The New Oxford Book of Food Plants

factors were essential: factor A, fat soluble, in the cream; and factor B,  mg retinol. For others such as α-carotene and cryptoxanthine,  mg water soluble, in the fat-free milk. Chemical tests identified factor B as is equivalent to  mg retinol. Retinol is stored in the liver of animals an amine. From these ‘vital amines’ the term ‘vitamine’ was coined by and excess liver consumption can lead to toxicity. However, this risk Dr Casimir Funk in , but the final ‘e’ was later dropped since not does not exist with the precursor carotenes as their conversion to reti- all were amines. nol is regulated. Vitamin B was later shown to be a mixture of substances with differ- Vitamin A deficiency is one of the most widespread micro-nutri- ent functions and these were given numbers in the sequence with which ent deficiencies worldwide, but only in less-developed countries. The they were discovered. B1 was later identified as thiamin, B2 as riboflavin. well-known function of vitamin A is in the metabolism of the visual What would have been B3 was used for pantothenic acid and sometimes pigments of the eye. Deficiency of vitamin A leads first to night blind- quite wrongly for niacin. The latter was already known as a chemical ness and subsequently to complete blindness. Another extremely ‘nicotinic acid’ before its physiological effect was investigated, and so important function is in the control of cell differentiation so that defi- the number was not used. There are other gaps in the sequence as com- ciency leads to abnormalities of the skin, mucosa, and of growth, and pounds thought to be vitamins were given numbers but subsequently resistance to respiratory and gastrointestinal disease. shown not to be vitamins or already described by other researchers under different names. B6 describes not one but six vitamins which have Carotenes also have a separate function as antioxidants (see p. ). similar biological actions. Similarly, niacin is a generic term used for They are therefore important in resistance to cell damage by the many two compounds, nicotinic acid and nicotinamide, both of which have substances that produce ‘free radicals’. These are highly reactive mole- the same biological activity. The only other B vitamin for which the cules that result in the oxidative damage associated with ageing, heart number is still used is vitamin B12, identified as cobalamin. disease, and cancer. Vitamins C, D, and E were named in the order of their discovery. Vitamin D is obtained only from animal foods but its absorption The terms vitamin F, G, and H are not used as F turned out to be the is affected by the phytate content of plant foods and so deficiencies essential fatty acids, G to be what was already known as vitamin B2. H occur in communities where people, especially women and children, is called biotin. Vitamin K was named not by sequence but from the do not go out in the sun and the diet consists largely of unrefined cere- Danish ‘koagulation’ because of its function in blood, discovered by als and contains few animal products. In the United Kingdom rickets Henrik Dam in Denmark. Dietary deficiency of each vitamin causes was common at the beginning of the twentieth century in industrial specific signs and symptoms. cities such as Glasgow, but has been virtually eliminated except for a few cases in Asian communities where the requisite conditions exist. essentiality By definition, vitamins are essential nutrients. How- ever, two are essential only under specific conditions as they can Vitamin E (the name given to eight tocopherols) is a highly effective be synthesized to a certain extent in the body. These are vitamin D antioxidant (see p. ) and has an important role in protecting poly- and niacin. Vitamin D is formed in skin exposed to sunlight and is unsaturated fatty acids and other components of cell membranes from essential only if sunlight is inadequate. It is therefore considered by oxidation by free radicals. It may have other functions such as an anti- some to be a hormone rather than a vitamin. Niacin can be formed inflammatory action and stimulation of the immune response. Vegetable from the essential amino acid tryptophan and it is now thought that oils are major sources of vitamin E in the diet. The quantities required to the amount formed is as important as the preformed niacin obtained prevent overt deficiency with signs of damage to cell membranes, includ- from the diet. ing muscle and nerve cells, are less than the intake needed to reduce the risk of cancers, coronary heart disease, and other degenerative diseases. Vitamins can be toxic in high doses, especially the fat-soluble vita- mins that can accumulate in the liver and fatty tissues. However, when water-soluble vitamins On a worldwide basis, diseases due to consumed in plant foods there is no risk of toxicity and the problem deficiencies of B vitamins that were once common, such as pellagra can only arise from the excessive consumption of vitamin supple- and beriberi, have been almost eliminated through improved diets, ments or from the consumption of liver from animals in which high better food processing, and fortification, although since the s levels of vitamin A have accumulated from their food. they have reappeared in the expanding population of refugees in the world due to the use of emergency food supplies unsuitable for long- functions The functions of all vitamins cannot be covered in this term feeding. summary. Vitamins are therefore listed in Table  (p. ) with the main effects of deficiency and an indication of the prevalence of clini- Beriberi, a disease caused by thiamin deficiency, was epidemic in cal deficiencies. Some vitamins are widely spread in many foods, such Asia during the nineteenth century, in populations consuming a as vitamin E and pantothenic acid, and so deficiencies are rare; others monotonous diet consisting mainly of polished rice. Dr Casimir Funk, are concentrated in certain foods, such as vitamins A and C, and so the originator of the term ‘vitamine’, isolated the anti-beriberi fac- deficiencies are more frequent. The vitamins of particular relevance to tor from rice polishings in  and the chemical structure was later plant foods are discussed briefly in this section. established. The disease is characterized by extreme muscle weakness, multiple nerve damage, and in some cases oedema and shortness of fat-soluble vitamins Vitamins are classified into fat soluble (A, breath. Epidemics of this scale no longer exist but clinical deficiency D, E, and K) and water soluble (B vitamins and C). Deficiencies of is still seen in Asia in poor individuals consuming mainly rice. It is the fat-soluble vitamins can occur if the level of fat in the diet is so also seen in chronic alcoholics and in patients with chronic disease, low that absorption is impaired. Conversely, toxic effects of high doses intestinal malabsorption, and anorexia. It can also occur when there is are likely to occur mainly with this group as they can be stored and increased demand for thiamin, such as during refeeding of malnour- accumulate in the body. Vitamin A covers two groups of compounds: ished patients with excessive carbohydrate. retinol, or preformed vitamin A, which is found only in animal foods; and the carotenes, from which retinol can be formed in the body, Pellagra, caused by niacin deficiency, is another disease related to which are found in green-, yellow-, and orange-coloured fruits and particular types of food plants and was first recognized to occur in poor vegetables. Carotenes are converted to retinol with varying efficiency. people on a corn-based diet. It also occurs with poor, sorghum-based β-carotene has the highest vitamin A activity,  mg is equivalent to diets. Corn (maize) contains little niacin which is in a form that is not readily available. The disease was prevalent in Europe and the south- ern United States after Spanish explorers introduced corn from Central 216

America. It is classically characterized by the three Ds: dermatitis, diar- characteristics of groups of minerals and specific features of minerals rhoea, and dementia. The tongue is inflamed and a red rash occurs especially relevant to plant-based diets are discussed in this section. in areas of the skin exposed to the sun. In  Goldberger showed in mental hospital patients in the United States that pellagra could be Those required in larger amounts (g/day) are calcium, magnesium, treated by substituting mixed grains for corn in the diet. He also showed and phosphorus, which form the structure of bones and teeth as well that corn-based diets devoid of animal protein resulted in pellagra, as having other metabolic functions, and sodium, chloride, and potas- leading to the discovery that the amino acid tryptophan can substitute sium, which are important in the maintenance of the normal compo- for the vitamin niacin in the diet. Pellagra does not exist where maize is sition of fluids outside and inside the cells of the body. prepared in the traditional way by soaking in lime, which increases the bioavailability of niacin. Other cereals such as oatmeal, rice, and wheat Others required in smaller amounts (μg or mg/day) are associ- provide moderate amounts of niacin. Pellagra still occurs in parts of ated with specific enzymes: copper with energy metabolism enzymes; India and Africa associated with the consumption of a poor, sorghum- iron in haemoglobin, which carries oxygen in the blood cells, and in based diet, and is occasionally found in malnourished alcoholics. myoglobin in muscle; molybdenum with a small number of enzymes; selenium in antioxidant enzymes; zinc in over  varied enzymes The B vitamins that remain problematic are vitamin B2 in commu- and in cell receptors for some hormones and vitamins; chromium nities that do not consume rich sources such as milk and folic acid in glucose tolerance factor, possibly related to some forms of diabe- and vitamin B12 which both result in megaloblastic anaemia. The tes; iodine in thyroid hormones; magnesium with enzymes related to anaemia is characterized by large, immature blood cells, in contrast genetic functions; and manganese with several enzymes, including to the more common iron-deficiency anaemia where the blood cells antioxidants. Others are known to be essential but their function is are smaller than normal. As vitamin B12 is present in animal but not not yet known: silicon, vanadium, nickel, and tin. Cobalt forms part plant foods, obtaining adequate amounts of this vitamin can be prob- of the structure of vitamin B12. lematic amongst strict vegetarians, unless supplements are taken or fermented foods such as yeast products are incorporated into the diet, Some have beneficial effects but are not established as essential: flu- as microorganisms also form vitamin B12. However, most vitamin oride, which alters the structure of bone and dental enamel, reducing B12 deficiency is not due to its lack in the diet but to a pathological susceptibility to dental decay; and lithium, which is not essential nor condition which prevents its absorption in the intestine. The metab- has beneficial effects in healthy people but is effective as a pharmaco- olism of folic acid requires vitamin B12 and so the two vitamins are logical agent in bi-polar disorder. closely linked. Vitamin B12 deficiency results in secondary folic acid deficiency. Supplementation with folic acid would treat the resultant In general, deficient mineral intake occurs where there is a partic- megaloblastic anaemia but would mask the other effect of vitamin B12 ular deficiency in the soil and the population consumes only locally deficiency, degeneration of the spinal cord. It is therefore important to grown products. In practice this is now rare, except for iodine defi- eliminate vitamin B12 deficiency as a cause of megaloblastic anaemia ciency, with extensive commerce and mixed diets. Many minerals are before treating with folic acid. toxic in excess but this is unlikely from food, except where crops are grown on soil with very high selenium levels. Problems more com- Dietary deficiency of folic acid is not uncommon, especially in monly arise with inappropriate supplements or contamination of developing countries, despite its presence in most fresh foods, both food or water. Fluorosis, causing bone and teeth defects, is common animal and plant, as it is easily oxidized. Pregnancy increases the in areas where the fluoride content of the water supply is considerably requirement and, if the mother’s stores are low, neural tube defects, greater than  p.p.m., the level considered optimal for health. such as spina bifida, can occur in the infant. Such cases also occur in the United Kingdom and other developed countries. There is now The main mineral deficiencies are caused by excessive losses and poor mandatory fortification of grain products with folate in the United absorption. Iron, iodine, calcium, and zinc are the most problematic States and it is under consideration in the UK. worldwide. Iron deficiency is mainly due to loss of blood at a rate greater than it can be replaced by absorption from the diet as a result of intestinal Vitamin C deficiency was a common problem in the past at the parasites, especially hookworm, and heavy menstrual losses. It is therefore end of winter after months without fresh fruit and vegetables. It also particularly common in women and young children on inadequate wean- afflicted sailors, often fatally, on long sea voyages in previous centuries ing foods. In foods, iron is in the form of haem in meat and inorganic until the naval surgeon James Lind advocated the use of citrus fruit in iron salts in plants. Haem iron is better absorbed. Absorption of inorganic his Treatise of the Scurvy, published in . It took the admiralty  iron is facilitated by vitamin C and other antioxidants if consumed at the years to introduce a daily ration of lime juice, abolishing scurvy from same time, as well as some proteins, but it is hindered by other food com- the navy and giving British sailors the nick-name ‘Limey’. Modern ponents including phytate, dietary fibre, calcium, and tea. transport, storage, and commerce have made fresh produce available the year round and so signs of deficiency are uncommon but do occur Iodine is required by the thyroid gland to form the hormone thy- in groups such as the elderly or alcoholics, where intake is low. roxine which controls metabolism. Deficiency leads to goitre and, if severe, cretinism. It is particularly prevalent in isolated mountainous Vitamin C is an antioxidant, as is β-carotene and some other food areas where the soil is leached of iodine and which are far from the components, and it plays a role in the prevention of diseases such as sea so that fish and other iodine-rich marine products are not con- coronary heart disease and certain cancers. Being a water-soluble vita- sumed. In many areas of Europe and other developed countries, such min it is excreted once the body tissues are saturated, at an intake of as Derbyshire in the United Kingdom, and Switzerland, iodine defi- – mg/day, and therefore there is no good evidence for the very ciency has been virtually eliminated by food trade and fortification of high doses claimed to be beneficial in the treatment or prevention salt, but it remains an endemic problem in many parts of the world, of cancer, nor of the common cold. It is also important in aiding the including Europe. Some plants, such as brassicas (see pp. –), absorption of iron from the diet. contain goitrogens, substances that prevent the normal metabolism of thyroid hormones and are another cause of goitre. Minerals Calcium requirements are especially high during rapid growth in All nutritionally important minerals have to be provided in the diet infancy, adolescence, pregnancy, and lactation. In many countries and several are known to be essential for specific functions. The main the main source of calcium is milk products, but in others milk is not consumed after childhood and so calcium intakes are lower, the main sources being cereals and sometimes soft bones as in fish. The 217

absorption of calcium from the intestine is closely regulated and relationship but cannot prove that the food causes the effect on health. depends on vitamin D but also on the availability of dietary calcium. Further studies in animals and people are required to show the physi- Some food substances form complexes or insoluble calcium salts that ological mechanisms that could explain the relationship with the food cannot be absorbed. The most important is phytic acid found in cereal or with its specific phytochemical components. The number of these bran and some nuts and pulses. When bread is leavened the enzyme chemicals is vast and their classification by chemical structure com- phytase in the yeast partially breaks down the phytate, improving the plicated. Only some examples of substances with beneficial effects are availability of calcium and other minerals. However, populations that given in this section. consume unleavened wholegrain bread, such as chapatis and tortillas, absorb a lower amount of calcium and other minerals. alliins (see p. ) Garlic and allied species contain a family of thioallyl compounds, alliins, that may protect against cancer and car- Rickets and osteoporosis are two health problems related to cal- diovascular disease. Raw garlic contains – per cent of these sulphur cium metabolism. Calcium deficiency reduces the growth rate of chil- compounds which can lower blood levels of cholesterol and triglyc- dren but calcium deficiency alone does not seem to result in rickets, erides, and reduce blood clotting in animals and possibly in humans. a condition in which bones fail to calcify properly and become dis- They have also been shown to suppress cancer initiation and develop- torted. However, it may contribute to rickets when vitamin D status ment in animal studies, consistent with epidemiological evidence that from food and sunlight is low. Nor does calcium deficiency seem to high garlic consumption is associated with low cancer incidence. be the cause of osteoporosis, the progressive loss of bone density with age leading to brittle bones. The main cause is inactivity and reduced phytoestrogens Phytoestrogens are steroid substances derived levels of sex hormones after middle age. Bone reaches its maximum from plants that have been reported to reduce the levels of the bio- density (peak bone density) at about the age of  and a high den- logically active free oestrogens (female hormones) in the body and so sity can protect from the effects of osteoporosis in later life. Therefore lower the risk of oestrogen-responsive cancers, such as certain types adequate calcium and vitamin D up to this age is important but high of breast cancer. Most of the research has involved breast cancer but intakes of calcium have little beneficial effect once the peak bone den- these phytochemicals also affect other related cancers, such as ovar- sity has been achieved. ian cancer, as well as the metabolism of male hormones and prostate cancer. One type, the lignans, are diphenolic compounds (mainly Zinc deficiency, resulting in impaired growth and sexual develop- enterolactone and enterodiol) derived from the bacterial digestion of ment, has been identified in population groups in the Middle East who polyphenols. Many oilseeds and grains (see p. ), such as flaxseed, consume diets low in rich sources of zinc, such as animal products, and soya bean, rapeseed, and wheat are rich sources of lignans or their high in phytates, such as unleavened bread. It may exist in other com- precursors. The incidence of breast cancer is low in countries that munities where the staple food is chapatis and tortillas and may par- have high intakes of such foods, although lignans are not the only fac- tially account for the reduced stature of such populations. Zinc is also tor as these foods also contain many other phytochemicals, such as implicated in immune function and therefore resistance to disease. flavonoids and other phenolic compounds, which also have anticancer properties. Another class of phytoestrogens are the coumestans, found Sodium, chloride, and potassium are important for the balance of in clover and therefore relevant to the nutrition of animals but not of extracellular and intracellular fluids, and the ratio of sodium to potas- humans, for whom the isoflavonoids are the other main class. Daid- sium intakes is related to blood pressure. Excessive intakes of sodium zein and genistein are the major isoflavonoids found in many plant are associated with hypertension. Sodium and chloride are not nat- foods but soya bean is a particularly rich source. urally found in high concentrations in foods but are added to many during processing and as table salt. Potassium is particularly abundant The phytoestrogens stimulate the production, in the liver, of sex in vegetables, potatoes, fruit (especially bananas), and juices. hormone binding globulin (SHBG), on which a large proportion of the hormones are carried in the blood. The higher the level of SHBG Other Biologically Active Substances the more the hormones are bound, resulting in less of the biologi- cally active free hormone. They also have other effects that are cancer Apart from nutrients and dietary fibre, food contains substances that protective. Some reduce the proliferation of cells that respond to oes- are biologically active and can be beneficial in terms of health, or sub- trogens, such as breast and uterus cells, as they compete with oestro- jective effects such as mental and physical stimulation, or relaxation. gens for the binding sites but have only a weak action; others inhibit Some of these substances are difficult to classify as they may be ben- enzymes associated with cell proliferation; and others are antioxidants eficial in the quantities found in some plants but could also be consid- which have anticancer effects. ered to be toxicants in other circumstances (see p. ). These include: large families of polyphenols, which share a similar chemical struc- antioxidants Antioxidants are substances that reduce the rate of ture, are broadly referred to as tannins, include the flavonoids, and oxidation of substances that are susceptible, such as polyunsaturated are generally highly coloured and astringent; alkaloids, of which the fatty acids (see p. ), by neutralizing free radicals. These are highly stimulant caffeine is one example; plant steroids which are hormone- reactive molecules produced in the body in various chemical reactions like substances including the phytoestrogens (see below); and many in normal metabolic processes but also from external sources includ- other types of compounds. Little scientific attention has been paid ing infections, smoking, exposure to sunlight, and other onslaughts to their nutritional functions in the past but recently there has been that cause tissue damage. They increase the rate of ageing, and of extensive research into their protective effects against some common degenerative diseases, including heart disease (see p. ), cataract, degenerative diseases. Some of this research explains the use of par- and cancer. Antioxidants include: some vitamins (vitamin E, vitamin ticular foods and herbs to promote health in parts of the world such C, and β-carotene); some trace elements that are components of anti- as China, where, traditionally, less distinction has been made between oxidant enzymes (including selenium, copper, zinc, and manganese); food and drugs. Plant substances that protect against cancer, cardio- some non-nutrients, such as ubiquinone (coenzyme Q) and phenolic vascular, or other diseases are loosely called ‘phytochemicals’. compounds (for example phytoestrogens, flavonoids, phenolic acids, and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), used as a food preservative); Some of the evidence for the beneficial effects of different plant and some antinutrients (such as phytic acid) (see below). Phenolic foods comes from epidemiological studies in which the prevalence of certain diseases in various population groups is correlated with the level of consumption of specific foods. These can indicate a 218

