History - A Visual Encyclopedia

["\u25bc SPACE RACE The power struggle between the US and USSR was not limited to politics. Both superpowers also competed to develop technology that would make travel to space possible. In 1961, USSR\u2019s Yuri Gagarin became the first man to reach Earth\u2019s orbit on board the spacecraft Vostok 1 (below). \u25b2 CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS 1900 TO PRESENT In 1961, the US tried to overthrow Cuba\u2019s communist government. In response, the USSR promised to defend Cuba by setting up missiles in the country. The US then tried to block Soviet ships (above), and sent planes to patrol the waters around Cuba. A nuclear war seemed inevitable, but the two sides reached a compromise and the USSR withdrew its missiles from the region. FACT MCCARTHYISM \u25b2 Many countries In the 1950s, many people in the US in Asia and Africa did feared a communist uprising in the not want to support either country. In reaction to this fear, a US of the two superpowers Senator, Joseph McCarthy (above), began during the Cold War. accusing some people, from government They formed the Non- officials to Hollywood stars, of being secret communists or supporters of the USSR. Aligned Movement His anticommunist campaign ruined in the 1960s. the careers and lives of many. THREAT OF NUCLEAR WAR \u25b6 After the end of World War II, the US and USSR began to develop more powerful weapons. By the 1960s both countries had nuclear weapons, and people lived in fear of nuclear attack. Across the US, schools held drills teaching children to dive under desks and cover their heads to protect themselves in case of a nuclear explosion. PROXY WARS 1955\u20131975 1975 1979\u20131989 1950\u20131953 Communist North Vietnam Civil war erupts in the African The USSR sends its army War breaks out in the Korean attacks South Vietnam. The country of Angola. The US to support the communist Peninsula as North Korea, conflict escalates when the US sends aid to the anticommunist government of Afghanistan supported by China and the USSR, sends thousands of soldiers to party, while Cuba sends troops to against anticommunists, and South Korea, aided by the US, hold back the communists. support the communist fighters. who were armed by the US. battle to control the region. 199","Israel and Palestine 1900 TO PRESENT After six million Jews died in the Holocaust (see pp.192\u2013193), \u25b2 THE SS EXODUS Jews sought a safe haven in their ancestral homeland. The United Nations voted to separate British-controlled Palestine In 1947, 4,500 Jewish refugees set sail for into two states, one Jewish (Israel) and one Arab (Palestine). Palestine on board the SS Exodus. They But the decision angered Arab states, as the Arab population were stopped by the British who decided considered Palestine its home as well. A series of wars began, that they had to return to Germany. Protests and the conflict is still unresolved today. around the world eventually led to support for the creation of a Jewish state. In 1948, as the last British troops left West Bank and Gaza respectively. \u25b2 PEACE NEGOTIATIONS Palestine and the state of Israel was The occupation of the West Bank declared, all its Arab neighbors stirred religious nationalism in Israel. The United Nations supports a two-state attacked. At the end of this First During the Six-Day War of 1967, solution, with an independent state of Arab\u2013Israeli War, Israel had captured the West Bank and Gaza were taken Palestine alongside the state of Israel. The more land from the Palestinians, and by Israel, who also occupied the global community has tried to negotiate the Arab nations of Jordan and Egypt Sinai Peninsula in Egypt and Golan several peace deals. One such example occupied the areas known as the Heights in Syria. was the 1993 Oslo Peace Accords, which initiated peace talks between Israel and \u25bc PALESTINE\u2019S REFUGEE CAMPS The Sinai Peninsula was returned Palestine. However, tensions and fighting to Egypt after a peace treaty in 1979, are still ongoing. In 1948, during the First Arab\u2013Israeli and Gaza and parts of the West Bank War, 700,000 Palestinians were expelled have been returned to Palestine. But or fled their homes and became refugees today the two sides remain as far in the West Bank and Gaza, as well as from reaching an agreement about Lebanon, Syria, and Jordan. Palestinians their terrority disputes as ever. refer to this loss of their homeland as their \u201cnakba\u201d (catastrophe).","Conflicts in the Middle East The Middle East extends across West Asia to Egypt in North \u25b2 IRANIAN