Nobelium vol 1

Meet the Team Letter from the Editor Editor in Chef: Dear Readers, Thank you so much for spending the time to read the Lev Sandler product of months of dedication and hard work. This mag- azine was only made possible by a truly exceptional writing, Co-Chairs of Layout: editing, and layout staff, in addition to the Nobles STEM departments. Clara Guzman and Lindsey Qian Around Thanksgiving of last year Jane Song and I began what was going to be one of the most difficult, yet Content Manager: extremely rewarding, experiences at Nobles. After deciding we wanted to start a science magazine, Jane and I looked into Julia Lyne the basics of what that entailed (a staff, funding, etc). Being halfway through the year at that point, we decided to bench Co-Editors of Biology: the project and resume next year. This fall we were greeted by a hard working team, willing to devote time and effort Sarah Mansour and Emily St. John into making a dream come true. We soon started receiving, and editing, articles upon articles, much more than we could Editor of Chemistry: have ever hoped. Over Thanksgiving vacation of this year, Jane and I FaceTimed many times to begin working on lay- Liam Smith out, a process that seemed quite a ways away when we first began.Editor of Computer Science: However, a few weeks after returning from break, in assembly on Thursday, December 1st, Mr. Henderson in- Talia Kee formed Nobles of something that I still have trouble compre- hending and dealing with today. The previous day, Jane Song Editor of Physics: had tragically passed away. The next few days were almost unbearable, and I only was able to get through them with the Clara Lawry help of my classmates and teachers. On X-Block that Friday, when Nobelium traditionally meets, we discussed how we Staff Writers: were going to proceed without such an integral member of our team, and the response was almost unanimous. We de- Chase Cronin cided to continue working on the magazine in order to fulfill Wyatt Sullivan a dream to which Jane had so dedicated herself. Kevin Chen I am extremely grateful for, and impressed by, the level of commitment demonstrated by each and every mem- Isabel Kelly ber of the Nobelium staff. What you see before you was no Laurel Alpaugh easy task to accomplish. Enjoy, Layout Staff: Lev Sandler Co-founder Meghan Pauly Editor-in-Chief Emma Friedel Isabel Kelly Laurel Alpaugh

ContentsThe Effect of Technology on the 3D Bioprinting: Becoming a RealityDeveloping Brain By Sarah Mansour 1 By Emily St. John 11The Effects of Sleep Deprivation The Expansion of the UniverseBy Sarah Mansour 3 By Chase Cronin 13Silence of the Cicadas: The Endangered The Physics of a Drop of WaterInvertebrate Crisis By Lindsey Qian By Kevin Chen 15Peanuts-Free Peanuts By Liam Smith 7 Observing the Effects of Visible and UV Light on Planarian Regeneration ByNiamhArgyleandSpoorthiBalu 17 Fun Facts 21Injectable Electronics: Cyborgizationof Mice By Emily St. John 9 Bibliography 22

The Effect ofTechnology on theDeveloping Brain By Sarah Mansour Edited by Emily St. John Have you ever been scrolling through Ins- to the development of children and teens alike.tagram and thought about how often you actually Recent research shows that 90% of 14 year olds usecheck your phone? Well, according to a survey mobile phones. The constant use of cell phonesconducted by Business Insider, the ordinary pose a serious mental threat at such a vulnerableAmerican checks their phone about 150 times a and essential stage in development of these ado-day, averaging about 3 times per hour! Phones lescents, as the human brain continues to develophave turned from a form of communication into until the age of 25.something much more powerful. Technology, Jean Piaget, a clinical psychologist with aespecially phones, has become so predominant focus in child development, theorizes that youngin people’s lives, that they have started to become children and infants learn and develop based onaddicted. A study conducted in 2012 shows that their environment and surroundings. Infants as66% of people feel panicked without their phone, young as two years old are being exposed to thiswhich is a very common symptom of addiction. technology, a time when they are most develop-Many teens use their phones and the internet as a mentally vulnerable. 25% of children ages two tocoping method to deal with social or other prob- five have smartphones. In addition to this, parentslems, making them reliant on these items. They are who use smartphones very often tend to interactdeveloping what is called Internet Use Disorder, less with their children, negatively affecting them;a preoccupation with the Internet which causes these“face-to-face interactions are the primarythe person to suffer from symptoms of withdraw- ways [infants] gain knowledge and learn” (psych-al when they do not have access to the internet. central.com) Due to parents interacting less withThe symptoms of IUD include poor grades, so- their children as a result of technology, the centralcial skills, and overall health. There are also very primary source of of interaction for infants hasserious chronic problems that can result from this been removed. Children learn most of their lan-disorder, such as Attention Deficit Disorder and guage and social skills by watching those aroundobesity. them interact, therefore their social skills are This addiction can pose serious threats greatly affected because they become accustomed1 Nobelium Spring Edition 2017

“Excessive use of technol- tively impact concentration. (psychcentral.com) 2 ogy has a variety of detrimental Another negative effect of technology is the effects on the brain’s attention Electromagnetic Radiation caused by cell phone capacity, executive control, and usage. The part of the brain closest to the phone while talking are the temporal and frontal lobes, emotional processing.” which are extremely vulnerable and developing most during teen years. The radiation can causeto solely relying on communication through tech- brain cancer in adults as well as children. Insteadnology and the internet. of speaking directly with the phone to your ear, I Excessive use of technology has a variety of would recommend that you either use earphones,detrimental effects on the brain’s attention capac- or put your phone on speaker. It is a very easy wayity, executive control, and emotional processing. to prevent a serious outcome.The three parts of the brain that are most affected Nonetheless technology can be very ben-by this addiction are the prefrontal cortex (which eficial to learning, if used in moderation with thecontrols personality, cognition, social behavior), right applications. Studies have shown that tech-the cerebellum (which coordinates and regulates nology can help develop skills such as multitaskingmuscular activity) and the parietal lobe (which and quick decision making. At Nobles, technologyinterprets language and words.) According to Kirk plays a large role in many classes with the use ofErickson, a researcher of cognitive health at the iPads to Virtual Reality glasses. These tools helpUniversity of Pittsburgh, “Excessive tech usage, teachers to vary their teaching style and allow foratrophies (wastes away at) the frontal lobe, break- a more interactive class where students are moreing down ties between different parts of the brain. engaged.Too much technology use also shrinks the outer- In recent years, technology has replaced humanmost part of the brain, making it more difficult to interaction and hindered crucial development forprocess information.” Technology also affects the America’s youth demographic, but if used in a wayability of one to focus because screens can “neglect that will help give students life skills, it can be verythe circuits in the brain that control more tradi- beneficial.tional methods for learning” and in turn can nega- Nobelium Spring Edition 2017