acids such as chlorogenic, caffeic, gentisic, ferulic, and vanillic acids metal binders Phytate is a common constituent of plants, espe- are abundant in whole grain, especially in the bran layer. cially wholegrain cereals, that is of great importance in nutrition. Chemically it is a cyclic compound (inositol, a dietary essential, a vita- flavonoids Flavonoids are naturally occurring, phenolic, water- min for microorganisms and some animals but not human beings) soluble, antioxidant substances widely distributed in vegetables, fruits, containing six phosphate molecules. It has the ability to bind minerals and plant-based beverages such as tea and wine. They have an impor- such as calcium, magnesium, zinc, copper, and iron to form an insolu- tant effect on colour and flavour. They include hundreds of different sub- ble complex that is not readily absorbed from the intestine. It is there- stances but all have a common chemical structure, based on the phenolic fore implicated in mineral deficiencies in areas that rely on wholegrain compounds, flavans (with two six-carbon rings joined by a three-carbon cereals as the main component of the diet, especially if unleavened chain) combined with a sugar (glycoside). Flavonoids have antioxidant products are used. The fermentation process in leavening bread helps properties and therefore potentially important effects on health by pre- to decompose the phytate and render the minerals more absorbable. venting the oxidation of several cellular components (including DNA and low-density lipoprotein (LDL)) and reducing blood clotting, both Oxalic acid is another calcium-binding substance that is present in implicated in coronary heart disease. The most widely distributed is certain plants, such as rhubarb and spinach, although only very high quercitin. Others include kaempferol, myricetin, catechin, api-genin, levels of consumption (as in rhubarb leaves) are likely to cause any and luteolin. In a Dutch study it was found that  per cent of total die- problems of calcium absorption. tary flavonoids were from two compounds:  per cent from quercitin and  per cent from kaempferol. The major dietary contributor of flavo- enzyme inhibitors Solanine is an alkaloid (see above), present noids intake was black tea ( per cent), onions ( per cent), and apples mainly in the sprouts and skin of green potatoes, which inhibits the ( per cent). The risk of mortality from heart disease was substantially enzyme cholinesterase, important in the metabolism of the neuro- reduced in people with the highest flavonoid intakes. transmitter acetylcholine. The clinical symptoms of poisoning include gastrointestinal disturbances and neurological disorders. The content tannins ‘Tannins’ is the term used to describe collectively the in potatoes depends on the cultivar, and so all existing and new cul- polyphenols responsible in part for the astringent flavour of wine and tivars are monitored for alkaloid content. The upper acceptable limit tea. Thirty per cent of the dry weight of the leaves of the tea plant con- for safety is generally  mg/ g fresh weight, and a dose of  mg/kg sists of polyphenolic substances, which are oxidized during fermen- body weight is considered the toxic level for man. The average person tation. Almost all are flavonoids, mainly catechin or its derivatives, in the United States consumes about , mg/year, which would be which interact with the bitterness of caffeine to provide the astrin- lethal if taken in one dose. Solanine is not destroyed by cooking. gency. Red wines have up to  mg/litre of catechins, compared to  mg/litre in white wine. These antioxidants are postulated to explain Protease inhibitors exist in many plants, including cereals and pota- the ‘French paradox’ that death rates from coronary heart disease are toes, but are particularly common in legumes. They inhibit the action less than a quarter of the rates in England and Wales, despite a diet of enzymes important in the digestion of protein, such as trypsin and high in fat, and prevalent smoking. chymotrypsin (see p. ). However, most are destroyed by heat dur- ing cooking. alkaloids Alkaloids are chemically compounds with nitrogen in a complex molecular ring structure. They have an extremely bitter taste neurotoxic amino acids Lathyrism is a disease caused by the and many have highly undesirable effects on animals and man, and consumption of large quantities of the seeds of certain Lathyrus spe- would therefore be classified under toxins (see below). Others have cies (leguminous drought-resistant plants, including Lathyrus sativus pharmacological effects that are useful or desirable to man. Nicotine, (grass-pea or chickling vetch, see p. ) which are widely grown in atropine, emetine, and quinine are all alkaloids, as is the methyl- Asia and North Africa). Lathyrus species have many unusual amino xanthine caffeine, and related compounds such as theophylline and acids. Lathyrism is a public health problem in India, especially in poor theobromine. These stimulants are found in coffee, tea, and cocoa, areas of the country when food is scarce and L. sativus forms a large and increase alertness, heart rate, and urine production. part of the diet for a period of several months. It also affects horses and cattle. In man it is manifested by the sudden onset of spastic paralysis glucosinolates Glucosinolates are a group of pungent com- of the legs as a result of lesions of the spinal cord caused by neurotoxic pounds contained in cruciferous vegetables including horse-radish, amino acids in the seeds. In extreme cases it can lead to death. The radish, and mustards, and to a lesser degree in the brassicas, such sale of L. sativus has been banned in many states in India but it is still as cabbage, Brussels sprouts, and kale. When cut, grated, or chewed grown where suitable alternative arid crops are not available. There is they are broken down by enzymes in the food and hydrolysed to give no cure for the disease. The toxin can be largely removed by soaking the pungent and volatile isothiocyanates and other products, unless or cooking in an excess of water, the main disadvantage being the loss cooked before these reactions can occur. Glucosinolates are thought of B vitamins. However, when used in the normal method of prepar- to be protective against cancer and therefore beneficial. However, glu- ing chapatis there is no destruction of the toxin. cosinolates can cause goitre and from this aspect should be classed as a toxin (see p. ). favism Favism is a haemolytic disease caused by an inborn error of metabolism which renders the subjects susceptible to substances in Natural Toxicants and Antinutrients the faba (fava) or common broad bean Vicia faba (see p. ). Con- sumption of beans or inhalation of pollen of the plants results in The public is often concerned about the hazards of chemical additives symptoms associated with haemolysis (breakdown of the red blood and contaminants and assumes that natural products are safe. However, cells), including pallor, fatigue, breathlessness, nausea, pain in the plants contain natural toxins. We need to distinguish between ‘toxin’ abdomen or back, fever, and chills. In more severe cases jaundice and and ‘hazard’. Almost any substance, including water and essential nutri- dark urine from the destroyed blood cells can occur, with subsequent ents, is toxic in high doses but few represent a hazard in the quantities anaemia. Symptoms can start within minutes of exposure, especially normally consumed. Some examples of natural toxicants that can be to pollen, but in most cases they occur several hours or even days a hazard under certain conditions are described in this section. These after consumption of the beans. The acute phase lasts for – days, toxins exist in plants partly as defence mechanisms against insects. with spontaneous recovery. However, it can be fatal in young children. 219

The chemical identity of the toxic principle in fava beans has not been this aspect they should be classed as toxins. The glucosinolates are definitively established, but possible candidates are (the non-sugar) broken down by enzymes in the food when it is cut or grated, and part of the glycosides vicine and convicine. These are hardly true tox- hydrolysed to give volatile isothiocyanates. These can spontaneously ins as they affect only a minority of people. form a ring-shaped molecule (goitrin) that interferes with the uptake of iodine in the thyroid gland and is therefore goitrogenic. Goitre is Favism occurs in populations that are genetically susceptible the enlargement of the thyroid gland in an attempt to capture iodine because they are deficient in a particular enzyme which catalyses a which is required in the production of the hormone thyroxine (see special biochemical pathway essential in blood cells for the regenera- p. ). Most goitres are caused by a lack of iodine in the diet but a tion of a blood antioxidant needed to deal with the challenge of fava small percentage may result from the inhibition by goitrin of iodine and also certain drugs. Favism is very prevalent around the Mediter- uptake into the thyroid gland. ranean, including North Africa, and in the Middle East. It is also prev- alent in China, and affects some  million people worldwide. saponins Saponins are a group of glycosides (substances that have a chemical linkage of sugar and other components, often pigments) cyanogens Trace amounts of cyanide are widespread in plants, that occur in a wide variety of plants, especially legumes. Foods par- mainly as cyanogenetic glycosides. Relatively high concentrations ticularly rich in saponins are soya beans, chickpeas, haricot beans, and occur in certain grasses, pulses, root crops, and fruit kernels. Four kidney beans. They have a bitter taste and detergent properties so that of these are of practical importance in human consumption: amyg- they foam in water, causing bloat in animals. They can haemolize red dalin, dhurrin, linamarin, and lotaustralin. Amygdalin is present in blood cells but taken orally have low toxicity. They also bind choles- bitter almonds and other seed kernels from the fruits of Citrus, Malus, terol, reducing plasma cholesterol levels in experimental primates, and Prunus species. Dhurrin, which is closely related, occurs in sor- indicating the potential to reduce the risk of coronary heart disease ghum and other grasses. Linamarin (phaseolunatin) and lotaustralin in humans. (methyllinamarin) are the glycosides of pulses, especially lima or but- ter-bean, and of the root crops cassava, sweet potato, and yam. Cas- gossypol Gossypol pigments are polyphenolic substances in cot- sava (see p. ) is an important staple food in many parts of Africa tonseed, the oil of which is used in edible products such as margarine and Asia. The glycoside releases cyanide when acted on by enzymes and salad oil. The toxic pigment is therefore detrimental in this use released from cells in the cassava. Fatal cyanide formation can occur and also in the use of the meal as a protein supplement. Symptoms if the cassava is not adequately processed, especially the bitter cassava of gossypol toxicity in humans and animals are cardiac irregularities, which has a higher cyanide content. The toxicity of cassava has been depressed appetite, and weight loss. It reduces the oxygen-carrying recognized for hundreds of years and traditional processing methods capacity of the blood and causes haemolysis of red blood cells. The have been developed by peeling, grating, and washing in running mechanisms of tissue damage are not well known but may involve water or soaking for several days, by which time most of the cyanide is changes in cell permeability as fluid accumulates in the body cavities. lost in fermentation. Any remaining free hydrogen cyanide is readily However, there are few reports of gossypol toxicity in human beings. volatilized on boiling. In China gossypol has been used as an antifertility pill for men as it blocks sperm formation. It was evaluated to be almost  per cent Human, and more frequently animal, poisoning has been recorded efficient and side-effects were reported to be mild and infrequent. in relation to lima beans, cassava, millet, and fruit-stone kernels. Chronic poisoning can also occur and is linked to chronic neurologi- allergens Allergens are not strictly toxins. True toxins are constit- cal conditions, including loss of vision and blindness (due to dam- uents that have an undesirable effect on anyone who consumes them, age to the optic nerve) and ataxia (loss of locomotor control), where the effects being proportional to the quantity eaten. Allergens are usu- nutritional status is also poor especially in relation to cystine and the ally normal food constituents that are generally innocuous except to B vitamins cobalamin, niacin, and riboflavin, which are involved in individuals who have an abnormal reaction, an allergy. The intensity cyanide detoxification. of the reaction depends not on the quantity consumed but the degree of sensitivity of the person. Symptoms are variable and can affect any haemagglutinins (lectins) Lectins are proteins found in tissue of the body, but the most commonly affected are the skin and many plant groups, including fungi, potatoes, and legumes. They are the respiratory tract, with eczema, itchy skin, runny nose, and asthma. found mainly in seeds but also in tubers and plant saps. The first dis- Almost any food can produce an allergic reaction but some are com- covered, at the end of the nineteenth century, was the protein, ricin, mon, others rare. In plant foods common allergens are found in cere- in castor beans, found capable of causing the red blood cells to stick als, legumes, and nuts. Apart from milk products and egg, wheat is together (agglutinating). Many edible pulses contain lectins. The only the most common allergen, the causative fraction probably being the common characteristic is that they are all proteins, and have a spe- protein albumin. Maize and barley, including malt in flavourings and cial affinity for certain sugar molecules to which they attach in cell beverages, are also common allergens. These are frequently replaced membranes. Some lectins, such as those in the garden pea, act on all in the diet of allergic subjects by polished rice or oats as they are less types of blood groups, others, such as the lima bean lectins, act on frequently allergenic, in the case of rice probably because the causative specific blood groups. Most research has been conducted on red kid- fraction is removed in the polishing. Amongst the legumes the peanut ney beans (see p. ), which have a particularly high content. If eaten is the most allergenic. Strawberries commonly produce a skin rash, raw or undercooked, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhoea can occur. The but washing the fruit with scalding water and chilling can remove the toxin is destroyed by vigorous boiling for  minutes but may persist factor, either by heat destruction or by washing off a surface contami- if cooked at low temperatures in a slow cooker. nant. Nuts and seeds are the most highly allergenic food group, occa- sionally causing life-threatening reactions, including coconut, cashew glucosinolates (thioglycosides, goitrogens) Glucosi- nuts, and the seeds of cotton, mustard, sesame, poppy, etc. nolates (also called thioglycosides) are responsible for the pungent flavours of horse-radish and mustard and contribute to the flavours carcinogens Many substances in food are potentially carcino- of turnip, cabbage, and related vegetables. The glucosinolates in these genic. These include contaminant mycotoxins such as aflatoxin (see cruciferous vegetables have protective qualities (see p. ) but some p. ), cycasin, Senecio alkaloids, bracken fern, and safrole. Cycasin can also produce goitre when consumed in large quantities, and from 220

