Omnium Issue 3

omnium The Undergraduate Research Journal at North Carolina Wesleyan College Fall 2021 | Issue 3 Find us online! www.omnium.media

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Editors’Note Photo by Nataliya Vaitkevich. OUR MISSION. Omnium, the Welcome to the third issue of Omnium, a joint Undergraduate Research Journal at North Carolina Wesleyan College, is e ort of the Writing Program and the Writing Center a collaboration between the at NCWC. This journal collects written work by Writing Program and the Writing promising undergraduate scholars. We hope this Center at NCWC, providing our issue, published in the summer of 2021, nds our undergraduate students with the readers—our students, colleagues, and all who opportunity to explore the major might chance upon our publication—in good health genres of academic writing, join in and spirits. The world has endured more than a full scholarly conversations, share their year of the COVID-19 pandemic by now, and ideas, perform original research, readers will note that the political and public health and see their work published in a crises of the past year have left indelible traces in professional venue. Omnium also our students' work. serves as a teaching resource for NCWC faculty—and faculty at other We invite our readers to enjoy and learn from the institutions—as the essays and fteen new essays collected here and also research articles published here reflect the skill and knowledge of encourage teachers in any discipline to use these real students at various stages of essays as models in their own courses. Please use their academic careers, from first- attribution when you do so. year composition essays to projects created in senior seminars. The Our thanks go to Drs. Jason Buel, Mary Jackson, materials lend themselves well to Chad Ross, Rachel McWilliams, George Whitwell, in-class discussion, analysis, and Bennie Felts, and Jackie Lewis for reviewing the emulation, and we hope that papers in their respective disciplines and for doing students will be energized when so speedily and conscientiously. Our colleagues they realize that there is no single aided us in selecting the most outstanding essays in arcane secret to writing well. All it each of the traditional ve categories, following the takes is practice, motivation, and structure of our College Divisions: First-Year direction. Composition, Humanities, Social Sciences & Education, Business & Computer Information Sciences, and Natural Sciences & Mathematics. The Omnium Editors, Doreen Thierauf Keely Mohon-Doyle Julie Perino Margaret Love Assistant Professors of English, North Carolina Wesleyan College Omnium: The Undergraduate Research Journal at North Carolina Wesleyan College 4 fffi fi fi

CONTENTS Photo by cottonbro. 1 EDITORS’ NOTE FIRST-YEAR COMPOSITION 4 Magical Rhythms: They Can Control the Way You Think by Stephen Perry 9 Speed Demons by Amari Kiere Carswell 11 The Importance of Interpersonal Social Interaction by Naomi Shane Pilapil  HUMANITIES 16 Vestal Virgins: The Price of Cultivating Purity Culture in Modern-Day America. by Bijaya Lamichhane 25 Generational Attitudes Toward Digital Feminism: Is Social Media the Path to True Intersectionality? by Mary Catherine Davis 32 A Social Rollercoaster: Power Plays, Hierarchies, and Love in Jane Eyre by Grace deMontesquiou SOCIAL SCIENCES & EDUCATION 41 E ects of the Written Emotional Disclosure Paradigm on PTSD and MDD Symptoms by Maria Laura Padron 56 Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Treatment for Irritable Bowel Syndrome: A Systematic Review by Angela Groeneveld 62 The Impact of Human-Animal Co-Sleeping on Human Sleep Quality by Rebecca Mitchell BUSINESS & COMPUTER INFORMATION SCIENCES 68 Gender Segmentation in Marketing and How It A ects Consumers by Mary Catherine Davis 74 Technology and Insurance in the U.S. Healthcare System by Madison Gill 76 The Cost of Healthcare and How It A ects the Elderly by Kataryna Wallace NATURAL SCIENCES & MATHEMATICS 80 Cell Death Mechanisms in X-Linked Retinitis Pigmentosa with Mutations in the RPGR Gene by Maria Angelica Padron 84 Coronary Artery Bypass Graft Surgery and the Role of Exercise by Alissa Avery 89 Preexisting Conditions Associated with Severe COVID-19 by Isabella Lynn 5 Omnium: The Undergraduate Research Journal at North Carolina Wesleyan College ff ff ff

YFIERASRT Photo by LinkedIn Sales Navigator. COMPOSITION

STEPHEN PERRY MAGICAL RHYTHMS: THEY CAN CONTROL THE WAY YOU THINK INTRODUCTION moment. The hippocampus is responsible for Did you know that, in 2016, Spotify was making and receiving memories. And, nally, the streaming nearly 800,000 tracks a minute (“How cerebellum controls motor functions and Many Songs”)? With the average song being movement. All these sections of the brain are around four minutes long, this is enough musical a ected by music in some way, and many of content to keep you busy for fty-three them run at a higher rate while listening to thousand hours, or roughly six years of nonstop music. listening, all being played in a single minute. With the massive amount of musical content we Many terms in music have varied consume daily, you would most likely assume de nitions, or even no singular de nition at all, that we know a great deal about music. While the easiest example of this being music itself. this is true to an extent, there is still a lot that we Some argue that any type of beat following a do not know and a lot that is still debated rhythm can be called music, while others among music scholars. One of the biggest believe that, without a beat, sound is just noise. debates in musicology, the study of music, is For this reason, the term music will be used to music’s relation to cognitive function, and mean any type of sound that ts a speci c beat whether music is bene cial or detrimental to and causes some form of groove. Another cognitive and task performance. Many scholars example of this is the aforementioned term have researched the possible connection groove, and the term will be used to mean the between music and the human brain, and I have way a beat feels, as de ned by used that research to determine how music, FreeMusicDictionary (“Groove”).  rhythms, and beats a ect us. I have broken down my research into its key components THE CONNECTIONS BETWEEN MUSIC AND which are the connection between music and THE HUMAN BRAIN the human brain, factors that impact this When listening to music, the aforementioned connection, the positive and negative aspects of parts of the brain are a ected. According to this connection, and how this connection is Johns Hopkins Medicine, an organization already being used today. Through my research consisting of multiple universities and hospitals, I have concluded that there is an observable music is a good workout for the brain. The connection between music and the brain that researchers at Johns Hopkins even go as far as can be utilized to improve cognitive function as to equate it to going to the gym and say that well as in uence productivity, work ow, and “There are few things that stimulate the brain behavior. the way music does” (“Keep Your Brain”). This means that not only is there a connection BACKGROUND INFORMATION between music and the way our brains function, The rst step in understanding the connection but that the connection is impressively strong. between music and the human brain is to have a The brain is doing more than we think while we basic comprehension of two things, the brain listen to music. Sound is a vibration that is and music. Human brains are exceptionally picked up by our ears and converted into an complex and still are not completely understood understandable signal by our brains. Music is by neuroscientists. That being said, we have often complex with multiple sounds, melodies, begun to understand the way our brains timbres, and rhythms happening all at once, and function, and, when looking at the brain while our brain is receiving, converting, and music is playing, there are some sections of the comprehending all these di erent things at one brain that are more important to look at than time.  others. The frontal lobe is the part of the brain that is responsible for thought, decision-making, Scans have shown that several parts of our and planning. The temporal lobe is used in brain light up when listening to or performing emotional and language functions, as well as to music. An fMRI scan can show active regions of determine what it is we are hearing at any given the brain in real time (“Magnetic Resonance”). This means that when an fMRI scan is 4 Omnium: The Undergraduate Research Journal at North Carolina Wesleyan College ffff ififififif ffif if lflfffifif

performed, the resulting image will show the an article for Psychology Today, claims that activity in the brain in real time and allows music can in uence the same areas of the brain researchers to compare it to normal levels of as sex, food, and drugs. Heshmat also explains activity. An fMRI scan (Fig. 1) performed by the that music can in uence memories, which can University of Southern California’s Brain and lead to an emotional response that depends on Creativity Institute shows the brain of a what memories are stirred up. Another excellent participant listening to music (Rubin). In the scan, point is that music can incite a speci c emotion you can see the areas of the brain with above- based on the tone of the piece, an example average activity (red) and below-average activity being a song with a slow tempo in a minor key (blue). This suggests that our brains are not only causing a calm, relaxed, or sad mood. The being a ected by what we are listening to but inverse is a song with an upbeat tempo played that they run at above-average levels in some in a major key causing people to feel happy, places as a result. This is just one of many scans energetic, and motivated. Heshmat also that show a visible connection between music mentions escapism, which suggests an and brain activity. interesting parallel between music and lm. Some of the world’s most popular movies are Fig. 1. Rubin, Peter. “How Does Music A ect Your Brain?” YouTube, Wired channel, 15 fantastical in nature because people enjoy Mar. 2019. Image shows high brain activity (red) and low brain activity (blue). watching a movie that can take them out of their everyday lives, and, according to Heshmat, the Further proof of this concept is the same is true for music. This escapism can be connection between music, arithmetic, and even used to help regulate and control mood by reading. A 2002 study by professionals in the allowing the listener to relax and remove stress temporarily. The connection between emotion eld con rmed that arithmetic ability in young and music also strengthens the link between children was positively a ected by musical music to cognitive function, as it can often expertise. This makes sense, seeing how music strongly depend on the emotional and mental at its core is nothing more than a sonic rendition state of the individual in question (Heshmat). of basic mathematic principles. Because of this, playing, reading, and understanding music on WHAT INFLUENCES THIS CONNECTION? more than a basic level requires an When looking into the many factors that can understanding of math, mostly fractions. With impact the connection between music and the each measure of a song being broken down by brain, the most important ones to look out for beats and then further broken down into notes are arousal and the task at hand. Arousal is the that take di erent amounts of “time” in those set state of being stimulated physically or beats, it is understandable that those who can psychologically (Hohmann). This means that the properly comprehend music will have a stronger more something stimulates an individual, the arithmetic ability. This same study also claims higher levels of arousal it causes. This can be a that the same correlation can be observed bit of a problem regarding a piece of music's between music and reading, and in some cases, e ects on cognitive function (Haake 110). the correlation was greater than that between However, like many of the other in uences that music and arithmetic capabilities (Shellenberg will be listed here, it can be used to increase 503). cognitive function if utilized properly. Certain tasks are going to respond well to di erent Music has also been shown to impact our levels of arousal. When performing physical and emotions in various ways. Shahram Heshmat, in visual tasks, listening to music that causes high levels of arousal will lead to an increase in output, as shown by experiments performed by J. G. Fox and E. D. Embrey. In these experiments, people were tasked with nding defective parts in a group of one hundred as they came by on a conveyor belt. Many of the tests started in silence and then had music gradually implemented as the tests went on. In some cases, the subjects could pick their music while, in others, they were not allowed to select music themselves. In every experiment, there was an Omnium: The Undergraduate Research Journal at North Carolina Wesleyan College 5 iffflfff ififlflf ffffifif ff ff

observable increase in faulty part detection rate more complex pieces (Greenberg 16-18). This when music was introduced, and the results can feed directly into the previous statements improved further when listening to music about genre and complexity impacting the chosen by the participants (Fox and Embrey). correlation between rhythms the cognitive This being said, high levels of arousal can also function.  be detrimental to tasks that require deep understanding and processing, such as reading. Fig. 2. Gonzalez, Manuel F., and John R. Aiello. “More than Meets the Ear: Investigating How Music A ects Cognitive Task Performance.” Journal of Experimental Psychology: Another important factor in uencing the vol. 25, no. 3, 2019, p. 7. This graph shows how di erent levels of music complexity connection between our brains and the music a ects task performance in individuals with and without a preference for external we listen to is the individual's experience and stimulation. musical aptitude. As hinted at earlier, when talking about the connection between music IS THE CONNECTION POSITIVE OR NEGATIVE? and arithmetic, someone who has a better Arguments for this connection have been made understanding of music is more likely to see the both ways; however, in my research, I have bene ts of listening to background music while determined than many of the negative aspects working. This does not mean that people who of this connection can be used in such a way do not understand the ins and outs of music that turns them into positive one. Some of the cannot reap the bene ts of background music, it best bene ts of this connection are increased just means the e ects may not be as prominent. productivity, a decrease in the pain felt by It seems that utilizing music to increase people after surgery, decreased blood pressure, cognitive function does not work like a light reduced anxiety, and other positive outcomes switch. Rather, it functions as any other skill (Shellenberg 508). Some of the biggest negative would and requires training. People who aspects of this connection are easily debunked. normally work in silence should not be expected Some believe that listening to music at work is to suddenly increase work output by putting unprofessional; however, if it is turned into an music on in the background, as this would o ce-wide activity or made known by everyone drastically alter their normal working conditions. that it is acceptable and encouraged by Instead, it would be more bene cial to slowly management, it would be no di erent from any introduce music into the background and to other tool used to aid employees throughout experiment with various genres, moods, and their day. Others think that all music is volumes, as done in the experiments listed in detrimental to focus and work ow, but this the previous section. could not be further from the truth, and if people were better educated on the e ects of music on Genre and personality can also in uence productivity, they would understand that music the impact of the correlation we see with our can often be bene cial, given the music being brains and music. The rst one is obvious, as played is appropriate for the task at hand. That some genres naturally cause higher levels of being said, employees should not be forced to arousal and can be attention-grabbing, which listen to music, as this can lead to a stressful can be harmful to productivity in the long term. working environment for some. This can be observed in a study conducted by Manuel Gonzalez and John Aiello where experiments showed that the more complex a piece of music was, the more it tended to hinder an individual's performance if they stated they had a preference for external stimulation (Gonzalez and Aiello 6-8). Fig. 2 shows the impact of complex rhythms on test scores as well as how personal preference, or personality, can impact them as well. The impact made by personality is a little more complicated, however, with several factors at play. A study looking into how personality a ects musical preferences determined that most people can be put into one of two categories, each of which leaning towards a particular type of music. Empathizers tended to choose more mellow music, while sympathizers tended to choose 6 Omnium: The Undergraduate Research Journal at North Carolina Wesleyan College iffflfffiffif ffffff ffiflf ifffififlf

HOW THIS INFORMATION IS BEING USED well. In the late 1990s, a study into the TODAY relationship between music and consumer Music therapy is the use of music to help an behavior determined that people were more individual deal with anxiety, depression, and likely to choose one wine over another based on substance abuse (“Music Therapy”). Louisa the type of background music played. The Hohmann wrote a paper about how music conclusion was made that a wine from a certain therapy can be used as a treatment for country would sell better if the music that substance abuse disorders. In her paper, she typically comes from that country is being includes several long charts outlining the e ects played (Shellenberg 512). Another good example music can have on various moods and mental of how music can a ect buying behavior is states. Hohmann reported that music therapy shown in a short video on YouTube’s “The Art increased the subjects' willingness to participate Behind Marketing” channel. The video shows an in therapy, their overall attendance, a 51% older Chevrolet ad with a sad tone, then plays it decrease in anxiety, and a 42% decrease in again but with a di erent type of music with an anger. Music therapy also increased happiness upbeat tempo and tone. After watching the and decreased feelings of fear and distrust video myself with twenty- ve of my peers, we (Hohmann 11-12). While the test determined determined that the version with a happy tone overall that Hohmann and her colleagues could would in uence us more and make us more not tell a de nite bene t to the use of music likely to consider the car shown in future car- therapy as opposed to more traditional forms of buying decisions (“The Power of Music”).   therapy, they likewise did not conclude that music therapy is inferior to traditional therapy. It Another way music is being used today is is hard to deny that there were ways in which to keep morale and productivity high at Google, music therapy was doing good to the individuals one of the world's most pro table companies. in question. Google is often looked at as an employer that anyone would be lucky to have, with a laissez- Music is used in nearly every form of faire management style and seemingly endless advertising we come across, and for good bene ts available to their workers. It is obvious reason. Not only does music impact our that employee morale is important to the emotions, but it can shape buying behavior as higher-ups at Google, and they have started fffifif ffffifl ffii 7 Photo by Charlotte May. Omnium: The Undergraduate Research Journal at North Carolina Wesleyan College

implementing music into the everyday routines while I work is bene cial but switching the style of hundreds of their employees for this speci c up during a break and relaxing is even more purpose. Google has set up areas to listen to bene cial. By compiling the information from music in several of their o ces and have even multiple sources in an easy to digest way I have begun making music lessons available to given the reader access to information that employees (Meyer 98-99). Marcel Meyer argues otherwise might be overwhelming. I encourage that strategies like this can be used to make a readers to slowly incorporate background music business or organization more ethical. into their work to increase productivity and work satisfaction. There is a lot we still do not HOW THIS INFORMATION IS RELEVANT TO understand about music and doing your own YOU research can help ll in the gaps in our Music has the amazing ability to in uence the collective knowledge. ❖ way we think, feel, and behave. Not only does this connection exist but it is observable through Works Cited experimentation, analysis, and various brain “Brain Map: Temporal Lobes.” Queensland Health, The State of scans. Music can improve cognitive function when performing tasks such as mathematics or Queensland, 18 Apr. 2017, www.health.qld.gov.au/abios/ physical labor, but can also hinder performance asp/btemporal_lobes. when performing tasks such as reading. This Fox, J. G., and E. D. Embrey. Music: An Aid to Productivity. information can be used by anyone to improve Elsevier, 1972. work ow. It can be used by a student or Gonzalez, Manuel F., and John R. Aiello. “More than Meets the researcher to optimize work ow and e ciency, Ear: Investigating How Music A ects Cognitive Task or as a way of stepping back and taking a break Performance.” Journal of Experimental Psychology, vol. 25, to gather one’s thoughts. This information can no. 3, 2019, pp. 431-444. be used to know what types of music to avoid Greenberg, David M., et al. “Musical Preferences Are Linked to during a particular type of activity to avoid Cognitive Styles.” PLoS One, 22 July 2015. slowing work ow. Knowledge of how music “Groove.” Free Music Dictionary, FreeMusicDictionary.com. works can be used by business owners to Haake, Anneli B. “Individual Music Listening in Workplace in uence consumer behavior, and inversely can Settings.” Musicae Scientiae, vol. 15, no. 1, 2011, pp. 107-129. be applied by everyone to avoid being tricked Heshmat, Shahram. “Music, Emotion, and Well-Being.” into making unnecessary purchases. One of my Psychology Today, 25 Aug. 2019. personal favorite uses of music, however, is to Hohmann, Louisa, et al. “E ects of Music Therapy and Music- regulate emotion. I nd that listening to music Based Interventions in the Treatment of Substance use Disorders: A Systematic Review.” PLoS One, vol. 12, no. 11, Photo by Charlotte May. 2017. “How Many Songs Are Streamed Each Minute on Spotify?” The Happy Media Network, 11 Apr. 2017. “Keep Your Brain Young with Music.” Johns Hopkins Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, 2020. “Magnetic Resonance, Functional - Brain.” RadiologyInfo.org, Radiology Society of North America, 25 Feb. 2018. Meyer, Marcel. “The Power of Music: Can Music at Work Help to Create More Ethical Organizations?” Humanistic Management Journal, vol. 4, no. 1, 2019, pp. 95-99. “Music and the Brain: What Happens When You’re Listening to Music.” Pegasus Magazine, 2017. “Music Therapy.” Merriam-Webster Dictionary Online, Merriam-Webster. Niven K. and Miles E. “A ect Arousal.” Encyclopedia of Behavioral Medicine, ed. M. D. Gellmann and J. R. Terner. Springer, 2013. “The Power of Music in Advertising.” YouTube, “The Art Behind Marketing” channel, 15 June 2017. Rubin, Peter. “How Does Music A ect Your Brain?” YouTube, Wired channel, 15 Mar. 2019. Shellenberg, Glenn E., and Michael W. Weiss. “Music and Cognitive Abilities Psychology of Music.” The Psychology of Music, ed. Diana Deutsch. Academic Press, 2013, pp. 499-550. The citation system used in this essay is MLA 8th. 8 Omnium: The Undergraduate Research Journal at North Carolina Wesleyan College f fiif lflflffffifl ff ff ff l ff ifififif