Written by Sarah Mansour Edited by Emily St. JohnThe Effect of SleepDeprivation on Adolescents In the cycle of sleep, there are five stages: school. While teens are at school, their drowsi-the slow wave sleep (stages 1-4) and the REM ness prevents them from being able to learn and(Rapid Eye Movement) sleep (stage 5). These retain the information they are given.cycles can range from 90-110 minutes. The slow- This lack of sleep can not only affect stu-wave sleep usually occurs during the first half of dents’ performance in school, but can pose verythe night, while the REM stage occurs during the serious safety threats. The sleep deprivationsecond half. In the REM stage, parts of the brain of many teens has caused incidents of fallinginvolved in skill learning are activated. REM asleep while driving. This year alone, more thanStage is an essential part of sleep because it is the 100,000 fatigue caused crashes were reportedtime where skills are practiced and improved, and by police, with a majority of these being causedmemories are converted from short-term into by drivers under the age of 25. Other healthlong-term. The REM stage is when the majority of effects include depression, anxiety, and suicidaldreaming occurs. thoughts. Adolescents who slept later than 12:00 PM were 1.24 times more likely to become de- pressed as opposed to those who slept at 10:00 “In the REM stage, parts PM. (medpagetoday.com) of the brain involved in skill learning are activated.” As teens enter puberty, their biological The REM stage is also especially crucialclock is altered, and the amount of sleep neces- because long term memories are formed duringsary to remain healthy increases from when they this period. Consolidation, or the process of shortwere children. The biological clock regulates the term memory converting to long term memory, iscircadian rhythms (24-hour cycle occurring in constantly occurring in our everyday lives.the brain) in the body. In children, usually frombirth to age 10, their biological clock causes themto feel drowsy at night, when they are lackingsleep. However, in teens, their clock is drastical-ly altered and causes them to feel alert, when inreality, they are tired. This often makes it difficultfor teens to fall asleep because they feel com-pletely alert at night, but during the day, they feeldrowsy, in turn, affecting their performance at3 Nobelium Spring Edition 2017

According to Alison Preston, a professor of Moving forward, it is important thatlearning and memory at the University of Texas, schools, parents, and children alike take this“Memory is expressed as changes to the struc- information and use it to make a change. Re-ture and function of neurons...Consolidating searchers are pushing schools to start at a latersuch synaptic changes requires the synthesis time so that students would be able to get moreof new RNA and proteins in the hippocampus, sleep, allowing them to learn more in school. Aswhich transform temporary alterations in syn- high school students, you should be attemptingaptic transmission into persistent modifications to get 9 ¼ hours of sleep, at least. Techniquesof synaptic architecture.” During not only the such as mindfulness can be used to help withREM stage, but all stages, the events stored in insomnia and can help reduce stress beforethe hippocampus are transferred to the cor- sleep. Also, as teens, it can be very helpful totex for long-term storage. In the REM stage of try and maintain a consistent sleep schedule. Itsleep, the brain practices the skills that were has been shown that turning all electronics offlearned during the day. 1 hour before bed can allow for better sleep, as well. “During not only the REM stage, but all stag-es, the events stored in the hippocampus are trans- ferred to the cortex for long-term storage.” Skills practiced in the REM stage can in-clude physical movements acquired throughoutthe day, such as a new move learned at soccerpractice. A study conducted at Harvard test-ed the correlation between memory retentionand improvement of skill with varied amountsof sleep in students. The study revealed thatstudents who got a sufficient amount of sleep(8 hours) found improved results, while thestudents who got less than 6 hours of sleepeither got worse, or stayed the same. Not onlydo students have trouble learning because theyare drowsy during school, but they have trou-ble actually retaining this information due toinsufficient sleep. Again tying into the conceptthat while sleeping, the short term memories areconverted into long term memories. With a lackof sleep, these students were unable to completethis process. Nobelium Spring Edition 2017 4

Written by Lindsey Qian Edited by Sarah Mansour Silence of the Cicadas Planet Earth’s biggest phylum–and its massive, overlooked decline Insects receive bad publicity for almost everything they do. Mosquitoes are feared for the Zika virus and other zoo- noses such as malaria and yellow fever. Tree borers are hated for destroying our ash trees, and locusts are famous for de- stroying crops and razing whole fields to the ground. Spiders and termites are vermin in the same class as rats and mice; ants get crushed on sight. Of course, it’s easier to sympathize with cuddly panda bears or majestic blue whales than crea- tures that we hire exterminators for. Not all insects are the pests that humans have come to hate: many insect species exist quietly outside the sphere of human attention. Scien- tists have discovered one million insect species so far–and they believe that there are over four million more to find. Combined, that means insects make up 80% of the world’s species. Unfortunately, many of them might never be docu- mented; they will be extinct before they are ever found and recorded. Out of 3,623 terrestrial invertebrate species–in- cluding worms, insects, snails, and arachnids–currently on the IUCN Red List (a global catalog of species that need con- servation), around 1,500 are endangered, and most insects’ populations are decreasing quickly. The honeybee is the most visible at-risk species out of this group, having been pushed into the public eye through numerous “Save the Bees” campaigns calling for beekeeper support and an end to the use of bee-killing insecticides. But what of the remaining forgotten species? In a 2014 Science study led by Stanford, UCL, and UCSB, scientists found that invertebrate populations have declined by 45% in the past 40 years. Common insects, such as bee- tles, butterflies, and bees, have declined as much as 60%.5 Nobelium Spring Edition 2017