is a glycoside that occurs in cycad plants in the tropics and subtropics. however, some species considered edible have recently been associ- These are resistant to drought and hurricanes, and the high levels of ated with testicular damage in man, and sensitivity to alcohol (Copri- starch in the roots, seeds, and stems provide a source of food in an nus) as well as cancer of the lung, liver, and intestine (Gyromitra). emergency. Populations using cycads for food have long been aware of its toxicity and have developed traditional methods of preparation, flatus-producing substances One of the main factors limit- including fermentation, heating, water extraction, and sun drying that ing the human consumption of legumes is their ability to produce gas detoxify the final product. in the intestinal tract, causing physical and social discomfort associ- ated with the flatulence, nausea, cramps, and diarrhoea. The oligosac- Senecio alkaloids are found in the genus Senecio. Livestock grazed charides raffinose and stachyose are the main causative factors. The on pastures in which the plants were growing have been noted to human intestine does not have the enzymes that can break the chemi- die from liver and lung lesions. The alkaloids may also be involved cal linkages between the component sugars and therefore cannot digest in human liver diseases, occlusion of the veins, and kwashiorkor. them. The intact oligosaccharides therefore pass into the lower intes- Humans can also be affected indirectly if residues remain in the milk tine, where they are fermented by bacteria with the production of the or meat of animals consumed. Senecio alkaloids are also used in folk gases carbon dioxide, hydrogen, and methane. Traditional bean foods medicine and their use has been associated in the past with veno- such as soya-bean curd (tofu) and fermented soya bean (tempeh) have occlusive disease in children in Jamaica. little flatus activity as the oligosaccharides are probably removed dur- ing preparation. Cooking in water causes some reduction in the flatus Bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum) is widely distributed and has activity of other beans, and cultivars are developed by selective breed- long been recognized to cause the poisoning of livestock. There are ing that have low contents of raffinose and stachyose. Legumes are not two types of symptoms: one of thiamin deficiency caused by the pres- the only foods that contain flatus-producing factors. Wheat and cer- ence of the enzyme thiaminase that destroys the vitamin, the other tain fruits and juices, especially raisins, bananas, apple juice, and grape includes the production of benign and malignant tumours in the intes- juice, also tend to increase human intestinal gas production. tine and bladder. The fern is used for human consumption in several parts of the world, including Japan, the north-eastern United States, Pollutants/Contaminants and Canada. Indirect exposure to the toxin could also come from the milk of cows fed the fern. However, epidemiological evidence relating The moulds that grow on dry foods such as nuts and bread produce consumption to human cancer incidence is not available. several toxins that are potent carcinogens. One example is aflatoxin produced by Aspergillus flavus. The main source in the United King- Safrole (with a benzene ring structure) is a component of many dom, the United States of America, and West Africa is mouldy nuts essential oils, such as the oils of star anise, camphor, sassafras, mace, (see p. ). Aflatoxin may cause liver damage and may lead to liver can- ginger, bay leaf, and cinnamon leaf. It was used as a flavour in soft cer. Ergot is a toxin produced on mouldy grain and causes neurologi- drinks until it was discovered that it caused liver cancer in animals. cal effects described as St. Vitus’s dance. Serious outbreaks occurred in the past in the United Kingdom and still occur in other countries (see oestrogens Many plants, including cereals, legumes (in par- p. ). Patulin is a mycotoxin associated with mouldy apples. ticular soya beans), and oilseeds, contain isoflavones that have weak oestrogenic activity, which has certain beneficial effects (see p. ). The residues of agricultural chemicals in foods are monitored and However, toxicity can occur in unusual circumstances, such as in considered to represent no significant hazard to consumers in the The Netherlands during the food shortages of the Second World War United Kingdom when current regulations are adhered to. However, when tulip bulbs were eaten as a famine food. Their high concentra- the existence and enforcement of such regulations are not universal tion of oestrogens resulted in abnormalities of the menstrual cycle in in all countries. Many consumers prefer organic produce on which no women. modern agricultural chemicals have been used for contaminant and nutritional reasons. However there is no evidence that these have bet- stimulants, depressants, and hallucinogens The alka- ter nutrient content. loids in certain plants can be useful in medicine and for other social purposes (see p. ) but can also be the cause of poisoning in EFFECTS OF PROCESSING AND STORAGE humans and livestock. For example seeds from the genus Datura have been used as a medicinal and hallucinogenic brew in several devel- Changes occur in food nutrient content or the availability of nutrients oping countries and have been the cause of many cases of poisoning. in foods during storage, in cooking, and in other kinds of processing. These have occurred particularly in children and livestock, sometimes through the contamination of bread and forage with the seed, which Cooking contains the alkaloids atropine, hyoscyamine, and scopolamine. Some plant foods can be eaten raw but many need processing, such Nutmeg also contains a toxic substance, myristicin, which consti- as soaking to remove toxic substances, and cooking to break down tutes  per cent of the volatile oils, and has been used as a remedy for a cell walls. This improves the digestibility and the availability of nutri- variety of ailments, including toothache, dysentery, rheumatism, and ents and may inactivate toxic substance and enzymes that can destroy to induce abortions. It is also hallucinogenic and can have other toxic some vitamins. Disintegration of the plant cell wall allows the enzyme effects such as nausea, constipation, tachycardia, and stupor. phytase to hydrolyse phytates, thereby making minerals more avail- able. For example phytase in yeast reduces the phytic acid in bread The pressor amines (serotonin, noradrenaline, tyramine, tryp- dough. However, excessive heat will destroy the phytase. Moist heat tamine, and dopamine), which constrict the blood vessels and cause also causes starch to swell and form a gel which is more digestible. For increased blood pressure, occur in fairly high levels in some plant example, potato starch is not digestible unless the cell walls are broken foods, such as pineapple, banana, plantain, and avocado. They are down by cooking. normally detoxified in the liver by specific enzymes. However, some antidepressant drugs inhibit the enzyme (monoamine oxidase) and There are also losses during cooking depending on the cooking lead to heightened sensitivity to such foods, resulting in increased method. Cooking in water causes soluble vitamins to be leached into blood pressure and severe headache. Some fungi contain mycotoxins, the water and therefore lost if the water is discarded. Some can also including those that are used to produce hallucinations, such as Aman- be partially destroyed by heat and oxidation. The loss of vitamins in ita muscaria. The toxicity and inedibility of many fungi is well known; 221

cooking and heat processing depends on the acidity or alkalinity of Microwaving the medium, exposure to air and to light. The most sensitive vitamins are vitamin C, folates, and thiamin, but under specific conditions If very little water is used in microwaving food, then nutrient losses losses of other vitamins also occur. are small, and less than in boiling as there is little leaching. Vitamin C losses in processing and cooking can be very large as Other Processes the vitamin is easily oxidized in alkaline conditions and if exposed to the air, especially in the presence of copper. Adding bicarbonate These include radiation, which is used to destroy microorganisms, to to keep the colour of vegetables during cooking is therefore detri- inhibit the sprouting of potatoes, and to disinfest wheat from insect mental to vitamin C content. When plant tissues are cut or mashed pests. Losses are similar to other methods of processing. Fermen- an enzyme is released which oxidizes vitamin C but it can be inac- tation is used in several cultures, such as in the Far East where fer- tivated at temperatures of °C therefore ‘blanching’ fruits and mentation of cooked soya beans with moulds and bacterial cultures vegetables in boiling water for a short time minimizes the enzyme produces such products as miso and tempeh. The fermentation proc- activity, although there is some extraction of the vitamin into the ess increases the content of B vitamins. blanching water. Vitamin C is also slowly destroyed during frying. Thiamin is also water soluble and sensitive to alkali, and significant Harvesting and Storage losses occur in cooking water, especially if the water is slightly alka- line. Folates are very susceptible to oxidation in neutral or alkaline Mechanical harvesting of fruits and vegetables such as potatoes, car- conditions. rots, peas, and tomatoes can cause bruising which results in some destruction of vitamin C. If harvesting of fruits such as tomatoes Roasting, Baking is done while they are unripe, to be matured off the vine, there is a reduction in the vitamin C content of approximately one-third com- The dry heat involved in roasting and baking damages vitamins unsta- pared with the fruit harvested ripe. ble to heat, especially thiamin, on the surface of the product, and pro- duces a brown crust caused by the so-called Maillard reaction between Losses in storage depend on storage conditions. When leafy veg- protein and carbohydrate, making the lysine unavailable. etables wilt, the enzyme ascorbic acid oxidase comes in contact with vitamin C and there is a rapid destruction of the vitamin. Under tropi- Blanching cal conditions  per cent of vitamin C can be destroyed in  hours. Storage of dried foods results in losses of vitamin C dependent on the Blanching is the process of heating foods at a high temperature for moisture content and the temperature: in dried tomatoes with  per a short time to inactivate enzymes that cause deterioration. It is an cent moisture there is no loss at °C but losses increase considerably essential step before freezing, drying, or canning vegetables. It also at higher moisture contents and temperatures. After canning, further reduces bulk, expels gases, and helps to maintain the colour. Blanching vitamin losses of thiamin, pantothenate and niacin occur in storage. usually involves immersion in boiling water for one to several minutes, Other B vitamins are stable in storage. Vitamin E is stable in process- or in hot air, steam, or irradiation. There is some destruction of nutri- ing but is reduced by long storage. Freezing is the best method of pres- ents due to water extraction and oxidation, especially of vitamin C, ervation, particularly at temperatures of about −°C and below, but which is reduced by one-third to a half, but the extent is very variable cannot be applied to fruits and vegetables. Uncooked produce can be depending on the surface area and other factory conditions, including stored under gas: carbon monoxide to destroy enzymes, then ethylene temperature, time, equipment, and the degree of maturity of the food. dioxide to destroy microorganisms. This leads to a loss of vitamin C. There may be considerable loss of folic acid and other water-soluble Storage of cereals for long periods results in only very small losses of vitamins such as niacin, riboflavin, and thiamin. Carotenes are more vitamins when the moisture content is less than  per cent. stable. Losses are greater in leaf vegetables, such as spinach, than those with less surface area, such as asparagus. In general, losses are less with Milling steam blanching. There is also loss of other water-soluble nutrients such as mineral salts, and, to a small extent, proteins and carbohydrates. As the highest concentration of vitamins and minerals in grain are in the germ, the aleurone layer, and the endosperm, a proportion is Drying and Canning removed during milling of wheat and husking of rice, depending on the extraction rates. Cereals are important sources of thiamin and niacin The losses in both methods are mainly in blanching and so there is in most diets and so milling losses are serious; in many countries legis- little difference between them. In drying, vitamin C is the most unsta- lation requires nutrients to be restored to white flour (see below). Simi- ble. In canning, apart from the effects of leaching if the liquor is dis- larly with rice, machine milling leads to refined rice with high losses of carded, there is also some chemical destruction depending on the B vitamins which can lead to the thiamin deficiency disease beriberi temperature, residual oxygen in the can, and a metallic surface. There if the diet is heavily dependent on rice. After milling, the lipids in rice is greater loss of vitamin C in lacquered cans than plain as in the lat- are more susceptible to oxidation and rancidity as the milling process ter corrosion uses up residual oxygen. Vitamin E and most of the B destroys the natural antioxidants and exposes the lipids to air. vitamins are stable in the canning process, except thiamin which is reduced by about half, others to a lesser extent. Parboiling Freezing Parboiling is a process used to improve the keeping qualities of rice. It also limits the losses of vitamins in the milling of rice. The unhusked The principal losses in freezing are in the preliminary blanching. At rice is soaked in water and steamed or boiled and then dried before the freezing stage there are no losses. Some losses can occur on thaw- husking. Part of the B vitamins migrate to the inner part of the grain, ing. The vitamin content of frozen foods on the plate can be higher the husk is removed more easily with less loss of germ, and the grain than that of fresh foods as fruits and vegetables are frozen immedi- is partially gelatinized and so less easily damaged in milling. The main ately after harvesting, whereas ‘market fresh’ produce may be stored disadvantage of this process is that it changes the colour and flavour at ambient temperatures for some days with some loss of nutrients, of the rice compared to the polished white product. The commercial mainly vitamin C. equivalent of this domestic process is ‘converted rice’. 222

Enrichment Food Balance Sheets The terms enrichment, fortification, supplementation, nutrification, Each country has data from Food Balance Sheets which are pre- and restoration refer to the addition of vitamins and other nutrients to pared from estimates of the population and of all the food available foods. They have specific meanings but are often used interchangeably. for human consumption from data on crop and animal production, Enrichment refers to nutrients that are added to legally defined stand- imports, exports, and losses in harvesting, storage, to animal feed, and ards. In the United Kingdom enrichment of cereal flours was intro- to seed. This is calculated as the food available/person/day in terms duced after the Second World War and the regulations remain in force of quantity and calorie content. The data presented in Table  p.  to restore the levels of iron, thiamin, and niacin in white flour to the are derived from Food Balance Sheets prepared by FAO, the United level found in  per cent extraction flour, and to add calcium. The Nations Food and Agricultural Organization and available online. addition of folate is under consideration. In the United States ribofla- Such data are useful for international comparisons but indicate the vin is also added to white flour and more recently folate to grain prod- food available for consumption, not necessarily that consumed. They ucts. Fortification refers to the addition of nutrients either not present tend to overestimate national consumption and cannot provide infor- before processing or present in only very small amounts. Supplemen- mation about variations within each country. tation or nutrification refers to the addition to snack foods to provide a special source of nutrients in the diet. Restoration restores nutrients Household Surveys lost in processing to the previous level. These surveys of nationally representative samples are conducted INTERNATIONAL DIETARY PATTERNS at regular intervals by many governments and collect data for food purchased for home use over a specified period of time. Some also In poor countries carbohydrate, mainly starch, provides up to  per include an inventory of larder stores at the beginning and end of the cent of the energy intake, whereas in the richer countries of North survey period. These surveys can be used to compare consumption America, Europe, and Australia carbohydrates account for less than  patterns of households in various groups such as by region, economic per cent of the calories, with about half coming from simple sugars. status, or ethnic origin, but not of individuals. They sometimes also include foods purchased outside the home. Food consumption and preferences are moulded by many geo- graphic, economic, and social factors, but certain trends can be dis- For example, in the United Kingdom household surveys have been cerned internationally. As people become more affluent they change conducted annually since the s. The Ministry of Agriculture, their consumption away from coarse grain cereals such as millet and Fisheries and Food conducted the National Food Survey of domestic sorghum to wheat and rice, they then increasingly replace cereal and food consumption and expenditure over a reporting period of  week root crop staples with animal products, especially meat. Other addi- in which the quantities of, and expenditure on, individual types of tions to the diet are refined sugar and more expensive fruits and proc- foods were recorded as purchased. Reporting weeks were spread over essed foods (see Figure , p. ). the year to account for seasonal variation and the survey results were published annually, with food consumption expressed as expenditure, These changes in types of food consumed result in progressive changes quantities consumed, and nutritive value. Since  foods consumed in the proportion of dietary calories coming from each major constitu- outside the home have been included to enable evaluation of total con- ent. The percentage of calories from protein in all national diets is fairly sumption and expenditure on food. In addition, the Department of constant, between  and  per cent, although with increasing affluence Employment conducted annual Family Expenditure Surveys in which animal sources increasingly replace vegetable sources. Differences in household recording lasted  consecutive days. These surveys served the percentage of calories from carbohydrate are therefore reflected by several purposes but the main use is to monitor trends in household reciprocal differences in fat calories. Populations in poor countries may food consumption. Since  these two surveys have been combined receive on average only  per cent of their calories from fat, while those and data is collected in the Expenditure and Food Survey, commis- in the rich receive approximately  per cent from this source. sioned by the Office for National Statistics (ONS) and the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA). This level of fat is considered too high for health, being implicated in heart disease, obesity, and some cancers. Dietary guidelines in most Other countries have similar data collection, such as the United of these affluent countries therefore recommend reducing fat intake States’ Nationwide Food Consumption Survey (NFCS), although usu- to approximately  per cent of the calories and increasing carbohy- ally at less frequent intervals. drates to approximately  per cent, while limiting extracted sugar to no more than  per cent. In contrast, the very low levels of fat in the Nutrition Surveys diets of some poor countries can be problematic for the consumption of adequate energy, particularly in children. These obtain information about the dietary intake, and often measure the nutritional status, of individuals, and so can be used to monitor These general patterns describe food consumption under normal potential problems by age and sex group as well as by region, socio- circumstances. In times of food shortage plants that are not normally economic, and ethnic group. Intakes may be estimated prospectively desired, or even toxic plants, may be consumed. These famine foods by weighing all food consumed or by measuring with household can include coarse grains, root crops resistant to drought and other measures, or else retrospectively by questionnaires of diet history over environmental disasters, various wild plants, tulip bulbs, and even a period of time or of recall of the types and amounts of food and ground date stones. In some cases such foods are nutritionally sound drink consumed over the previous  hours. Such surveys, especially but carry a social stigma as they are not preferred by taste or custom using weighing methods, are obviously time consuming and costly and are associated with poverty and distress. and therefore cannot be carried out on a complete national sample at such regular intervals. In many countries they may be conducted each SOURCES OF INFORMATION ABOUT decade or less frequently. NATIONAL DIETS In the United Kingdom a national survey of weighed food intake Information about the food and nutrients available and consumed in over several days of successive sections of the population, such as a country come from a variety of sources. infants, schoolchildren, and the elderly, are conducted on a more or 223