Speeding. We have all done it. Some of us have AMARI KIERE CARSWELL just been unlucky enough to have gotten SPEED DEMONS caught. And we all know that is not fun. Most people speed because they want to arrive a few seven or even ten miles per hour in some cases. minutes early at their destination. Some speed But you are still breaking the law even if such because they are late and hope to either be on kind of speeding is widely considered to be time or a little less late. Some people just speed okay. So, how do we get around this problem? because they, like Rickey Bobby, want to go fast. Of course, you could drive the 35- or 50-miles- Police o cers are tasked with upholding the law, per-hour limit and avoid breaking the law which includes tra c laws. Speeding happens to altogether. Some people achieve this goal and be one of those laws. Every year, one in six adhere to the exact speed limit or maybe even drivers receives a ticket for speeding. In the year stay under. Now, I know you can think of a time 2020 alone, there will be roughly 41 million when you were behind someone who drove at tickets handed out. The amount of money spent the exact speed limit and not one mile over. I bet on speeding tickets alone every year totals you wanted to run them o the road. about eight billion dollars (Davis). That is a lot of money. Speeding is de ned as driving faster Many Americans think the speed limits than the posted speed limit. This seems easy to should be changed. To change the speed limits follow right? in America, you would have to go through the U.S. Department of Transportation, more Wrong! It is quite the opposite if you ask speci cally, the Federal Highway Administration. most road users. Why is speeding such a huge But there is still the question of how we problem? Most people use a passed-down rule determine a safe speed that everyone can as a guide to speeding. You have probably heard agree on? The speed demons in our society will you can go up to ve miles per hour over the more than likely tell you that 80+ miles per hour limit and still be safe from a police pull-over. are ne, while conservative motorists will say This may be true in most instances. Some cops that the current speed limit is best. even say they won’t pull someone over for under Well, speed limits in the early ’70s were set by the country’s shortage of gas. President Richard Nixon saw this as a problem and agreed to a national speed limit of 55 miles per hour. In ffiffifi fiff fifi 9 Photo by Aleksejs Bergmanis. Omnium: The Undergraduate Research Journal at North Carolina Wesleyan College

the ‘80s, when fuel became more readily well is slower vehicles have to keep to the right. available, the national speed limit was then Drivers in trucks, vans, and slow-moving cars changed to 65 miles per hour. Before 1995, the keep to the right to allow faster drivers to pass speed limit was governed by the federal safely and it is illegal to pass someone in the left government. But after a law was passed by lane when you’re driving on the right (“Driving on Congress in 1995, the regulation of speed limits the Autobahn”). was handed back to individual states. After this, thirty- ve states changed their speed limits to These rules allow drivers on the Autobahn 70 or above (“The History of Speed Limits\"). to drive faster than the recommended speed Today, cars are faster than ever, and people limit and to do it safely. The number of deaths want to use their cars to their full potential. Many on the Autobahn’s sections with an enforced wonder, what’s the point of buying a car with a speed limit was higher than the sections without top speed over 200 miles per hour when most one by 26%. In 2017, 409 people died on the roads restrict you to 70 miles per hour or less? German Autobahn (Bennhold). In comparison, This speed is still very low compared to the top nearly 38,000 people die every year in the U.S. speed of cars today. How do we allow people with much slower speeds on the highways. This who want to drive fast to do it safely while statistic shows that proper education and people who don’t want to drive fast share the cooperation of drivers in America will lead to same road? fewer deaths and higher speeds. If the U.S. and other countries around the world set better We could look overseas for our answer. standards for the safety of their highways, What do I mean by this? Well, in some parts of driving would be much safer. This could save Europe there is no speed limit at all. I know that over 38,000 lives a year. might sound made up or untrue, but I can assure you it is true. In the countries of Germany, Innovations are made every day to make Austria, and Switzerland, highways are called vehicles safe—why not the method used by Autobahn. The Autobahn is 12,996 kilometers or vehicles to travel? This is one way we can strive 8,075 miles long (“Driving on the Autobahn”). to make everyday life safer for all. ❖ There is no speed limit on this road; there is instead a “speed recommendation.” The WORKS CITED recommendation for speed is 130 kilometers per hour, or 80 miles per hour. When I say Bennhold, Katrin. “Impose a Speed Limit on the Autobahn? recommendation, I mean it, because if you were Not So Fast, Many Germans Say.” New York Times, 3 Feb. to drive at 80 miles per hour you would be 2019, https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/03/world/ passed as if you are standing still. Most people europe/germany-autobahn-speed-limit.html. Accessed who use European highways drive much faster. 28 Oct. 2020. One reason for this is because of the way Davis, Je . “Tra c Ticket Statistics.” Davis Law Firm, 1 Oct. that they are taught to drive. In the United 2019, je davislaw rm.com/tra c-ticket- States, it is much easier to take a driving test and statistics/. Accessed 28 Oct. 2020. get a license, making American drivers much more distracted and relaxed behind the wheel. “Driving on the Autobahn.” The German Way & More, 2020, Drivers in Germany are much more aggressive www.german-way.com/travel-and-tourism/driving-in- and attentive behind the wheel. In the U.S., you europe/driving/autobahn/driving-on-the-autobahn/.  can get a full driver's license at 16. In Germany, Accessed 28 Oct. 2o20. you can only operate a motorcycle at that age, then, at 17, a vehicle with an adult, and then, at “The History of Speed Limits in America: A Nation Speeding 18, you can nally obtain a full driver’s license to Up.” American Safety Council, 2020, drive a vehicle on your own. That being said, blog.americansafetycouncil.com/the-history-of-speed- driver education is taken much more seriously in limits-in-america/. Accessed 28 Oct. 2020. Europe. The citation system used in this essay is MLA 8th. Another reason drivers feel more comfortable driving fast on the Autobahn is because drivers follow the rules of the road. In the U.S., rules like sticking to slow and fast lanes are seldom followed by drivers. But in Europe, on the contrary, as a whole, drivers follow the rules of the road. One rule the Autobahn uses 10 Omnium: The Undergraduate Research Journal at North Carolina Wesleyan College iffifffiffff if if

NAOMI SHANE PILAPIL THE IMPORTANCE OF INTERPERSONAL SOCIAL INTERACTION 1. INTRODUCTION purpose of the paper is to make people aware Social interaction is part of basic human nature. of the importance of interpersonal social It is a human necessity to practice socializing, interaction. This is an important topic to discuss and normally we start doing it when we are at in for my generation. Growing up, I have seen the daycare and school. Technology has developed evolution of mobile phones and how they a ect quickly, and I believe that there have been a lot the people around me. I observed that phones of changes over the past ten years as we have changed how we interact with and treat adapted to a new environment. It is undeniable people. In my experience, mobile phones are a that technology has helped us by making life so big distraction during social interactions, much easier. For example, communication could especially at school, that can become a habit be di cult in the past. Sending a letter could that causes disconnection from each other. take days and weeks, unlike today when an 2. BACKGROUND email will arrive in someone’s inbox in just a Did you know that “most people check their second. I believe that in life, communication is phones 58 times a day? Thirty of those times are essential to making a lasting connection with during work hours” (Zalani 5). As shown in Fig. 1, someone. It is so simple to communicate now it’s surprising to think how much time we and to even make a connection with a stranger dedicate to these technologies. Sometimes we without ever meeting in person. This indicates forget to live in the present because we are how powerful technology can be. However, more focused on our mobile phones despite the every good thing comes with a downside. The fact that mobile phones were introduced to abuse of mobile phones, using them too much, enable better communication. It was a good has caused a bad habit in many, leading to thing for everyone who is living far away from mental health issues that cause anxiety and their families, for example. In just one click, we depression. can send text messages to see how other people are doing. The importance of interpersonal social interaction, especially at school, plays an Fig. 1. Zalani, Rochi. “Screen Time Statistics 2021: Your Smartphone Is Hurting You.” important role. An active social life leads to EliteContentMarketer, May 2020. This graph represents the average times people pick “increased physical health, boosted immune up their phones. system, a more positive outlook on life, improved mental sharpness, and longer, happier lives” (“Five Bene ts”). This is a great bene t for everyone. It would help us to have a better life and improve our mental health. So, this evidence is valuable because it suggests that social interaction can be bene cial. In addition, “interacting with other people has proven to be quite e ective in assisting the learner to organize their thoughts, re ect on their understanding, and nd gaps in their reasoning” (Okita). This shows the importance of social interaction for school performance. It is great to practice it daily rather than keeping your own thoughts to yourself. In this paper, I will discuss how restricting cell phones used in school can bene t social interaction. I will also explain di erent perspectives and opinions people have on this topic. This will include the development of mental health issues and cyberbullying. The Omnium: The Undergraduate Research Journal at North Carolina Wesleyan College 11 ffffif iflfffififif iff

Fig. 2 shows that the time spent with mobile devices increases every year (Zalani 7). This is where the abuse of this technology starts. People will carry them everywhere they go even though it might be unnecessary. But nowadays we normalize it because our generation wanted mobile phones to be part of our lifestyles. For example, the rst thing we pick up in the morning when we wake up is our phone to check our messages. Then the last thing we touch before going to bed is also our phone. It has reached the point where it has become a habit. Fig. 3. Zalani, Rochi. “Screen Time Statistics 2021: Your Smartphone Is Hurting You.” EliteContentMarketer, May 2020. This graph represents the time consumed with di erent mobile phone applications. Fig. 2. Zalani, Rochi. “Screen Time Statistics 2021: Your Smartphone Is Hurting You.” 3. THE EFFECTS OF CYBERBULLYING EliteContentMarketer, May 2020. This graph represents the average time spent in the THROUGH MOBILE PHONES U.S. from 2014-2021 on mobile phones and television. The negative e ects of mobile phones are causing people to develop mental health issues As I mentioned, we often use our phones and to create bad habits. Cyberbullying is also a even when it’s unnecessary. The graph below good example of people relying too much on (Fig. 3), tells us the average time people spend their phones. It is a common issue that we see on each app on mobile phones. We can see that on the internet and is de ned as the use of phone use is very time-consuming for our daily electronic communication to bully a person, lives, especially when considering that the “AMA typically by sending messages of an intimidating found that even brief mental blocks can cause or threatening nature. I consider this as one of you to lose as much as 40% of your productive the negative e ects of mobile phones at school. time” (Zalani 9). As a result, people are Most students have been victims to becoming less productive every year, although, cyberbullying, and that needs to stop. Victims the majority of us have normalized that already. are likely to stay silent after receiving threats So, the use of mobile phones ends up a part of and might not be able to ask for help. Therefore, our lifestyles now. With this information in mind, it is a big issue that is made worse by our we can realize how we abuse mobile phones constant use of mobile phones. and how that abuse can a ect us. Learning to limit phone use and giving importance to social According to Dennis Adams and Rebecca interactions can improve our lives. Angeles, “many will say, write, or show things that are too o ensive, rude, or embarrassing to present in-person. Thoughts expressed on a mobile device are often those that would be put in a more civil way—or not expressed at all—in a face-to-face meeting” (Adams, and Angeles 36). This quotation gives us insight into how brutal cyberbullying can be. It is the problem where the cyberbully says mean things online and creates threats. The victim then will eventually feel intimidated and helpless. Why? Because when you post something on the internet it spreads quickly and it is hard to get rid of. It’s like a virus passing from person to person. So, it is very hard to stop this case whenever it gets started. Although technology helps create connection with each other easily, it can also 12 Omnium: The Undergraduate Research Journal at North Carolina Wesleyan College ff ffifff ff ff if

hurt someone easily. Just with a simple click of 5. HOW TO PREVENT THE DEVELOPMENT OF the hand, negativity and abuse can spread MENTAL HEALTH ISSUES AT SCHOOL directly and without any hassle. The comments The solutions that I propose include the can be rude and o ensive, and often people restriction of mobile phones at school. This will don't tend to think rst before sending. The thing help prevent distractions in learning and social about cyberbullying is that the bully feels more interaction. This means that students can get to con dent because they can just easily lie about know their peers personally without the use of a their own identity in social media applications. mobile phones. Students can have more social This causes the victim to start feeling helpless interaction with each other. This creates a good from embarrassment and false accusation. bond and long-lasting connections. Therefore, by promoting mental health awareness at school 4. THE RESULTS OF CYBERBULLYING and by having open therapy for all, students can THROUGH MOBILE PHONES help one another unite and feel less lonely. The results of mobile-phone cyberbullying can According to Rossen and Cowan, “schools are a include mental health issues, such as anxiety vital part of the solution to meeting this need. In attacks, low self-esteem, and depression. many communities, schools are the largest de Mental health issues can be a serious problem facto provider of mental health services” (3). This for every individual. The tricky part about it is passage suggests that schools are taking part of that not everyone can see or identify these the responsibility for students’ mental health. It is issues. Eric Rossen and Katherine Cowan remind important for schools to take action because us that “every school has students who are their students are their priority. Although their struggling with mental health problems. Many main duty is to teach, it is also vital to help face temporary challenges like con icts with students personally because many students peers, divorce, deployment, or a death in the spend more time at school than at home. School family […] And still others are coping with is where we grow and enhance our abilities and emerging or chronic mental illnesses such as skills. Therefore, if we have to propose a solution depression, generalized anxiety disorder, and for the students who need mental-health emotional behaviour disorders.” This passage treatments, then the school would provide a makes it clear that students in every school are helpful community. dealing with something di cult in their life. It is vital to understand each other by interacting and According to McLoone et al., “within the helping someone to open up. This will help them spectrum of anxiety management programs realize that they are not alone, that there are available for administration in the school setting, people who actually would like to help them. di erent programs have been tailored to service Schools may teach us academically, but it can di erent needs. For instance, some programs also be a place where a student can seek have been designed to provide a universal comfort. That is why many schools promote intervention for all children where the whole programs to help their students’ mental health. class is taught the requisite skills by their Because, in the end, school is temporary, but our teacher, whereas other programs are designed mental health is for a lifetime. That is why it is for a selected group of high-risk students (i.e., important to see the importance of social targeted interventions) and are led by a school interaction with each other at school. counsellor, psychologist, or specialist teacher” (12). This passage gives us an example of how a Shaheen Shari , in Issues and Solutions for mental health program can be done, either the School, the Classroom and the Home, writes grouped or individual, but both are very helpful. that “mental anguish from the social exclusion Treating anxiety or other mental health issues in caused by physical and psychological bullying is school has a positive impact for students. It su cient to destroy the con dence of any adult, improves the students’ ability to learn and let alone a child, on whom it can have lifelong succeed in life. e ects” (25). This sums up the e ect of cyberbullying on the victim. It’s not just making Therefore, by applying this solution them feel intimidated, it can also traumatize a through restricting the use of mobile phones we person for a lifetime, and nobody deserves that. can change our bad habits and give more importance to social interaction. By treating mental health disorders such as anxiety, we will help students to get through the di cult times as fast as possible. The article “How Smartphones Are Killing Conversation,” written Omnium: The Undergraduate Research Journal at North Carolina Wesleyan College 13 iff ffff ffffififfff ifflf ififff