REVOLUTION 1900 TO PRESENT Africa. Many of the region\u2019s national borders were carelessly created by the British and French when they abandoned their In 1979, the Iranian people were unhappy colonies as their empires collapsed. The region has suffered with the ruling Shah (king) and his frequent conflicts and upheavals throughout the 20th and dependence on the West, particularly the US. early 21st centuries. These have included civil wars, religious A million people took to the streets to protest, conflicts, and invasions by foreign powers. forcing the Shah to step down and bringing Ayatollah Khomeini\u2014an Islamic leader and figurehead of the revolution\u2014to power. When Britain and France withdrew people died during the war before a SADDAM HUSSEIN from the region in the 1940s, borders ceasefire was declared in 1988. On were haphazardly decided, and September 11, 2001, Islamic terrorist Saddam Hussein (ruled 1979\u20132003) led leaders loyal to the former rulers put group \u201cAl-Qaeda\u201d carried out attacks Iraq to war with Iran from 1980 to 1988, in place. Palestine was divided into in the US. The US responded with a and in 1990 he invaded Kuwait. Iraq was Jewish and Arab states and the \u201cwar on terror,\u201d invading Afghanistan invaded in 1991 by the US and its allies Israel\u2013Palestinian conflict remains and Iraq to search for weapons that to liberate Kuwait, unresolved today (see opposite). could destroy the West. and again in 2003 as part of the Iraq and Egypt overthrew their \u25bc ARAB SPRING wider \u201cwar on kings, and Egypt\u2019s ruler Gamal Abdel terror.\u201d Hussein Nasser provoked a failed British and In 2010, Arabs across the region took part was captured and French invasion after taking control in uprisings, calling for more democratic executed in 2006. of the Suez Canal. Iran and Iraq have rule from their governments. Egypt\u2019s also experienced frequent conflicts. President Mubarak was toppled, but little Following the 1979 Iranian Revolution, else was achieved in the region except more Iraq invaded Iran in 1980. A million conflict, including the Syrian Civil War. \u25b2 THE IRAQ WAR In 2003, the US invaded Iraq with support from the UK, Australia, and Poland. The Iraq War (2003\u20132011) was linked to the wider \u201cwar on terror\u201d and began on the belief that Iraq had weapons of mass destruction which would be used against the West, though no weapons were found. 201","The struggle against apartheid 1900 TO PRESENT \u25b2 SEGREGATION A system known as apartheid (\u201cseparateness\u201d) existed in South Africa from 1948 until the early 1990s. Under this Under apartheid, separate areas were system, Black people were discriminated against\u2014they created for each ethnic group. Facilities and had fewer rights than white people, and faced restrictions areas for \u201cnon-whites\u201d, such as this public on where they could live, go to school, and work. toilet, were always worse than the \u201cwhite- only\u201d spaces. Black people had to carry passes in white areas and marriages between \u201cwhites\u201d and \u201cnon-whites\u201d was forbidden. FACT Although the population of South highlighted the need for reform. In Africa was mostly Black, the laws of May 1994, Nelson Mandela\u2014the leader Steve Biko was a apartheid gave white people control of the ANC\u2014was elected the first Black key figure in the fight of the country and the power to set president of South Africa in the first against apartheid. He led and enforce the laws. Black people elections in which Black people could several campaigns and were forced out of their homes and vote, marking the end of apartheid. founded the South African were not allowed to own businesses Students Organization to or land, live, travel, or work in certain \u25b2 AFRICAN NATIONAL CONGRESS fight for the rights of areas. If they broke these laws, they were punished or sent to jail. The African National Congress (ANC), Black students. founded in 1912, became the leading Many people were against apartheid group campaigning against apartheid. \u25bc GROUP AREAS ACT and protests were led by the African It was banned by the government from National Congress (ANC). At first the 1960 to 1990 and was forced to operate In 1950, the South African government protests were peaceful but as the in secret during this period. passed the \u201cGroup Areas Act,\u201d a law that government\u2019s regime grew more created different areas for each race. brutal\u2014more than 50 protesters Thousands of Black people were later were killed in the Sharpeville Massacre forced out of their homes to live in new in the 1960s\u2014the protests became areas called \u201chomelands.