There is no single cause behind the disastrous de- For those who live in areas where West Nile,cline of insects and other invertebrates; rather, it is a result malaria, or other zoonoses run rampant, declining insectof a combination of many factors ranging from the obvi- populations might seem like a boon. However, for the restous, such as pesticides, to the seemingly unrelated, such as of the world, the drastic decreases of all insects are justfertilizers. Rapid climate change has destroyed the habitats another part of a disastrous downward trend in biodiversity.of many invertebrates with very specialized niches, includ- Insects pollinate 75% of the world’s crops, along with manying insects that depend on a specific plant to live. Increases other flowers and plants. Bees are not the only pollinators:in temperature and freak weather have decimated monarch flies, beetles, butterflies, and moths all contribute to growbutterfly populations by as much as 80% in certain areas. human crops. Insects also constitute a huge portion of manyNon-harmful organisms like beneficial insects and weeds animals’ diets: swallows, nightingales, aardvarks, lizards,that other insects need to survive have become collateral frogs, and carp all consume only insects, and others use in-damage to the rampant use of pesticides. Those pesticides, sects to supplement their diets. Many invertebrates also helpalong with monocrop planting of grains such as corn and decomposition and nutrient cycling, and they affect landwheat, have decreased biodiversity and created huge patches fertility and water cleanliness. There is no way to lose soof land where only certain types of insects can thrive. Sim- many insect species without also losing a significant portionilarly, grass lawns and turf lawns create a dead zone where of other organisms along with them.biodiversity is low–the flat uniformity of a perfect suburban Despite all this, concern about insects is relativelylawn comes that the expense of native plant species and low. Agriculturists and farmers must deal with pest controlweeds, which host a variety of insects that do not live in while still optimizing crop growth, and conservationists andlawn grass. animal rights activists have their hands full with more than Scientists were surprised by just how much insect 16 thousand endangered species of every kind. Insect con-populations had shrunk, as they had previously believed servation is not yet an issue on the global radar, but it needsthat invertebrates would be more resilient than mammals. to be. Short-term insect death may seem like relief for many,“While we don’t fully understand what the long-term im- but a mass insect extinction would precipitate an enormouspact of these declining numbers will be, currently we are in decline in biodiversity and the collapse of many ecosys-the potentially dangerous position of losing integral parts of tems. There may be a day where the humming of cricketsecosystems without knowing what roles they play within it,” and cicadas on summer nights is absent, and it seems as ifsaid Dr. Ben Collen of UCL Biosciences. that catastrophic day will come much more suddenly than expected. Nobelium Spring Edition 2017 6

By Liam SmithPeanut-freeEdited By Sarah Mansour Peanuts? The possibility of altering a person’s genes will likely be among the first to be cured by thisto create the “ideal human” has fascinated scien- new discovery. Sickle-cell anemia, caused by thetists and sci-fi fans alike since the discovery of bone marrow producing misshapen blood cells, isthe human genome. A tool this powerful would caused by a single genetic mutation, making it tohave the potential to “manually” evolve humans, be a perfect candidate for CRISPR. However, thisanimals, and crops, and eradicate most genetic technology faces two major issues: the first beingdiseases. Surprisingly, this tool is already a reality. an effective method of transporting CRISPR-Cas9 CRISPR, an abbreviation for “clustered into all the cells of an organism, and the secondregularly interspaced short palindromic repeats,” being slight mutations caused by the recombin-is a recent groundbreaking discovery which acts ing of DNA after it is cut. These slight mutationsas genetic scissors that can cut DNA at any specif- often do not affect the cell, but in rare cases, theic point. All that is required for this process is the mutations may be deadly. Experiments are cur-CRISPR-Cas9 protein and a matching strand of rently being conducted on mice by inserting theRNA, making it accessible to many scientists. The protein into mice embryos and changing genesCRISPR-Cas9 protein binds to the matching RNA such as fur color. As of now, the CRISPR-Cas9strand, and the resulting complex then binds to protein seems to be limited to simple organisms,the desired piece of DNA. The CRISPR-Cas9 pro- but the potential to alter human and animal DNAtein proceeds to create a cut in the DNA strand at will yield monumental changes for medicine andthe target location which separates the DNA into food production when perfected.two strands. Through multiple applications of One of the major applications for CRIS-this process, scientists can remove specific genes PR-Cas9 is the ability to create hypoallergenicfrom any DNA strand, and replace them with foods. Nearly three million Americans reportnew genes. having a peanut allergy, and nearly 15 million The potential possibilities for this technol- have a food allergy. CRISPR-Cas9 provides a newogy in the future are endless. Diseases caused by solution to this problem. Rather than altering thegenetic mutations, such as sickle-cell anemia, human’s cells, scientists looked elsewhere: to7 Nobelium Spring Edition 2017

the peanut. An allergic reaction is caused when a code for each protein, and there are many pro-person’s body recognizes a protein on the surface teins on the surface of each peanut cell. In orderof a cell as a foreign protein, and the subsequent to make a truly hypoallergenic peanut, all ofreaction is a form of inflammation to kill the “in- these genes would have to be removed, but thisvading” peanut cell. Scientists hypothesized that would likely change the taste of the peanut dras-if the dangerous proteins were removed from the tically. However, scientists were able to identifypeanut, these proteins would no longer cause an the seven main proteins which are responsible for about 98 percent of reactions to peanuts. attnChrh“deieaAssqstRaClupr9lamNirRtprnohaeAIrdcadtoSe.ctot”sPfheifsosiRinrni s-g Although not the ideal solution, by removing harmful proteins, scientists are able to make aallergic reaction. A goal had been set: to remove significant stride in the research of allergies, andthe genes which created these proteins using time will only improve upon the research.CRISPR-Cas9. This proved to be more difficult The trials and costs associated with ap-than believed, as there are multiple genes which proving genetically modified food for sale are ex- tensive, which will prevent hypoallergenic pea- nuts from reaching the market for many years. However, innovations in biotechnology due to CRISPR will continue to become more complex and beneficial throughout the next decade, with an almost limitless potential for curing genetic diseases.Image credit: Evan Amos, Wikimedia Commons, 2011. Nobelium Spring Edition 2017 8