by Jill Suttie and Sherry Turkle, suggests that Works Cited “conversation is the most human and humanizing thing that we do. It’s where empathy Adams, Dennis, and Rebecca Angeles. “Mobile Devices at is born, where intimacy is born—because of eye School: Possibilities, Problems, and Tough Choices.” contact, because we can hear the tones of Educational Technology, vol. 48, no. 1, Jan. 2008, pp. 35-38. another person’s voice, sense their body JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/44429543. movements, sense their presence. It’s where we learn about other people” (6). Social interaction “Five Bene ts of Social Interactions for Seniors.” The Oaks at is important. We can prevent the loss of all these Denville.org, Aug. 2018, https://oaksatdenville.org/blog/ skills by focusing on our presence during our bene ts-social-interactions/. conversations and knowing that we are all supposed to learn about people. It might be McLoone, Jordana, et al. “Treating Anxiety Disorders in a better to just forget technology once in a while, School Setting.” Education and Treatment of Children, vol. for example during dinner time with the family, 29, no. 2, May 2006, pp. 219-242. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/ making new friends at school, and learning new stable/42899883. things. Okita, Sandra Y. “Social Interactions and Learning.” 6. CONCLUSION Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning, edited by N. M. Social interaction has always been part of Seel. Springer Link, 2012, https://doi.org/ human nature. It is where we make connections 10.1007/978-1-4419-1428-6. with someone and build relationships. However, the abuse of mobile phones has resulted in less Rosenfeld, Jordan. “Is Your Mobile Phone Use Bad for Your social interaction. The research above contains Mental Health?” Mental Floss, June 2017, https:// the main insights into how mobile phones cause www.mental oss.com/article/501676/your-mobile- distractions, speci cally for this generation. This phone-use-bad-your-mental-health. paper discussed the major negative e ects of mobile phones such as how they can change Rossen, Eric, and Katherine C. Cowan. “Improving Mental people and their habits. Mental health issues Health in Schools.” The Phi Delta Kappan, vol. 96, no. 4, have been developed from abusing mobile Dec. 2014, pp. 8-13. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/ phones. So, I proposed a solution to this 24376532 . problem that could help. Mobile phones are a big distraction during social interactions. Shari , Shaheen. Cyber-Bullying: Issues and Solutions for the Therefore, by restricting the use of mobile School, the Classroom and the Home. Routledge, 2008. phones, we can bring back the attention to our http://search.ebscohost.com.proxy.ncwc.edu/login.aspx? social interactions. This will help us make better direct=true&db=nlebk&AN=220512&site=ehost-live. connections and have stronger relationships with people. Throughout this paper, I have Sturt, Kirsten. “Stop These 7 Bad Smartphone Habits Right pointed out the bene ts of social interactions. I Now” ShareCare. Mar. 2020. https://www.sharecare.com/ have also given enough evidence to support it health/health-society/slideshow/unhealthy-smartphone- from my scholarly sources. All of the issues I habits. mentioned are problems that society faces collectively. We tend to create bad habits by Suttie, Jill. “How Smartphones Are Killing Conversation” abusing mobile phones, although the Greater Good Magazine, Dec. 2015, https:// technology was introduced to make connecting greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/ to other people easier. As we know, mobile how_smartphones_are_killing_conversation. phones are a great way to communicate long- distance. So, by reminding people of the Zalani, Rochi “Screen Time Statistics 2021: Your Smartphone Is importance of social interactions and limiting the Hurting You” Elite Content Marketer, May 2020, https:// use of mobile phones during important events, elitecontentmarketer.com/screen-time-statistics/. people can build a better relationships with each other and improve their mental health. ❖ The citation system used in this essay is MLA 8th. 14 Omnium: The Undergraduate Research Journal at North Carolina Wesleyan College ff lf ifif ifffif

HUMANITIES 15 Photo by W W. Omnium: The Undergraduate Research Journal at North Carolina Wesleyan College

BIJAYA LAMICHHANE VESTAL VIRGINS: THE PRICE OF CULTIVATING PURITY CULTURE IN MODERN-DAY AMERICA INTRODUCTION the phrase “saving oneself” to signify abstinence The advocacy for premarital abstinence in the until marriage conveys the superior moral United States is largely based on religious practice of “saving” virtue rather than “wasting” rhetoric that relies on teachings from Christian or “losing” it. This overemphasizes sexuality scripture. Purity teachings in this context include which leads to higher levels of sex guilt for abstinence, modesty, purity pledges, and dating normal sexual behavior. It is almost as if the with the intention to marry. The American purity rhetoric around women's sexuality was movement has always presented itself as a purposely designed to guilt women into choice, and abstinence is neither politically nor submissiveness. This linguistic style equates religiously enforced. However, advocacy for virginity with righteousness, virtue, and greater abstinence takes many forms that remain morality, and de nes sexual behavior, even in uential in regulating women’s sex and when it is consensual, as a shameful act that sexuality. The purity movement in uences the carries with it connotations of promiscuity, public sphere in that it is backed by local depravity, sin, and immorality. The problem with churches, national organizations, as well as the the purity movement arises when the rhetoric government, especially on the state level. For shifts from framing abstinence as a healthy example, the purity movement promotes choice to shaming individuals for their sexual Abstinence Only Until Marriage (AOUM) orientation and other sexual preferences. These education instead of comprehensive sex destructive ideas prevalent in the purity culture education (Kay and Jackson 1). Public policies hold women accountable for men’s dangerous and federal funding that regulate sex education directly a ect public health. It is important to deconstruct the e ects of purity culture in America because it has far-reaching consequences in the ght for gender equality as the movement directly or indirectly upholds patriarchal values and institutions which often socially and economically bene t men who are at the top of the social hierarchy and who are responsible for constructing these ideals and setting these standards (Miller and Vance 8). The fourth-wave feminist movement in the wake of #MeToo has continued consequential discourse around the dangers of purity culture and its reactionary practices, especially in its engagement with survivors of sexual assault. Furthermore, reactions like #MeToo carry the conversations into the public health domain to address concerns about women’s sexual and reproductive health and about how purity culture imperils policy proposals that are in favor of health care access for women and LGBTQ+ folks. I believe the term “purity” in the context of sexuality is fundamentally wrong in itself. The term is profusely used within purity culture. For example, girls are asked to take “purity pledges” and attend “purity balls.” It implies that individuals who practice chastity are somehow better than those who do not. Likewise, usage of flflfffffifi fi Photo by Ketut Subiyanto. 16 Omnium: The Undergraduate Research Journal at North Carolina Wesleyan College

sexual behavior like sexual coercion, misogyny which often manifests itself in self- objecti cation, the hyper-sexualization of destructive behavior. women, and the demonization of female sexuality (Byers 5). In generally patriarchal CONSOLIDATION OF THE PURITY MOVEMENT societies, women often internalize the idea that American feminist writer Jessica Valenti their bodies are responsible for upholding attributes modern-day purity culture in America sexual ideals and habits. Consequently, women to the widespread cultural in uence of are subjected to greater regulation of their evangelical Christianity (Valenti 22). The purity bodily autonomy, sexual preferences, and movement champions the sancti cation of unfortunately, sexual violence (Byers 5). Many bodies through the prohibition of any sexual ideas, laws, and policies, including dress code activity until marriage. Premarital sexual standards for school-aged girls, are premised on intercourse is often labeled as a sin. The purity the practice of modesty and suppression of movement consolidated itself in the late 19th women’s sexuality for the sake of men. This century in the United Kingdom with the often leads to a culture of shaming or victim- legislation of the Contagious Disease Acts that blaming women for their choices, including sought to eliminate rampant sex trade and clothing and voluntarily displaying their bodies prostitution to stop the spread of sexually and sexuality. When it comes to sexuality and transmitted diseases. Sex workers were heavily sexual grati cation, ideals that are normalized policed and unable to experience civil liberties for men are often labeled as reputation- as everyone else (Hall 39). In America, the purity destroying for women (Byers 5). In this way, movement solidi ed its base until the late 1950s traditional patriarchal norms often erase women and lost ground with the invention of birth and minorities from important decision-making control, the increasing advocacy of sexual that touches their interests, protects them from liberation in the counterculture, and the rising harm and reduces their purpose to the cultural in uence of second-and third-wave reproductive function. Purity culture also feminist movements. In response to the rapid marginalizes women and other sexual minorities paradigm shift that remodeled sexual ethics, as it limits their understanding of healthy sexual leaders like Ronald Reagan began to advocate behavior from their partners and their for the traditional nuclear family and greater reproductive health (Kay 12). regulations of available methods of birth control. Therefore, since the establishment of the sexual In this essay, I will delineate the e ects of liberationist paradigm, the purity movement withholding information about contraception maintained a greater stronghold within American and healthy sexual practices, omitting conservatism, making it religious as well as a information on a rmative consent, and political focus (Coste). consensual sexual habits on young American women in particular. I will argue that purity The implications of the purity movement teachings instill sex guilt and other unhealthy are noticeable in politics. Purity focus is one of sexual behaviors in women, along with the main determinants of party ideology. It can dangerous sexual entitlement in men to trace be manifested through a lawmaker’s stance as the interplay between the purity myth and rape well as their comments on the preservation of culture. To demonstrate how the purity tradition and sanctity of marriage. Whether it is a movement advances institutional harm, I will heterosexual lawmaker voting against gay source my evidence from current legislation and marriage or giving their input on when or if policies that a ect women’s sexual and abortion is permissible, purity rhetoric is always reproductive health. present in politics. That rhetoric is also prominent in the institutional intervention of Women's integrity and dignity are often sexual assault cases. It is not uncommon for encapsulated by the abstract concept of police, judges, or lawyers to apply the narrative virginity. This mentality fuels rape culture and of an unblemished victim in cases of sexual the culture of victim-blaming where women and assault or harassment. The same applies to other sexual minorities are often blamed or schools, universities, or the workplace where blame themselves for being raped or assaulted administration often ignores victims of assault (Suarez 11). These ideals are misogynistic, based on the model of the blameless victim. dangerous, ignore women's voices, and are Policies can be unforgiving to vulnerable destructive to their physical and mental well- marginalized groups, speci cally sex workers, being. This is also realized through internalized transgender women, and those living in poverty. Omnium: The Undergraduate Research Journal at North Carolina Wesleyan College 17 if lfififlf ffiffff ifif

With the support of conservative lawmakers demographic who consistently have a higher who back abstinence-only education, purity turnout rate is predominantly religious older teachings can expand into public schools where white men. Purity culture is not representative of young minds are exposed and socialized into a majority of the U.S. population. Yet, its following unhealthy ideas about sex and presence is prominent in everybody’s life. sexuality. This is detrimental to the overall development of young children and a ects THE ABSTRACT CONCEPT OF VIRGINITY people into adulthood primarily in the form of Purity culture measures women’s worth by the feeling guilt or shame when experiencing or abstract concept of virginity. The problem with wanting to express something as natural as their such a notion is that virginity is a social construct. sexuality. The impact of purity thinking in In her book Virgin, Hanne Blank writes: “What we legislation can advance to inaccessibility to mean when we say ‘virginity’ is as ephemeral, as reproductive health care, regulation of relative, and as socially determined as what we contraception, access to maternal health care, mean when we say ‘freedom’” (5). By today’s and unjust intervention that thwarts the overall standards, virginity is used to distinguish advancement of women and other sexual morality, righteousness, and piety in women. minorities in the social hierarchy. Virginity is “lost” when an individual engages in sexual intercourse or when they get married. Therefore, to a rm that purity is solely However, the concept of virginity is still based on religious doctrine would be to ambiguous because it does not dictate whether disregard its presence outside religion and its or not sexual encounters that are not penetrative power to control and regulate women’s bodies. sex constitute losing \"virginity.\" The term \"born- Purity culture itself is politically reactionary. Its again virgin\" has been coined for individuals who modern iteration consolidated because the have had sexual encounters in the past but have Reagan generation reacted to demographic abstained until marriage after religious changes that threatened the majority status that awakening. This usage suggests the arti ciality granted them power (Coste). Over time, each and fungibility of the socially constructed generation in the U.S. has become less religious concept. Therefore, equating morality and purity than the one before. Conservative lawmakers with a fairly metaphysical concept is harmful and religious leaders perceive this as a danger when applied to the universal law that includes to traditional patriarchal values because the fact diverse people, sexualities, and religions. that the majority of Americans are no longer protestant Christians changes the power Evangelical Christianity overemphasizes traditional institutions can yield. More and more the virginity and the sex life of young women. In people are becoming secular. However, this is doing so, it gives power to paternal gures who neither re ected in the demographic makeup of regulate women's bodies, whether at home, Congress nor in the voting public (Taylor). church, schools, or through legislation. The Congress is designed to be a conservative questionable custom of virginity pledges and institution that upholds tradition. Therefore, purity balls by which young girls promise their increasingly restrictive laws as, for example, the fathers that they will preserve sex for marriage frantic limitations of abortion access across with their future heterosexual partners signify individual states during the past decade, a trend male ownership of women's bodies from considered harmful by human rights activists childhood through adulthood. The importance and public health o cials, are enacted by of virginity is overstated from a very young age, Congress to reestablish patriarchy and way before young men and women possess traditional values (Valenti 127). This also includes even a remote understanding of sex and the increasing backlash to same-sex marriage sexuality. Therefore, as critics of virginity and LGBTQ+ rights to preserve the sanctity of pledges have pointed out, abstinence-only until marriage i.e. heterosexual nuclear family values. marriage and purity teachings do not keep In most states where women's reproductive adolescents from having sex. Instead, they rights are restricted, the legislative body impede their understanding of safe sex and comprises a majority of middle-aged and contraception. A 2001 study of virginity pledges wealthy white men implementing their religiosity and rst intercourse found that virginity pledges into law (Manning). There is often a large degree substantially delayed rst sexual encounters of separation between the demographic that is among adolescent participants. However, this directly a ected by these laws and the makers trend was only signi cant for some numbers of of such laws. It is not helpful that the voting pledgers. This phenomenon can be explained 18 Omnium: The Undergraduate Research Journal at North Carolina Wesleyan College ifififif if ffifflfiff ff

by what the authors identify as an identity consequences disproportionately impact movement: \"The pledge identity is induced and women and other sexual minorities like the sustained through interacting with other LGBTQ+ folks as well as survivors of sexual pledgers in the community who distinguish assault who have to physically and mentally themselves from non-pledgers by their public experience the implications. pledge and their commitment to the group\" (Bearman and Brückner 870). Thus, the INEFFECTIVENESS OF ABSTINENCE-ONLY trend of the identity movement suggests that EDUCATION increased connectivity among pledgers is more Abstinence-Only Until Marriage (AOUM) valuable than religious teachings on abstinence programs are designed to mitigate sexual risk by and that they need a signi cant number of delaying the initiation of sex or sexual activity. people who are not abstinent for their identity to Federal funding of abstinence-only programs work (Bearman and Brückner 869). Furthermore, began in the early 1980s and remained the article also nds that a higher number of consistent throughout the decades. In 2017 participants who broke the virginity pledge and alone, Congress spent over $2 billion on the engaged in intercourse neglected the use of funding of AOUM programs (Santelli et al. 274). contraception. I think these ndings are Proponents of the AOUM programs maintain important in demonstrating the drawbacks of that premarital sex is psychologically destructive abstinence-only education that preaches for individuals. However, research has found no morality based on the idea of purity and is evidence to suggest psychological damage as a rooted in the identity movement. Since result of sexual intercourse between consenting comprehensive sex education is necessary to adults. Furthermore, most abstinence-only develop healthy sexual behaviors, purity education designs are primarily concerned with teachings negate e orts to minimize the character and morality (Santelli et al. 274). consequences of early sexual activity like Hence, they do not instruct adolescents and unwanted pregnancies, the transmission of youths on crucial sexual health matters such as sexually transmitted disease, abortion, and non- consensual sex, coercion, or sexual abuse that consensual sexual behavior. These cause psychological trauma. It can be assumed fifififf 19 Photo by RODNAE Productions. Omnium: The Undergraduate Research Journal at North Carolina Wesleyan College

that endorsement for AOUM derives from the prevention programs. Additionally, the paper purity teachings that primarily functions to also argues that these programs con ate advance the evangelical movement. In 2013, \"theoretical e ectiveness of intentions to remain 28% of American female students and 35% of abstinent and the actual practice of abstinence\" male students received instruction on resulting in disparities between outcomes abstinence but no instruction about birth control professed by proponents and the actual results methods (Santelli et. al 277). (401). Another article on an updated review of U.S. policies and programs and their impact Additionally, these programs also reinforce found that comprehensive sex education that stereotypical gender norms in their lessons that critiqued gender norms and gender-based supplement negative sexual health behaviors. power imbalances were more likely to positively AOUM programs are required to teach impact sexual and reproductive health (Santelli abstinence as a primary solution to sexual risk et al. 276). The ine ectiveness of abstinence avoidance and may only discuss contraceptives teachings and their in uence on creating in terms of their failure rates. This is a gendered di erences is well documented in counterintuitive practice because sexually active scienti c studies. Yet, abstinence-only education youths are at higher risk of contracting sexually is heavily backed by churches and religious transmitted illness when information on the use organizations. of contraceptives is withheld or manipulated (277). An article published by the Society for SEXUALITY AND LAW: UNIVERSAL SEXUAL Adolescent Health and Medicine argues that HEALTH PLANNING AND HARMS OF SEXUAL AOUM programs are \"problematic from scienti c HIERARCHIES and ethical viewpoints\" (401). The proposition The authors of a 2004 article that discusses cited several studies that proved that the sexuality and sexual health planning delineate abstinence-only program failed to prove the impact of sexual hierarchies in establishing e ective for several sexually transmitted disease e ective sexual health policies. The article de nes sexual hierarchy as the ranking of Photo by fauxels. sexualities from most normative across regions to most stigmatized (Miller and Vance 7). Purity culture in America promotes heteronormative relationships in which couples abstain from sexual contact until marriage. This places traditional, heterosexual, married relationships at the top of the sexual hierarchy. The problem with the Christian sexual hierarchy arises when it ignores the reality of “non-normative” and complex sexualities in designing health programs or establishes coercive policies based on the di erence that is deemed intolerable. In the article, the authors identify the greatest harm of sexual hierarchy in state regulation of diverse sexualities where sex law is unchanged but directly impacts di erent sexualities. Besides, the authors argue that there is no basis on which states regulate sexuality since law and that human rights, as a principle, should adopt one universal law that is neither vague nor undecided. Everyone should have equal access to sexual and reproductive health. Lack of access to sexual health care greatly a ects women, low-income families, single mothers, POC, and LGBTQ+ folks. In this way, the purity movement eliminates women and minorities from the American progress narrative. When it comes to laws relating to sexual assault and rape, purity culture often creates 20 Omnium: The Undergraduate Research Journal at North Carolina Wesleyan College if fiffflfffff fffffflfff iff

