussed so far because it has no effect on the type of event buying, on the participants involved in the event, on whether the event is presented as completed or on the time of the event. Example (1a) is an instance of a declarative construction (reflecting) the idea that the speaker or writer declares something to be the case), (1b) is an example of an interrogative constructions. Consider the example in (2). 2) a. Who bought that piano for his secret fiancée? b. What did the wealthy young man buy for his secret fiancée? c.Who did the wealthy young man buy that piano for? Examples (2a – c) are not directly related in meaning to (1a – b). For the simple reason that (1a – b) specify all the participant in the buying event – the wealthy young man, the piano and the secret fiancée. In (2a–c), one of the participants is unknown. It makes more sense to consider (2a) as related in meaning to someone bought a piano for his secret fiancée and (2b) as related in meaning to the wealthy young man bought something for his secret fiancée. Returning to (1a) we see that other constructions are related to it (more accurately, to the constructions exemplified in it). Consider (3). 3) The wealthy young man bought his secret fiancée that piano. What has changed is that the preposition for is missing and that piano has swapped places with his secret fiancée. The syntactic structure of (3) is the subject noun phrase the wealthy young man, followed by the noun phrase his secret finance and finally the noun phrase that piano. We can usefully note that (3) adds another factor to our view of language.. Example (3) drives home a very important point: although it is convenient in text book such as this to take sentences and clauses one at time, in real speech and writing they are accompanied by many other clauses and sentences. The choice of the constructions in (3) is determined by what precedes it in a given conversation or letter, say.. We might have a text as in (4). 4) You were asking about the piano you saw. Frank Churchill was a wealthy young man who came to stay in Hartfield. His secret fiancée was living in Hartfield with Mrs. and Miss Bates. He bought her that piano. 44

INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH SYNTAX 2019 Utterance (1a) is an example of a declarative clause it is also an example an active clause, which contrasts with the corresponding passive clause in (5). 4) That piano was bought for his secret fiancée by the wealthy young man. Why call this a passive clause? the term passive comes historically from the Latin verb patior (I suffer ) , or more exactly from its past participle , as in passus sum ( having – suffered I – am , that is , I have suffered ) . this label was chosen for clauses in English and other languages which take as their starting point the participant on whom an action is carried out , that is who suffers the action. In contrast, active clauses take as their starting point the participant who carries out an action, who is active in a given situation. Notice two properties of passive clauses. First the noun phrase referring to the passive participant, that piano in (5) , is at the front of the clause and is in a special relationship with the verb ( agreement in person and number , discussed in chapters 8 and 10 ). Second, although (5) does have a noun phrase, the wealthy young man referring to the buyer, it can be committed, as in that piano was bought or his secret fiancée. the constructions in (5) is called the long passive. Without its agent phrase, as in the above example that piano was bought for his secret fiancée, this constructions is known as the short passive. The final constructions we look at is that of (6). 6) (I don’t like the plum brandy) – the port I just love The clause in brackets provides a plausible context for the second clause. The speaker contrasts the two types of alcoholic drink, producing a normal neutral clause to pass judgment on the plum brandy and driving home the contrast by putting the direct object the port at the front of the second clause. Not only does the second clause have an unusual construction which in itself make the message conspicuous, but the port immediately follows the plum brandy. The positioning of the two phrases right next to each other also highlights the contrast. As far as the syntactic structure is concerned, I just love the port is a neutral main clause and the only changes to the structure is that the phrase the port moves the beginning of the clause. 45

INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH SYNTAX 2019 In the discussion of (3) above, we observed that, although we analyze clauses and sentences individually for convenience, in real language they do not occur in isolation but as part of longer texts. 6.2 Types of constructions Declarative constructions can be both active, as in (7a), and passive as in (7c). Interrogative constructions can be active, as in (8a), or passive, as in (8c). In declarative constructions, the verb can be followed by a noun phrase and prepositional phrase, as in bought the piano for Jane. (7a), or by two noun phrases, as in bought Jane the piano by frank in (7b). The former construction is here labelled OBLIQUE OBJECT and the latter is labelled DOUBLE OBJECT. Interrogative constructions can be OBLIQUE OBJECT, as in did frank buy the piano or Jane? In (8a), or DOUBLE OBJECT constructions can be active or passive – frank bought Jane the piano? In (8b) , in turn the DOUBLE OBJECT constructions can be active or passive – frank bought jane the piano in (7b) and Jane was bought that piano by frank : the OBLIQUE OBJECT constructions too can be active or passive – frank bought the piano for jane ( 7a ) and the piano was bought for Jane by frank (7c) . (7) a) Frank bought the piano for Jane. (NON – COPULA, DECLARATIVE, ACTIVE, OBLIQUE, OBJECT) b) Frank bought Jane the piano (NON-COPULA, DECLARATIVE, ACTIVE, DOUBLE OBJECT) c) The piano was bought for Jane by Frank. (NON-COPULA, DECLARATIVE, PASSIVE, OBLIQUE, OBJECT) d) The piano frank bought for Jane. (NON-COPULA, DECLARATIVE, ACTIVE, OBLIQUE, OBJECT, TOPIC) (8) a) Did frank buy the piano for Jane? (NON – COPULA, INTEROGATIVE, YES- NO, ACTIVE, OBLIQUE, OBJECT) b) Did Frank buy Jane the piano? 46

INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH SYNTAX 2019 (NON-COPULA, INTERROGATIVE, YES- NO, ACTIVE, DOUBLE OBJECT) c) Was the piano bought for jane by Frank? (NON – COPULA, INTERROGATIVE, PASSIVE, OBLIQUE, OBJECT, YES – NO) 6.3 Relationships between Constructions The basic constructions in (7a) is related the other constructions in (7b-c) and also to the interrogative constructions in (8). We can think of the relationship among the constructions as paths that lead from the basic constructions to the others. Do we lay out paths from the basic construction to every other one, say from the construction in (7a) to the construction in (7b), (8a), and (8c)? The answer is ‘no’. Instead, we lay out the paths from the basic DECLARATIVE construction to the other DECLARATIVE constructions, and then we will put down paths from each of the DECLARATIVE constructions to the corresponding INTEROGATIVE one. Thus a path goes from (7a) to the [DOUBLE OBJECT] construction in (7b) to the [DOUBLE OBJECT] INTERROGATIVE construction in (8b). Another path goes from the construction in (7a) to the [NON-COPULA, DECLARATIVE, PASSIVE, OBLIQUE OBJECT] construction in (7c). From (7c) a path goes to the [NON-COPULA, INTERROGATIVE, YES-NO, PASSIVE, OBLIQUE OBJECT] construction in (8c). a path goes from (7a) to the construction in (7d), but there is no corresponding [NON-COPULA, INTERROGATIVE, TOPIC] construction for a path to lead to. What about the constructions in (2)? As explained above, there are WH interrogatives, and a simpler version of (2b) is given in (9). (9) What did Frank buy for Jane? [NON-COPULA, INTERROGATIVE, WH, ACTIVE, OBLIQUE OBJECT] In the discussion of (2a-c), we saw that (9) relates not to Frank bought a piano for Jane but to Frank bought something for Jane. The speaker knows that Frank bought and Jane received a present and asks for the present to be specified. We have three constructions to connect, show in (10). 47

INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH SYNTAX 2019 (10) a. Frank bought something for Jane [NON-COPULA, DECLARATIVE, ACTIVE, OBLIQUE OBJECT] b. Did Frank buy something for Jane? [NON-COPULA, INTERROGATIVE, YES-NO, ACTIVE, OBLIQUE OBJECT] c. What did Frank buy for Jane? [NON-COPULA, INTERROGATIVE, WH, ACTIVE, OBLIQUE OBJECT] As before we avoid paths going independently from the construction in (10a) to the constructions in (10b) and (10c). Instead, we will lay down a path from (10a) to (10b) and a path from (10b) to (10c). This captures the fact that (10b) and (10c) have something in common, the occurrence of the auxiliary verb did before the subject Frank. It also captures the fact that in syntactic terms (10c) is further away from (10a) than (10b), since not only is there the auxiliary verb did preceding the subject Frank, but (10c) also contains the WH pronoun what. 6.4 Copula construction (11) COPULA CONSTRUCTIONS a. NP Copula AP Fiona is very happy. (COPULA, ASCRIPTIVE) b. NP Copula NP Fiona is the best student. (COPULA, EQUATIVE) c.NP Copula PP Fiona is in Auhtermuhty. (COPULA, LOCATIVE) Ascriptive copula clause are used to ascribe property to an entity. In (11a), happiness is ascribed to Fiona. Equative copula clausa are used to state that one entity is identical ith another entity. Speakers use (11b) to say, on the assumption that there are two entities Fiona and the best student, that these two entities are one and the same person. Fiona is equated to the best student the label (COPULA, LOCATIVE) is self-explanatory, this constructions is used in order to state where some entity is located. 48