By Emily St. JohnInjectable Electronics:Edited by Sarah Mansour Cyborgization of MiceStudies involving mesh laced with electro transmitters successfully injected into the brain of mice giving a positive outlook on degenerative diseases and paralysis. Ground breaking studies were published by Charles Li- imide, and metal. They have been shown to have act like eber of the Leiber Research Group of Harvard on June 8th, sandpaper in brain tissue, causing damage. Comprised of 2015 on “cyborg-izing” mice. In his studies, Leiber injected a conductive polymer thread, the mesh is virtually 2D and a polymer mesh laced with nano electrodes or electronic has silky fibres of conductive polymer thread. One factor in transmitters into the hippocampus and lateral ventricles of particular, bending stiffness (the measure of how flexible a sedated mice. Once inserted, the mesh expands and con- material is) is an extremely important variable in creating forms to the brain tissue, covering a few centimeters. The the mesh. Lieber’s team owes the biocompatibility of the mesh was connected to computers controlled by the scien- mesh to the bending stiffness factor, 0.087 nN m, being very tists with nanowires. Lieber and his colleagues then used similar to that of actual brain tissue. The similarity in flex- the electronic devices inside of the mesh to send electrical ibility greatly reduces the amount of damage to the brain signals to stimulate individual neurons in targeted parts of from the mesh, both in the short and long term. In addition, the brain. The scientists did this in order to both map neu- 95% of the mesh is open space. This allows and promotes ral function of the brain, as well as control motor function brain cells to grow and conform around the mesh. Lieber of the mice. In addition to forming an accurate model of the and his team performed studies in 2012 that showed that human brain, scientists will better understand how individ- live brain cells could grow around and conform to the mesh ual neural activity converts into more complex cognitive scaffolding. Five weeks after the injection, the mice showed tasks done by the human body, such as laughing or vision. no evidence of a negative immune response to the mesh. Jia Liu, a member of Lieber’s team said neurons “look at this The mesh used in Lieber’s studies have great biocom- polymer network as friendly, like a scaffold”, meaning the patibility, or the ability to not trigger a reaction with sur- immune system does not identify the mesh as a threat to an rounding tissue. The mesh has been designed to cause min- organism’s health. imal damage to the mice’s brain as well as facilitating brain cells to grow around it. The new mesh is an advancement The mesh is also very conductive and has external wires from meshes used in the past. These previous meshes were that scientists can use in order to send electrical impulses made out of substances such as carbon fiber, silicon, poly- back and forth from a computer. Previously, singular9 Nobelium Spring Edition 2017

neurons have been impossible to track, due to con- Lieber’s studies have revolutionized brain mappingstant movement and manipulation, but with the mesh, and have also opened a pathway to finding treatment forscientists now will be able to track an individual neuron patients suffering from a variety of motor disorders andbecause the new brain tissue can grow around it. Being conditions (such as Parkinson’s), repair damages causedable to track the neuron is invaluable in being able to by stroke, or possibly reverse the effects of paralysis. Theform an accurate model of the brain and understand the next steps in his research are to enlarge the scale of themovement of individual neurons, as rarely do they stay mesh and use them on conscious subjects. Lieber hopesput during one’s lifetime. Scientists sent electrical im- that his technology can one day be approved for humanspulses through the mesh for about 2 ms, with a voltage of so that it could be used to improve and prolong lives ofapproximately 70v. This impulse stimulated a single unit those with brain conditions and sustained brain damage.action potential; basically they caused the neuron to fire.The resulting neural signals were then recorded by a com- This “cyborg” mesh created by Lieber shows that sci-puter where Lieber’s team could then interpret the data entists are getting closer and closer to being able to con-and then use the results to map the actual neurons. trol the human brain entirely by a computer. While this “Lieber’s studies have could certainly be beneficial, it could also be dangerous revolutionized brain mapping and imposes serious human ethic questions. The humanand have also opened a pathway brain is what makes an individual an individual; it is theto finding treatment for patients control center of everything in the human body, emotion,suffering from a variety of motor thoughts, perception, and motor function. Conversely,disorders and conditions (such the introduction of this mesh could make it possible for aas Parkinson’s), repair damages computer to control one’s brain, and the computer could caused by stroke, or possibly control someone else’s, and maybe the entire population.reverse the effects of paralysis.” Because a computer could entirely control one’s brain, they could transversely control everything about them, taking away their sense of humanness. Not to mention, this situation raises a serious security threat. If one were to hack into the server controlling the brains of injected humans, they would be able to control them complete- ly and could use them for malice. Lieber has even stated himself, “there’s always going to be someone interested in doing something bad,” and stresses the importance of strict monitoring of this technology as it advances. While the issue of cyborg mice seems to be a sci-fi fantasy, it pos- es a controversial dilemma, the morality of which will be decided in the near future. Nobelium Spring Edition 2017 10