laws favorable to the imaginary “blameless for citizens to expect the separation of church victim,” a victim who is morally clean and and state, there are religious obligations that sexually unblemished. This is a very harmful idea prevent legal professionals and policymakers because it often makes intervention for sexually from making impartial judgments and policies. stigmatized groups, such as sex workers, This conundrum is prevalent across many sexually active women, and members of the professions, and there are even exceptions in a LGBTQ+ community very di cult (Miller and place where professionals are allowed to Vance 9). The authors suggest the state adopt a withdraw themselves from any situation that proactive rights approach that conceptualizes directly con icts with their morality (Green 86). sexuality across di erent genders and sexuality While I think that it is necessary to honor spectra and to relinquish the model of the everyone's religious beliefs regardless of their blameless victim to make intervention all- profession, it is also important to exclude inclusive. Stigmatizing complex sexualities is religion from politics and jurisprudence. When it harmful to non-heterosexual identities and comes to women's reproductive rights, in results in the creation of unjust policies and particular, we see that there are a lot of gray laws. This is also true for laws relating to sex areas in distancing politics from religion. education, the regulation of birth control, and “Conscience Clauses” allow health care reproductive rights. Purity culture promotes providers to deny women access to health care, limited access to all things public health often framed in terms of reproductive care, planners consider fundamental to reducing risk based on their reservations about the patient related to sexual behavior in adolescents. It is (Valenti 126). Women’s right to choose is therefore evident that the movement does not systematically challenged at both state and intend to protect individuals from harm but federal levels. According to The Guardian, rather to indoctrinate individuals to the purity between January 2020 and May 2020, 378 propaganda that disparages women. abortion restrictions were introduced across the United States. Most of these abortion restrictions PURITY CULTURE AND REPRODUCTIVE are placed at six weeks of pregnancy, typically RIGHTS even before women learn about their Today, abortion is one of the most divisive issues pregnancies. In response to states’ response to in American politics and among the most limit abortion access, the U.N. Working Group on important deciding factor for voters during Discrimination against Women and Girls issued a national and state elections. With the passing of statement expressing concerns that lawmakers supreme court justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg in are “placing women at risk, exacerbating October 2020, partisans started the single-issue systemic inequalities” in denying abortion care (Restrict Abortion Access). Despite facing ght on abortion and women’s reproductive backlash from the venerated intragovernmental rights. Because abortion is anathema to many organization, lawmakers remained steadfast in Catholics and evangelicals, women across the their decision to limit safe abortion access. nation are anxious about the vacancy left by Access to abortion and reproductive health care Justice Ginsburg's passing and the future of Roe is a basic human right. It works to advance v. Wade, the landmark supreme court case that women’s well-being and status. It provides legalized abortion in America (Schmidt). While women control over their bodily autonomy and, some citizens are fearful of a Handmaid's Tale- as a result, greater mobility. Therefore, it is like dystopian future, others are looking forward unsurprising that proponents of purity culture to the tenure of conservative judge Amy Coney want to regulate that power to maintain the Barrett who is steadfast in her devoutly Catholic status quo as is in the guise of adhering to beliefs which are re ected in her writings as a religious principles. scholar. During her time as a law scholar at Notre Dame University, she published an article PURITY CULTURE AND SEX GUILT IN WOMEN noting the dilemma Catholic judges faced when There are gendered di erences in the deciding on cases that are opposed by the experience of sex guilt. A 2017 article studying Catholic church such as capital punishment sex guilt found that men experienced lower (Coney Barrett and Garvey 303). levels of sex guilt in comparison to women. Furthermore, the study also found that sex guilt This is one of many examples that is positively related to religiosity and religious demonstrate di culty in implementing the behavior (Sommers 4). Sex guilt occurs when absolute separation of church and state. Although it is a constitutionally guaranteed right Omnium: The Undergraduate Research Journal at North Carolina Wesleyan College 21 ff lfiff lfif ffiff

engaging in sexual behavior is viewed as a porn is distributed for male consumption, the violation of certain moral standards. Although depiction of complex female sexuality is largely men and women respond similarly to sexual absent. In inspecting porn culture and the purity stimuli, women reported experiencing higher movement, it is obvious that both lack a guilt for responding sexually to those stimuli comprehensive understanding of female (Sommers 18). Traditionally patriarchal societies sexuality. Purity culture ignores the concern that regard women as the guardians of morality. In female sexuality is not accurately represented in purity culture, women internalize this role from mainstream porn. Yet, purity culture chastises an early age, generally before they have women for the existence of porn and maneuvered through adolescence and formed encourages them to be shameful about their their sexual identity. Failure to enact certain bodies (Valenti 96). As a result, sex guilt and purity teachings that are upheld by religious shame are reinforced among women while institutions therefore produces higher levels of widely normalized behaviors for men like porn sex guilt in women. By the same token, women consumption and masturbation remain a taboo who experienced higher sex guilt are \"more for women. likely to embrace the importance of being a virgin\" (Sommers 7). Across both sexes, people Progressive Christians have repeatedly who experienced greater sex guilt were more argued that Bible verses are reimagined or likely to accept the myth that sex is dangerous misinterpreted to promote the evangelical purity and were less likely to make use of myth. Purity culture endorses the limitation of contraceptives or instruments for sexual expression of sexuality even within marriage. stimulation (Sommers 6). There are many Katelyn Beaty, a writer for the New York Times negative consequences of sex guilt, like and a former adherent of purity culture says: \"I avoidance of intimacy and lack of arousal, the no longer subscribe to purity culture, largely perpetuation of the orgasm gap between men because it never had anything to say to and women, ignorance about healthy sexual Christians past the age of 23\" (Beaty). Many behavior, safe sex, and use of contraceptives, critics of purity culture have voiced their concern and, ultimately, coercive sexual behavior and about the awed design of purity teachings that rape culture. These consequences are shame premarital sex instead of emphasizing manifested in varying degrees of psychological the role of sex within marriage. This does not angst that harm women’s overall well-being and only harm religious followers psychologically impose a burdensome a ective tax on women’s but also sets them at odds with their spirituality everyday lives. and beliefs. Studies found that purity teachings can strain the relationship between individuals Women's representation in mainstream and the church, leading to a \"signi cant pornography, which is heavily consumed by reduction of religious involvement\" (Thornton men, is often degrading to women, and 651). This is very detrimental to people who look reinforces negative stereotypes about sexually for a religious guide to govern their lives. Many active women. Jessica Valenti addresses this Christians, like Beaty, seek sexual ethics taught issue in The Purity Myth where she condemns through their religion that will complement their the depiction of abuse to allure the male gaze faith as well as their spirituality. However, with (Valenti 86). Purity culture and porn culture purity culture, they are confronted with the fear strangely work in tandem to t male ideals of of loss of eternity and as result, unavailing sexually active women. While porn remains a e orts to integrate sexuality and faith. taboo within purity culture, it views the popularization of porn as an e ect of women's PURITY MYTH AND RAPE CULTURE unrestricted sexuality. Many conservative A study of the traditional sexual script (TSS), a organizations work to minimize the distribution cognitive framework that explains sexual of porn. However, that is not an e ort to behavior found that the TSS in many ways made eliminate the poor depiction of women but sexual coercion permissible in men. TSS is rather to eliminate any depiction of female learned through socialization that is largely sexuality overall. While feminists credit in uenced by traditional gender roles and purity unrealistic male ideas about women’s sexuality culture (Byers 9). Although it has been updated for the increasing demand for explicitly many times, TSS utilizes the narrative that men degrading porn, conservatives credit immorality have stronger sexual desires than women. and sinful tendencies in women and the Likewise, TSS devalues women for their sexual progressive culture. Because most mainstream behavior, often characterizing them as 22 Omnium: The Undergraduate Research Journal at North Carolina Wesleyan College lf ffiflf ffffif ff

Photo by Ketut Subiyanto. promiscuous or unhinged for expressing their embodied by the purity culture, makes sexual sexuality. However, the same sexual behavior is coercion strategies permissible for men and celebrated, rewarded, and championed in men victim-blaming acceptable for women (Byers and often seen as attractive. The culture of 10). Furthermore, purity culture teaches that shaming women for their sexual choices and not anytime a woman lapses from the purity holding men accountable for theirs has a narrative, she is “asking for it.” Whenever signi cant e ect on sex guilt that further feeds pleasure value is removed from sex for women, into rape culture. Women are conditioned to be they are thrown into this loop of patriarchal reactive to sex whereas men are conditioned to norms designed to force them into be proactive. Within TSS, men are expected to submissiveness. be the initiators and to pursue sexual relationships. Reversely, women are expected to CONCLUSION be reluctant to men's sexual advances because Purity culture is a model for the white protestant their self-worth depends on the rejection of Christian family that fails to consider a large sexual readiness and participation. However, it is demographic who do not adhere to this religion. also necessary that women take a passive It perpetuates many harmful ideals that create stance and be submissive, which does not allow gendered di erences in the perception of sex them to assertively reject unwanted sexual and sexuality. This translates to the gendered gestures. Women's success is measured by their application of laws and the naturalized gender ability to keep the romantic interest of the male hierarchy that feminists have tirelessly worked to pursuer a ame without giving in to sexual dismantle. Because purity thinking is rooted in pressure. Purity culture promotes narrative such American culture, it is less identi able as as \"true love waits,\" indicating that a \"truer\" sexual harmful or discriminatory, although it has vast relationship is maintained after marriage. implications for gender equality. Whether Ironically, men's success is measured by their deliberately or not, purity culture limits sex ability to make women \"give in\" to their sexual education, restricts women's autonomy through advances before marriage. Failure to do so the institutional regulation of their sexuality and threatens masculinity itself. In this way, TSS, their bodies. It promotes patriarchal traditions Omnium: The Undergraduate Research Journal at North Carolina Wesleyan College 23 fifffl fffi

and sexual scripts that instill sex guilt in women Kay, Julie F, and Ashley Jackson. Sex, Lies & Stereotypes: How and sexually unhealthy and coercive tendencies Abstinence-Only Education Harm Women and Girls. Legal in men that ultimately supplement rape culture Momentum, 2008. and subjugate women in their roles. The framework of sexual ethics must be a rmative Manning, Jennifer E. Membership of the 116th Congress: A consent and consent must be integrated with Pro le. Congressional Research Service, 2 Oct. 2020, maturity, self-esteem, and cognition of one's fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R45583.pdf. sexuality. Through a comprehensive understanding of sex and sexuality, society can Miller, Alice M, and Carole S. Vance. “Sexuality, Human Rights, remove di erences in the experience of and Health.” Health and Human Rights, vol. 7, no. 2, 2004, sexuality and its harmful implication on women pp. 5-15. as well as other sexual minorities. Abstinence teaching can be bene cial to mitigate the harms Santelli, John S. et al. “Abstinence-Only-Until-Marriage: An of sexual encounters when presented as a Updated Review of U.S. Policies and Programs and Their choice to people who have learned healthy Impact.” The Journal of Adolescent Health. vol. 61,3 2017, sexual behavior. It should not, however, be pp. 273-280. doi: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2017.05.031 applied as a universal law or teaching to control or manipulate diverse people, religions, and Schmidt, Samantha, and Rebecca Tan. “Women's March in sexualities. It is always important to consider the D.C. Draws Thousands in Protest of Supreme Court rhetorical situation surrounding purity teachings: Nominee, Trump.” The Washington Post, WP Company, 17 Who is the educator? What is the narrative that Oct. 2020, www.washingtonpost.com/dc-md-va/ is promoted? Is it harmful to certain gender 2020/10/17/womens-march-dc-updates/. identities? If the answer to the previous two questions is yes, we must reconsider the ethics Society for Adolescent Health and Medicine. “Abstinence- of purity culture and select for ourselves, a Only-Until-Marriage Policies and Programs: An Updated pragmatic model of sexual ethics to achieve a Position Paper of the Society for Adolescent Health and just, egalitarian society. ❖ Medicine.” The Journal of Adolescent Health, vol. 61, 3, 2017, pp. 400-403, doi: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2017.06.001.  Works Cited Taylor, Paul. Demographic Trends Shaping US Politics in 2016 Beaty, Katelyn. “Opinion | How Should Christians Have Sex?” and Beyond. 4 Sept. 2020, www.pewresearch.org/fact- The New York Times, 15 June 2019, www.nytimes.com/ tank/2016/01/27/the-demographic-trends-shaping- 2019/06/15/opinion/sunday/sex-christian.html. american-politics-in-2016-and-beyond/. Blank, Hanne. Virgin: The Untouched History. Bloomsbury, Thornton, Arland, and Donald Camburn. “Religious 2008. Participation and Adolescent Sexual Behavior and Attitudes.” Journal of Marriage and Family, vol. 51, no. 3, Bearman, Peter S, and Hannah Brückner. “Promising the 1989, pp. 641–653. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/352164.  Future: Virginity Pledges and First Intercourse.” American Journal of Sociology, vol. 106, no. 4, 2001, pp. 859–912, “U.S. States ‘Manipulating’ COVID-19 Pandemic to Restrict doi:10.1086/320295. Abortion Access, Rights Experts Charge.” UN News, 27 May 2020, news.un.org/en/story/2020/05/1064902. Byers, E. Sandra. “How Well Does the Traditional Sexual Script Accessed 23 Nov. 2020. Explain Sexual Coercion?” Journal of Psychology and Human Sexuality, vol. 8, no. 1-2, 1996, pp. 7–25, Valenti, Jessica. The Purity Myth: How America’s Obsession with doi:10.1300/j056v08n01_02. Virginity Is Hurting Young Women. Seal Press, 2009. Coney Barrett, Amy, and John H. Garvey. “Catholic Judges in The citation system used in this essay is MLA 8th. Capital Cases.” Marquette Law Review, 1998, vol. 81, no. 303, pp. 303-350.  Coste, Françoise. “’Women, Ladies, Girls, Gals…’: Ronald Reagan and the Evolution of Gender Roles in the United States.” Miranda, no. 12, 2016, doi:10.4000/miranda.8602. Emmers-Sommer, Tara M, Mike Allen, et al. “Implications of Sex Guilt: A Meta-Analysis.” Marriage and Family Review, vol. 54, no. 5, 2017, pp. 417–43, doi: 10.1080/01494929.2017.1359815. Glenza, Jessica. “Why the Guardian Is Changing the Language It Uses to Describe Abortion Bans.” The Guardian, 7 June 2019, www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jun/07/ abortion-the-guardian-style-guide. Green, Bruce A. “Con icts of Interest in Litigation: The Judicial Role.” Fordham Law Review, vol. 65, no. 1, 1996, pp. 71–130. Hall, Lesley. “Hauling Down the Double Standard: Feminism, Social Purity and Sexual Science in Late Nineteenth- Century Britain.” Gender History, vol. 16, no. 1, 2004, pp. 36– 56, doi:10.1111/j.0953-5233.2004.325_1.x. 24 Omnium: The Undergraduate Research Journal at North Carolina Wesleyan College if lf ifffiff

MARY CATHERINE DAVIS GENERATIONAL ATTITUDES TOWARD DIGITAL FEMINISM: IS SOCIAL MEDIA THE PATH TO TRUE INTERSECTIONALITY? INTRODUCTION social status and race, as “natural and inevitable” Modern feminism is a movement that has (LeGates 197). caused controversy since its inception. Now in its fourth wave, the feminist movement has Beginning in the 1960s, second-wave become much larger than merely a ‘women’s feminism continued to ght against gender movement.’ The term “intersectionality” has stereotypes, especially in the beauty industry. become a growing part of the modern This wave is famous for the media myth of bra- movement to include more than just white burning feminists, recognition for women after upper-class women. In examining the history of World War II protests against sex discrimination feminism and the di ering generational in the workplace, the peace movement, perceptions that surround it, it has become clear sexuality, and other issues (LeGates 327). that this movementmeans di erent things to Though this myth came about decades ago, it di erent people. can still be cited as part of modern feminism’s reputation by some observers. The way in which the feminist movement is presented is the key to gaining support from Overall, this wave was full of many every generation and group of people. This historical events, thus creating an environment paper will explain the history of feminism in full of new issues to protest and address for Western culture, its central goals, and how the women. It is important to remember that this is most recent wave is presented and received by di erent from rst-wave feminism in that it di erent observers and participants through focused more heavily on cultural issues rather social media. By examining how di erent than political ones. The rst wave listed these generations view feminism using this lens, we representation issues as more secondary to can better frame the conversation to encourage voting rights, equal pay, and other political participation in the feminist movement. topics. HISTORY OF THE FEMINIST MOVEMENT Third-wave feminism began in the Feminism is not a new movement or concept. mid-1990s and continued challenging and Simply de ned as “the theory of the political, expandingon ideas from the previous wave. economic, and social equality of the sexes,” this Social constructs of gender, sexuality, de nition is the short version of what most self- heteronormativity, and others began to be identifying feminists will claim as their goal challenged. This wave saw women being (Merriam-Webster). The movement dates back empowered by traditionally feminine clothing to the mid-1800s when the rst wave began. and styles, including high heels and ‘sexy’ Spanning over three generations and lasting clothing. These items that had formerly been until the early 1900s, it is considered the start of cited as oppressive were now worn with pride modern feminism. by protestors. Women began to reclaim slurs and insults to ght sexism. Some of the goals of rst-wave feminists included attaining women’s su rage, getting The Internet came to help women cross more involved in politics, and gaining equal gender boundaries online and nd communities access to education, cultural, and career for themselves. Racial, sexuality, class, and other opportunities. Other topics of contention di erences began to be celebrated by the included the rights of married women, the movement and expanded to a more inclusive double standards around sexuality, reproductive message (Rampton). This is where the concept rights, equal pay, and the inconveniences of of intersectionality began to form, though it is a some gender roles. The biggest di erence that more widespread concept in the current wave. is evident in rst-wave feminism versus earlier This meant that working-class women, women movements or more recent waves is that of color, and those who did not identify as women involved in rst-wave feminism had the heterosexual were beginning to be recognized, tendency to accept certain obstacles, such as though they had been participating in the movement from its inception. Feminism was Omnium: The Undergraduate Research Journal at North Carolina Wesleyan College 25 ffif if ififff if ififffffif ififif ffff ffffff