\u201d more violent, too. But from the 1980s, increasing international pressure ALBERTINA SISULU Albertina Sisulu (1918\u20132011) was one of the most famous activists of the anti-apartheid movement. She was the wife of ANC leader Walter Sisulu, and became known by many as \u201dMa Sisulu,\u201d the mother of the nation. 202","1990 1964 1962 1956 NELSON MANDELA SOWETO UPRISING Mandela is arrested (along with On June 16, 1976, thousands of Black other members of the ANC) and students came together in Soweto to protest charged with \u201chigh treason\u201d for about a new law that said all pupils must betraying the government. He is learn Afrikaans in school. They were brutally found not guilty in 1961. attacked by police and many were killed in what became known as the \u201cSoweto uprising.\u201d Mandela is arrested and sentenced 1994 1993 to five years in prison for urging South African workers to go on strike and for leaving the country without a passport. On June 12, Mandela and seven others are convicted and sentenced to life in prison for plotting to overthrow the government. Mandela is sent to Robben Island prison. Following calls from around the world to \u201cfree Nelson Mandela,\u201d on February 11\u2014after spending 27 years in prison\u2014Mandela is finally released at the age of 71. He becomes president of the ANC in 1991. Mandela works with the president of South Africa, F. W. de Klerk, to put an end to apartheid and introduce equal rights for all South Africans. The pair are awarded a Nobel Peace Prize. All South Africans are allowed to vote for the first time ever in the general election. Mandela\u2019s ANC party wins the election and Mandela becomes the first Black president of South Africa on May 10.","The Vietnam War 1900 TO PRESENT In 1955, a conflict began in South Vietnam between communist rebels and the anticommunist government. The US, desperate to stop the spread of communism, supported the South Vietnamese government, and the conflict escalated into a long and bitter war. It ended in 1975, with the defeat of the South Vietnam government. Vietnam had been split between government aiming to reunite the \u25b2 THE TET OFFENSIVE the communist North Vietnam and the country under communist rule. pro-Western South Vietnam in 1954, Initially, the US sent only military During the Tet spring festival in 1968, a year before the conflict began. advisors to South Vietnam, but in communist forces started a series of With support from North Vietnam, 1964, following a North Vietnamese attacks on South Vietnamese towns and communist rebels in the south attack on a US warship, President cities, hoping to trigger an uprising in the launched a campaign against the Johnson won approval from the US country. Although the offensive was beaten Congress to send in ground troops. back, thousands of soldiers and civilians \u25bc US INVOLVEMENT IN THE WAR The first marines landed in 1965. were killed and the war lost public support in the US. US military involvement in the war Despite heavily bombing in the increased from fewer than 1,000 military North, the US was unable to win the advisors in 1960 to more than half a war and withdrew all its troops in million soldiers by the end of the following 1973. Two years later, Vietnam was decade. The US Army used helicopters to unified under communist control. transport troops and weapons across Vietnam\u2019s jungle terrain. \u25b2 OPPOSITION TO THE WAR Opposition to the war in the US grew steadily, particularly among students, and around 50,000 soldiers deserted the armed forces. The killing of four students at a peace rally in 1970 led to massive protests across the nation. MAJOR EVENTS 1955 1964 1975 1954 The communist National After a naval clash in the Gulf of North Vietnam conquers After Vietnam wins its freedom Liberation Front of South Tonkin, US President Lyndon B. Johnson the south following the from France, the country is divided Vietnam, or Viet Cong, starts massively increases the US military 1973 Paris Peace Accords into two zones\u2014communist-run a rebellion against the South presence in South Vietnam and starts and the withdrawal of US North Vietnam and Vietnamese government. to bomb North Vietnamese cities. forces from Vietnam. anticommunist South Vietnam. 