By Emily St. JohnEdited by Sarah Mansour 3D Bioprinting:Becoming a Reality“3D bioprinting, or using a 3D printer to create biotic tissue, is quickly becoming the future of medicine.” Have you ever watched Grey’s Anatomy? Remem- Once the organ is printed, the sample is then incubated ber when Meredith and Christina both used a 3D printer for 48 hours using a bioreactor to facilitate the spheroids in order to create organs for patients? 3D bioprinting, to expand and bind together, creating the actual tissue. or using a 3D printer to create biotic tissue, is quickly The bio-paper acts as a support system or mold to guide becoming the future of medicine. Started by Dr. Gabor the spheroids’ growth and ensures that the cells are grow- Forgacs in 2008, Scientists at Organovo, a leading institute ing correctly, and dissolves as the cells meld together. for bioprinting, have been hard at work making this idea As the tissue matures, smaller and complex structures of science fiction into a reality. Organovo is a medical then form as they would in an actual human body. This laboratory and research company in San Diego, California process occurs because the cells used in the bio-ink are that is a leading pioneer in the field of 3D bioprinting. viable cells that grow and change. Once printed, the cells They currently sell manufactured tissue samples to phar- can grow, duplicate, and rearrange themselves to form maceutical companies that can be used for drug testing these new structures. This process is called biological de- and have succeeded in creating replica liver and kidney velopment and it is what cells are naturally programmed tissue, as well as blood vessels. Organovo was awarded to do. For example, if one were to print liver tissue, they for the 2010 Times Magazine Best Invention for their 3D would print the major cell types, but not small, complex bioprinter, the “NovoGen MMX”. Organovo is just one of structures like capillaries. Through incubation, the cells many companies participating in and exploring the medi- would mature and some will form into those smaller and cal revolution of 3D bioprinting. more complex structures. Bioprinting has the same principles of regular 3D So far, Organovo has only been able to create tis- Printing, except instead of using plastic and other ma- sue samples that have not yet been tested in humans. Their terials as “ink”, it uses different cell types and a hydrogel first breakthrough in 2010 was the successful creation of a scaffold containing collagen and gelatin, called bio-pa- blood vessel using cultures of a person’s DNA. Scientists at per. Imagine how in a printer there are cartridges with Organovo have also performed nerve tissue transplants on different colors of ink. Bioprinting has a similar concept rats with great success. Success with nerve tissue trans- with each “cartridge” containing a different type of cell or plants can lead to cures to paralysis and possibly degener- material that can be used to print the organ tissue. Stem ative diseases such as Alzheimer’s. Since then, Organovo cells are harvested and replicated from patients in order has reproduced tissue identical to that of human kidney to create the bio-ink to print the organs. Each individual and liver tissue samples and have sold them for drug test- organ has similar cell types, however the way in which ing. This accomplishment is very impressive as the liver is they are specifically organized defines what function the one of the most complex organs in the human body, due tissue has. The printer uses spheroids, a sphere shaped to the wide variety of tasks it must perform. An impressive unit containing millions of a patient’s cells, and dispenses feat of Organovo’s occurred on October 5th, 2016, when them layer by layer in order to build up the desired organ. they announced that they were going to begin a preclinical By using 3D bioprinting, scientists can ensure that each- phase of testing the 3D-printed tissue on human patients, printed layer has the correct cell types in the right order. as a result of their successful outcomes with animal test11 Nobelium Spring Edition 2017

subjects. The samples which they created would only be a well. Scientists have already used regular 3D printing topatch, not an entire organ, but could be extremely sig- create prosthetics, and as the field of bioprinting widens,nificant in curing liver disorders or illnesses that would more structures and tissue will be able to be created.otherwise be incurable. In addition, by testing these tissue Scientists in the field of bioprinting could use the preex-patches on the human body, scientists are becoming even isting technology of 3D prosthetic limbs to then createcloser to producing a full sized human liver. viable limbs made of human flesh. However, being able to In a statement made by Eric Michael David, achieve this is decades in the future.M.D., J.D., he said that “we believe our tissues have the Bioprinting would provide a more readily avail-potential to extend the lives of patients on liver transplant able source of organs, research from the Americanlists, or those who do not qualify for transplants due to Transplant Foundation found that twenty-two people dieother factors” (organovo.com). These discoveries are pro- every day from lack of organ availability. In addition, be-found because liver transplants have high rejection rates cause the bioink would be engineered using the patient’sand the second longest transplant waiting list, making it cells, there is a greatly decreased risk of rejection. In anone of the most difficult organ transplants to perform. To interview of Dr. Gabor Forgacs in 2015, he stated that theeven get on the list, a candidate must meet many qualifi- “application of 3D bioprinting for therapeutic purposescations, such as not being under active substance abuse, (i.e. to fabricate full complex organs) is way out there”having a severe infection, or cancer in other parts of the (all3dp.com); however, 3D printing full organs may takebody. Organovo envisions that their technology will be many years to fully develop, it promises to change theused in the future to create full organs that can be suc- face of medicine entirely.cessfully transplanted with lower rejection rates. In the future, 3D Bioprinting can solve many Sourcesdifferent medical questions such as organ transplants as American Transplant Foundation. (2017). Facts and Myths about Transplant. Retrieved Marchwell as use for creating new drugs. Currently, the FDA 07, 2017, from http://www.americantransplantfoundation.org/about-transplant/facts-and- (U.S. Food and Drug Association) requires all drugs to myths/be tested on animals before they are tested on humans, Barnatt, C. (2016, November 10). Bioprinting. Retrieved March 07, 2017, from http://www.explainingthefu killing more than 100 million animals (peta.org). Animal ture.com/bioprinting.htmltesting raises many questions of animal rights, but also Collins, F. S. (n.d.). Experiments on Animals: Overview. Retrieved March 07, 2017, from http://www.peta.org/ effectiveness as some symptoms found in humans are not issues/animals-used-for-experimentation/animals-used-experimentation-factsheets/animal-ex exhibited during animal testing. If approved, 3D printed periments-overview/tissue samples could solve these issues, offering more Gilbert, D. (2015, October 22). As Theranos Presses Pause, The Real Healthcare Revolution Is Happening With exact results as well as saving the lives of these animals.Tests done with tissue created through 3D bioprinting Artificial intelligence, 3D Bio-Printing and Smart Drugs. Retrieved March 07, 2017, from http:// have a more auspicious future than animal testing be- www.ibtimes.com/theranos-presses-pause-real-healthcare-revolution-happening-artificial-intelligence-2152001cause it replicates exact human tissue, thus avoiding the Grieser, F. (2015, August 28). Interview with Dr. Gabor Forgacs, Organovo. Retrieved March 07, 2017, from complicated differences between animal and human https://all3dp.com/interview-dr-gabor-forgacs-organovo/biology. Organovo has already created a market for tissue Organovo Holdings, INC. (n.d.). Bioprinting functional human tissue. Retrieved March 07, 2017, from http:// samples and have sold their liver and kidney tissues for organovo.com/.pharmaceutical testing, but it is nowhere near replacing Sher, D. (2015, August 26). The Top 15 Bioprinters. Retrieved March 07, 2017, from https://3dprintingindustry. the market for animal testing as it is much more expen- com/news/top-10-bioprinters-55699/sive and the production scale is still too limited. As testing continues and bioprinting technol- Nobelium Spring Edition 2017 12ogy evolves, hopefully scientists will be able to quicklyand effectively print entire organs that match a patient’sDNA. By taking cultures of one’s DNA, the goal wouldbe able to send DNA cultures of a patient to a central lab,replicate the sample to create the bioink, and print theorgan that would then be ready for transplant. Reachingthis goal would be a major advancement in curative andtherapeutic medicine as there are currently more than120,000 people are on all organ transplant list in the U.S,according to the American Transplant Foundation. (Mil-lions of amputees could benefit from 3D bioprinting, as