beginning to become a movement for all Platforms used to promote participation women. included Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, Snapchat, and word of mouth. The use of The last and current fourth wave of multiple social media platforms allowed for a feminism combines issues from the previous more diverse participant pool in age, gender waves and takes them to mainstream media. identity, and education level. Respondents Though this wave is also lumped as a participated on a completely voluntary basis. continuation of third-wave feminism, it presents a plethora of new communications variables. Upon surveying the general public it has With access to more technology and social become apparent that intersectionality, though media, early feminist ideas are getting public a large part of modern feminism, is still attention. misunderstood by many people. To understand how the reputation of the feminist movement Ideas that were considered “extreme” are contributes to this lack of understanding, it is now common discussions. Issues that were important to examine how di erent generations once put on the back burner are now a bigger see themselves within the movement. The part of the agenda. These include discussion of survey conducted for this research project homophobia, transphobia, the gender pay gap, collected data from twenty-three participants and more. The fourth wave is more aged nineteen or older. intersectional than ever before and focuses not only on women’s issues but men’s as well For the purposes of this survey, age (Rampton). Fourth-wave feminists can also groups were divided into six age classes in order discuss toxic masculinity and the impact of to avoid error or bias in self-identi cation into a gender roles on men’s mental health in addition speci c generation. These classes were to more well-known feminist topics. The fourth “nineteen to twenty-nine,” “thirty to thirty-nine”, wave is the most inclusive wave ever, though and continued in this interval until ages “seventy people have di erent ideas about what or older.” Though respondents were not asked intersectionality means. to self-identify into the generation they were born, this point is important to consider within DEFINING INTERSECTIONALITY this discussion. To create an idea of how these The term “intersectionality” was originally coined in 1989 by Columbia law professor Kimberlé ndings might apply to generational trends, we Crenshaw. She decided that this was the best will consider the generations in this manner: way to describe the oppressive experience of Baby Boomers, born from 1946 to 1964; being an African-American woman. In an Generation X, born from 1965 to 1980; interview with Columbia Law School in 2017, Dr. Generation Y, born from 1981 to 1996; and Crenshaw explained intersectionality as “a lens Generation Z, born from 1997 to the early 2010s through which you can see where power comes (Fry). and collides, where it interlocks and intersects” (“Kimberlé Crenshaw”). This concept aims to PRIMARY RESEARCH ON FEMINIST explain the experiences in which types of PERSPECTIVES discrimination overlap. Of the twenty-three participants, twelve self- identi ed as feminists and ten self-identi ed as Dr. Crenshaw’s example here discusses non-feminists. The remaining participant said the intersectionality of being Black and a they supported women’s rights but did not self- woman, which is a topic that has been identify using the label of feminist. Those that presented frequently over the last several years self-identi ed as feminists responded with with the growth of movements such as Black simple reasoning as to why they chose to use Lives Matter and Time’s Up. It can also be used this label. These ranged from generic answers to explain the experiences of members of the to naming speci c issues within feminism. One LGBTQ+ community, indigenous women, and participant simply stated that she believed that other groups. women should be treated equally to men, while another cited nancial, social, healthcare- SURVEY METHODS related, and political inequalities needing to be The survey conducted for this project was run addressed as her explanation.These twelve self- through social media to promote participation. It identifying feminists consisted of eleven women was shared with students and sta and North and one man. Carolina Wesleyan College and on the personal social media accounts of the researcher. Though there were only ve male participants in this survey, the remaining four did 26 Omnium: The Undergraduate Research Journal at North Carolina Wesleyan College if ififififif ififif ff ff ff

not identity as feminists. These men gave The fact that the majority of respondents varying reasons for avoidance of the label. One who identi ed as feminists were young people is man simply stated that he was “not a woman,” consistent with existing research on generational while another said that he did not consciously attitudes toward feminism. A study conducted think that his actions or thinking related to the for the journal Sex Roles used 245 label. Another man said that gender equity has undergraduate college students, most of whom been reached in the western world, while the were women. These students ranged in age last male respondent said that feminism’s from eighteen to twenty-six and were linked to reputation held him back. an older relative who also participated in the study. There were 106 older relatives, including The remaining respondent chose the grandparents and parents of the students. This phrase “I support women’s rights” to answer the study examined feminist attitudes between feminist identi cation question. This is generations and the factor that a ected these interesting because this was a write-in response attitudes (Fitzpatrick et al.). and showed that though this respondent has feminist beliefs, they do not like the label of Many ndings of the study aligned with the “feminist.”This woman explained that though she survey results for this project. In surveying supports all women’s’ rights, she does not college students and their older relatives, the actively express her “feministic beliefs” to most study proved that women participated more in people. the women’s movement, that each generation became more liberal as one moves from oldest The other large trend regarding self- to youngest, and that parents had tendencies to identi cation was that seven out of ten people be more traditional than their children identifying as feminists were aged nineteen to (Fitzpatrick et al.). This is consistent with my twenty-nine, whose age group made up 56.5 survey, which showed that a large portion of percent of those surveyed. The ten people who older participants did not consider themselves identi ed as non-feminists had only four people feminists. aged nineteen to twenty-nine, while the remaining six were aged thirty or older. Of the eight respondents aged forty or older, 62.5 percent claimed that they were not When it came to intersectionality, the feminists (see Fig. 2). In people aged thirty-nine results were just as intriguing. Sixteen out of or younger, this number was only 31.3 percent twenty-three respondents, or 69.6 percent, did (see Fig. 3). Additionally, the majority of those not consider themselves to be intersectional who self-identi ed as intersectional feminists feminists. To avoid confusion on the term, two fell below the age of forty, at 77.8 percent (see de nitions of intersectionality were included with Fig. 4). Because intersectionality is considered a examples in the introduction to the survey. newer and more inclusive idea, it is seen as Regardless of the explanations provided, most more liberal. This means that oldergenerations of the people who did not self-identify as are more hesitant to accept the concept, as their intersectional feminists simply did not values skew further right than their children’s. understand the concept. Nine of these respondents were aged nineteen to twenty- nine. The remaining seven respondents were aged thirty or above, though the majority were above the age of forty (see Fig. 1). Fig. 1. Breakdown of respondents who did not identify as intersectional feminists. Fig. 2. Breakdown of respondents aged 40+ who self-identi ed as feminists. Omnium: The Undergraduate Research Journal at North Carolina Wesleyan College 27 if if if ffif if ifif if

Fig. 3. Breakdown of respondents aged 39 and younger who self-identi ed as may appear removed from Habermas’s time and feminists. his theory, but considering how technology has evolved creates a distinction between Baby Fig. 4. Age breakdown of respondents who self-identi ed as intersectional feminists. Boomers and younger generations like Generation X and Z. SOCIAL MEDIA AS THE NEW PUBLIC SPHERE As we dive deeper into a technology-reliant While older generations spent time world, the ways in which ideas like feminism and reading headlines on newspapers and seeing intersectionality are communicated might have limited news coverage on the feminist some e ect on older people’s views. If we movement, younger generations are equipped consider Habermas’s traditional view of the with information at their ngertips. Reading public sphere and how it eventually widened online news articles from thousands of sources, (Downing 33), it is likely that older generations seeing eye-witness coverage of events, and would receive a lot of their education on discussing politics with people across the globe feminist issues from print media. Baby Boomers creates an educational environment that has evolved from the days of print media. One of the biggest conduits through which this education takes place in this internet age is through social media. Respondents were asked to express where they had learned about feminism. The majority of people referenced school with 69.6 percent, social media with 73.9 percent, and media, such as books or newspapers with 82.6 percent (see Fig. 5). This was eye-catching because some people directly referenced their school curriculum, with mentions of su ragettes or the bra-burning myth of the past. Others responded mentioning of Dr. Crenshaw’s work or activists on social media. References to newer work came from younger respondents, while general history knowledge was touched on by the older audience. The reason that these responses are essential for studying communications and the feminist movement is that so much of the feminist movement takes place through social media. There are organizations and protests that hold a physical space, but a lot of activists now Fig. 5. Sources of knowledge about feminism among survey respondents. 28 Omnium: The Undergraduate Research Journal at North Carolina Wesleyan College ff if ff if if

educate their followers on feminist issues online. platforms that are most frequently used by each Physical events or organizations cannot contain generation. the growing public sphere of feminism. It is barely contained by the Internet, which is an Baby Boomers and Generation X are more important sphere in the modern world. My likely to use Facebook, while Generations Y and survey showed that of the six respondents who Z are more likely to be found on Instagram or had not learned about feminism through social Twitter in addition to Facebook (Viens). If we can media, 66.7 percent were over the age of forty. assume that these platforms (which cater to a This suggests that older generations are higher number of younger people) are sharing learning about feminism in an environment that more liberal ideas, then those that have older is di erent than those of their children and users will likely be lled with more traditional grandchildren. ones. This could deter older users from participating on these platforms at all, GENERATIONAL ATTITUDES TOWARD regardless of if they have a desire to learn about TECHNOLOGY AND POLITICS feminist ideas. Though mine is a small sample, it corresponds with generational tendencies. Breaking down If we want older people to be exposed to social media use, we know that Baby Boomers, the latest information in feminism’s public who in my survey made up at most 8.7percent sphere, we need to frame the conversation of respondents, rank lowest in nearly every around feminism and intersectionality in a way category (Viens). The fact that Baby Boomers that presents advantages to them. The biggest are less likely to use technology and social comment on feminism from respondents in my media, combined with the fact that younger survey was that they felt like the word itself had generations tend to be more liberal (Fitzpatrick a negative connotation. Most people said that et al.), creates a communication problem. they felt likefeminists were portrayed as man- hating, having a superiority complex, “bitchy,” or Though Baby Boomers may not seem as true to the bra-burning myths of the second open to as many ideas as their grandchildren, wave. they are exposed to the details of those liberal ideas a lot less if they are not on social Most people who cited the extremist view networking platforms. This creates a unique of feminism did admit that this view was problem that can be traced back to the probably created by a small subset of people, generational trends that were just discussed media, men, or just reinforced by the patriarchal regarding general political beliefs. It all begins nature of our society. This could be viewed as by recognizing that older generations are more “hostile sexism,” which refers to a view that conservative than their o spring (Fitzpatrick et usually sees gender equality or feminism as “an al.). attack on masculinity or traditional values” (Hack 61). This concept usually tries to put down the As we move to younger generations, we feminist movement as a whole. Instead of will observe more liberal ideas and attitudes viewing feminism as a positive movement with a (Fitzpatrick et al.). Younger people, especially few extremist outliers, hostile sexists try to paint Generation Z, are more likely to use social media a picture that shows gender equality threatening (Anderson et al.). Combining these facts with the our way of life in society. fact that Democrats are more likely to participate in political activities on social media This explains how some of the bra-burning (Anderson et al.), we can assume that Baby myths of the past could play into anti-feminist Boomers are less exposed to discussions thinking. Because my survey was conducted in a around feminist attitudes. This includes ideas southern Christian community, this thought that might be considered extreme by process could easily a ect the views that older conservative audiences, such as men and women have. We have established intersectionality. that older generations are more conservative, and conservative views are often paired with This means that the education that Baby Christian values. These views are often driven by Boomers are getting around feminist ideas is traditional gender norms, which might decrease very di erent than what younger generations are the tendency of these groups to accept being taught. This could be because younger intersectionality or feminism in general. Many generations have experience with social media older people view the openness and for a larger portion of their lifetimes, but it also intersectionality of feminism as an could be attributed to the social media encouragement to live outside of traditional gender roles and norms. Omnium: The Undergraduate Research Journal at North Carolina Wesleyan College 29 ff if ff ff ff

Though many younger women might view community social justice work (Love et al., 483), this break from stereotyping as freeing, older so we can see that there is interest in feminist women might feel as though their chosen discussion. lifestyle or career path are being insulted. Modern feminism encourages women to do Not only is this interest present, but it is what they choose, which often includes working, also a di erent discussion from younger women schooling, or pursuing goals regardless of in the African American community. Each gender norms. This also means that older men generation has a di erent vantage point on are seeing a view of independent young women political issues depending on their life who might appear threatening to the type of experiences. This is consistent with standpoint society they grew up in. Though older people theory. Baby Boomers grew up during the era of might feel that their way of life is being Jim Crow, their children experienced forced threatened, they may also feel left out. integration, and their grandchildren are now witnessing the United States in its most diverse There has been substantial research done form (Love et al. 484). on ageism and how it is frequently put on the back burner as a feminist issue. This is important To understand each generation, we must to remember when considering why older think through how their perception is informed. women might not feel included, as they make Studies have shown that the developmental up the majority of the older population. Older period in which social events like these take women also face poverty, health issues, and the place greatly in uences how impactful that underpayment of their mostly female event is within a person’s life (Fitzpatrick et al.). caregivers. Women are also expected to take on Each generation has a di erent experience that long-term care for family members more often informs how they see the world. If we fail to and work in care-taking careers to make up for consider these perceptions, we will never the gender pay gap. These older women, appeal to a majority of older audiences. whether or not they know it, are being a ected by ageism and sexism (Hooyan). This is an issue within the public sphere, as younger activists usually do not think they can Reaching out to older populations about properly interact with older audiences politically how they are a ected by feminist issues is going because of their lack of online presence and to be vital in reaching true intersectionality and education with technology (Guillard 613). To e ective communication. The social media use make this problem worse, most older feminists of Baby Boomers is on the upward trend (Viens), do not see the feminist movement in the same so why not use that to our advantage? Feminist way that younger audiences on digital platforms creators could dive into Facebook, work through do. Older activists tend not to approve of the programs catering to older citizens, or put out “perceived individualistic nature” of this modern content that applies to older audiences. If older public sphere (Rogan & Budgeon 10). They see a people are less likelyto branch out, meeting movement without the groups or meetings that them where they are with issues they care about made older waves of feminism successful is a better way to go. (Rogan & Budgeon). Instead, younger modern feminists are having the majority of We can do this by listening to what older conversations on social media. This limits older people have to say. Paying attention to those generations from immersing themselves in who are further discriminated against, like Black issues experienced by younger feminists, while women, can also encourage intersectional young feminists are hearing fewer rst-person issues within older communities. A study perspectives on the movement’s past failures. published for Gender, Work & Organization showed that Black women thought that part of CONCLUSION the reason that progressing intersectional issues We can see that there is interest within older has become di cult is that Baby Boomers are generations to understand feminist issues. reluctant to let young people lead (Love et al., Intersectionality can only foster this 483). A Baby Boomer in the study cited that conversation; it cannot deter it. Using frame- “petty reasons” were to blame for this bridging to connect feminism to issues like reluctance, though Generation X and Baby ageism, police brutality, and equal pay can only Boomer do agree that Generation Y’s leadership encourage more people to participate. This can is “innovativeand inclusive” (Love et al. p. 483). be accomplished by creating an online This study also showed that 41.6 percent of the presence within platforms that are familiar to women in their study said they participated in older people, reinforcing the choice and 30 Omnium: The Undergraduate Research Journal at North Carolina Wesleyan College if fflf ffff iff ffff ff

openness for women to identify with more “Kimberlé Crenshaw on Intersectionality, More than Two traditional roles as well as more masculine ones, Decades Later.” Columbia Law School, 8 June 2017, and presenting a collectivist mentality will allow https://www.law.columbia.edu/news/archive/kimberle- older people to feel seen. By taking each crenshaw-intersectionality-more-two-decades-later. generation’s life experiences and perceptions into account, communicating intersectionality LeGates, Marlene. In Their Time: A History of Feminism in will become more common and even more Western Society. Routledge, 2001, inclusive than it is right now. doi:10.4324/9780203824399. The relationship between older Love, Carolyn D., et al. “An Exploration of the Intersection of generations’ social media habits might help Race, Gender and Generation in African American Women explain their mindset toward feminism, which Doing Social Justice Work.” Gender, Work & Organization, tends to be less positive. If we can create a vol. 25, no. 5, 2015, pp. 475–494, doi:10.1111/gwao.12095. space that combines education and technology, we are setting up our parents and grandparents Rampton, Martha. “Four Waves of Feminism.” Paci c for a more well-rounded understanding of University, 25 Oct. 2015, www.pacificu.edu/magazine/four- modern feminist issues. An educated citizen is waves-feminism. more aware of how issues a ect those that are not like them, and that is what feminism aims to Rogan, Frances, and Shelley Budgeon. “The Personal Is accomplish in its ght for equality and Political: Assessing Feminist Fundamentals in the Digital intersectionality. Creating an understanding of Age.” Social Sciences, vol. 7, no. 8, 2018, pp. 132–151, intersectionality’s de nition and signi cance doi:10.3390/socsci7080132. within the general public will allow more people to feel empowered to get involved within the Viens, Ashley. “This Graph Tells Us Who's Using Social Media feminist movement. This includes reframing the the Most.” World EconomicForum, 2 Oct. 2019, conversation in digital feminist spaces to include www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/10/social-media-use- older generations and people of all by-generation/. backgrounds. In creating this cohesive foundation, we will have the option to truly study The citation system used in this essay is MLA 8th. what intersectionality means to people. ❖ Works Cited 31 Anderson, Monica, et al. “Activism in the Social Media Age.” Pew Research Center: Internet, Science & Tech, Pew Research Center, 28 Aug. 2020, www.pewresearch.org/ internet/2018/07/11/public-attitudes-toward-political- engagement-on-social-media. Downing, John. “Social Movements, the Public Sphere, Movements.” Radical Media: Rebellious Communication and Social Movements, SAGE Publications, 2001, pp. 23–39. “Feminism.” Merriam-Webster.com, 2020, www.merriam- webster.com/dictionary/feminism. Fitzpatrick Bettencourt, Kathryn E., et al. “Older and Younger Adults' Attitudes Toward Feminism: The In uence of Religiosity, Political Orientation, Gender, Education, and Family.” Sex Roles, vol. 64, no. 11-12, 2011, pp. 863–874, doi:10.1007/s11199-011-9946-z. Accessed 8 Nov. 2020. Fry, Richard. “Millennials Overtake Baby Boomers as America's Largest Generation.” PewResearch Center, Pew Research Center, 28 Aug. 2020, www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/ 2020/04/28/millennials-overtake-baby-boomers-as- ame ricas-largest-generation/. Guillard, Julianne. “Is Feminism Trending? Pedagogical Approaches to Countering (Sl)Activism.” Gender and Education, vol. 28, no. 5, 1 Sept. 2015, pp. 609–626, doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/09540253.2015.1123227. Hack, Tay. \"Hostile Sexism.\" The SAGE Encyclopedia of Psychology and Gender. Edited by Kevin L. Nadal, SAGE Publications, 2017, pp. 895-96, doi: http://www.doi.org/ 10.4135/9781483384269.n298. Hooyan, Nancy. “Feminist Theory.” Medicine Encyclopedia, https://medicine.jrank.org/pages/643/Feminist- Theory.htm. Omnium: The Undergraduate Research Journal at North Carolina Wesleyan College if lf ifififff