204","The Cuban Revolution In 1959, Cuban revolutionary Fidel Castro and a small group of rebels 1900 TO PRESENT seized control of Cuba, ending the brutal dictatorship of Fulgencio Batista. Their new government made many reforms, improving the health care and education systems in the country. Fidel Castro was the son of a wealthy BATISTA\u2019S CUBA \u25b6 farmer, and developed an interest in politics while studying law in Havana, Fulgencio Batista seized power Cuba\u2019s capital. He started a campaign in a military coup in 1952 and to overthrow Batista, but his first ruled until 1959. During this time, attempt to do so in 1953 failed. In 20,000 people were killed and many 1956, Castro began a second military others tortured. Government corruption campaign in the mountains of was so great that in 1957, even the US eastern Cuba, which by 1958 had government, an ally, withheld military gained considerable ground. The aid, and for a time supported Castro\u2019s following January, Castro overthrew Batista and took power. resistance movement. The Cuban Revolution brought Latin American nations and sent huge social and economic changes troops to fight against colonialism to the island. The government and apartheid in Africa. After the transformed the economy and took government took over US oil facilities control of land ownership. Cuba also on the island, the US banned trade supported revolutionaries in other with Cuba. Following a failed invasion sponsored by the US in 1961, Cuba allied itself more closely with the USSR. \u25b2 MONCADA BARRACKS CASTRO\u2019S RETURN \u25b6 In 1952, as a young lawyer, Fidel Castro After a year in exile in Mexico, Castro ran for parliament but the elections returned to Cuba along with 82 fighters were canceled after Batista seized power. On May 26, 1953, Castro led an in December 1956. All but 20 were attack by 135 rebels on the Moncada killed in an ambush on arrival but the military barracks in the city of Santiago survivors set up a base in Cuba\u2019s Sierra de Cuba. The attack failed and Castro was imprisoned until 1955. Maestra mountains from which they then began another armed struggle to overthrow Batista. REVOLUTIONARY VICTORY \u25b6 As leader, Castro converted Cuba into a communist country (one where wealth is supposed to be shared among the people). He improved conditions for the poor, and provided better access to hospitals and schools. Yet Castro also went on ban any opposition to his rule, becoming a dictator himself.","The US Civil Rights Movement 1900 TO PRESENT Until the 1960s, laws in many of the southern states of the US allowed discrimination against Black Americans. Activists began a campaign to fight back against this oppression, which gained ground in the 1950s and 1960s. Known as the Civil Rights Movement, it demanded equality for all citizens. In 1862, US President Abraham inferior, and many public places and Lincoln issued the Emancipation businesses refused to allow Black Proclamation. This ended slavery people to use their amenities at all. in the US, but it did not ensure This discrimination spread to politics equality for Black people. as well, with Black voters being denied entry to voting booths at By the 1870s, laws came into force election time. in some southern states that allowed local authorities to separate people In the mid-20th century, Black on the basis of skin color, as long as American activists began using they provided equal facilities for all. peaceful protests, boycotts, and legal This led to separate spaces being actions to demand equality for Black created for Black people across the people. The movement led to the Civil US\u2014different schools and hospitals, Rights Act of 1964, which outlawed and separate seating on buses, trains, discrimination based on skin color, and even in restaurants. The facilities sex, religion, or national origin. created for Black people were always FACT CHILD IN TIME It was only in June In 1960, six-year-old Ruby Bridges 1967 that the US Supreme became the first Black child to attend a previously all-white school Court abolished a law in Louisiana. On her first days at that banned marriage school, Ruby had to be protected by government officials as there were between people of threats against her. She grew up to different races. become a civil rights activist. \u25c0 BUS BOYCOTT In the 1950s, Black people had to sit in the back of public buses by law in some areas. In 1955, Black American seamstress Rosa Parks sat in the first row of seats reserved for Black people on a bus in Montgomery, Alabama, and refused to give up the seat for a white person as the bus filled up. Her arrest sparked a year-long bus boycott by Black people, bringing attention to the unfair law. 206","MARCH ON WASHINGTON Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., was a leading activist of the Civil Rights Movement, known for inspirational speeches and nonviolent protests. In 1963, Dr. King led the largest march of the movement, in which nearly 250,000 people gathered in Washington, D.C. It was here that he gave his famous \u201cI have a dream\u201d speech, which gave hope for a more equal society. LITTLE ROCK NINE \u25b6 TAKE A LOOK The US Supreme Court ruled Black Lives Matter began as a movement against separate schools for on social media in 2013, to express Black people in 1954, but it outrage against the use of violence by was difficult to implement. In the police against Black Americans. 