less continuous basis depending on the perceived vulnerability of the A problem with this system is that individual variation in require- particular group and the need for information at a particular time. ments is not explicit, so that the values are frequently misinterpreted. In the United States the National Health and Nutrition Examination It is often incorrectly concluded that individuals with daily intakes of Survey (NHANES) is conducted every few years and collects a single specific nutrients below the RDA value are deficient. The RDAs were day’s intake data for each participant. In the more recently initiated established for use in planning diets for population groups to ensure Continuing Survey of Food Intake in Individuals (CSFII) women and adequacy even for members of the group with the highest require- young children only provide a single day of data six times during a ments. They were not originally intended for assessing the intakes of year. This has now been incorporated into the NHANES survey. Other individuals but are often used for this purpose. countries also collect data from individuals by varying methodology and frequency. In  the United Kingdom introduced the concept of a range of values to reflect the distribution of requirements for each nutri- Food Composition Tables ent in a population of healthy individuals. They are therefore given as an average requirement value, and values at the lower and upper To enable foods to be translated into nutrients a variety of national, ends of the estimated normal range of requirements (two standard regional, and international food composition tables exist. These are in deviations below and above the average). These three values are col- the form of books or computer databases. Raw and cooked foods and lectively called dietary reference values (DRVs) and, individually, the dishes are listed along with values for their content of major constitu- estimated average requirement (EAR), the lower reference nutrient ents, vitamins and minerals, and in some cases composition of amino intake (LRNI), and the reference nutrient intake (RNI). The latter acids, fatty acids, and a few other components. The values are usu- value corresponds to the RDA. People with intakes below the LRNI ally based on the laboratory analysis of a limited number of samples would require further investigation. Other advisory bodies, such as of each food and preparation. They are therefore only approximate the European Union, World Health Organization, the Food and Agri- as the nutrient content of foods, especially the micronutrients, can cultural Organization and the United States Department of Agricul- be quite variable, depending on cultivar, growing conditions, matu- ture, have adopted this concept. rity, processing procedures, analytical procedures and, in the case of dishes, recipe. These factors account for discrepancies in nutrient val- Other guidelines for healthy diets have been developed that are con- ues found in different tables. cerned less with nutrient deficiencies than with dietary patterns likely to prevent the diseases now prevalent in affluent countries, including RECOMMENDED INTAKES obesity, coronary heart disease, and hypertension. The government guidelines in the United Kingdom, United States, and other countries Various expert committees in the United Kingdom and other coun- are similar and specify goals for the intakes of total fat, saturated fat, tries, as well as international organizations, produce guidelines for the polyunsaturated fat, cholesterol, carbohydrate, sugar, fibre, salt, and recommended intakes of energy and specific nutrients, and of major protein, and more recently the number of servings of fruit and vegeta- food components. These are given for different age and sex groups. bles. For example the UK government promotes the consumption of a There are differences between countries, not because of differences in minimum of ‘ a day’ Retailers and manufacturers in the UK provide nutritional science but due to different philosophies of presentation. the Guideline Daily Amounts to help consumers make dietary choices in regard to energy, fat, saturated fat, and salt. Up to the s a single value for each nutrient was given as the recommended daily intake for each age group. For energy this was To enable consumers to know what they are consuming, the United the average amount required for that particular group, but for the States, United Kingdom, and other countries have requirements for nutrients it was a more generous estimate, and set at the value ade- the nutrition labelling of packaged foods. The legislation is not the quate to cover the needs of people with the highest requirement. same but the principles are similar, and within Europe the previously These were called RDAs (recommended daily amounts in the United national regulations are being harmonized to conform with Euro- Kingdom and recommended dietary allowances in the United States pean standards. It is mandatory to provide information on certain of America). The United States continued to use this approach until constituents and others can be given voluntarily. The form required more recently. may be quantity per  g, per serving, or as a percentage of RDA and nutrient goals. 224

NUTRITI Table  Percent of total energy from different food groups (–) COUNTRIES Cereals Vegetable Sugar & Roots (excl. oils Sweeteners and beer) Tubers 225 United Kingdom . . . . France . . . . Germany . . . . Senegal . . . . Uganda . . . . Congo, Democratic Rep. . . . . China . . . . Bangladesh . . . . Thailand . . . . Mongolia . . . . Brazil . . . . Chile . . . . United States of America . . . . World . . . . Source: United Nations Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) Statistical Yearbook 

I O N TABLE S Energy % Fruits & Pulses Meat & Milk, Animal Others Plant Animal Veg. Offals Eggs & fats foods foods Fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . –.

Table  Composition of grains: cereals and pseudo-cereals per  g edible portion Water Energy Pro- Fat Carbohydrate Sug- Fibre (g) (kcal) tein (g) Total Starch ars (Total) (g) (g) (g) Description (g) (g) 226 Barley, pearl .  . . . . Tr . Barley, wholegrain .  . . . . . . Buckwheat (groats) .  . . . . . Corn, sweet (kernels) . . . . . . Maize (grits) .  . . . . . Millet (Panicum  . . . N N . .  . N . miliaceum) . . Tr Oatmeal (raw) .  . . . . – . Quinoa .  . . . N . Rice, brown (Oryza) .  . . . . Rice, white (Oryza) .  . . Tr . . . . . (easy cook) .  . . Tr . Rice, polished .  . . . . . . Rice, wild (Zizania)  . . . N . . Rye .  . . . N .* Sorghum .  . . . N – . Spelt (T. speltum  . . . . . Teff (Eragrostis tef ) .  . . . .* Wheat (hard red . . . N .  N . spring) (Triticum . . . . aestivum)  . N – Wheat (soft white . . . . N – (Triticum aestivum)  . . . Wheat durum . . . . . . (Triticum durum)  . Wheat flour, white . . . (bread-making) Wheat flour, . wholemeal Sources: Royal Society of Chemistry/MAFF (); and supplements (–); United States Departmen National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference http//:www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search (Nov  Fibre: NSP, non starch polysaccharides; *, crude fibre. Carotene, β-carotene equivalent; Tr, trace; {}, estimates calcium; Fe, iron.

Minerals Vitamins Fibre Na K Ca Fe Caro- E B1 B2 C Folate (NSP) tene (mg) (g) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) N    .  . . .   .    .  . . .      .  Tr . .   .   .  . . .   .   .  . . .      .  . . .   N   N . . .      .  . . .   .    .  . . .  N    .  . . .       {.}  . . . {.}  .    .  . . .      .  . . .   .    . . . .   N –   .  . .  N    .  – . . − – N    .  . . .   N     . N  . − N  N    .  . . .   N    .  – . .   {.}    .  . .      .  . . .    . nt of Agriculture, Handbook no. . Composition of Foods (), supplements (–); and USDA ). s; N, present in significant quantities but data not reliable; –, no data provided; Na, sodium; K, potassium; Ca,

Table  Composition of nut and oilseeds per  g edible portion Carbohydrate Water Energy Protein Fat Total Starch Sugars Fibre (g) (kcal) (g) (g) (g) (Total) Description (g) (g) (g) Almonds .  . . . . . . Brazil-nuts .  . . . . . . Cashew-nuts .  . . . . . N Chestnut .  . . . . . . (European) .  . . . (Castanea sativa) . . . Chestnut, water .  . . . 227 (Eleocharis . . . dulcis) .  . . . Coconut (flesh .  . . . − − − from kernel)  . . . Coconut water .  . . . . . Ginkgo nuts . . . . . . . Hazel-nut  . Olives, green (in .  . . . . . brine) .  . . . . . . Peanuts (fresh) .  . . . . . Pecan nuts . . . . . . . Pine nuts  . . Pistachio nuts . . . . . (roasted/salted)  . . Queensland .  . . . (macadamia) nut .  . . . . . N (salted) .  . . . . . Sesame seeds . . . . . . . Soya beans . . . Sunflower seeds . Walnuts Sources: Royal Society of Chemistry/MAFF () and supplements (–); and USDA National Nut NSP, non-starch polysaccharides; carotene, β-carotene equivalent; Tr, trace; {}, estimates; N, present in signi

Minerals Vitamins Fibre Na K Ca Fe Carotene E B1 B2 C Folate (NSP) (g) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) {.}    .  . . .   .    .  . . .   .  .  . . .   .    .  . . . Tr    N    .  N . .   .    .  . . .   Tr    .  Tr Tr Tr   −    . − − . .     .  . . .  .  .  . . . .    .   .  . . .    .  . . .   .    .  . . . .  .    .  . . .  .    . .  .  . . . .    .  . .    .  . . .   .    .    .  . . . Tr  .   . .    . . .   . . .   trient Database for Standard Reference http//:www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search (Nov ). ificant quantities but data not reliable; –, no data provided; Na, sodium; K, potassium; Ca, calcium; Fe, iron.

Table 4 Composition of legumes per  g edible portion Water Energy Protein Fat Carbohydrate Sug- Fibre (g) (kcal) (g) (g) Total Starch ars (Total) (g) (g) Description (g) (g) Beans, black-eyed .  . . . . . . (cowpea) (seeds, dried) .  . . . . . . .  . . . . . . Beans, broad (seeds, . . . fresh)  . . . . . . . Beans, butter (seeds,  . . . {.} dried) . . . 228 .  . . . . . . Beans, french (pods .  . . . . . . fresh) (Phaseolus . . . vulgaris) .  . . . . . . .  . . . . . . Beans, red kidney .  . . . . . . (seeds, dried) . . . {.} (Phaseolus vulgaris) .  . . . . . . .  . . . . . . Beans, haricot (seeds, .  . . . . {} dried) .  . . . N Beans, mung (seeds,  . . . {} dried)  . {} {} Beans, scarlet runner (pods, fresh) Chick-peas (seeds, dried) Gram, black (seeds, dried) Gram, sprouts (mung) (fresh) Lentils, green (seeds, dried) Lentils, red (seeds, dried) Peas (seeds, fresh) Peas, sugar snap (pods, fresh) Pigeon-pea (seeds, dried) Sources: Royal Society of Chemistry/MAFF () and supplements (–); and USDA National Nut NSP, non-starch polysaccharides; carotene, β-carotene equivalent; Tr, trace; {}, estimates; N, present in signifi

Minerals Vitamins Fibre Na K Ca Fe Caro- E B1 B2 C Folate (mg) (mg) (mg) tene (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) ) (NSP) (mg)  . . .   (g) (mg) .    N .    .  . {.} {.}  {} .    . Tr – . .   Tr  . . .  {} .  {} . } .    .  . . .   .    . Tr – . .  – .    .  . . . .  Tr  .  . . .  .   .  . . .  .    .  N . . Tr   .  N . . Tr  N   .  . . . } .    .  N . .     .  . . . .  .   .  N . . .  .    .  . .  .    –   .     } {}  Tr  trient Database for Standard Reference http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search (Nov ). ficant quantities but data not reliable; –, no data provided; Na, sodium; K, potassium; Ca, calcium; Fe, iron.

Table  Composition of temperate fruits per g edible portion Water Energy Protein Fat Carbohydrate Sugars Fibre (g) (kcal) (g) (g) Total Starch (g) (Total) (g) Description (g) (g) 229 Apple, ‘Cox’s Pippin’ .  . . . Tr . {.} Apple, ‘Golden .  . . . Tr . {.} Delicious’ .  . . . . . . Apricot .  . . . . . {.} Bilberry .  . . . . . Blackberry .  . Tr . . . . Black currant .  . . . . . . Cherry .  . . . . . . Cranberries .  . Tr . . . . Damson .  . . . . . . Gooseberry .  . . . . . . Grapes .  . . . . . . Greengage .  . . . . . . Lemon . . . . . . . Lime .  . Tr . . . Loganberry .  . Tr . . . N Medlars .  . Tr . . . . Mulberry .  . . . . . . Orange, assorted .  . . . . . . Peach .  . . . . . . Pear .  . . . . . . Plum .  . . . . . Prune .  . . . Tr . N Quince . . . . . . . Raisin .  . . . . . . Raspberry .  . Tr . . . . Red currant . . . . . . . Strawberry .  . . . . . . Tangerine  {.}  .  . Sources: Royal Society of Chemistry/MAFF () and supplements (–); and USDA National Nutr NSP, non-starch polysaccharides; carotene, β-carotene equivalent; Tr, trace; {}, estimates; N, present in signifi

Minerals Vitamins Fibre Na K Ca Fe Caro- E B1 B2 C Folate (NSP) tene (g) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) .    . {} . . .   .    .  . . .   .    .  N . .   .    .  N . .   .   .  . . .   .    . . . .  N .    .  . . .   .    .  N . .   {.}   .  . . . {} {} .    . . . .  {} .    . {} Tr . .  .    .  {.} . .  {}    .  N . .  N N    .  N . .   N    .  {.} {.} {.}  {} {.}    .  N  N N    . {} N N N  {} N    . N . . .   .   .  N . .   .    .  . . .   .    .  . . .   .    .  N . .   .    .  N . . Tr N N    .  N . .   .    . Tr . . .   .   .  . . .  N .  .  .  . . {.}   .    .  N . .   .    . .     rient Database for Standard Reference http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search (Nov ). ficant quantities but data not reliable; –, no data provided; Na, sodium; K, potassium; Ca, calcium; Fe, iron.

Table  Composition of tropical fruits per g edible portion Carbohydrate Water Energy Protein Fat Total Starch Sugars Fibre Fibre (g) (kcal) (g) (g) (g) (Total) (NSP Description (g) (g) (g) (g) 230 Acerola .  . . . − N . N Banana .  . . . . . . . Carambola .  . . . . . Dates .  . . . . . . . Durian .  . . . . . . Figs (dried) .  . . . . . . N Grapefruit .  . . . . . {.} . Guava .  . . . . . Kiwifruit .  . . . . . . . Loquat .  . . . . . . . Lychee .  . . . . . . Mango .  . . . . . {.} N Mangosteen .  . . . . . . . Passion fruit .  . . . . . . Pawpaw .  . . . . . N . Pineapple .  . . . . . . . Pomegranate .  . . . . . . . Rambutan .  . . . . . . . Sharon fruit .  . Tr . . . . . . . . . . N . Sources: Royal Society of Chemistry/MAFF () and supplements (–); and USDA National Nut NSP, non-starch polysaccharides; carotene, β-carotene equivalent; Tr, trace; {}, estimates; N, present in signifi

Minerals Vitamins Carotene e Na K Ca Fe E B1 B2 C Folate P) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg)    .  N . .      .  . . .      .  . . .     . . .      . {} N . .      .  N . .     . N . .      . {} {.} . .     .  . . .      . N . .  N    .  N . .     .  N . .  N    . . . .      .  N . .      .  N . .  N    . . . .      .  . . .     .  . . .      . N . .     N          trient Database for Standard Reference http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search (Nov ). ficant quantities but data not reliable; –, no data provided; Na, sodium; K, potassium; Ca, calcium; Fe, iron.

Table 7 Composition of vegetable fruits per g edible portion Water Energy Pro- Fat Carbohydrate Sugars Fibre F (g) (kcal) tein (g) Total Starch (g) (Total) ( (g) (g) ( Description (g) (g) 231 Aubergine .  . . . . . . Avocado .  . . . Tr . . Capsicum, green . . . . . {.} Capsicum, red .  . . . . . {.} Courgette .  . . . . . . Cucumber .  . . . . . {.} Marrow .  . . . . . . Melon, cantaloupe .  . . . . . . Melon, ‘Galia’ .  . . . . . {.} Melon, ‘Honeydew’ .  . . . . . . Melon, water .  . . . . . . Papaya (pawpaw) .  . . . . . .  . (Carica papaya) . . . . . . Pumpkin .  . . . . . N Squash, ‘Acorn’ .  . . . . . N Squash, ‘Butternut’ .  . . . . . N Squash, ‘Spaghetti’ .  . . . Tr . . Tomato  . Sources: Royal Society of Chemistry/MAFF () and supplements (–); and USDA National Nutr NSP, non-starch polysaccharides; carotene, β-carotene equivalent; Tr, trace; {}, estimates; N, present in signifi

Minerals Vitamins Fibre Na K Ca Fe Carotene E B1 B2 C Folate (NSP) (g) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) .    .  . . .   .    .  . . .   .   .  . . .   .    .  . . .   .    .  . . .   .    .  . . .  .    .  Tr .   .    .  . . Tr   .    .  . . .   .    . . . . .   .    .  {.} . .   .    .  . . .   .   . Tr   .  . . Tr   .    . {} N . .   .    .  . . .   .   . N . .  .   . {} . . .       rient Database for Standard Reference http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search (Nov ). ficant quantities but data not reliable; –, no data provided; Na, sodium; K, potassium; Ca, calcium; Fe, iron.

Table 8 Composition of salad and vegetable crops per  g edible portion Carbohydrate Water Energy Protein Fat Total Starch Sugars Fibre F (g) (kcal) (g) (g) (g) (Total) ( Description (g) (g) (g) ( 232 Broccoli .  . . . . . N Brussels sprouts .  . . . . . . Cabbage, average .  . . . . . {.} > Cabbage, white .  . . . . . . Cabbage, red .  . . . . . . Cabbage, savoy .  . . . . . {.} Cauliflower .  . . . . . . Celery . . . . Tr . . Chard .  . . . . . N Chicory .  . . . . . . Chinese cabbage:  . . . . − . . B. pekinensis .  . . . − . . B. chinensis .  . . . . . {.} Curly kale .  . . . . . . Fennel .  . . . Tr . . Globe artichoke .  . . . . . . Leeks .  . . . Tr . . Lettuce .  . . . Tr . . Mustard & cress .  . . . . . . Okra .  . . . Tr . . Onions .  . . . − Purslane .  . . . . − − Spinach .  . . . Tr . {.} Watercress  . . Sources: Royal Society of Chemistry/MAFF () and supplements (–); and USDA National Nutr NSP, non-starch polysaccharides; carotene, β-carotene equivalent; Tr, trace; {}, estimates; N, present in signifi

Minerals Vitamins Fibre Na K Ca Fe Carotene E B1 B2 C Folate (NSP) (g) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) .    .  {.} . .   .    .  . . .   .    .  . . . .    . . . .   .    .  . . .   .    .  . . .   .    .  . . .   .    .  . . .   N    .  N . .  N    .  N .    Tr    −    .  . . .   −    .  . . .   .    .  {.} . .   .   . N . .  N    .  {.} .   .   .  . Tr . Tr  .    . . . .   .    .  . . .  .    .  N . .   .    . {} . .   −    .  . Tr   >.    . − . .  .    .  . . .  N    . . .      rient Database for Standard Reference http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search (Nov ). ficant quantities but data not reliable; –, no data provided; Na, sodium; K, potassium; Ca, calcium; Fe, iron.