GRACE DEMONTESQUIOU A SOCIAL ROLLERCOASTER: POWER PLAYS, HIERARCHIES, AND LOVE IN JANE EYRE HISTORICAL CONTEXT to de ne these roles to establish their own Charlotte Brontë published Jane Eyre in 1847 in di erence from the lower class and to move up the United Kingdom, setting the novel in the social ladder by proving they were not like Victorian England. At this time, as now, society the poor. As a result of this strict enforcement of consisted of di erent social, economic spheres gender roles, middle-class women’s lives held for people which de ned their gender roles and little freedom or routes for personal and nancial employment opportunities. The hierarchy of independence. Victorian social restrictions— social status de ning social classes was, and is, encapsulated by the term “patriarchy”— based on economics. David Cody, in “Social controlled women’s lives. Martha Vicinus notes Class,” describes the Victorian social class in Su er and Be Still that “a woman’s hierarchy as follows: The upper class was the expectations for any life outside the home were highest class in the hierarchy with the most narrowed, and the ambitions of the young who political power. Below it was the middle class, did work and were independent were curtailed” which attempted to gain power so they could (xiii). The novel Jane Eyre re ects this tension have political control. At the bottom of the between gender, economics, and social class hierarchy was the lower class, who had no for middle-class women. If Jane, the protagonist, power and “became increasingly hostile” to the were to be an independent woman, she would upper classes (Cody par. 3). Although Cody be rejecting the norms of the middle and upper asserts that these classes maintained some classes for women to be subjugated to men, level of stability, Esther Godfrey, in “Jane Eyre, and thus would move down in social status. As from Governess to Girl Bride,” highlights that society, especially the middle class, had anxieties about “the threat of gender disruption” from below and perceived this disruption as potentially harmful to middle-class upward mobility (855). The Victorian social class status and gender of individuals a ected interactions and relationships, and the tumultuous nature of these interactions permeates Jane Eyre. Unlike women of the middle and upper classes, working-class women labored to support themselves. The working class did not enforce middle- and upper-class gender norms and di erences, which disturbed members of the middle class (Godfrey 854-857). Godfrey nds that the “polarization of male and female realms within the middle class can be read as the result of a larger societal anxiety about gender identities that emerged from the instability of working-class gender roles” (854). In response to the anxiety inspired by the lack of polarized gender norms among the lower classes, middle class society pressured working-class people to follow their norms, including the strict division of labor and other behavioral norms; they enforced these rules via conduct books and other didactic novels that separated male and female spheres of in uence between the public world and the privacy of the home (Godfrey 854-57). The middle class set out fffififff ffifl lfffifffif Photo by cottonbro. 32 Omnium: The Undergraduate Research Journal at North Carolina Wesleyan College

Jane is raised among a wealthy family, she discuss Victorian social classes and the ways wants to continue to be part of that social group, characters’ behavior in the novel contradicts so she sought the possibility of independence readers’ expectations, and I will analyze gender amid these constraints. norms and societal expectations for governesses, contrasting the Victorian period Why did Brontë include so many instances expectations with the occurrences in Jane Eyre. of class and gender struggle in Jane Eyre? As Finally, I will analyze Jane and Rochester’s Brontë was part of the middle class, she was feelings toward each other, and the ways their interested in social status. Lisa Sternlieb found in social and economic classes in uenced Brontë’s “Jane Eyre: ‘Hazarding Con dences’” that “Brontë portrayal of their relationship. ... was carrying on a rigorous correspondence with her publisher ... in which she was more VICTORIAN SOCIAL STRUCTURES prone to discuss such issues as the status of Brontë critiqued the existing Victorian hierarchy women in society than the domestic concerns” allowing men of upper classes to engage in (Sternlieb 453). Understanding Brontë’s interest immoral behavior. Men faced fewer societal in class and gender helps readers understand constraints than women, but the upper classes the novel Jane Eyre since the actions of were expected to maintain their wealth and characters re ect their backgrounds and reputation. For an upper-class man with an societal status. Jane’s love interest, Edward estate like Rochester, society expected that he Rochester, represents an upper-class would follow social rules for good behavior like gentleman for much of the novel, and other refraining from scandalous extra-marital a airs. characters of low-, middle-, and upper-class Of that period, in “Queensberry’s Misrule,” Amy behavior epitomizes Brontë’s view of people of Milne-Smith notes, “sensitivity to public scandal their status. The actions of each character in among the elites ... was born out of a fearful Jane Eyre show how Brontë views social classes awareness of the new gentlemen of the middle and uses these characters to demonstrate her class” (280). To maintain their status above the arguments on social classes and hierarchies. rest of society, the upper classes expected their members to be unimpeachable in their conduct Analyzing Jane’s actions and thoughts so public scandals could not damage their reveals Brontë challenged the norm of women reputation because any scandal brought them serving men, including husbands. Brontë also closer in status to those beneath them. Brontë’s challenged the notion that people of di erent upper-class character Rochester has multiple social and economic status cannot be attracted a airs, raises an illegitimate child, and attempts to and love each other, suggesting emotional bigamy. She thus shows the unethical and equality was as important as other factors, and irreligious patterns of behavior from upper-class that social and economic status was insigni cant men. Upper-class readers would have been compared to the relationships between people. shocked by this depiction hurting their class’s Even as Jane and Rochester both love each reputation, and this is seen in how contemporary other, their social class and gender roles make critics characterized Jane Eyre as a novel which that love into an emotional battle eld, the two women must avoid (Blakemore par. 6). For struggling for power to dictate what their readers of the middle class, this would have relationship will be and how it will work. Brontë been an example to them that someone from negotiates class di erence through the romance the upper class could love someone from a plot, imagining that class struggle is fought out lower class, impacting the way they view as a love story. Through these struggles, Brontë classes, relationships, and upward mobility. It invites readers to question their expectations for could have also o ended them that an immoral romance and creates an unlikely happy ending. man pursued Jane, as can be seen in the fact Early in the relationship, Rochester is portrayed that many contemporary critics called the novel as an abusive, manipulative liar, and all these anti-Christian (Blakemore par. 6). Few to no factors play into Jane’s moral reasonings for lower-class people would read Jane Eyre since it abandoning him although she loves him. would require education and funds to buy it. So, Because of these struggles and Jane’s writings the audience read an unexpected love a air re ecting poorly of Rochester, this overturns between controversial partners and could have readers’ romantic expectations, demonstrating been in uenced to change how they view that is was Brontë’s goal to explore the tensions upper-class men and lower-class women. at play between gender roles and social class instead of giving readers the normal resolution expected from romance. In this paper, I will rst Omnium: The Undergraduate Research Journal at North Carolina Wesleyan College 33 lfffffffff lfiflfffififff lfif

Brontë not only critiques hierarchies employees, as Jane is the only person he talks through upper class males’ behavior since she to due to her in-between social status as a uses scenes between upper- and middle-class governess (Godfrey 857). characters to demonstrate aws in a hierarchy based on economics rather than Christian Throughout the novel, upper-class values. The characters’ behavior toward and characters mistreat middle and lower-class treatment of Jane depends on their social status characters—in particular, Lady Ingram ridicules in relation to hers, and Brontë’s portrayal of middle-class professions directly in front of these behaviors is complex because Jane Jane, a governess. Lady Ingram tells Blanche changes social positions multiple times. She rst and Rochester, loud enough for Jane to hear, lives with her upper-class extended family, and “‘Don’t mention governesses; the word makes then moves to a school, working as a governess, me nervous. I have su ered a martyrdom from or teacher. She moves on to teach in an upper- their incompetency and caprice’” (Brontë 160). class house before becoming a beggar on the Because Brontë adds this interaction, readers street. After, she lives with an upper-middle- should see the awed nature of upper-class class family, working as a schoolmistress, and characters as they immorally and emotionally moves into the upper class when she comes abused those of lower social standing. By telling into an inheritance, and nally chooses to give the story from the perspective of Jane, Brontë money away while maintaining her upper-class inclines readers to sympathize with the merited status. In the article, “Re ection on Feminism in bad treatment Jane receives, supporting the Jane Eyre,” Haiyan Gao addresses Jane’s idea of equality for women and the middle class. precarious class status: “she is always looked Brontë highlights the role of wealth in social down upon by those potentates with money and status; while the Ingrams are privileged to have power ... the rich can treat ... [people like Jane] at hired governesses and can decide to never hire random and need not bother to give them any another again, Jane must work to survive, and esteem” (927). The upper class’s exploitative the act of working makes them disdain her. By treatment of the lower-class is exempli ed in speaking directly to her audience, Brontë the relationships between Rochester and his ensures the reader will notice how di erent classes behave toward each other. As she critiques the behavior of people of the upper class, she is criticizing the way that the Victorian social hierarchy made a person’s value equal to their social status, convincing the reader to blame that hierarchy. Because Brontë chose lowly and sympathetic Jane as the protagonist who speaks throughout directly to the reader, saying “dear reader,” and treating the reader as a friend, she is making Jane valuable and meaningful to the reader to convince readers to see the failings of economic-based hierarchies. When Jane is in the middle class, readers can expect society to act kinder to her than when she was part of a lower class. Because in the end Jane manages to ascend to the elite, she naturalizes this class, and as she moves from one status to the next, people’s way of treating her changes; Jane’s mistreatments when she is in the lower class makes her react by breaking social norms, as discussed below. lfififlfif fflififf ff DIFFERENT GENDER EXPECTATIONS Brontë de es the Victorian gender norm that Photo by cottonbro. women must follow commands from men to create tension and power plays between Jane and male characters, particularly Rochester. Jane rst goes against male authority as a child when she criticizes her male cousin; she says to 34 Omnium: The Undergraduate Research Journal at North Carolina Wesleyan College

him, “‘Wicked and cruel boy!’” (Brontë 13). As her Photo by cottonbro. cousin taunts her, she calls out his treatment of her, giving her a rst taste of calling out male Jane, “‘I feel so astonished ... Equality of position characters who deemed her subordinate. As a and fortune is often advisable ... and there are young girl, she fails to learn the proper societal twenty years of di erence in your ages ... distrust norms and so is not afraid to bring attention to yourself as well as him. Gentlemen in his station herself breaking gender norms. However, later, are not accustomed to marry their governesses’” Jane learns to outwardly adhere to social norms (Brontë 237). Brontë uses Mrs. Fairfax as a since she follows the commands of her school’s spokesperson for how society compels people male supervisor, Brocklehurst, and her to marry others of the same social standing to employer, Rochester. As Jane and Rochester’s prevent the classes from mixing. Jane responds relationship begins, Jane obeys Rochester, like by narrating she “was growing truly irritated” when he makes her come to him and talk. (238). As Jane cannot understand the point of However, Jane becomes more comfortable marrying for reasons besides love, Brontë, calling out men’s moral transgressions. She says eliciting that same anger in the reader, to Rochester, “I am better than you—let me go!” convinces the audience Jane should marry because he tries to marry Blanche Ingram, a Rochester, using the romance arc of forbidden woman at whom he sco s (Brontë 228). Because love to imagine the possibility of class mixing. of Jane’s low status, it would appear strange for Rochester, justifying why he will marry someone upper-class readers that Jane thinks critically of a lower status, says to Jane, “‘My bride is here and looks out for herself and her best interests, … because my equal is here, and my likeness ... I and it would be strange for Jane to imagine a love as my own esh’” (228-229). He ignores hierarchy of people based on moral behavior social status dictating people as equals, and actions, instead of the hierarchies of the day believing that because they have an equal —class and gender. Brontë shows that women amount of love for each other, that will be and lower-class people could think and act with enough. Love beats class. their own agency, throwing out social hierarchies. Jane works as a governess, or teacher, for an upper-class English gentleman. In this period, social norms would de ne the standards for the relationship between the “master,” or employer, and governess. Violeta Craina in “What Jane Eyre Taught: The ‘Autobiographer’ in Jane Eyre and Women’s Education” explains these norms, saying “the governess ... was supposed to report to ... [the master of the house] directly” and quotes Daniel Pool who notes that “the governess was a senior servant, but was considered a working-class servant, ... [and the master] had to see the governess every once in a while” (Craina 41). When Rochester rst meets Jane, she only visits with and speaks to Rochester when he calls on her, but he starts calling on her to come talk to him more often, more than a master should. Craina emphasizes this was the same type of social controversy as a man betrothing a servant (41). As Rochester plans on marrying Jane, this controversy spreads around and damages Rochester’s social reputation. This demonstrates that their social inequality creates consequences for Rochester and impacts their ability to be in a relationship. Masters did not befriend their workers, yet Rochester plans to marry his employee. When Mrs. Fairfax learned of that news, she says to Omnium: The Undergraduate Research Journal at North Carolina Wesleyan College 35 fiff fififffl

EMOTIONAL EQUALITY have seen more of the world than I have; your Jane and Rochester are unequal in social status, claim to superiority depends on the use you yet each becomes attracted to the other. have made of your time and experience” (Brontë Rochester has low emotional maturity, but in the 123). Jane feels he exalts his status based on his end, he is on the same emotional level as Jane. age and experience. Rochester responds by Rochester is an upper-class gentleman nearing saying, “Humph! Promptly spoken. But I will not forty who has travelled the world and is sexually allow that ... Leaving superiority out of the and romantically experienced because of his question, then, you must still agree to receive past relationships. Godfrey contrasts Rochester my orders” (Brontë 123). Instead of listening to with Jane, noting how Jane naively begins their Jane’s request and agreeing, he still believes he employer/governess relationship: “[i]n addition deserves the right to order her around, using to the sexual experiences ... in Rochester’s secret whatever tone of voice he wants. Rochester is marriage to Bertha, the presence of Adèle and emotionally immature because, based on Rochester’s willingness to discuss his former today’s standards, if he loved Jane, he would sexual a airs with Jane place him in a masculine ideally not talk to her that way. This conversation position of authority and dominance against her again re ects on Brontë’s view of upper classes childlike innocence” (865). Even though Jane —even when the precarious class traveler, Jane, and Rochester see him as emotionally superior points out her discontent with inferior treatment, because of his relationships, age, and social the upper-class employer, Rochester, does not standing, the reader and Jane eventually care to change his behavior even after hearing discover his character through his actions and how it hurt her. Brontë shows the upper class’s determine he is immature in the emotional shortcomings in the way they treat others and portions of relationships. For example, he dismiss their reactions. expects Jane to be impressed by his theatrics, his attempts at making her jealous, and his lies. Another behavior that shows Rochester’s emotional immaturity is when he deceives Jane Rochester’s emotional immaturity by withholding information about his marriage manifests in the way that he controls Jane throughout their relationship. His other relationships with his mistresses were the model on which he bases his relationship with Jane. During the beginning of their relationship, Jane sees Rochester and herself are on di erent footings socially, but she wants him to see her as equal to him. Jane even narrates one instance where he says to her: “I don’t wish to treat you like an inferior: that is ... I claim only such superiority as must result from twenty years’ di erence in age and a century’s advance in experience” (Brontë 122). Rochester says she must talk to him now, showing Rochester’s control. He constantly gives orders to Jane, which, while he is her employer, Jane's job is to teach Adele, not to converse alone with Rochester while he looks down on her. Also, he mentions his age di erences and experiences to remind her of their di erences and claim superiority as he says he is not superior. He manipulates the situation because he says he does not want to treat her as an inferior, yet he continuously insists on their di erences. Brontë thus portrays a typical controlling upper-class gentleman. Eventually, the power plays between Rochester and Jane result in a confrontation. Jane says he should not control her “merely because you are older than I, or because you lff fffffffff ff Photo by cottonbro. 36 Omnium: The Undergraduate Research Journal at North Carolina Wesleyan College