1957, the state governor of After the murder of a Black man, George Arkansas attempted to prevent Floyd, by a white police officer captured nine Black students attending worldwide attention in 2020, it grew into school in the city of Little Rock. a global movement supported by millions. In response, US President 207 Dwight D. Eisenhower sent in the army to protect them. \u25c0 BALLOT OR THE BULLET Like Martin Luther King, Malcolm X was a leading figure in the Civil Rights Movement, but he argued against some of King\u2019s ideas. In his \u201cBallot or the Bullet Speech\u201d in 1963, he encouraged Black people to use their right to vote, but warned that they may have to use violence instead if the politicians in power didn\u2019t deliver equality.","The aerials Space transmitted exploration radio signals 1900 TO PRESENT to Earth. Since the earliest times, humans have been fascinated by the vast dark space that lies beyond Earth. We have wondered The main body of what other stars and planets are like, and whether there is life Sputnik 1 was just 23 in out there. It was only in the mid-20th century that technology advanced enough to allow humans to build powerful rockets (58 cm) in diameter. and begin the first steps toward space exploration. \u25b2 SPUTNIK 1 During World War II, scientists in Nazi the other. While the Soviets were the Germany built V-2 rockets that were first to send a human into space in On October 4, 1957, the used as missiles. After the war, the 1961, the US won the race to land USSR launched Sputnik 1, Soviet Union (USSR) developed this astronauts on the moon in 1969. the first human-made object technology to launch the world\u2019s to orbit (travel around) Earth. It first artificial satellite into space\u2014 Since then, astronauts from around stayed in orbit for three weeks, and Sputnik 1. This sparked a \u201cspace race\u201d 40 countries have explored space, gathered valuable scientific data about between the two world superpowers and many more missions have been Earth\u2019s atmosphere. Today, satellites are of the time, the USSR and the US, launched without a crew. Some sent into space to collect information for with each country trying to outdo spacecraft have even left the solar weather forecasting, communications, system\u2014the region of space in which spying, navigation, and other uses. Earth sits, along with the sun and seven other planets\u2014to explore deep space and further our knowledge of the universe. Future crewed missions may even try sending humans to Mars! \u25c0 TO THE MOON In 1961, after Yuri Gagarin\u2019s spaceflight, US president John F. Kennedy promised to land a human on the moon by the end of the decade. On July 20, 1969, two US astronauts\u2014Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin (left)\u2014became the first humans to set foot on the moon\u2019s surface. Since then, other astronauts have walked on the moon, and many uncrewed space vehicles have orbited or landed on it. SPACE MILESTONES 1965 1981 1944 1958 Soviet cosmonaut Alexei Columbia, the first reusable German scientists launch Cosmonaut (Russian astronaut) Leonov performs the first spacecraft, is launched by a V-2 rocket\u2014the first Yuri Gagarin becomes the first \u201cspacewalk\u201d\u2014getting out of US space agency NASA. It human-made object to person in space, orbiting Earth a spacecraft into outer space. goes on to fly 28 missions. reach space. for 1 hour and 48 minutes. 