Table  Composition of root vegetables and sago per  g edible portion Carbohydrate Water Energy Protein Fat Total Starch Sugars Fibre (g) (kcal) (g) (g) (g) (Total) Description (g) (g) (g) 233 Arrowroot (dried) .  . . . . Tr N Beetroot .  . . . . . . Carrots, new .  . . . . . {.} Carrots, old .  . . . . . . Cassava (raw) . . . . . Jerusalem artichoke .  . . . . . .  . Tr (boiled) . . . . . Parsnip .  . . . . . . Potatoes, new .  . . . . . . Potatoes, old .  . . . . . . Radish .  . . N Sago (dried) .  . . . Tr Tr . Swede .  . . . . . . Sweet potato  . . . . . . . (orangea) .  . . . . . . Taro .  . . . . Turnip . . . Yam  . . . . Sources: Royal Society of Chemistry/MAFF () and supplements (–); and USDA National Nut NSP, non-starch polysaccharides; carotene, β-carotene equivalent; Tr, trace; {}, estimates; N, present in signifi a Orange, carotene range – μg/ g; white, approx.  μg/ g.

Minerals Vitamins Fibre Na K Ca Fe Carotene E B1 B2 C Folate ) (NSP) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (g) (mg) (mg)  .  Tr Tr Tr  Tr  .  Tr . .   .    .  {.} . .  .    .  . . .   .    . Tr N . .   .   .  . . .   .   .     .    .  . . .   .    . Tr {.} . .   .   . Tr . .   .   . Tr . .   .   . . Tr Tr .   .  Tr Tr   .    .  Tr . Tr       Tr . Tr   . .    .  . . .   .    . .   .  Tr . .    Tr N . .   trient Database for Standard Reference http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search (Nov ). ficant quantities but data not reliable; –, no data provided; Na, sodium; K, potassium; Ca, calcium; Fe, iron.

Table  Composition of mushrooms and algae per  g edible portion Water Energy Pro- Fat Carbohydrate Sugars Fibre (g) (kcal) tein (g) Total Starch (g) (Tota (g) (g) Description (g) (g) 234 Mushroom, common (raw) .  . . . . . . (Agaricus campestris) .  . . . – – . .  . . . – – Mushroom (Agaricus .  . . . – bisporus) . . . Tr N N N .  . . . Tr Tr . Mushroom, enoki (Pholita .  . . . N . . nameko) .  . . . . . . .  . . Tr .* Mushroom, Jew’s ear (tender . . . . – – . dried, soaked, raw) .  . . . . . . .  . . . . Mushroom, oyster (raw) .  . . . – – . Mushroom, shitake (Lenitius  – – .  – – edodus) (cooked) – – Mushroom, straw (canned) Seaweed, agar (Euchema spp.) Seaweed, Irish moss (Chondrus crispus) (raw) Seaweed, kelp (Laminaria spp.) Seaweed, laver (Porphyra laciniata) Seaweed, wakame (Undaria spp.) Spirulina (Spirulina spp.) Sources: Royal Society of Chemistry/MAFF () and supplements (–); United States Departmen National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search (Nov  Fibre: NSP, non starch polysaccharides; *, crude fibre. Carotene, β-carotene equivalent; Tr, trace; {}, estimate calcium; Fe, iron.

Minerals Vitamins Carotene e Fibre Na K Ca Fe E B1 B2 C Folate al) (NSP) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (g) .  . . . (mg) (mg)  .  .   –    . – . . . .  –   – – – . . .  N    .  N . . . N N    .  . . Tr  Tr  N    .  N . . N    .  N . . .   . –    . . . .  .    .  . . . N  * –    .  . . . .  * –    .  . . . .  * –    .  . . . .  * –    . – – . . .  nt of Agriculture, Handbook no. . Composition of Foods () and supplements (–); and USDA ). es; N, present in significant quantities but data not reliable; –, no data provided; Na, sodium; K, potassium; Ca,

Table  Vitamin sources and deficiency effects Vitamin Chemical name Good natural sources Deficiency effects Prevalence Fat soluble Retinol, β-carotene Animal foods, meat, Night blindness, Widespread in poor A coloured fruit and xerophthalmia, skin countries vegetables keratinization D Calciferol Occurs in populations Animal foods Rickets, osteomalacia protected from sun, diets very high in phytate E Tocopherols, Tocotrienols Widespread Neurological dysfunction K Phylloquinone, menaquinone Green leafy vegetables Impaired blood clotting, Very rare Rare, newborn, patients on Water soluble haemorrhage B1 anticlotting drugs B12 Thiamin Wholegrains Berberi, peripheral and Exists where restricted diet, B2 Cobalamin central nerve damage refined cereal, alcoholics B6 Only animal foods, Biotin Riboflavin some bacteria, no Pernicious anaemia Not uncommon, failure to Pyridoxine, pyridoxal, plant sources absorb B12 pyridoxamine Widespread, milk Lesions of mouth, Widespread Same seborrhoeic dermatitis Meat, wholegrains, Extremely rare, faults in vegetables, nuts Disorders of amino acid manufacture of infant feed metabolism, convulsions Widespread Unknown except TPN, Impaired fat and consumers of large C Ascorbic acid Fruit and vegetables carbohydrate amounts of raw eggs metabolism, dermatitis Folic acid Same Widespread Not uncommon Niacin Nicotinic acid, nicotinamide From typtophan in Scurvy, impaired wound healing, subcutaneous Not uncommon Pantothenic acid Same proteins haemorrhage Parts of Africa, Asia Widespread Megaloblastic anaemia Very rare Pellagra, light sensitivity, depression Peripheral nerve damage TPN, total parenteral nutrition—drip feeding. 235

Fig. 1 Proportion of energy from fats, carbohydrates, and proteins by wealth of country. X axis as is. Y axis no figures, at bottom end ‘poorest’, at top end ‘richest’, along axis ‘Increasing wealth→’ Fig. 2 Vertical section of wheat grain 236

RECOMMENDED READING AND WEBSITES Akinnifesi, F. K. Leakey, R. R. B. Ajayi, O. Sileshi, G. Tchoundjeu, Z. Prosea Foundation. Plant Resources of South-East Asia (PROSEA). Matakala, P. and Kwesiga, F. R. (). Indigenous Fruit Trees in the A series of volumes about the plants of economic importance in Tropics: Domestication, Utilization & Commercialisation. Oxford South-East Asia, some of which concern food plants. Vol. . () University Press, Oxford, UK. Pulses ; Vol. . () Edible fruits and nuts; Vol. . () Vegeta- bles; Vol. . () Plants yielding non-seed carbohydrates; Vol. . Anderson, E. N. (). The Food of China. Yale University Press, New () Cereals; Vol. . () Spices; Vol. . () Vegetable oils Haven, USA. and fats; Vol. . () Stimulants; Vol. . () Essential oils, The Agricultural University, Wageningen, The Netherlands. Bender, D. A. (ed). (). Benders’ Dictionary of Nutrition and Food Technology. (th edn). Woodhead Publishing Ltd, Cambridge, Juniper, B. E. and Mabberley, D. J. (). The Story of the Apple. Tim- UK. ber Press. Oregon, USA. Bender. D. A. (). Oxford Dictionary of Food and Nutrition (rd Kent, N. L. and Evers, A. D. (). Technology of Cereals, (th edn). Edition). Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Pergamon, Oxford, UK. Bender, D. A. (). Introduction to Nutrition and Metabolism. Uni- Kuhnlein, H. V. and Turner, N. J. (). Traditional Plant Foods of versity College London Press, London, UK. Canadian Indigenous Peoples—Nutrition, Botany and Use. Gordon and Breach, Philadelphia, USA. Blackburn, F. (). Sugar-cane. Longman, London, UK. Larkcom, J. (). Oriental Vegetables. The Complete Guide for the Phillips, F. (). Vegetarian Nutrition. British Nutrition Foundation Gardening Cook. Frances Lincoln, London, UK. Briefing Paper. BNF, London, UK. Liener, I. E. (). Toxic Constituents of Plant Foodstuffs (nd edn). Brothwell, D. and Brothwell, P. (). Food in Antiquity. A Survey of Academic Press, London, UK. the Diet of Early Peoples. Thames and Hudson, London, UK. Mabberley, D. J. (). Mabberley’s Plant-Book. A Portable Dictionary Carpenter, K. J. (). Pellagra. Cambridge University Press, Cam- of Plants. Their Classification and Uses (rd edn). Cambridge Uni- bridge, UK. versity Press, Cambridge, UK. Carpenter, K. J. (). The History of Scurvy and Vitamin C. Cam- Morgan, J. Richards, A. Dowle, E. (). The New Book of Apples. bridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. Ebury Press, UK. Davies, J. and Dickerson, J. W. T. (). Nutrient Content of Food Por- National Research Council (). Lost Crops of the Incas: Little- tions. Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge, UK. Known Plants of the Andes for Worldwide Cultivation. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, USA. De Rougemont, G. M. (). A Field Guide to the Crops of Britain and Europe. Collins, London, UK. Rosengarten, F. (). The Book of Edible Nuts. Walker, New York, USA. Drummond, J. C. and Wilbraham, A. (). The Englishman’s Food. Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge & Food Standards Agency, Five Centuries of English Diet. Jonathan Cape, London, UK. London, UK. (). McCance and Widdowson’s the Composition of Foods: Summary Edition (th edn). Fern. K. (). Plants for a Future. Edible and Useful Plants for a Healthier World. Permanent Publications. Hampshire, UK. Salaman, R. (). The History and Social Influence of the Potato. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. Fieldhouse, P. (). Food and Nutrition: Customs and Culture. Croom Helm, London, UK. Simmons, N. W. and Smart, J. (ed.) (). Evolution of Crop Plants (nd edn). Longman, London, UK. Geissler, C. and Oddy, D. J. (ed.) (). Food, Diet and Economic Change Past and Present. Leicester University Press, Leicester, Simopoulos, A. P. (ed). (). Plants in Human Nutrition. World Review of UK. Nutrition and Dietetics, vol. . Karger Publishers, Basel, Switzerland. Geissler, C. A. and Powers, H. J. (). Fundamentals of Human Singer, R. and Harris, B. (). Mushrooms and Truffles. Botany, Cultiva- Nutrition. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. tion and Utilization (nd edn). Koeltz Scientific Books, Koenigstein. Geissler, C. A. and Powers, H. J. eds. (). Human Nutrition. (th Stocks, C. (). Forgotten Fruits. A Guide to Britain’s Traditional edn). Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK (in press). Fruits and Vegetables. Random House Books, London, UK. Guiry, M. D. and Blunden, G. (ed.) (). Seaweed Resources in Stuppy, W. and Kesseler, W. (). Fruit: Edible, Inedible, Incredible. Europe: Uses and Potential. Wiley, Chichester, UK. Firefly Books, Buffalo, NY, USA with Royal Botanical Garden, Kew, London, UK. Hawkes, J. G. (). The Potato—Evolution, Biodiversity and Genetic Resources. Belhaven Press, London, UK. 237

Summerfield, R. J. and Roberts, E. H. (ed.) (). Grain Legume Food Standards Agency, UK www.food.gov.uk Crops. Collins, London, UK. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN) taxonomy for United States Department of Agriculture (). Composition of Foods plants www.ars-grin.gov (Agriculture Handbook No. ). USDA, Washington, DC. Including revisions: Fruits and fruit juices, ; Vegetables and vegetable Institute of Food Research, UK www.ifr.ac.uk products, ; Nuts and seed products, ; Legumes and leg- ume products, ; Cereal grams and pasta, . and subsequent Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS) www.itis.gov online versions (see websites below). International Plant Names Index (IPNI) www.ipni.org Van Wyk, B.-E. (). Food Plants of the World. An Illustrated Guide. Timber Press. Oregon, USA. Rowett Institute of Nutrition and Health UK www.rowett.ac.uk Zohary, D. and Hopf, M. (). Domestication of Plants in the Old Royal Horticultural Society, UK www.rhs.org.uk World (nd edn). Clarendon Press, Oxford, UK. United States Food and Drug Administration (US FDA) www.fda.gov SOME USEFUL WEBSITES FOR INFORMATION ABOUT NUTRITION AND/OR FOOD PLANTS United States Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition www.cfsan.fda.gov British Nutrition Foundation www.nutrition.org.uk United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) www.usda.gov Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, UK (food and (Includes Food and Nutrition) drink) www.defra.gov.uk/foodrin/index.htm USDA Plants database http://plants.usda.gov Department of Health, UK www.dh.gov.uk USDA Food and Nutrition Information Center http://fnic.nal. European Food Safety Authority www.efsa.europa.eu usda.gov Food and Agricultural Organisation UN (including Food Balance USDA National Agricultural Library www.nal.usda.gov Sheets) www.fao.org World Health Organisation UN (nutrition) www.who.int/topics/ nutrition/en (diet) www.who.int/topics/diet/en 238

INDEX OF PLANT NAMES Acer nigrum  ‘Christmas Pearmain’ ,  asparagus-pea (Lotus tetragonolobus) , ,  Acer saccharum ,  ‘Coe’s Golden Drop’ ,  asparagus-pea, see also bean, winged Achras zapota, see Manilkara zapota ‘Court Pendu Plat’ ,  Aspergillus flavus ,  Actinidiaceae  ‘Cox’s Orange Pippin’ , ,  Aspergillus parasiticus  Actinidia chinensis, see A. deliciosa crab  atemoya (Annona cherimola × A. Actinidia deliciosa syn. A. chinensis ,  ‘Discovery’  Adansonia  ‘Edward VII’ ,  squamosa)  adlay (Coix lachryma-jobi)  ‘Egremont Russet’ ,  Atriplex hortensis , ,  Aframomum melegueta ,  ‘Ellison’s Orange’ ,  Atropa belladonna  agar (Euchema spp.) ,  ‘Emneth Early’ ,  aubergine (Solanum melongena) xxvi, , , Agaricus bisporus  ‘Golden Delicious’ , ,  Agaricus campestris ,  ‘Golden Hornet’ ,  ,  Agave spp.  ‘Golden Spire’ ,  Aucuba japonica  akee (Blighia sapida) ,  ‘Ida Red’  Avena sativa ,  alecost (Chrysanthemum balsamita) ,  ‘John Downie’ ,  Averrhoa carambola ,  algae , , ,  ‘Kingston Black’ ,  avocado pear (Persea americana) xxx, , Allium ampeloprasum var. porrum syn. ‘Laxton’s Fortune’ ,  ‘May Queen’ ,  ,  A. porrum ,  ‘Merton Charm’ ,  azarole (Crataegus azarolus) ,  Allium cepa ,  ‘Monarch’ ,  Allium chinense  ‘Orleans Reinette’ ,  Bactris gasipaes  Allium fistulosum ,  ‘Pitmaston Pine Apple’ ,  balm, lemon (Melissa officinalis) ,  Allium porrum, see Allium ampeloprasum var. ‘Spartan’ ,  balsam herb, see alecost ‘Sweet Coppin’ ,  bamboo shoots ,  porrum ‘Transcendent’  Bambusa spp.  Allium sativum ,  ‘Tremlitt’s Bitter’ ,  banana (Musa spp.) xxix, , ,  Allium schoenoprasum ,  ‘Tydeman’s Early Worcester’ ,  Allium scorodoprasum  see also Malus spp. ‘Dwarf Cavendish’  Allium tuberosum  apricot (Prunus armeniaca syn. Armeniaca ‘Gros Michel’  allspice (Pimento dioica) ,  ‘Lady’s Fingers’ ,  almond (Prunus dulcis syns. P. amygdalus, vulgaris) xxx, , ,  red ,  Araceae  baobob (Adansonia)  Amygdalus communis) xxvi, xxix, ,  Arachis hypogaea xxix, ,  Barbarea verna  almond Araucaria angustifolia  barberry (Berberis vulgaris) ,  Araucaria araucana  barley (Hordeum vulgare) xxvi, xxvii, xxix, , bitter (Prunus dulcis var. amara)  Araucaria bidwilli  sweet (Prunus dulcis var. dulcis) ,  Arbutus unedo  ,  Amanita muscaria  Arenga pinnata syn. A. saccharifera , ,  Basellaceae  Amaranthaceae xxviii Arenga saccharifera, see A. pinnata basil Amaranthus caudatus ,  Armeniaca vulgaris, see Prunus armeniaca Amaranthus spp. ,  Armoracia rusticana ,  bush (Ocimum minimum)  amaranth xxviii arrowroot (Maranta arundinacea) , sweet (Ocimum basilicum) ,  Amomum spp.  bean Amygdalus communis, see Prunus dulcis ,  adzuki (Phaseolus angularis)  Anacardium occidentale ,  arrowroot broad (Vicia faba) xxix, ,  Ananas comosus ,  Anethum graveolens , , ,  East Indian (Tacca leontopetaloides)  see also bean, faba angelica (Angelica archangelica) ,  Indian (Curcuma angustifolia)  cluster (Cyamopsis tetragonolobus) ,  angelica, wild (Angelica sylvestris)  Queensland (Canna edulis)  common (Phaseolus vulgaris) xxix, , ,  Angelica archangelica ,  Artemisia abrotanum ,  faba (Vicia faba) xxvi, xxix, ,  anise, star (Illicium verum)  Artemisia absinthium ,  French, see bean, common anise/aniseed (Pimpinella anisum) ,  Artemisia dracunculoides  Goa, see bean, winged Annona cherimola ,  Artemisia dracunculus ,  haricot, see bean, common Annona diversifolia  artichoke jack (Canavalia ensiformis) ,  Annona muricata ,  globe (Cynara scolymus) xxvi, , ,  kidney ,  Annona purpurea  Jerusalem (Helianthus tuberosus) , Annona reticulata  see also bean, common Annona squamosa  ,  lima xxix,  Anthemis nobilis syn. Chamaemelum nobile  Artocarpus altilis syn. A. communis ,  Anthriscus cerefolium ,  Artocarpus communis, see A. altilis see also butter-bean Apiaceae, see Umbelliferae Artocarpus heterophyllus syn. A. integrifolia  locust xxviii Apium graveolens ,  Artocarpus integrifolia, see A. heterophyllus Madagascar, see butter-bean var. rapaceum ,  Ascophyllum nodosum ,  mung, see gram, green apple xxix ash-gourd, see wax-gourd scarlet runner (Phaseolus coccineus syn. ‘Braddick’s Nonpareil’ ,  asparagus (Asparagus officinalis) ,  ‘Calville Blanche d’Hiver’ ,  Asparagus officinalis ,  P. multiflorus) , ,  snap, see bean, common soya (Glycine max) xxvii, xxviii, xxix, , , , ,  tepary (Phaseolus acutifolius)  Windsor, see bean, faba winged (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus) ,  239