and courting Blanche Ingram to evoke jealousy to develop through the course of the decisions in Jane. Rochester’s fake courting becomes she makes regarding her relationship with known when telling Jane he would never marry Rochester. Prior to working for Rochester, Jane Blanche and asking Jane, “‘Were you jealous?’” experienced all social hierarchies and avoided (Brontë 236). He planned to incite in Jane envy of passionate emotional entanglements until her Ingram and to make Jane want to be with romance with Rochester. Sandra Gilbert argues Rochester. This emotional abuse of Jane that Jane and Rochester’s “powerful passions” exempli es how, at that time, Rochester was not lack rationality (357). Jane becomes so irrational she does not consider waiting to marry or t to marry Jane since he could not respect his speaking with others about her decision to partner. marry her emotionally manipulating, higher- status employer. Jane’s emotional level Rochester continues to give commands to becomes evident through her thinking and Jane when he wants to give her upper-class conversations with Rochester. Regarding garments to wear, but Jane rejects this since women and their emotions, Jane says to herself, these clothes are inconsistent with her character “Women are supposed to be very calm and because she wants to be valued as a generally: but women feel just as men feel” partner in their relationship, not as an object or (Brontë 101). This shows the distance between doll. When Rochester says, “‘You, Jane, I must Victorian male and female emotional norms. have you for my own--entirely my own. Will you Brontë reveals society is misguided when it be mine? Say yes, quickly,’” he only considers his believes that women are not people. Brontë desire to make her his own (Brontë 229). Jane demonstrates to her readers that women and does not want to be owned, and when she men are on the same emotional and intellectual agrees to be married after Rochester’s rst level. By stating women can feel emotions, she proposal, Jane ensures she is equal by not shows women are people. Women feel anger, allowing Rochester to make her his mistress. such as the anger from men depriving women Rochester treated his past mistresses to fancy the right to be viewed as capable individuals things, so Jane keeps Rochester from giving her who can think. Brontë demonstrates women can expensive clothing. She reminds Rochester that act upon their anger. Thus, they no longer need she is di erent from his past partners when she to con ne themselves in their role of perfect asks him, “Do you remember … the diamonds, homemakers; they can make mistakes and be the cashmeres you gave [Céline Varens]? I will as awed as men since both are human and not be your English Céline Varens. I shall have a shared humanity. continue to act as Adèle’s governess: by that I shall earn my board and lodging … you shall give Not only are women on the same me nothing” (Brontë 242). Jane assumes that emotional level as men, according to Brontë, but Rochester will expect favors for the gifts, but women can be equal regardless of social status. Jane does not want to be obligated to Jane embodies her emotional maturity and Rochester. As he tries to turn Jane into his doll to Brontë’s outlook on equality through Jane’s make her his sexual property, Jane denies his response to Rochester when she believes he is attempts, and so denies in their marriage she ignorant of her emotions; she says, “Do you think will be inferior to him in status. Because Jane will I am ... a machine without feelings? ... Because I not bend to his sexual desires and emotional am poor, obscure, plain, and little, I am soulless manipulations, she forces him to change his and heartless? You think wrong!—I have as much understanding of what a relationship is, soul as you,—and full as much heart! It is ... just particularly one based on love. By including as if we ... stood at God’s feet, equal,—as we these moments where Jane de es Rochester are!” (Brontë 227). In this sentiment, Jane and sets the terms of their relationship, Brontë describes her feelings and forces Rochester to creates a vision of the ways the middle class acknowledge them. She recognizes how their and upper class can engage with each other on unequal social status a ects their relationship, equal footing. By revealing the potential for Jane and, by stressing they are equal in spirits and Rochester to become emotional equals in regardless of gender and social class, Jane marriage, Brontë suggests that Victorian women argues that she is a person, that she wants to be should have the right to de ne their selfhood recognized as an individual, and that Christian and be unconstrained by the social and gender morals have more power than social and hierarchies de ning their lives and their choices. economic status to demonstrate she will be his equal no matter the societal hierarchies. Jane Although Jane begins as more emotionally mature than Rochester, her maturity continues Omnium: The Undergraduate Research Journal at North Carolina Wesleyan College 37 ff lfif ifififffif ifif

uses tenets of her Christian faith to support her when she says to him “‘Oh! I will give my heart to point about spiritual equality. Jane’s passionate God ... You do not want it’” (Brontë 362). She emotions empower her to go against patriarchal recognizes he is only using her to further their norms by speaking back to a man, and by goals, and Jane cannot marry someone who including the way Jane talks back to her does not love her and who she does not love. employer, Brontë contradicts readers’ According to Gao, Jane “insists that true love expectations as she refuses to follow social should be based on equality, mutual expectations of the period. understanding and respect” (Gao 930). Jane reveals her preference toward this kind of Though Jane was naïve when she did not relationship, saying, “were I a gentleman like consider the practicalities of Rochester’s him, I would take to my bosom only such a wife character and what it would mean to be in a as I could love” (Brontë 169). Jane resists St. relationship with him, Jane is emotionally mature John’s proposal because she knows he would in the end through her decisions to leave treat her as if she were lower in status. This is Thorn eld. Gao discusses Jane’s state of mind seen in her thoughts that “He prizes me as a and feelings after learning Rochester was soldier would a good weapon; and that is all” married: “She could not stand any compromise ... (Brontë 361). Jane can only be with someone She wouldn’t give up her independence and who is equal to her socially and emotionally. self-respect. So she chose to leave her beloved one and wanted to make a new life” (Gao 929). When Jane meets Rochester at Ferndean, This shows her emotional maturity because she his emotional level and maturity have nally puts logic and morals above feelings. She is also developed to be equal to Jane’s. He is mature when she rejects St. John’s proposal. St. chastened by pain, loss, and disability. Rochester John wants a woman who could accompany him is envious of St. John, but instead of trying to in his missionary travels, but he does not love manipulate and control Jane, Rochester does Jane. Jane knows that which she acknowledges not force Jane to stay with him. Instead, he tries to free her from the burden of his care, sel essly f i ffll reminding Jane she would have to care for him. f ffiflfil ififf He asks her if she wants to marry “[a] poor blind man, whom you will have to lead about by the Photo by cottonbro. hand? … A crippled man, twenty years older than you, whom you will have to wait on?” (Brontë 396). Prior to being maimed, Rochester treated Jane like a possession to be owned. In acknowledging the downsides of marrying him, Rochester reveals how these events changed his emotional maturity. He has nally realized he cannot possess a person and relies on Jane’s free will to decide to marry him because he wants to put her happiness before his. In the end, Jane and Rochester are on equal emotional levels. In their marriage, each depends on the other for love. Jane even thinks “No woman was ever nearer to her mate than I am: ever more absolutely bone of his bone, and esh of his esh” (Brontë 401). As they had become one esh, each is tied to each other for the rest of their lives. Jane has let go of her strong, independent self to marry the person she loves. Brontë shows that two people could equally love the other even if they are of di erent social and economic standing—at a cost to both. Public reception toward the novel con rms Brontë succeeded in ghting societal norms because of the outraged public who renounced the book (Blakemore par. 6). 38 Omnium: The Undergraduate Research Journal at North Carolina Wesleyan College

JANE AND ROCHESTER, ECONOMIC AND her intense love for him and the feeling they SOCIAL EQUALS share. Thus, even in its resolution, Jane In the end, Jane and Rochester are equal in their continues to rebel against the society that emotional feelings and social levels. Although attempted to keep her caged and remains Jane gains an inheritance that would move her determined to live her life on her terms. ❖ into the upper class, she never claims that she belongs to this class and gives away the portion Works Cited of her fortune (Bronte 344). Jane explains why she does not keep all the money and gives most Blakemore, Erin. “Sorry, but Jane Eyre Isn’t the Romance You to her cousins: “I am not brutally sel sh, blindly Want It to Be.” JSTOR, 27 Feb. 2019, daily.jstor.org/sorry- unjust, or endishly ungrateful ... It would ... but-jane-eyre-isnt-the-perfect-romance-you-want-it-to- bene t me to have ve thousand pounds; it be/. would torment ... me to have twenty thousand pounds; which, moreover, could never be mine Brontë, Charlotte. Jane Eyre, edited by Deborah Lutz, 4th ed., in justice,” and later explains she has craved a New York, Norton and Company, 2016. family and wants to be with them now (345-46). The inheritance moves Jane up the social Craina, Violeta. \"What Jane Eyre Taught: The ‘Autobiographer’ ladder, but since she only keeps one-fourth of it, in Jane Eyre and Women’s Education.” British and American and because Jane is repelled at the thought of Studies, vol. 21, 2015, pp. 39-47,229. ProQuest. keeping all the money, she shows her ethics and morals, which demonstrates she values Cody, David. “Social Class.” Victorian Web, The Victorian Web, relationships over wealth and status. In so doing, 12 Apr. 2020, victorianweb.org/history/Class.html. Brontë e ectively argues for the merits of romantic relationships built on equality. Gao, Haiyan. \"Re ection on Feminism in Jane Eyre.\" Theory and Practice in Language Studies, vol. 3, no. 6, 2013, pp. As Rochester’s scandal dissipates and he 926-931. ProQuest, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.4304/ becomes part of the same class as Jane, Jane tpls.3.6.926-931. ful lls the gender role of caretaker, but also rejects the Victorian standard for female Gilbert, Sandra M. \"Jane Eyre and the Secrets of Furious passivity by taking control of their relationship, Lovemaking: A Forum on Fiction.\" Novel, vol. 31, no. 3, 1998, and Jane and Rochester end up living like the pp. 351-372. ProQuest. upper classes but continue to practice middle- class morals and values. This portrayal of a poor Godfrey, Esther. \"Jane Eyre, from Governess to Girl Bride.\" woman raised in status and empowered to care Studies in English Literature, 1500-1900, vol. 45, no. 4, 2005, for her husband while controlling the realities of pp. 853-871,1039-1040. ProQuest. her married relationships demonstrates the ways Jane Eyre plays with gender and social Lamonaca, Maria. \"Jane's Crown of Thorns: Feminism and hierarchies to rehabilitate Victorian stereotypes Christianity in Jane Eyre.\" Studies in the Novel, vol. 34, no. 3, of romance. Jane is neither passive nor 2002, pp. 245-263. ProQuest. dominating, and her ability to control her relationship with her husband is supported by Leggatt, Judith, and Christopher Parkes. \"From the Red Room to Rochester's Haircut: Mind Control in Jane Eyre.\" English Studies in Canada, vol. 32, no. 4, 2006, pp. 169-188. ProQuest. Milne-Smith, Amy. “Queensberry’s Misrule: Reputation, Celebrity, and the Idea of the Victorian Gentleman.” Canadian Journal of History, vol. 48, no. 2, 2013, pp. 277-306. ProQuest Central. Sternlieb, Lisa. “Jane Eyre: ‘Hazarding Con dences.’” Nineteenth-Century Literature, vol. 53, no. 4, 1999, pp. 452– 79. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2903027. Vicinus, Martha. Su er and be Still: Women in the Victorian Age. Taylor and Francis, Florence, 2013, doi:10.4324/9780203458273. The citation system used in this essay is MLA 8th. ififififff if 
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SOCIAL SCIENCES & EDUCATION 40 Omnium: The Undergraduate Research Journal at North Carolina Wesleyan College Photo by Eak K.

MARIA LAURA PADRON EFFECTS OF THE WRITTEN EMOTIONAL DISCLOSURE PARADIGM ON PTSD AND MDD SYMPTOMS ABSTRACT are needed. Writing therapy is a cost-e cient Almost 70% of the world population experiences and convenient form of therapy for those who at least one traumatic event at some point in life. do not participate in traditional psychotherapy Yet 45% refuse to seek psychological treatment. either because they can’t or they don’t want to Alternative or complementary forms of (Pascoe, 2017). The rst psychologist to study treatment for people diagnosed with the bene ts of therapeutic writing was James W. posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) or major Pennebaker; he called this intervention “written depressive disorder (MDD) are urgently needed. emotional disclosure,” also known as Writing therapy is a convenient intervention that “expressive writing.” In this intervention, patients may bene t patients who refuse to receive write for at least 20 minutes about stressful or traditional psychotherapy due to anxiety or fear traumatic experiences for 3 to 5 consecutive of stigmatization. This paper will review literature days (Sloan, Feinstein, & Marx, 2009). Since that explores the e ects of writing in di erent Pennebaker’s initial study, subsequent research populations (e.g., children and adults) with PTSD studies have examined the bene ts of or MDD. Pennebaker was the rst researcher to expressive writing in a wide variety of mental test an expressive writing intervention. His disorders among di erent populations. The vast majority of studies have focused on patients ndings shed light on this form of treatment and who have experienced aversive or signi cantly encouraged further researchers to test traumatic situations (Pascoe, 2017). therapeutic writing in di erent formats, including Internet-based writing interventions. Positive While both children and adults su er from and adverse e ects of writing therapy will be PTSD, approximately 16% of children and explored to assess whether this may be a adolescents who are exposed to traumatic promising form of treatment for patients with experiences develop PTSD (de Roos et al., 2017). either posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) or Circumstances leading to a PTSD diagnosis in a major depressive disorder (MDD). pediatric population can vary from being exposed to peer violence or witnessing the INTRODUCTION arrest or death of a parent (e.g., suicide) to being Alternative or complementary forms of involved in a tra c accident or a victim of treatment are needed for people who are either childhood abuse (van der Oord, Lucassen, van unable or unwilling to seek conventional Emmerik, & Emmelkamp, 2010). If untreated, therapy. Approximately 65% of the world PTSD can lead to development of comorbid population have at least one traumatic memory disorders, functional impairments, and or experience at some point in life. Yet only 20% persistence of PTSD into adulthood (de Roos et seek psychological treatment due to fear of al., 2017; van der Oord et al., 2010). Among negative judgment, stigmatization, and negative adults, PTSD prevalence rates vary signi cantly beliefs associated with mental health conditions across genders, with 11.7% for women and 4% for or therapy. Moreover, challenges to build men. Lifetime PTSD prevalence rates can vary rapport and create a safe environment during between 5% and 55% (Kuester et al., 2016). therapy discourage patients from being open to Among veterans who served in Iraq and discuss their emotional problems (Kuester, Afghanistan, the estimated prevalence rate for Niemeyer, & Knaevelsrud, 2016). Trauma- PTSD is 22%. Upon return from duty, 17% Army focused cognitive behavioral therapy (TF-CBT) soldiers and 14% Marine soldiers who were has been a recommended form of treatment deployed to Iraq met criteria for PTSD (Krupnick, because it combines CBT mechanisms such as Green, Amdur, Alaoui, Belouali, Roberge, Cueva, confrontation (i.e., imaginal or in-vivo exposure), Roberts, & Melniko , 2017). Moreover, 44% habituation, and cognitive restructuring (Kuester soldiers self-reported depression at clinical et al., 2017; de Roos, van der Oord, Zijlstra, levels. Comorbidity between PTSD and major Lucassen, Perrin, Emmelkamp, & de Jongh, depressive disorder (MDD) is common; 2017). Even so, alternative forms of treatment approximately half of the people diagnosed with PTSD also meet criteria for MDD (Flory & Omnium: The Undergraduate Research Journal at North Carolina Wesleyan College 41 ffififfff ifffififififf ffffififffffif

Yehuda, 2015). In fact, nearly 20% are estimated the theoretical components of Pennebaker’s to experience an episode of depression at some written emotional disclosure protocol and point in life, and between 75% and 80% will review research studies exploring the bene ts of experience subsequent depressive episodes, therapeutic writing in PTSD and MDD symptoms. even after recovery (Gortner, Rude, & Pennebaker, 2006). Not enough interventions DSM-5 POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER are available for PTSD (Kuester et al., 2016) or Posttraumatic stress disorder can be found as a are easily accessible for depression (Ruwaard, subcategory in the DSM-5 section for trauma- Schrieken, Schrijver, Broeksteeg, Dekker, and stressor-related disorders (American Vermeulen, & Lange, 2009). Therefore, it is Psychiatric Association, 2013). It is de ned as a important to develop alternative forms of mental disorder in which individuals develop treatment to assist patients who su er from pervasive symptoms after being exposed to a PTSD, MDD, or both conditions. The following traumatic event (e.g., death, serious injury, sexual literature review will explore the e cacy of a violence). Generally, people diagnosed with written emotional disclosure intervention as an PTSD experience intrusive and recurrent alternative or complementary intervention for distressing thoughts about the event, as well as both posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and recurrent dreams that evoke negative emotions major depressive disorder (MDD). It will describe associated with the traumatic event. Avoidance of stimuli associated with the event is also among the diagnostic criteria for PTSD. In some cases, dissociative symptoms in the form of ashbacks, depersonalization, and derealization may be present. Negative implications for mood and cognition include, but are not limited to, inability to recall facts about the traumatic event, recurrent negative thoughts about oneself, irritability or aggressiveness, and hypervigilance. These criteria for PTSD apply to adults, adolescents, and children 6 years and older. For children 6 years and younger, similar criteria for PTSD apply, except for a few minor details. For instance, PTSD-related nightmares in adults often involve content directly related to the traumatic event, whereas in children these can involve frightening or upsetting content that is not directly related to the traumatic event. Also, self-destructive behavior is not among the diagnostic criteria for PTSD in children 6 years ffffifi fifl Photo by Thiago Matos. 42 Omnium: The Undergraduate Research Journal at North Carolina Wesleyan College