208","LIVING IN SPACE \u25c0 BEYOND THE SOLAR SYSTEM Space stations are designed to be lived in by Launched in 1977, NASA\u2019s twin spacecraft Voyagers 1 teams of astronauts for months at a time while and 2 have journeyed beyond the solar system and are they conduct scientific tests. The first, Salyut 1, still operating today, sending valuable data about the was launched by the USSR in 1971, followed interstellar universe to Earth. Space telescopes, such as the by the US\u2019s Skylab in 1973. In 1998, the two countries, along with others, came together Hubble (left) and soon the James Webb, observe the to build the International Space Station (ISS) deepest reaches of space, and provide incredible pictured here. The ISS can hold a crew of up images of galaxies and other stellar objects. to six people at a time and is used to study the effects of living in space on plants, animals, The 25-ft- (7.6-m-) China\u2019s first and humans. long solar panels rover on Mars, generate power Zhurong, stands YURI GAGARIN from the sun. 6 ft (1.85 m) tall. Russian pilot Yuri Gagarin (1934\u20131968) was the first person to travel into space. On April 12, 1961, he orbited Earth in a capsule called Vostok I, kick-starting the era of human spaceflight. Gagarin became a huge celebrity in Russia and around the world, and his home town was renamed in his honor. UNCREWED MISSIONS \u25b6 Several uncrewed spacecraft have been sent to explore the solar system in detail. The first, the Russian craft Venera 1, flew past Venus in 1961, and since then many have landed on Venus, Mars, and Titan (Saturn\u2019s largest moon). The data from the voyages tells us what these objects are made of, their surface, and their atmospheres. 1990 2012 2019 2021 The Hubble Space Voyager 1 becomes the first China\u2019s Chang\u2019e 4 rover A robotic helicopter called Telescope becomes the human-made object to leave (robotic vehicle) makes Ingenuity\u2014part of NASA\u2019s first major telescope the solar system and travel the first successful Perseverance mission to Mars\u2014 to be placed in space. landing on the far side achieves the first ever powered into interstellar space\u2014the of the moon. flight on another planet. space between stars. VOYAGER 1 209","1900 TO PRESENT Travel and transit Improvements in transportation, from cars and ships to trains and planes, have radically changed the way we live, work, travel, and trade. Trips that once took months now take hours, and journeys that were once impossible are now a reality, as state-of-the-art spacecraft prove that, for humankind, not even outer space is beyond reach. Two wheels Iron steamship Draisienne Aaron Manby Where Mannheim, Germany Where Staffordshire, England When 1817 When 1822 German inventor Karl von Drais The Aaron Manby, created the first bicycle\u2014the named after the British draisienne. Riders pushed engineer who built it, themselves along with their was the first steamship feet until versions with pedals made of iron to sail on the were developed. Two-wheeled sea. The ship completed its transportation evolved further maiden voyage from London to with the invention of the Paris in 1822. In 1845, the SS Great Britain was motorcycle in 1885. the first iron steamer to sail across the Atlantic. Train travel Into the air Stephenson\u2019s Rocket Wright Flyer Where Rainhill, England Where Kitty Hawk, North Carolina When 1829 When 1903 Although the steam locomotive had been invented in 1803, US brothers Orville and Wilbur Wright made it was British engineers George and Robert Stephenson the first powered airplane flight in their Flyer. who really set the railroad revolution in motion. Their Though the flight only lasted for 12 seconds, it Rocket reached a record-breaking speed of 36mph paved the way for future advances in aviation. (58kph) in a competition in 1829, and was used Less than 50 years later, the first commercial jet on the world\u2019s first intercity railroad, which airliner flew from London, UK, to Johannesburg, opened the South Africa, opening up worldwide air travel. following year. 210","Flying without wings Cars for all VS-300 Ford Model T Where Connecticut could be kept under control. His Where Michigan 1900 TO PRESENT When 1939 VS-300 featured a rotating part called When 1908 a rotor attached to the helicopter\u2019s People had long tried to build tail to stop it from spinning while in Ford Motor Company\u2019s Model-T went on sale in the US in helicopters, but it was in 1939 flight. This innovation still features 1908. It was the world\u2019s first affordable car, and more than that Russian\u2013American aviator on most helicopters. 