The Expansionof the UniverseBy Chase CroninEdited by Liam SmithEdiwin Hubble and his Telescope The universe is massive. Even with it looks as if other celestial bodies are moving today’s technology, we still cannot see most of away from us. Scientists calculated that space the universe. There comes a point where we is moving at an estimated 46.2 miles per sec- can’t see any further. We may not know how ond. big the universe is, but we do know that the How is it possible for the universe to universe is growing. In 1929, Edwin Hubble expand at such an immense rate? How does is observed that other galaxies are moving away it possible for space itself to expand?? These are from us. Strangely enough the galaxies them- questions that have been plaguing scientists for selves are not moving away from us, but the years.The universe contains a substance called space they are in is moving away which makes “dark energy,” scientists, to this date, are not13 Nobelium Spring Edition 2017

certain as to what dark energy really is. Re- Despite the fact that dark matter is still asearchers at NASA believe that dark energy mystery. We are making progress. Humans arecould be some sort of energy fluid or field that engineers, there are theories in which scien-occupies space, but is the opposite of matter. tists say dark energy can possibly be harnessedThis means that dark energy isn’t a physical and used for interstellar travel similar to Starsubstance. All that is known about dark energy Wars but instead of jumping to hyperspaceis that it exists and that it makes up 73% of the we would be warping space itself; allowing usuniverse. Yes, 73% of the universe is filled with to travel massive distances in short periods ofsome unknown thing that is impossible to see. time. There are of course many flaws to such a theory but in due time it may be possible for us “Researchers at NASA to go beyond our own galaxy and maybe even believe that dark ener- further.gy could be some sort ofenergy fluid or field that A Map of the Observable Universeoccupies space, but is the opposite of matter.” Despite the fact we only see dark energyas empty space, we do know it exists. Whileworking on the theory of relativity AlbertEinstein was the first man to realize that emptyspace was not exactly empty. This was provenby one version of Einstein’s theory of relativ-ity that includes value called a “cosmologicalconstant.” This was added into the equationsin his theory of general relativity to prove thatthe universe was not expanding. He did thisbecause “the math just didn’t add up.” This cos-mological constant predicts that empty spacecan possess its own form of energy. That meansthat as more space is created, more energy iscreated; meaning that there is no change in theconcentration of dark energy. Due to the factthere is no change in concentration, the uni-verse can expand faster and faster. Nobelium Spring Edition 2017 14

The Physics of aDrop of WaterBy Kevin ChenEdited by Liam Smith When I was young, I always wondered why it You may think that I am going nowhere talkingwas that raindrops, falling so high from the sky, do not about just rain for three whole paragraphs. Don’tcause any harm. I’ve seen objects fall from buildingsbefore, and a mere coin could break a car’s window worry, our adventure has just started!falling from a certain height. So, what actually happenswhen water falls? Diagram 1 Scenario 1: Water, in liquid state, M = 0.1 g falling on Earth V = 10 m/s Obviously, the only event that satisfies Scenario 2: Water, in any state, this scenario is rain! falling on Earth Rain, in its most basic definition, is the accu- In an natural setting, the most common circumstance mulation of water droplets in the atmosphere that falls is hail. to the ground due to gravity. The water vapor gathers high in the atmosphere and condenses into water Although the shape and the density of hail is droplets. When the droplets first form, their mass to comparable to raindrops, hail has one major differ- area ratio is very small. As a result, gravity does not ence: its solidity. The solid state of hail enables it to stay affect the droplets as much as the air resistance from together as it forms and falls to Earth. Compared to under it. In other words, the droplets are so light that rain, hail produces a much larger impact when it falls air resistance keeps them in the sky. However, as the on one’s head. Large amounts of hail can reach fifteen droplets get larger, their mass to area ratio changes and centimeters in diameter and weigh 0.5 kilograms. This they become increasingly affected by gravity. Eventual- means that the terminal velocity for hale could reach ly, the droplets fall to the Earth and they quickly reach 50 m/s, although it rarely approaches that speed due their terminal velocity. Terminal velocity is described to melting and colliding with other pieces of hail. A as the acceleration force of gravity when it is equal piece of ice weighing 0.5kg hurts a lot when thrown in with air resistance. The more mass the object has, in a snowball fight, let alone falling at a speed close to comparison to its area, the higher its terminal veloci- ty. Since a raindrop is at most 5mm long, and has the mass of about 1 gram, the maximum terminal velocity is approximately only 10 m/s, about the maximum speed of a bicycle. Additionally, due to the fact that raindrops are liquid, the force is dissipated upon im- pact.15 Nobelium Spring Edition 2017

200km per hour! That’s why injuries, and even deaths, This is because an escape velocity is the speed anby hail are quite possible. object on Earth’s surface has to gain in order to escape Earth’s gravitational pull. Diagram 2 Don’t underestimate the force this velocity can obtain. When waterdrops lands on surfaces at M = 0.5 kg high speeds, the edges of the droplet will spread at an even faster speeds, thus creating layers and V = 50 m/s strong ripples. The energy of an average AK47 bul- let when it shoots out of the barrel is approximately Scenario 3: Water, size of a normal rain- 2 joules, and the energy of the raindrop is 3 timesdrop, falling on an atmosphere-less Earth that. Although a raindrop is not hard, it also does If atmosphere and evaporation are not not bounce, and travels at a speed much faster than that of a bullet, meaning that most of that energy isconsidered, a waterdrop can at last enjoy a free- going to be transmitted into one’s body in a muchbody fall. However, considering evaporation in shorter period of time.space, without air pressure, water will imme-diately boil. The extreme cold of space would Our adventure with the water droplet doesimmediately cause the rain to freeze. If the mass not end here. In the next episode, we willis unchanged then there is no substantial differ- leave Earth and traverse into the dark, mys-ence from our final conclusion. The waterdropwill continue to accelerate at a speed of 9.8 m/s. terious space. Keep your seatbelts on!By the time it hits ground, forget about a singleperson, the force of impact can obliterate any-thing underneath it. Of course, it is impossibleto accelerate forever, as it would break the speedof light. However, this experiment is limited toEarth. Sir Isaac Newton has proved somethingquite counter-intuitive: even if a water drop isinfinitely far away from Earth, there is a limitto its maximum speed. The further we go fromEarth, the weaker the gravitational force, thusthe slower the water can accelerate. Using the equation for potential gravita-tional energy, E = GMm/r, (where M and m arethe masses of two objects, r is the distance betweenthe two, and G is the gravitational constant) onecan calculate the energy of the waterdrop. Usingfurther calculations, a water drop weighing 0.1grams can obtain about 6 joules of kinetic ener-gy. Converting that to speed, the drop’s maximum Nobelium Spring Edition 2017 16