and younger. Finally, loss of verbal expression fundamental processes: arousal of negative among children and pseudo-psychotic features feelings, alteration of cognitions, and (e.g., false auditory hallucinations) may be transformation of negative feelings into positive present as well. ones. Pennebaker’s written emotional disclosure paradigm is an e ective intervention that allows DSM-5 MAJOR DEPRESSIVE DISORDER people who have been exposed to stressful or Major depressive disorder is a common traumatic events process emotions in a healthy condition that can be found as a subcategory in way (Murray & Segal, 1994). To test his the DSM-5 section for depressive disorders. It is hypothesis, Pennebaker and Beall (1986) a mental disorder in which individuals have conducted a study to examine whether writing episodes involving dramatic changes in their about traumatic events would have both long- a ective, cognitive, eating, and sleeping term and short-term positive outcomes in patterns for approximately two consecutive emotional and physical health and well being. A weeks (APA, 2013). To meet criteria for MDD, ve total of 46 undergraduates from an introductory or more symptoms must be present for two or psychology course were recruited to participate more consecutive weeks. These include, but are in the study as part of the course requirements. not limited to, depressed mood most of the day, On the rst day of the experiment, participants nearly every day, loss of interest or pleasure in were randomly assigned to one of two daily routine activities, decreased or increased conditions. Participants in both groups were appetite and signi cant weight loss or gain as a asked to write on four consecutive nights. result, insomnia or hypersomnia, and feelings of However, while those in the experimental worthlessness. Fatigue, lack of concentration, condition wrote about a stressful or traumatic and suicidal ideation must be present as well for event that had occurred at some point in their a complete MDD diagnosis. Also, symptoms lives, those in the control group wrote about must not be attributed to alternative conditions trivial topics. Because the purpose of the study such as substance abuse or medical conditions. was to assess the e ects of written emotional Subtypes of MDD exist depending on the expression rather than vocalized emotional presence of single or recurrent episodes, expression, participants in the experimental severity of symptoms, and the presence of group were instructed to write and not to psychotic features (e.g., hallucinations). discuss their writing with others. Upon completion of the study, health center records WRITTEN EMOTIONAL DISCLOSURE and self-reports were collected to determine PARADIGM positive outcomes associated with the Pennebaker hypothesized that people who have intervention. Writing about traumatic events had experienced trauma often choose not to share a positive e ect on students, and fewer their experiences, even though they want to. appointments were made in the health center Individuals may hold back when attempting to after the experiment. Short-term increases in seek comfort in others because they fear others physiological arousal and long-term decreases might adopt a judgmental stance or react in stress were observed in students as a result negatively towards them. In other words, people of the writing intervention. The results of the would rather inhibit their emotions if that means study were supportive of Pennebaker’s they will avoid negative responses from others. hypothesis. This emotional inhibition, according to Pennebaker, results in chronic levels of stress To further study any positive e ects of the that a ect people’s mental and physical health, written emotional disclosure paradigm on putting them at risk of developing psychological physiological health, Pennebaker and disorders. Based on this notion, Pennebaker colleagues replicated the results of his initial developed the written emotional disclosure experiment and found positive outcomes in the (WED), also known as expressive writing (EW) immune system (Murray & Segal, 1994). protocol, to investigate whether disclosing Pennebaker, Kiecolt-Glaser, & Glaser (1988) previous trauma through writing would produce conducted a research study to assess the emotional and physiological bene ts in e ects of a writing intervention on traumatized individuals (Pascoe, 2017). immunological functioning in individuals who have experienced traumatic events. A total of 50 Emotional processing allows people to students enrolled in undergraduate psychology embrace aversive emotional stimuli in order to courses participated in the study to ful ll an let new experiences through. It involves three extra-credit class opportunity. Participants were Omnium: The Undergraduate Research Journal at North Carolina Wesleyan College 43 ifffff ffffifff ifff ififff

randomly and equally (in terms of gender) posttraumatic stress are habituation to aversive assigned to one of two conditions. They were stimuli and cognitive reappraisal of the traumatic told they would have to write about a speci c memories or experiences. The Interapy writing topic for four consecutive days. While protocol involves self-confrontation about the participants in the trauma condition had to write traumatic event, which eventually leads patients about the most traumatic and upsetting to become habituated to the aversive stimuli, experience of their lives, participants in the and achieve cognitive reappraisal. Additionally, it control condition were given the instruction to involves social sharing. The treatment protocol write about a pre-assigned topic that would not involves three phases in total. In the rst phase, involve feelings or emotions in any way (e.g., self-confrontation, patients write about previous time management, social calendar, garment traumatic events using rst person and present descriptions). At the end of the study, the health tense, providing as many details as possible. center provided data regarding the amount of They must include all sensory perceptions (e.g., times participants visited the health center, ve visual, olfactory, auditory) experienced at the weeks prior and during the six-week period of time of the traumatic event. In the second the experiment. Writing about traumatic events phase, cognitive reappraisal, they challenge had a positive outcome in both the immune and automatic thoughts associated with the the autonomic nervous system of participants. traumatic event and gain a new perspective of Improvements on participants’ level of distress, said event. This is done with the help of a which resulted in fewer visits to the health therapist; the main goal is to help patients regain center, were also evidenced. The results of the a sense of control over their lives. In the third study supported Pennebaker’s idea that and nal phase, social sharing, patients learn the inhibiting negative emotions results in clinical bene ts of sharing their traumatic experiences levels of distress, and consequently in physical with others. In this last phase, patients achieve illness. emotional disclosure as they write a letter to themselves or to a signi cant other. PREVIOUS RESEARCH ON WRITTEN EMOTIONAL DISCLOSURE The rst controlled study on Interapy Posttraumatic Stress Disorder conducted by Lange involved college students. Studies on Pennebaker’s written emotional Lange and colleagues (2001) tested whether the disclosure paradigm have explored two writing Interapy treatment would help participants with formats. The rst format consists of short writing posttraumatic stress and grief. A small group of assignments in which participants describe their students were recruited to participate in deepest thoughts and feelings about traumatic exchange for course credits. Since the events, and no feedback is given to them by researchers wanted to focus on PTSD-related therapists. In contrast, the second format symptoms solely, participants with other consists of longer writing assignments of a psychological disorders or conditions (e.g., structured nature (Truijens & van Emmerik, substance abuse, use of antipsychotic 2014). The use of structured writing to treat grief medication, psychotic disorders, or major and posttraumatic stress symptoms has been depressive disorder) were excluded from the tested by some researchers. For instance, Lange study. Individuals who were eligible to and colleagues developed an Internet-based participate were randomly assigned to either an writing program called Interapy that consists of experimental or a control condition. Both groups structured writing assignments focused on received the treatment. However, the control stressful or traumatic experiences (Lange, group began treatment as soon as the Rietdijk, Hudcovicova, van de Ven, Schrieken, & experimental group nished it. In other words, a Emmelkamp, 2003). Similar to Pennebaker’s waitlist control group was compared to an written emotional disclosure protocol, Interapy experimental group. Participants used a normal involves patients writing for a speci c period of web browser to communicate with their time. However, in this intervention patients write therapists and complete the writing for 45 min for ve consecutive weeks. Interapy is assignments. For ve consecutive weeks, an innovative form of therapy that integrates participants were assigned ten sessions (two research on Pennebaker’s expressive writing sessions per week) in which they had to write for and cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT; Pascoe, 45 minutes. During each phase of the Interapy 2017). According to Lange et al. (2003), two treatment, they received feedback from their essential mechanisms to overcome therapists on writing assignments and further instructions to proceed with the experiment. 44 Omnium: The Undergraduate Research Journal at North Carolina Wesleyan College ififif ifififififififif ifif

During the rst phase, participants wrote about better outcomes when compared to the control their most intimate fears and most traumatic group. Their posttraumatic stress symptoms experiences, describing as many details as improved signi cantly more than those of possible. During the second phase, cognitive participants in the waitlist group. Lange’s reappraisal, they adopted new perspectives of success in demonstrating the e ects of an the event and regained a sense of control. online writing intervention encouraged other Finally, the last phase, sharing and farewell researchers to replicate his results and test his ritual, had participants write a letter to either hypothesis. For instance, Knaevelsrud and themselves or to a signi cant other. Upon Maercker (2007) conducted a research study to completion of the experiment, the researchers evaluate the e cacy of the Interapy writing found that those in the experimental group had protocol using a German-speaking population in signi cant improvements on PTSD-related and order to generalize Lange’s results. Additionally, grief symptoms compared to those in the the strength of the online therapeutic alliance waitlist control group. These results were was measured. Participants were randomly supportive of Lange’s notion that Internet-based assigned to either an experimental group or a treatments can be e ective to help patients with waitlist group. Participants in the waitlist group PTSD and other psychological conditions began treatment after the experimental group (Lange, van de Ven, Schrieken, & Emmelkamp, completed the post-assessment. The treatment 2001). Following the rst controlled study, Lange et al. (2003) conducted a second controlled randomized trial to further explore the bene ts of the Interapy writing protocol among people experiencing posttraumatic stress symptoms. As in the initial study, participants were assigned to one of two conditions (experimental and waitlist control). Treatment for the experimental condition started immediately after recruitment, while treatment for the control condition started after the experimental group had concluded all treatment procedures. Participants wrote for ve consecutive weeks; they completed two 45-min sessions per week. Between each phase of the Interapy writing protocol, they received feedback by therapists about their writing assignments. Once again, the researchers found that participants in the experimental group had fffififi ff fififfififi 45 Photo by Thiago Matos. Omnium: The Undergraduate Research Journal at North Carolina Wesleyan College

had a ve-week duration period. The results of from Lange’s Interapy protocol, was compared the study showed signi cant improvements in to CBT and to a waitlist control condition. Unlike the severity of PTSD symptoms and related previous studies, the control condition did not psychopathological symptoms for the treatment receive any treatment. CBT included group. Patients in the treatment group also psychoeducation, imaginal and in vivo exposure, showed signi cant decrease in comorbid and cognitive restructuring. SWT consisted of depressive and anxiety symptoms as compared three phases as described by Lange. The rst to those in the control group. As for the phase was self-confrontation, the second one therapeutic alliance, the online intervention was cognitive reappraisal, and the third one was allowed for a positive and stable therapeutic the sharing and farewell ritual phase. alliance to be established. There were signi cant Participants were randomly assigned to either improvements in the quality of the online one of two experimental conditions (CBT or patient-therapist relationship at the end of the SWT), or to the waitlist control condition. Both intervention. Van Emmerik and colleagues CBT and SWT consisted of weekly sessions (2008) conducted a study to test a writing lasting less than 120 min approximately. Though intervention in participants with posttraumatic participants in both experimental groups stress disorder (PTSD) and acute stress disorder showed improvements in their diagnostic status (ASD). Structured writing therapy (SWT), adapted and lower levels of depression and state anxiety, treatment was not associated with trait anxiety or disassociation improvement. Also, CBT and SWT showed no signi cant di erences in terms of e cacy (van Emmerik, Kamphuis, & Emmelkamp, 2008). Most research studies assessing PTSD symptoms have focused on the adult population. Only a few have investigated prevalence rates and treatment interventions for PTSD among children and adolescents. Some researchers who have focused on the pediatric population use cognitive behavioral writing therapy (CBWT), a brief version of Interapy adapted for children. Van de Oor and colleagues (2010) conducted the rst research study on the e cacy of CBWT in children and adolescents with PTSD stemming from single and recurrent traumas. Children received ve treatment sessions (once every two weeks). PTSD symptoms were assessed prior to fffififififififfif ifi fif Photo by Thiago Matos. 46 Omnium: The Undergraduate Research Journal at North Carolina Wesleyan College

and after receiving treatment. Follow-up was reductions of PTSD symptoms among conducted six months after post-assessment. It participants assigned to either condition. was found among the results of the study that Although the results of the study showed no children had signi cant reductions of all PTSD positive e ects of WED, a subsequent study symptoms upon completion of the experiment; showed otherwise. Using a modi ed protocol e ects were maintained for approximately six referred to as written exposure therapy (WET), months (van der Oord, Lucassen, van Emmerik, Sloan and colleagues (2012) further explored the & Emmelkamp, 2010). In a similar study, de Roos e cacy of therapeutic writing in adults with et al. (2017) explored the e ects of CBWT in a current PTSD diagnosis as a result of a motor pediatric sample. CBWT was compared with vehicle accident. Instead of using a control another common intervention for PTSD, eye condition, the researchers decided to use a movement desensitization and reprocessing waitlist (WL) condition. Participants were therapy (EMDR), and a wait-list (WL) condition. randomly assigned to either WET or WL. In this Participants were randomly assigned to one of modi ed writing protocol, sessions had a three conditions, CBWT, EMDR, or WL. duration of 30 instead of 20 minutes like in the Participants in the WL group began treatment six weeks later, and treatment would be either rst study. At the end of the study, the CBWT or EMDR. To determine this, those in WL researchers found that participants in the WET were randomly assigned a second time to either group showed signi cant reductions in PTSD one of the two treatment conditions. After the symptoms compared to participants in the WL experiment was completed, no signi cant group (Sloan, Marx, Bovin, Feinstein, & Gallagher, di erences between CBWT and EMDR were 2012). Similar results were obtained in another found. Both treatments were well tolerated by study conducted by Sloan and colleagues (2013) participants and were e ective in reducing to evaluate the e cacy of WET in veterans PTSD symptoms compared to the WL condition. diagnosed with PTSD. In this study, participants Moreover, participants in the CBWT and EMDR wrote about their most traumatic experiences groups no longer met criteria for PTSD at the while including details about their thoughts and end of the experiment. These e ects remained feelings at the time of the traumatic event. At stable for 3 to 12 months. the end of treatment, participants showed signi cant improvements in the severity of PTSD While many researchers have focused on symptoms. Some of them even did no longer online writing interventions for PTSD, others meet criteria for PTSD. These ndings suggest have used Pennebaker’s written emotional that WET may not only work with civilians, but disclosure (WED) protocol, which does not also with veteran soldiers who are severely involve the use of computers. Sloan, Marx, and traumatized upon returning from war (Sloan, Greenberg (2011) conducted a study on Lee, Litwack, Sawyer, & Marx, 2013). undergraduate students with PTSD diagnosis using Pennebaker’s WED procedure as Major Depressive Disorder treatment. Students who participated in the Numerous studies have evaluated the bene ts study received credit in their introductory of written emotional disclosure (WED) in patients psychology research course. The research study with PTSD, but only a few have focused on followed the same standard protocol major depressive disorder (MDD) or depressive implemented by Pennebaker. Participants were symptoms. According to Gortner, Rude, and randomly assigned to one of two conditions, Pennebaker (2006), depressed people tend to WED or control writing. Both groups were avoid or suppress negative thoughts, but they instructed to write for 20 minutes for three also engage in rumination, which is the repetitive consecutive days. However, those assigned to focus on negative cognitions and behaviors that the WED condition had to write about the most lead to depressive symptoms in the rst place. traumatic experience of their lives, describing as One intervention identi ed as potentially much as possible their feelings and emotions. e ective to promote cognitive processing is Those in the control writing condition had to Pennebaker’s expressive writing paradigm. write about time management, without Sloan and colleagues (2008) conducted a study describing any emotions. Contrary to to assess whether ruminations would have an Pennebaker’s results, the researchers found no e ect on expressive writing. College students in signi cant di erences between the WED and their freshmen year (who were experiencing the control writing group regarding PTSD anxiety and depressive symptoms as a result of diagnosis. In other words, there were no college transitioning) were randomly assigned to Omnium: The Undergraduate Research Journal at North Carolina Wesleyan College 47 ffffififif ifififfififififfifffffif ffffffifffffif

one of two conditions, expressive writing or writing session did not enhance the bene ts of control writing. As in Pennebaker’s initial study, the intervention. participants in the expressive writing group wrote about the most stressful or traumatic Gortner and colleagues hypothesized that experience of their lives. In contrast, participants expressive writing would allow individuals with in the control writing group wrote about time depression to implicitly accept and process management, without describing any emotions di cult emotions. The results of their study or feelings. All participants, regardless of the encouraged other researchers to further explore condition they were assigned to, wrote for 20 the bene ts of this intervention, but using a min on three consecutive days. At the end of the di erent approach. For instance, Baum and study, participants returned 2, 4, and 6 months Rude (2013) hypothesized that individuals with later for follow-up assessments. The depression would bene t more from expressive researchers found that rumination did have an writing if they explicitly suppressed negative e ect on expressive writing. Fewer depression thoughts associated with their stressful or symptoms were reported by students who traumatic experiences. They conducted a study scored high in rumination and were assigned to to test their hypothesis. College students the expressive writing condition. Students in the experiencing low initial depression were control writing condition, however, showed no recruited and randomly assigned to one of three positive e ects in terms of alleviation of conditions, traditional expressive writing (EW), depressive symptoms (Sloan, Marx, Epstein, & expressive writing augmented by emotion- Dobbs, 2008). acceptance instructions (EWEA), or control writing. Both the EW and the control writing These results demonstrate that expressive condition followed standard procedures as writing can help depressed individuals with described in previous studies by Pennebaker ruminations that contribute to their state of and colleagues. Instead, the EWEA condition depression. Supportive evidence of these followed standard EW instructions plus additional instructions adapted from some ndings can be found in similar studies. Gortner mindfulness and self-compassion interventions et al. (2006) conducted a study to evaluate to increase self-awareness in participants. bene ts of expressive writing in ruminating Moreover, participants in the EWEA condition thoughts and depressive symptoms among were provided with phrases that encouraged college students. An additional feature of the them to embrace their inner thoughts and experiment was a “booster” writing session that distressing emotions, and take a more the researchers predicted would enhance the compassionate stance toward themselves in bene ts of the intervention. Participants who their writing. Toward the end of the experiment, reported previous severe and current normal the researchers found that participants with low levels of depression were chosen and randomly to mild initial depression bene ted more from assigned to either an emotionally expressive or a the EWEA condition, while those with very low control condition. All participants wrote for 30 initial depression bene ted more from the EW min for three consecutive days. In line with condition. A surprising discovery of the study previous studies, the emotionally expressive was that the EW condition had adverse e ects group wrote about overwhelmingly upsetting in participants with high initial depression as thoughts, whereas the control group wrote compared to those in the control condition. about daily planning. As for the “booster” writing session, half of the participants in each condition While these results showed adverse (i.e., treatment and control condition) were outcomes for individuals with severe initial randomly selected to receive an additional levels of depression, a study conducted by writing session ve weeks after the initial writing Krpan and colleagues showed di erent results intervention. Participants received the same for people diagnosed with major depressive instructions as in their last conditions. That is, disorder (MDD). Participants with current MDD those assigned to the treatment condition diagnosis were recruited and randomly assigned before were asked again to write about to either an expressive writing (EW) condition or distressing thoughts and emotions, while those a control writing (CW) condition. Procedures in the control condition were asked again to were the same as those outlined by Pennebaker write about daily planning. As predicted, and colleagues in their initial study. Participants participants in the treatment condition exhibited engaged in 20-min writing sessions for three signi cantly lower levels of depression at the consecutive days. Those in the EW group wrote end of the experiment. However, the “booster” about their deepest thoughts and emotions 48 Omnium: The Undergraduate Research Journal at North Carolina Wesleyan College ff ffifififffififf ifififififif ffff