beetroot (Beta vulgaris) , ,  Cajanus cajan ,  Chenopodium pallidicaule  belladonna (Atropa belladonna)  calabrese, see broccoli, green sprouting Chenopodium quinoa ,  Benincasa hispida  ‘Calmondin’ (× Citrofortunella microcarpa)  cherimoya (Annona cherimola) ,  beniseed, see sesame Calvatia gigantea ,  cherry Berberidaceae  Camellia sinensis ,  Berberis vulgaris ,  Canavalia ensiformis ,  amarelle  Bertholletia excelsa ,  Canavalia gladiata  bird (Prunus padus)  Beta vulgaris , ,  Cannabaceae  bladder (Physalis alkekengi)  Canna edulis  ‘Early Rivers’ ,  var. esculenta xxviii, ,  Cantharellus cibarius ,  ground (Physalis pruinosa) ,  var. maritima  Cape gooseberry (Physalis peruviana) ,  ground (Prunus fruticosa)  bible leaf, see alecost Cape gooseberry, dwarf, see cherry, ground hybrid  bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus) , ,  capers (Capparis spinosa) ,  morello ,  bindi, see okra Capparaceae  ‘Napoleon’ ,  blackberry (Rubus ulmifolius) xxvi, , ,  Capparis spinosa ,  sour (Prunus cerasus) ,  blackberry, American (Rubus alleghanensis)  Caprifoliaceae  sweet (Prunus avium) , ,  blackthorn (Prunus spinosa) ,  Capsicum annuum  West Indian (Malpighia glabra syn. Blastophaga psenes  Capsicum frutescens  blewits (Lepista spp.) ,  Capsicum spp. xxvii, xxx, ,  M. punicifolia) xxx Blighia sapida ,  carambola (Averrhoa carambola) , ,  chervil (Anthriscus cerefolium) , ,  blueberry caraway (Carum carvi) ,  chervil, turnip-rooted (Chaerophyllum bulbo- highbush (Vaccinium corymbosum) ,  cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) ,  lowbush (Vaccinium angustifolium) ,  cardoon (Cynara cardunculus) ,  sum)  Boletus edulis ,  Carica candamarcensis  chestnut Bombacaceae  Carica papaya ,  Borassus flabellifer , , ,  carob (Ceratonia siliqua) xxviii,  Australian, see chestnut, Moreton Bay borecole, see kale carrageen (Chondrus crispus) ,  Moreton Bay (Castanospermum australe) ,  boysenberry (Rubus spp.)  carrot (Daucus carota) xxvi, xxix, xxx, , sweet/Spanish (Castanea sativa) xxvi, xxviii, Brachiaria ramosa  bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum) xxxi,  ,  , ,  brambles (Rubus spp.) ,  Carthamus tinctorius ,  chickasaw (Prunus angustifolia)  Brassica campestris  Carum carvi ,  chick-pea (no hyphen) (Cicer arietinum) xxvi, syn. Brassica rapa ,  Carya illinoensis, see C. pecan Brassicaceae, see Cruciferae Carya pecan syn. C. illinoensis ,  xxix, , ,  Brassica chinensis ,  Caryota urens ,  chicory (Cichorium intybus) , , , Brassica hirta, see Sinapis alba cashew-nuts (Anacardium occidentale) , Brassica juncea xxvi, ,  ,  Brassica napus , ,  ,  ‘Whitloof ’  Brassica nigra ,  cassava (Manihot esculenta syn. M. utilis- chilli (Capsicum annuum; C. frutescens)  Brassica oleracea , ,  chilli, bird (Capsicum frutescens)  Brassica pekinensis , ,  sima) xxvi, xxix, xxx, , , ,  Chinese lantern, see cherry, bladder Brassica rapa ,  cassia (Cinnamomum spp.)  chives (Allium schoenoprasum) ,  see also Brassica campestris Castanea dentata  chives, Chinese (Allium tuberosum)  Brassica spp. xxx Castanea mollissima  Chlorophyceae xxx Brazil-nut (Bertholletia excelsa) xxv, , ,  Castanea sativa xxviii, ,  Chondrus crispus ,  breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis syn. A. commu- Castanospermum australe ,  christophine, see chayote castor (Ricinus communis) xxviii chrysanthemum, garland (Chrysanthemum nis) ,  cauliflower (Brassica oleracea) , ,  brinjal, see aubergine Ceiba sp.  coronarium) ,  broccoli  Celenicereus sp.  Chrysanthemum balsamita ,  celeriac (Apium graveolens var. rapaceum) , Chrysanthemum coronarium ,  green sprouting (Brassica oleracea) ,  chufa, see tiger nut sprouting (Brassica oleracea) ,  ,  ciboule, see onion, Welsh Brussels sprouts (Brassica oleracea) , celery (Apium graveolens) , ,  Cicer arietinum ,  celery Cichorium endivia ,  ,  Cichorium intybus , , ,  buck-wheat leaf (Apium graveolens var. secalinum)  Cinnamomum spp.  leaf-stalk (Apium graveolens var. dulce) Cinnamomum verum syn. C. zeylandicum common (Fagopyrum esculentum) xxvii, xxviii, ,  ,  ,  cep (Boletus edulis) ,  Cinnamomum zeylandicum, see C. verum perennial (Fagopyrum cymosum)  Ceratonia siliqua  cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum syn. tartary (Fagopyrum tartaricum)  ceriman (Monstera deliciosa) ,  bullace (Prunus insititia) ,  Chaerophyllum bulbosum  C. zeylandicum) ,  bullock’s heart (Annona reticulata)  Chamaemelum nobile, see Anthemis nobilis citron (Citrus medica) ,  butter-bean (Phaseolus lunatus) , ,  chamomile (Anthemis nobilis syn. Chamaeme- Citrullus lanatus syn. C. vulgaris ,  see also bean, lima Citrullus vulgaris, see C. lanatus butternut, see walnut, white lum nobile)  Citrus aurantifolia , ,  Butyrospermum xxv chamomile Citrus bergamia  Citrus hystrix  cabbage xxviii,  German  Citrus limon ,  flower ,  wild (Matricaria recutica)  Citrus maxima  head (Brassica oleracea) , ,  champignon, fairy-ring (Marasmius Citrus medica ,  red ,  Citrus paradisi , ,  savoy ,  oreades) ,  Citrus reticulata , ,  spring  chanterelle (Cantharellus cibarius) ,  Citrus sinensis ,  wild (Brassica oleracea) ,  chard, see seakale-beet Citrus spp. hybrids  see also palm chayote (Sechium edule) ,  clementine (Citrus spp.) ,  Chenopodiaceae xxviii,  cloudberry (Rubus chamaemorus) ,  Chenopodium album  cloves (Syzygium aromaticum syn. Eugenia Chenopodium bonus-henricus ,  caryophyllus) ,  cob, see hazel 240

Coccoloba uvifera  Cucurbita spp. ,  fat hen (Chenopodium album)  cocoa (Theobroma cacao) ,  cumin (Cuminum cyminum)  fennel (Feoniculum vulgare) , ,  coconut (Cocos nucifera) xxx, , , , , cumin, black (Nigella sativa)  fennel, Florence/Florentine (Foeniculum vulgare Cuminum cyminum  ,  Cupressaceae  var. dulce) , ,  Cocos nucifera xxx, , , ,  Curcuma angustifolia  fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum)  cocoyam, new, see tannia Curcuma domestica syn. C. longa ,  Ficus benghalensis  Coffea arabica ,  Curcuma longa, see C. domestica Ficus carica ,  Coffea canephora ,  currant Ficus elastica  Coffea liberica  field-bean, see bean, faba coffee black (Ribes nigrum) , ,  fig (Ficus carica) , ,  red (Ribes sativum; R. petraeum; Ribes filbert (Corylus maxima) ,  arabica (Coffea arabica) ,  Flammulina velutipes  liberica (Coffea liberica)  rubrum) , ,  Foeniculum vulgare ,  robusta (Coffea canephora) ,  white ,  Coix lachryma-jobi  custard apple (Annona spp.)  var. dulce  Colchicum autumnale  custard-marrow (Cucurbita spp.) ,  Foeniculum vulgare var. dulce ,  collard, see kale Cyamopsis tetragonolobus ,  fonio, see rice, hungry Colocasia antiquorum, see C. esculenta cycads (Cycas spp.) xxxi, ,  Fortunella spp. , ,  Colocasia esculenta syn. C. antiquorum ,  Cycas circinalis  Fragaria chiloensis  Compositae xxx, ,  Cycas revoluta  Fragaria moschata  aromatic  Cycas spp.  Fragaria spp. ,  Jerusalem artichoke  Cydonia vulgaris ,  Fragaria vesca  oriental leaf vegetables ,  Cynara cardunculus ,  Fragaria virginiana  root crops  Cynara scolymus ,  Fragaria viridis  salad plants ,  Cyperus esculentus  Fragaria × ananassa ,  Convolvulaceae  Cyphomandra betacea ,  frijoles, see bean, common Coprinus spp.  Fungi xxx, , –,  coriander (Coriandrum sativum) , ,  Daemonorops schmidtiana  Furcellaria lumbricalis  Coriandrum sativum , ,  damson (Prunus damascena) , ,  Fusarium graminearum  Corylus avellana xxviii, ,  dandelion (Taraxacum officinale agg.) ,  Corylus maxima ,  date, see palm, date gage (Prunus italica) ,  Corypha elata  Datura spp.  Galipea officinalis  costmary, see alecost Datura stramonium  Garcinia mangostana ,  cotton (Gossypium spp.) xxvi,  Daucus carota ,  garlic (Allium sativum) xxvi, , ,  courgette (Cucurbita spp.) , ,  Dendrocalamus spp.  Gelidium sesquipedale  cowberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea)  dewberry (Rubus caesius) ,  gherkin (Cucumis anguria) ,  cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) xxvii, , ,  Digitaria exilis  gingelly, see sesame Crambe maritima ,  Digitaria iburua  ginger (Zingiber officinale) ,  cranberry (Vaccinium oxycoccus) , ,  dill (Anethum graveolens) , , ,  Ginkgo biloba  cranberry Diospyros kaki ,  gingko (Gingko biloba)  American, see cranberry, large Dolichos biflorus  Glycyrrhiza glabra ,  large (Vaccinium macrocarpon) ,  Dolichos lablab, see Lablab niger Gnetum gnemon  mountain, see cowberry dulse (Palmaria palmata syn. Rhodymenia gnetum (Gnetum gnemon)  Crataegus azarolus ,  Good King Henry (Chenopodium bonus- cress (Lepidium sativum) , ,  palmata) ,  cress durian (Durio zibethinus) , ,  henricus) ,  land, see cress, winter Durio zibethinus ,  gooseberry (Ribes grossularia syn. winter (Barbarea verna)  see also watercress Echinochloa frumentacea ,  R. uva-crispa) ,  Crithmum maritimum ,  egg plant, see aubergine gooseberry crocus, autumn (Colchicum autumnale)  einkorn (Triticum monococcum)  Crocus sativus ,  Elaeis guineensis ,  Chinese, see kiwifruit Cruciferae xxix,  Elaeis spp. xxvii gooseberry European brassicas – elder (Sambucus nigra) ,  horseradish  Eleocharis dulcis syn. E. tuberosa ,  currant (Ribes hirtellum)  oriental leaf vegetables ,  Eleocharis tuberosa, see E. dulcis Worcesterberry (Ribes divaricatum)  radish ,  Elettaria cardamomum ,  Gossypium spp.  root crops ,  Eleusine coracana ,  gourd salad plants ,  emmer (Triticum dicoccum) ,  bitter, see pear, balsam seakale ,  endive (Cichorium endivia) ,  bottle (Lagenaria siceraria)  cucumber (Cucumis sativus) , ,  ensete (Ensete ventricosa)  fig-leaf (Cucurbita ficifolia)  Cucumeropsis edulis  Ensete ventricosa  Malabar, see gourd, fig-leaf Cucumeropsis manii  Eragrostis tef  gram Cucumis anguria ,  Ericaceae – Bengal, see chick-pea (no hyphen) Cucumis hardwickii  Eriobotyra japonica ,  black (Phaseolus mungo syn. Vigna Cucumis longipes  Eruca sativa ,  Cucumis melo ,  Euchlaena mexicana  mungo) , ,  Cucumis sativus ,  Eugeissona utilis  golden, see gram, green Cucurbitaceae  Eugenia caryophyllus, see Syzygium aromaticum green (Phaseolus aureus syn. Vigna Cucurbita ficifolia  Euphorbiaceae  Cucurbita maxima ,  Euterpa oleracea  radiata) , ,  Cucurbita mixta  red, see pigeon-pea Cucurbita moschata ,  Fabaceae, see Leguminosae Gramineae xxvii, xxviii Fagopyrum esculentum ,  bamboo  granadilla giant (Passiflora quadrangularis) ,  purple, see passion fruit sweet (Passiflora ligularis)  grape (Vitis vinifera) xxvi, xxviii, –,  241