Observing the Effects ofUV Radiation and Visible Light on Planarian Regeneration By Niamh Argyle and Spoorthi Balu Planarians are non-parasitic flatworms who live in freshwater conidtions. Planarians are known to be able to regenerate two areas are incapable of regeneration. The neoblastsinto a complete animal from small pieces in a week us- accumulate at wound to regenerate body parts.ing epimorphosis, a process involving the regrowth of The stages of regeneration consist of: apoptosis,limbs, which occurs from the respecification of masses a proliferative response, stem cell differentiation, andof cells that were dedifferentiated. Planarians do not growth. Apoptosis, which occurs for the first 6 hours,have a circulatory, respiratory, or skeletal system. They consists of programmed cell death for the damagedare hermaphrodites, with both male and female sex cells near the location of the cut. The proliferativeorgans, but they also asexually reproduce through dis- response consists of stem cells multiplying and startinglocating their tails, which regenerate into other planar- to differentiate, peaking between 48-72 hours. The newians. The structural simplicity of the worms is a large differentiated cells congregate at the site of the cut andreason why regeneration is so effective for the animals. start to add to the length of the worm, beginning the The planarian stem cell system, consisting of phase of growth.neoblasts, provides efficient regeneration.Neoblasts, a type of adult stem cells, are abundant The Effect of Visible Light of Different Wavelengthsthroughout the flatworm and continually divide. The Planarians are observed to have a negativeonly areas of a planarian that lack neoblasts are infront of the eye spots and around the pharynx. These response to light. Most studies with the flatworms use white light instead of varying its wavelength. Planari17 Nobelium Spring Edition 2017

an responses due to different lightare found to differ according to thewavelength. For light of shorterwavelengths, such as violet, planar-ians have been observed to have thestrongest reactions against light.However, as the wavelength of thevisible light grows, the responses ofthe planarians become less signif-icant. Under red light, planariansshow no behavioral changes anddo not actively avoid the light. Thereasons for differences in behaviorare currently being researched. Theregenerative capacity of planaria inresponse to different wavelengths isnot well documented. The Effect of UV Exposure subjected to colored light. After the worms are sliced, UV light is known to affect intracellular inter- they will be placed in petri dishes, each under a respec-actions and slow simple behavior. Depending on the tive lamp with a 29 watt light bulb. Three petri dishesduration of radiation, the results are death, behavioral will be placed under each of the four lamps. Differentchanges, and a reduced ability to regenerate. Neoblasts light wavelengths within the visible light spectrum willincrease in areas of cellular damage from radiation be utilized through the use of colored filters. The lampsimmediately after UV exposure. Different species have will emit light at approximately 430 nm (green), 520slightly different sensitivities towards the radiation, but nm (violet) , and 660 nm (red). The fourth lamp willgenerally, regeneration takes longer than it would nor- emit white light. The planaria will be exposed to lightmally as neoblasts have to regenerate damaged tissues almost daily for a duration of two hours. The length ofin addition to regenerating the animal.6 How much the planarian fragments will be measured on specificlonger planarians take to regenerate, and if it is propor- days following the incision. Additionally, microscopictional to the time spent in radiation, is not well known. images will be captured following the incision. Once the data is gathered, an optimal light wavelength for Methods planarian regeneration will be established. Control Environment: Experiment 2: Effect of UV Radiation Exposure The planaria will be kept in plastic petri dish- on Planarian Regenerationes, which will have approximately 9 mL of river watercoating the surface. Their habitat will have a main- This experiment will also be conducted simi-tained temperature of approximately 22ºC. Each day, larly to the control, but these planaria will be radiated.the planaria will be transferred to a petri dish with Following amputation, UV lamps with 23 watts offresh river water. The planaria will be fed a small power will be used to determine the effect of UV radi-portion of a hard-boiled egg yolk weekly. When the ation on planarian regeneration. Three groups of threeplanaria are not being cut or exposed to light, they will planarians will be exposed to radiation for 20, 25, or 30be placed in a dark box. minute durations, almost every two days. The length of the planarian fragments will be recorded on certain Experiment 1: Effect of Visible Light Wavelength days following the incision. Additionally, microscopic on Planarian Regeneration images will be captured following the incision. The gathered data will produce information on the effect of This experiment will be conducted in the same UV radiation exposure on planarian regeneration.manner as the control, except that the planaria will be Nobelium Spring Edition 2017 18