grape Kerstingiella geocarpa  Lycopersicon esculentum xxvi, ,  ‘Cabernet’ ,  kiwicha (Amaranthus caudatus)  var. cerasiforme  ‘Chardonnay’ ,  kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa syn. A. cultivars , ,  Macadamia integrifolia ,  muscadine (Vitis rotundifolia)  chinensis) xxv, xxvii, , ,  Macadamia nut (Macadamia integrifolia) xxvii, ‘Pinot Noir’ ,  kohlrabi (Brassica oleracea) ,  ‘Riesling’ ,  kumquat (Fortunella) , ,  , ,  sea (Coccoloba uvifera)  kurrat  Macadamia tetraphylla ,  slip skin (Vitis labrusca)  mace (Myristica fragrans) ,  wild American (Vitis spp.)  Labiatae xxx, , , ,  mace, see also alecost lablab (Lablab niger syn. Dolichos lablab) ,  Macrolepiota procera  grapefruit (Citrus paradisi) xxix, xxx, , , ,  Lablab niger syn. Dolichos lablab ,  Macrolepiota rhacodes ,  grass-pea (Lathyrus sativus) xxix, , ,  lad’s love, see southernwood maize (Zea mays) xxvi, xxvii, xxviii, xxix, , , greengage (Prunus italica) , ,  lady’s fingers, see okra Grossulariaceae ,  Lagenaria siceraria  ,  groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) xxvi–xxvii, Laminaria spp.  dent-type ,  Lathyrus sativus xxix, , ,  hybrid xxvi xxviii, xxix, , , , , ,  Lactuca sativa ,  Malpighia glabra syn. M. punicifolia xxx groundnut Lauraceae  Malpighia punicifolia, see M. glabra laurel Malus baccata  bambara (Voandzeia subterranea syn. Vigna Malus hupehensis  subterranea)  bay (Laurus nobilis) ,  Malus manchuria  cherry (Prunus laurocerasus)  Malus orientalis  Hausa (Kerstingiella geocarpa)  Japanese (Aucuba japonica)  Malus sieversii  Kersting’s, see groundnut, Hausa Laurus nobilis ,  Malus sylvestris ,  guar, see bean, cluster laver (Porphyra umbilicalis) , ,  Malus × domestica  guava (Psidium guajava) , ,  leek (Allium ampeloprasum var. porrum syn. Malvaceae  guava, strawberry (Psidium littorale)  mandarin (Citrus reticulata) , ,  gumbo, see okra A. porrum) , ,  Mangifera indica ,  Gyromitra spp.  Leguminosae xxix, ,  mango (Mangifera indica) xxx, , ,  mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana) , hazel (Corylus avellana) xxvi, xxviii, , ,  beans – Helianthus annuus ,  exotic  ,  Helianthus tuberosus ,  fenugreek  Manihot esculenta syn. M. utilissima ,  henbane (Hyoscyamus niger)  lentils ,  Manihot utilissima, see M. esculenta herb patience (Rumex patientia)  liquorice ,  Manilkara zapota syn. Achras zapota ,  Hibiscus esculentus ,  peas , , ,  manioc, see cassava Hibiscus sabdariffa  tropical pulses ,  maple hoogly, see ugli lemon (Citrus limon) xxvi, xxix, , ,  hop (Humulus lupulus) ,  lemon, water (Passiflora laurifolia)  black (Acer nigrum)  Hordeum sativum, see H. vulgare Lens culinaris syn. L. esculenta ,  sugar (Acer saccharum) xxviii, ,  Hordeum vulgare syn. H. sativum ,  Lens esculenta, see L. culinaris Maranta arundinacea ,  horse-bean, see bean, jack lentil (Lens culinaris syn. L. esculenta) xxvi, Marantaceae  horse-gram (Dolichos biflorus)  Marasmius oreades ,  horse-mint (Mentha longifolia)  xxix, , ,  marjoram horse-radish (Armoracia rusticana) ,  Lentinus edodus  knotted, see marjoram, sweet huckleberry, garden (Solanum intrusum syn. Lepidium sativum ,  sweet (Marjorana hortensis syn. Origanum Lepista spp. ,  Solanum nigrum var. guineense) ,  lettuce (Lactuca sativa) xxvi, , ,  marjorana)  Humulus lupulus ,  Levisticum officinale ,  wild, see oregano Hyoscyamus niger  Ligusticum scoticum  Marjorana hortensis syn. Origanum marjo- lime (Citrus aurantifolia) , , ,  ilama (Annona diversifolia)  lime rana  Ilex paraguariensis  marrow, vegetable (Cucurbita spp.) , Illicium verum  Rangpur (Citrus reticulata)  Ipomoea batatas xxvi, ,  wild, see papeda ,  Irish moss (Chondrus crispus) , ,  lingonberry, see cowberry mashua, see ysaño Lippia graveolens  mat-bean (Phaseolus aconitifolius)  jackfruit/jakfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus syn. liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) ,  maté (Ilex paraguariensis)  A. integrifolia)  Litchi chinensis ,  Matricaria recutica  loganberry (Rubus loganobaccus) , ,  medlar (Mespilus germanica) , ,  jamberry, see tomatillo loofah (Luffa cylindrica)  medlar, Japanese, see loquat Job’s tears, see adlay loquat (Eriobotyra japonica) , ,  Melissa officinalis ,  jojoba (Simmondsia californica) xxviii lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) ,  melon (Cucumis melo) , ,  Juglans cinerea ,  Lotus tetragonolobus , ,  Juglans nigra ,  lovage (Levisticum officinale) ,  ‘canteloupe’ , ,  Juglans regia ,  lovage, Scotch (Ligusticum scoticum)  ‘netted’ ,  Juglans sieboldiana  Luffa cylindrica  ‘ogen’ ,  juniper (Juniperus communis) ,  lupin ,  ‘winter’ ,  Juniperus communis ,  narrow-leaved (Lupinus angustifolius)  melon white (Lupinus albus syn. L. termis) ,  egusi (Cucumeropsis edulis/C. manii)  kale (Brassica oleracea) xxix, , ,  yellow (Lupinus luteus)  see also water-melon kale, Chinese (Brassica alboglabra)  Lupinus albus syn. L. termis ,  Mentha aquatica  kaniwa (Chenopodium pallidicaule)  Lupinus angustifolius  Mentha longifolia  kapok (Ceiba spp.)  Lupinus luteus  Mentha spicata  katemfe (Thaumatococcus daniellii) xxviii Lupinus mutabilis  Mentha × piperita ,  kava (Piper methysticum)  Lupinus spp. ,  Mespilus germanica ,  kelp (Laminaria spp.) ,  lychee (Litchi chinensis) , ,  Metroxylon rumphii  Metroxylon sagu ,  millet xxvii, ,  242

brown-top (Brachiaria ramosa)  Egyptian  pea (Pisum sativum) xxvi, xxix, , ,  bulrush (Pennisetum typhoideum) ,  Japanese bunching, see onion, Welsh pear xxix,  common (Panicum miliaceum) ,  tree  finger (Eleusine coracana) ,  Welsh (Allium fistulosum) ,  balsam (Momordica charantia) ,  foxtail (Setaria italica) ,  Opuntia ficus-indica ,  ‘Bergamotte d’Espéren’ ,  Japanese (Echinochloa frumentacea) ,  orache (Atriplex hortensis) , ,  common (Pyrus communis)  kodo (Paspalum scrobiculatum)  orange xxix ‘Conference’ ,  little (Panicum miliare) ,  blood ,  ‘Durondeau’ ,  pearl, see millet, bulrush Seville (Citrus aurantium) xxvi, , ,  ‘Fertility’ ,  mint xxx sweet (Citrus sinensis) , ,  ‘Hazel’ ,  round-leaved (Mentha rotundifolia)  oregano (Origanum vulgare) ,  nashi ,  Momordica charantia ,  oregano, Mexican (Lippia graveolens)  ‘Olivier de Serres’ ,  monkey nut, see groundnut Oreodoxa oleracea  oriental (Pyrus pyrifolia)  monkey-puzzle tree, see pine, Chile Origanum marjorana, see Marjorana hortensis ‘Packham’s Triumph’ ,  Monstera deliciosa ,  Origanum vulgare ,  ‘Passe Crasanne’ ,  mooli (Raphanus sativus)  Oryza sativa ,  prickly (Opuntia ficus-indica) ,  Morchella esculenta ,  Oxalidaceae  ‘Red Glow Williams’ ,  morel (Morchella esculenta) ,  Oxalis tuberosa ,  ‘Red Pear’  Morus alba  oyster plant, see salsify ‘Taynton Squash’  Morus nigra ,  ‘Thorn’  moth-bean, see mat-bean Pachyrrhizus erosus ,  ‘Williams’ Bon Chrétien’ ,  mountain ash, see rowan Pachyrrhizus sp.  ‘Yellow Huffcap’  mulberry (Morus nigra) , ,  pak-choi (Brassica chinensis) ,  pecan (Carya pecan syn. C. illinoensis) , mulberry, white (Morus alba)  palm xxx Musa acuminata  ,  Musa balbisiana  borassus, see palm, palmyra; palmyra Pennisetum typhoideum ,  mushroom xxx, ,  buri (Corypha elata)  pepino (Solanum muricatum)  Chinese (Volvariella volvacea) ,  coconut (Cocos nucifera) ,  pepper common (Agaricus bisporus) ,  date (Phoenix dactylifera) , , ,  field (Agaricus campestris) ,  fishtail (Caryota urens)  black (Piper nigrum) xxvii, ,  Japanese black forest (Lentinus edodus) gomuti, see palm, sugar Guinea (Xylopia aethiopica)  nipa (Nipa fruticans)  hot (Capsicum) xxvii ,  oil (Elaeis guineensis) xxvii, , ,  melegueta (Aframomum melegueta) ,  oyster (Pleurotus ostreatus) ,  palmyra (Borassus flabellifer) ,  sweet (Capsicum spp.) xxx, ,  parasol (Macrolepiota procera)  sago (Metroxylon sagu) ,  Szechuan (Zanthoxylum spp.)  straw, see mushroom, Chinese sugar (Arenga pinnata syn. A. saccha- tree (Schinus molle)  winter (Flammulina velutipes)  white (Piper nigrum) ,  musk-melon ,  rifera) , ,  peppermint (Mentha × piperita) ,  mustard  toddy, see palm, fishtail Persea americana ,  black (Brassica nigra) ,  wild date (Phoenix sylvestris) ,  Persica vulgaris, see Prunus persica brown (Brassica juncea) xxvi,  Palmaceae xxx persimmon  Indian (Brassica juncea) xxvi,  Palmaria palmata syn. Rhodymenia Japanese (Diospyros kaki) ,  white (Sinapis alba syn. Brassica hirta) , oriental, see persimmon, Japanese palmata ,  Petroselinum crispum ,  , ,  palmyra (Borassus flabellifer) ,  pe-tsai (Brassica pekinensis) , ,  Myristica fragrans ,  palusan (Nephelium mutabile)  Phaeophyceae xxx Myrrhis odorata ,  Panicum miliaceum ,  Phaseolus aconitifolius  Myrtaceae  Panicum miliare ,  Phaseolus acutifolius  papaya (Carica papaya) xxx, , , ,  Phaseolus angularis  naranjilla (Solanum quitoense)  papeda (Citrus hystrix)  Phaseolus aureus syn. Vigna radiata ,  Nasturtium microphyllum × officinale ,  paprika (Capsicum annuum)  Phaseolus calcaratus  Nasturtium officinale ,  parasol, shaggy (Macrolepiota rhacodes) Phaseolus coccineus syn. P. multiflorus ,  nectarine (Prunus persica var. nectarina) ,  Phaseolus lunatus ,  Nelumbo nucifera ,  ,  Phaseolus multiflorus, see P. coccineus Nephelium lapaceum ,  parsley (Petroselinum crispum) xxx, ,  Phaseolus mungo syn. Vigna mungo ,  Nephelium mutabile  parsnip (Pastinaca sativa) xxvi, xxix, , Phaseolus trilobus  nettle Phaseolus vulgaris ,  ,  Phoenix acaulis  small (Urtica urens)  Paspalum scrobiculatum  Phoenix dactylifera , ,  stinging (Urtica dioica) ,  Passiflora edulis ,  Phoenix sylvestris ,  Nicotiana tabacum  Passiflora flavicarpa  Phyllophora truncata  Nigella sativa  Passiflora foetida  Phyllostachys spp.  Nipa fruticans  Passiflora laurifolia  Physalis alkekengi  nori, see laver Passiflora ligularis  Physalis ixocarpa ,  nutmeg-melon ,  Passiflora quadrangularis ,  Physalis peruviana ,  nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) , ,  passion fruit Physalis pruinosa ,  pigeon-pea (Cajanus cajan) , ,  oats (Avena sativa) xxvii, , , ,  purple (Passiflora edulis) ,  pillepesara (Phaseolus trilobus)  oca (Oxalis tuberosa) ,  yellow (Passiflora flavicarpa)  pimento, see allspice Ocimum basilicum ,  Pastinaca sativa ,  Pimento dioica ,  Ocimum minimum  patty pan, see custard-marrow Pimpinella anisum ,  okra (Hibiscus esculentus) xxvii, , ,  pawpaw ,  pine olive (Olea europa) xxviii, , , ,  mountain (Carica candamarcensis)  bunya-bunya (Araucaria bidwilli)  onion (Allium cepa) xxvi, , ,  see also papaya Chile (Araucaria araucana)  pea-bean, see bean, common kernel (Pinus spp.) xxxi, , ,  Catawissa  peach (Prunus persica syn. Persica vulgaris) , ,  peanut, see groundnut 243

pine (cont.) Prunus serotina  Rubus spp. ,  Parana (Araucaria angustifolia)  Prunus spinosa ,  Rubus strigosus  Stone (Pinus pinea) , ,  Prunus subcordata  Rubus ulmifolius ,  Psidium guajava ,  Rumex acetosa ,  pineapple (Ananas comosus) , ,  Psidium guineense  Rumex patientia  piñon (Pinus edulis)  Psidium littorale  Rumex scutatus  piñon Psophocarpus tetragonolobus ,  Rutaceae xxix,  Pteridium aquilinum xxxi,  rye (Secale cereale) xxvii, , ,  Mexican (Pinus cembroides)  puff-ball, giant (Calvatia gigantea) ,  single-leaf (Pinus monophylla)  pummelo (Citrus maxima syn. C. grandis) ,  Saccharum barberi  Pinus cembra  pumpkin (Cucurbita pepo; C. maxima; C. mixta; Saccharum officinarum xxviii, ,  Pinus cembroides  Saccharum robustum  Pinus edulis  C. moschata) xxx, , ,  Saccharum sinense  Pinus gerardiana  Punica granatum ,  Saccharum spontaneum  Pinus koraiensis  safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) ,  Pinus monophylla  Queensland nut, see Macadamia nut saffron (Crocus sativus) ,  Pinus pinea ,  quince (Cydonia vulgaris) , ,  sage Pinus pumila  quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) xxviii, , ,  Pinus sibirica  clary (Salvia sclarea)  Pinus spp. ,  radish (Raphanus sativus) , ,  pineapple (Salvia rutilans)  Piperaceae  radish, rat-tailed (Raphanus caudatus)  sage (Salvia officinalis)  Piper methysticum  rakkyo (Allium chinense)  sago (Metroxylon sagu) , ,  Piper nigrum xxvii, ,  rambutan (Nephelium lapaceum) , ,  St John’s bread, see carob pistachio (Pistacia vera) , ,  Ranunculaceae  salsify (Tragopogon porrifolius) ,  Pistacia vera ,  rape salsify, black, see scorzonera Pisum sativum ,  Salvia officinalis  pitahaya (Celenicereus spp.)  oilseed (Brassica napus) xxviii, , ,  Sambucus nigra ,  Pleurotus ostreatus  swede, see rape, oilseed samphire (Crithmum maritimum) ,  plum xxix turnip (Brassica rapa) ,  Sapindaceae  American (Prunus americana)  raspberry (Rubus idaeus) , ,  sapodilla (Manilkara zapota syn. Achras cherry (Prunus cerasifera) , ,  raspberry ‘Coe’s Golden Drop’ ,  black (Rubus occidentalis)  zapota) ,  ‘Czar’ ,  Chinese (Rubus kuntzeanus)  sarson, see rape, turnip date, see persimmon, Japanese strawberry (Rubus illecebrosus)  Satureja hortensis ,  European (Prunus domestica) , , ,  wild (Rubus strigosus)  Satureja montana ,  Japanese (Prunus salicina syn. P. triflora)  rettich (Raphanus sativus)  savory ‘Jefferson’ ,  Rheum raphonticum ,  ‘Kirke’s Blue’ ,  Rheum rhabarabarum, see R. raphonticum summer (Satureja hortensis) ,  ‘Laxton’s Delicious’ ,  Rhodophyceae xxx winter (Satureja montana) ,  ‘Monarch’ ,  Rhodymenia palmata, see Palmaria palmata Schinus molle  Oregon (Prunus subcordata)  rhubarb (Rheum raphonticum syn. Rheum Scorzonera hispanica ,  ‘Pershore Egg’ ,  scorzonera (Scorzonera hispanica) ,  ‘Pond’s, Seedling’ ,  rhabarbarum) xxix, ,  sea-beet (Beta vulgaris var. maritima)  ‘Prune d’Agen’ ,  Ribes divaricatum  seakale-beet (Beta vulgaris) , ,  ‘River’s Early Prolific’ ,  Ribes grossularia syn. R. uva-crispa  seakale (Crambe maritima) ,  Texan (Prunus orthosepala)  Ribes hirtellum  sea-lettuce (Ulva lactua)  ‘Victoria’ ,  Ribes petraeum ,  seaweed xxx, , , ,  Poaceae xxvii Ribes rubrum ,  Secale cereale ,  Polygonaceae xxviii, ,  Ribes sativum ,  Sechium edule ,  pomegranate (Punica granatum) , ,  rice (Oryza sativa) xxvi, xxvii, xxix, , , service tree (Sorbus domestica)  pomelo, see pummelo sesame (Sesamum indicum) , ,  Porphyra umbilicalis ,  ,  Sesamum indicum ,  potato (Solanum tuberosum) xxvi, xxix, xxx, rice Setaria italica ,  Setaria viridis  , , , –,  hungry (Digitaria exilis; D. iburua)  shaddock, see pummelo potato, sweet (Ipomoea batatas) xxvi, xxx, ,  wild (Zizania aquatica) xxv, ,  shallots ,  Prunus americana  rice-bean (Phaseolus calcaratus)  Sharon fruit, see persimmon Prunus amygdalus, see P. dulcis Ricinus communis xxviii shea-nut (Butyrospermum) xxv Prunus angustifolia  rocambole (Allium sativum; A. shiitake, see mushroom, Japanese black forest Prunus armeniaca syn. Armeniaca vulgaris ,  shungiku, see chrysanthemum, garland Prunus avium ,  scorodoprasum)  Simmondsia californica xxviii Prunus cerasifera ,  rocket (Eruca sativa) ,  simsim, see sesame Prunus cerasus ,  Rosa canina ,  Sinapis alba syn. Brassica hirta , , ,  Prunus damascena ,  Rosaceae xxix sloe Prunus domestica ,  Rosa rugosa ,  American (Prunus alleghaniensis)  Prunus dulcis syns. P. amygdalus, Amygdalus rose, dog (Rosa spp.) ,  see also blackthorn roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa)  snake-gourd (Trichosanthes cucumerina) ,  communis xxix, ,  rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) ,  Solanaceae xxix, , ,  Prunus fruticosa  Rosmarinus officinalis ,  Solanum aethiopicum  Prunus insititia ,  rowan (Sorbus aucuparia)  Solanum intrusum syn. Solanum nigrum var. Prunus italica ,  Rubus caesius ,  Prunus laurocerasus  Rubus chamaemorus ,  guineense ,  Prunus orthosepala  Rubus idaeus ,  Solanum macrocarpon  Prunus persica syn. Persica vulgaris ,  Rubus illecebrosus  Solanum melongena ,  Prunus persica var. nectarina ,  Rubus kuntzeanus  Solanum muricatum  Prunus salicina syn. P. triflora  Rubus loganobaccus ,  Solanum nigrum var. guineense ,  Rubus occidentalis  Rubus phoenicolasius ,  244

Solanum quitoense  teff (Eragrostis tef )  vanilla (Vanilla fragrans syn. V. planifolia) ,  Solanum tuberosum xxvi teosinte (Euchlaena mexicana)  Verbenaceae  soncoya (Annona purpurea)  Tetragonia expansa ,  vetch Sorbus aucuparia  Tetrapanax papyrifer  Sorbus domestica  Thaumatococcus daniellii xxviii bitter xxvi Sorghum bicolor syn. vulgare ,  Theobroma cacao ,  chickling, see grass-pea sorghum (Sorghum bicolor syn. vulgare) xxvii, thorn-apple (Datura stramonium)  Vicia faba ,  thyme Vigna mungo, see Phaseolus mungo xxviii, , , ,  Vigna radiata, see Phaseolus aureus sorrel (Rumex acetosa) ,  breckland, see thyme, wild Vigna subterranea, see Voandzeia sorrel caraway (Thymus herba-barona)  common (Thymus vulgaris) ,  subterranea red, see roselle lemon (Thymus citriodorus) ,  Vigna unguiculata ,  round-leaved (Rumex scutatus)  wild (Thymus serpyllum)  Vigna vexillata  sour sop (Annona muricata) ,  Thymus citriodorus ,  Vitis berlandieri  southernwood (Artemisia abrotanum) ,  Thymus herba-barona  Vitis labrusca  soy/soya, see bean, soya Thymus serpyllum  Vitis riparia  Spinacea oleracea ,  Thymus vulgaris ,  Vitis rotundifolia  spinach (Spinacea oleracea) xxvi, , ,  tick-bean, see bean, faba Vitis rupestris  spinach tiger nut (Cyperus esculentus)  Vitis vinifera xvii, – amaranthus (Amaranthus spp.) ,  til, see sesame Voandzeia subterranea syn. Vigna New Zealand (Tetragonia expansa) ,  tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum)  spinach-beet (Beta vulgaris) ,  tomatillo (Physalis ixocarpa) ,  subterranea  spirulina (Spirulina spp.)  tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) xxvi, xxix, Volvariella volvacea  squash  scalloped summer, see custard-marrow xxx, , ,  wakame (Undaria spp.) ,  summer (Cucurbita spp.) , ,  tomato walnut winter (Cucurbita maxima; C. mixta; C. cherry (Lycopersicon esculentum var. cerasi- black ( Juglans nigra) ,  moschata) , , ,  forme) ,  common ( Juglans regia) xxvi, xxviii, xxix, star fruit, see carambola strawberry xxix, , ,  husk, see cherry, ground , , ,  strawberry, see cherry, ground Japanese ( Juglans sieboldiana)  alpine (Fragaria vesca var. semperflorens) ,  tree (Cyphomandra betacea) ,  Persian, see walnut common cultivated (Fragaria × ananassa) ,  toria, see rape, turnip white ( Juglans cinerea) ,  ‘Hautbois’ (Fragaria moschata)  Tragopogon porrifolius ,  water-chestnut (Eleocharis dulcis syn. E. West Coast Pine (Fragaria chiloensis)  Trapa spp. ,  wild (Fragaria vesca)  Trichosanthes cucumerina ,  tuberosa; Trapa spp.) , ,  wild (Fragaria viridis)  Trigonella foenum-graecum  watercress (Nasturtium officinale; N. microphyl- strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo)  triticale (× Triticosecale)  string-bean, see bean, common Triticum aestivum syn. T. vulgare xxvii, ,  lum × officinale) xxvi, , ,  sugar apple, see sweet sop Triticum dicoccum ,  water-melon (Citrullus lanatus syn. C. sugar-beet (Beta vulgaris var. esculenta) xxviii, Triticum durum ,  Triticum monococcum  vulgaris) , ,  , ,  Triticum turgidum ,  water-melon, wild (Passiflora foetida)  sugar-cane (Saccharum officinarum) xxvi, Triticum vulgare, see T. aestivum wax-gourd (Benincasa hispida)  Tropaeolaceae  wheat xxvi, xxvii, xxix, , ,  xxviii, , ,  Tropaeolum tuberosum ,  sunberry, see huckleberry, garden truffle (Tuber aestivum; T. melanosporum) xxx, bread (Triticum aestivum syn. T. sunflower (Helianthus annuus) xxviii, , , vulgare) xxvi, , ,  ,  ,  Tuber aestivum ,  club (Triticum clavatum)  swede xxix,  Tuber melanosporum ,  cone, see wheat, rivet turmeric (Curcuma domestica syn. durum (Triticum durum) , ,  see also turnip English, see wheat, rivet sweet cicely (Myrrhis odorata) ,  C. longa) , ,  rivet (Triticum turgidum) ,  sweet sop (Annona squamosa)  turnip (Brassica campestris syn. Brassica wineberry (Rubus phoenicolasius) ,  sword-bean (Canavalia gladiata)  winter greens, see kale Syzygium aromaticum syn. Eugenia rapa) xxix, , ,  woolly pyrol, see gram, black wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) ,  caryophyllus ,  wrack, knotted (Ascophyllum nodosum) ,  Tacca leontopetaloides  ugli (Citrus) spp. ,  Xanthosoma sagittifolium ,  tamarillo, see tomato, tree ulluco (Ullucus tuberosus) ,  Xylopia aethiopica  tamarind (Tamarindus indica) ,  Ullucus tuberosus ,  Tamarindus indica ,  Umbelliferae xxix, xxx, , ,  yam  Tanacetum vulgare ,  cush-cush (Dioscorea trifida)  tangerine (Citrus reticulata) , , ,  leaf stalks ,  greater (Dioscorea alata)  tangho, see chrysanthemum, garland leaves ,  lesser (Dioscorea esculenta)  tannia (Xanthosoma sagittifolium) ,  root crops ,  white Guinea (Dioscorea rotundata)  tansy (Tanacetum vulgare) ,  Undaria spp.  yellow Guinea (Dioscorea cayensis)  tapioca, see cassava urd, see gram, black Taraxacum officinale agg. ,  Urtica dioica ,  yam-bean (Pachyrrhizus erosus) , ,  taro (Colocasia esculenta syn. C. antiquo- Urtica urens  yam (Dioscorea spp.) xxvii, xxx, ,  yautia, see tannia rum) , ,  Vaccinium angustifolium ,  ysaño (Tropaeolum tuberosum) ,  tarragon (Artemisia dracunculus) xxx, ,  Vaccinium corymbosum ,  tarragon Vaccinium myrtillus ,  Zanthoxylum spp.  Vaccinium oxycoccus ,  Zea mays ,  false, see tarragon, Russian Vaccinium vitis-idaea  Zingiberaceae  Russian (Artemisia dracunculoides)  Vanilla fragrans syn. V. planifolia ,  Zingiber officinale ,  tarwi (Lupinus mutabilis)  Vanilla planifolia, see V. fragrans Zizania aquatica xxv,  tea (Camellia sinensis) ,  zucchini, see courgette 245

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SUBJECT INDEX aflatoxin xxviii, , ,  oat  crop selection xxv, xxvi agar ,  bread making ,  cucurbitacins  AIDS virus  bromelain  cultivar xxv alcohol(s) xxx,  bulgar  aldehydes xxx high-yielding xxvi algae xxx calcium , , – miracle xxvi alginates  binding  cultivation xxv alkaloids xxix, ,  currants  allergens  calories, source –,  cyanogens  allergies xxix,  cancer – cycasin – canning  gluten  caprification  daidzein  alliins ,  capsaicinoids  deoxyribose  amino acids  carbohydrate –, , – depressants  dhurrin  neurotoxic  absorption  dietary fibre – amygdalin ,  digestion  dietary patterns, international  animal feed xxx source  disaccharides  carcinogens – dispersal xxvi–xxvii barley  carotenes xxx, , , , , , , domestication citrus waste  lentils  – cereals xxvii maize  blanching effects  food plants xxv oats  palm oil  parallels between cereals and legumes xxix soya  carrageenan ,  wheat  anthocyanin xxx, , , ,  cashew-nut shell liquid (CNSL)  drying  anthraquinone  castanospermine  dwarf forms xxvi antinutrients – catechin  antioxidants  cereals xxvii–xxviii elemicin  apiin  composition  energy , – apples –, – crops – cider – dietary fibre ,  food groups  classification  dispersal xxvi enrichment  cultivars fat content ,  enzyme inhibitors  flour enrichment  ergot ,  of flavour/quality – grain structure xxvii erucic acid  historical ,  milling xxvii–xxviii, ,  essential oils xxx,  modern – nutritional value xxvii, xxviii,  esters xxx through the season ,  water content ,  ethyl alcohol xxviii archaeological information xxv, xxix chicle  eugenol  cereals xxvii chloride ,  European settlers in N. America xxvii Cucurbita spp.  chlorophyll xxx fig  cholesterol ,  F1 seed xxvi food plant dispersal xxvi cider – fabism xxix fruits xxix citric acid xxx,  family xxv grapes  classification of plants xxv famine foods  maize  coeliac disease  fat , – oats  coir  olives  colchicine xxvi cereals content  plum  colorectal cancer  consumption levels  potato  Columbus, Christopher xxvi, xxvii, xxx, ,  energy  vegetables xxix Capsicum spp.  source  wheat  cocoa  vegetable/animal source composition  arrack ,  second voyage  fatty acids ,  atropine  sweet potato  essential  constipation  trans xxviii,  bagasse  contaminants  favism ,  barley flour/water  Cook, Captain James  ferns xxxi bergamot oil  cooking  Fertile Crescent of Near/Middle East xxvi, xxvii, ,  beriberi  vitamin loss  fiddleheads xxxi β-glucans  copper ,  fireblight  biofuels xxviii copra  flatus-producing substances  blanching  corn oil xxvii,  flavonoids  Bligh, Captain William ,  coumestans  flour, white xxviii blight, potato  couscous  folate , – bran xxvii folic acid ,  247

food lathyrism xxix,  oleic acid ,  consumption  lecithin  oleoresin xxx, ,  groups  lectins xxix, ,  oleuropein  labelling  legumes oligosaccharides  tables  oxalic acid , ,  antinutritional substances xxix,  Food Balance Sheets  composition  palm freezing  dispersal xxvi heart xxx, , ,  fructans  exotic ,  oil  fructose xxviii, xxx,  nutritional content xxix,  wine xxx, ,  toxic substances xxix, – cherry  tropical – pantothenic acid  syrup  legumes xxix papain  fruits xxix–xxx lignans  parboiling  annonaceous ,  linamarin  patulin  citrus – linoleic acid  pears composition ,  lotaustralin  nutritional value xxx lycopene  cultivars – temperate  perry – tropical  magnesium  stone cells ,  fruit trees xxvii Maillard reaction  pectin ,  furfural  malic acid xxx,  pellagra  malting  pentoses ,  galactose  maltose  perry – Gama, Vasco da xxx mannitol  phenolic compounds  genetic engineering xxvi,  metal binders  phosphorus  genetic variation xxvi micro-fungi xxxi phycocolloids  genistein  milling xxvii–xxviii,  phytates ,  genus xxv phytic acid ,  gliadin  maize  phytochemicals  glucose xxviii, xxx,  minerals , –, – phytoestrogens  molasses  plant breeding xxvi cherry  monosaccharides  plums – syrup xxviii,  mutation, wheat  cooking cultivars – glucosinolates xxviii, xxx, , , , ,  mycotoxins  dessert cultivars ,  gluten ,  myristicin ,  pollutants  maize  polysaccharides  glycosides ,  naringin xxx pomace  cyanogenic xxix neohesperidin  Portugese empire xxvi–xxvii goitrogens xxix, , ,  Neolithic people xxvi, xxvii, xxix potassium , – gossypol ,  niacin , ,  pressor amines  grain crops, see cereals nitrogen fixation xxix processing – grapes, dried  non-flowering plants xxx–xxxi protease  grass family xxvii, xxviii non-starch polysaccharide (NSP) , inhibitors  Greek Empire xxx protein , , –,  Green Revolution xxvi,  – prussic acid  rice production  nopitos  pseudo-cereals xxvii, xxviii, –,  groundnut xxvii nutrient goals  Amaranthus spp.  guar gum  nutrition –, – pulses, see legumes gum arabic  gums  surveys  quercitin  gymnosperms xxxi nuts xxviii–xxix quinoa xxvii Quorn  haemagglutinin xxix,  composition  hallucinogens  nutritional value xxviii–xxix,  radiocarbon dating xxv–xxvi harvesting  nut trees – raffinose xxix, ,  herbs xxx raisins ,  hexoses ,  oatmeal  recommended daily amounts (RDAs)  honey xxviii,  oestrogens  retinol  household surveys  oil  riboflavin , – hybridization xxvi ribose  bitter almond  rice, parboiling  cell level xxvi clove  rice-paper  triticale  coconut ,  Roman Empire xxvi, xxx wheat  grapeseed  root nodules xxix hyoscyamine  groundnut ,  rust  maize  rutin  Incas xxvii olive ,  inositol  palm/palm kernel  safrole  insect resistance xxvi rape  sago xxxi,  inulin  saturated xxviii,  iodine , ,  sesame ,  composition  iron , – soya  salad isoflavonoids  sunflower ,  isothiocyanate ,  sweet almond  crop composition  unsaturated xxvii, xxviii,  plants xxix kaempferol  walnut  roots  kaki-tannin  oilseed xxviii–xxix, , ,  composition  248

saponins xxix, ,  mushroom  nutritional value xxx scopolamine  palm xxx roots  seaweed xxx, , ,  production methods  verbascose  selenium ,  sultanas  vine leaves  semi-dwarf forms xxvi sweet corn , ,  vitamin A  semolina  synonyms xxv vitamin C , , , , , Senecio alkaloids  sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG)  tannin ,  – sodium , , – tartaric acid  vitamin D ,  solanine ,  thaumatin xxviii vitamin B12 deficiency  sorbitol  thiamin , , – vitamin B –, – sour-dough  thiaminase  vitamin E , – Spanish empire xxvi–xxvii thioallyl compounds see alliins vitamin K  species xxv thioglycosides  vitamins , –, – tissue culture methods xxvi ancestral xxvi toddy  cooking – spices xxx tomatine  cooking loss  stachyose xxix, ,  toxicants, natural – deficiencies  starch  trans fatty acids xxviii,  fat-soluble  stimulants  trehalose  sources  storage  triglycerides ,  storage effects  sucrose xxviii, xxx,  water-soluble – ubiquinone  palm sap  water , – sudden death fungal disease  variety, see cultivar water plants, exotic – sugar xxviii, , – vegetables xxvii, xxix–xxx wild plants xxv, ,  alcohols  composition – comparison of cultivated plants xxvi coconut sap  fruits  crops xxviii, – zein  invert xxviii zinc , ,  249