Data Regeneration of Planaria Exposed to Different Colored LightsRegeneration of Planaria Exposed to UV Radiation Discussion ments tended to grow at a faster rate, and towards the end of the experiment, both the regeneration of the an- Looking at the tables, there is a clear lag before terior and posterior fragments tapered. There were no the planaria start to regenerate. Every planaria exhib- distinct trends of growth between the planaria exposed ited a change in length on day five, but no worms had to different light wavelengths. Additionally, no trends a change in length on day two. Also, the growth of were found between the planaria exposed to different the planarian fragments seemed to taper off after day durations of UV radiation. seven or day ten. The was generally no new growth on One reason that a distinct trend was not pres- day twelve. While comparing the rate of growth of the ent is that there were not enough planaria cut for each anterior and posterior fragments, the posterior frag environment to overcome errors from inaccurate mea19 Nobelium Spring Edition 2017

surements and asexual reproduction. Almost all of ian fragment could possibly be explained by the needthe planarian fragments were under one centimeter for the critical anatomical systems in the planarianand moved rapidly throughout the petri dish. It was cephalic region, such as the brain, the pharynx, and thesometimes difficult to obtain an accurate measure- eyespots. Due to the tail being less critical to planar-ment when it was unclear whether the fragments ian survival, the anterior planaria regenerated slowerwere stretched out completely or when they would because they already had the anatomical systems ofnot remain relatively still. Many of the petri dishes in the head. Therefore, because the head is essential tothe experiments also ended up having three planarian the function of the planaria, the regeneration of thefragments. This was concluded to be due to asexual posterior fragments is pursued to its limits, generatingreproduction. Planaria have the ability to reproduce a head.asexually by detaching their tails. This almost always While no distinct regeneration trends wereoccurred with the posterior fragment, which would found among planaria of different environments due tothen become smaller and start growing again. The the asexual reproduction of many of the worms, cleargrowth of the third fragment was added to the growth general patterns were present regarding a lag time andof the posterior fragment, as the two were initially one growth speed between the head and tail. These trendspart. brought insight surrounding the process of planarian To justify the results of this experiment, there regeneration regardless of environment.are multiple implications to consider, including thespecific stages of planarian regeneration, the role of Sourcesphotoreceptors regarding planarian response to light Adell, Teresa, Francesc Cebrià, and Emili Saló. “Gradients in Planarian Regeneration and and regeneration efficiency, and Wnt signaling, which Homeostasis.” Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology 2.1 (2010): a000505. regulates stem cells and their specialization. PMC. Web.The planaria’s initial response following amputation is X. Introduction to Planaria (n.d.): n. pag. MIT. Web. <https://biology.mit.edu/sites/default/ the wound response, when apoptosis occurs. Addition- files/Introduction%20to%20Planaria(1).pdf>.ally, the initial response allows for the organization of Gilbert SF. Developmental Biology. 6th edition. Sunderland (MA): Sinauer Associates; 2000. stem cells at the amputation site. There is no growth Regeneration. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK9971/within the hours immediately following amputation, Gentile, Luca, Francesc Cebrià, and Kerstin Bartscherer. “The Planarian Flatworm.” Disease because these processes are occuring. This may justify Models & Mechanisms. The Company of Biologists, 2011. <http://dmm.biolo why there was not significant growth recorded in the gists.org/content/4/1/12>.first few days following amputation of the planaria in Paskin, Taylor R. et al. “Planarian Phototactic Assay Reveals Differential Behavioral Re this experiment. sponses Based on Wavelength.” Ed. Joseph C. Dickens. PLoS ONE 9.12 (2014): Additionally, Wnt signaling plays a role in e114708. PMC. Web.planarian regeneration, and it may have affected theresults of this experiment. During planarian regener-ation, there is a fundamental choice that occurs whencells either become heads or tails. Wnt signaling ulti-mately dictates what the stem cells become, by using aprotein called β-catenin. If more Wnt signaling occursand more β-catenin is produced, the stem cells becomea planarian tail, whereas if less Wnt signaling occursand less β-catenin is produced, the stem cells becomea planarian head.6 This potentially correlates with theexperiment because there was most likely less Wntsignaling and β-catenin. Nobelium Spring Edition 2017 20

Fun Facts! There are 10 times as many In a lifetime, the averagebacterial cells as there are human human walks the equiva-cells in the average human body. lent of 5 times around the Earth.Human saliva contains a painkill- The Tyrannosauruser called opiorphin that is 6 times rex lived closer in time to humans than more powerful than morphine. it did to the Humans can become up to 5cm Stegosaurus.taller in space because their spine is not being compressed by gravity.21 Nobelium Spring Edition 2017

Bibliography The Expansion of the Universe Written by Chase Cronin “ M F “ A“ WDDrtoekaaseihrrknakkIostmowEED nannigto,hWnwpvNeezeNeerr,aaaw.sggrOnnsipCasnwayyInd.enElt.s,:,.ac” glMDT2Tv2rPyo.oea0.0hoiTceav.rx“1e.dr1.a”h“ag7A1knaN.MbeS.oNycSMwaWWp.v.cyp ypo.eeNesa.abNhee-et,tlc.eetbedkeU2p.eerrlpn..0.Oira.ncP,7o.ctT1o,|ir2ifou7vMnm2ih0Uem.sSzg0earWe.1cFn.ysr17ENiIio7e.Ne.Sevnx.,.2rnWeb.papcWS0pPcry..eapse.h,e17n,Tee7Ca2byM2s’Mb.chs0.sai0ei.oei7u1caEs,71n7srLsUsM7Ex..Mii-.OanponWx2aWUygnaaipr0fvonr.eanUTD1e.e2sunb7ir2bhinv0i.st.sor0.eeiie71benvor717UecIsyMn7.MMster.n”oCsaEeT.iaerrvalxrPa.oaeD.spti2drreux2ais0aa”ars0neye1c.bGd1”7dToSa7i..uvync.oBUe.zigceeErmn?oyntx”timcae .enr..TArticlesPeanut-Free Peanuts WLaryitotuent bbyyLLiinasmdeSymQitihan Lewis, T. (2015, October 13). In five years, we could be eating a new kind of GMO. Retrieved March 03, 2017, from http://www. businessinsider.com/crispr-allergy-free-gmo-pea nuts-2015-10Tayag, Y. (n.d.). The Hypoallergenic Peanut Farmer. 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Retrieved March 31, 2017, from http://e360.yale.edu/ Retrieved April 02, 2017, from https://med.stanford.edu/news/ all-news/2015/10/among-teens-sleep-deprivation-an-epidemic. features/insect_numbers_declining_why_it_matters htmlThe Xerces Society » Monarch Conservation. (n.d.). Retrieved March 31, 2017, from http://xerces.org/monarchs/ Teens and Sleep. (n.d.). Retrieved April 02, 2017, from https://sleepfounda tion.org/sleep-topics/teens-and-sleep Physics of Wa ter Dro p WLaryiottuent bbyy KCelavrianGCuhzemnan Nobelium Spring Edition 2017 22