15 million of them were sold. Like the Model T, most cars Igor Sikorsky made one that today still run on gasoline, although more eco-friendly electric cars are growing in popularity. Only black models were sold after 1914. Launching into space Reusable spacecraft V-2 rocket Space Shuttle Columbia Where Peenem\u00fcnde, Germany Where Florida When 1944 When 1981 German scientists invented All early spacecraft could only complete one flight the V-2 rocket in 1936. It was because they broke apart on reentering Earth\u2019s loaded with explosives and atmosphere. On April 12, 1981, the US launched its used against Germany\u2019s first reusable Space Shuttle, Columbia. Reusable enemies during World War\u00a0II. spacecraft have allowed humans to establish a In 1944, a V-2 launched permanent presence in space aboard satellites such vertically and reached a as the International Space Station. height of 109 miles (175 km), entering space. After The shuttle\u2019s cargo Germany\u2019s defeat in the war, bay was used to carry V-2 technology was further developed by US and Soviet supplies into space. scientists, leading to the creation of space rockets. 211","The Swinging Sixties 1900 TO PRESENT The 1960s was a decade of optimism, revolution, and glamour, in which young people rebelled against the values of their parents. They fought for freedom and change, and embraced new styles of fashion, movies, music, and art. Teenagers in the 1960s wanted to for an end to discrimination and \u25bc TEEN FASHION have more freedom and fun than fought for equal rights for women their parents, many of whom had and people of color. Young people in the 1960s been teenagers during World War II. wore bright colors, miniskirts, As this younger generation watched People also searched for happiness, and shift dresses with bold the horrors of war\u2014particularly the and experimented with exciting new geometric prints to show off Vietnam War\u2014play out on the new forms of art, music, and fashion. This their new-found freedoms. TVs in their homes, they wanted was a colorful and creative period They wanted to be different their lives to be different. The 1960s of experimental art, revolutionary pop saw young people reject violence; music, and clothing made to and used their campaign for nuclear weapons to be shock. The decade ended clothes to rebel abandoned; and start the hippie with an air of optimism and make a movement, which stood for world when in 1969 the first statement. peace and universal love. humans landed on the moon, showing Young people also began to that anything challenge the authority and laws of was possible. previous generations. They called BEATLEMANIA \u25b6 The Beatles were at the center of the pop music explosion in the 1960s. By 1964, \u201cBeatlemania\u201d had swept the globe and the \u201cFab Four\u201d had become huge international stars. They went on to sell 600 million albums worldwide and to inspire countless other musicians. \u25c0 HIPPIES Young people who had rejected mainstream life and wanted to experiment with new ways of living were known as hippies. They cared about the environment, and believed in nonviolence. Volkswagen Buses became popular vehicles among hippies, and were decorated with symbols of peace. 212","CND \u25b6 The CND symbol stands Alongside the growing peace for peace. movement in the 1960s, there were growing concerns about the use of nuclear weapons. Fears that the Cold War (see pp.198\u2013199) would turn nuclear led to the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND) calling for the US and the USSR to abandon their arsenals of nuclear weapons. People wore WOODSTOCK \u25b6 buttons to show This four-day music festival, devoted to peace support for and love, was held on a farm in New York the CND. state at the peak of the Swinging Sixties in 1968. It was attended by 500,000 people who came to see artists such as Jimi Hendrix (right). The festival became a defining moment of the 1960s. \u25c0 SOUL MUSIC A new kind of Black American music came to the fore in the 1960s. Soul, as it was known, combined elements of Black American gospel music, jazz, and rhythm and blues. It was made popular by stirring performances by artists such as James Brown and Aretha Franklin (left). \u25bc PROTESTS IN FRANCE In May 1968, French students, dissatisfied with the government, began a series of protests. French workers soon joined in by going on strike, and within a week, thousands of people were on the streets marching. The protests brought the country to a standstill for several weeks.","","LGBTQIA+ 1900 TO PRESENT rights 2001 1972 1969 Throughout history, LGBTQIA+ (lesbian, gay, bisexual, 2015transgender, queer, intersex, and asexual) people have suffered unfair treatment in society because of who they are and who they love. For example, until the 20th\u00a0century\u00a0homosexuality\u00a0was illegal in most countries\u2014and in some countries it still is. There has been a lot of progress in the fight for the LGBTQIA+ community to have the same rights as everyone else in recent decades, but there is still a long way to go. THE FIGHT FOR EQUAL RIGHTS After police raid the Stonewall Inn, a gay bar in New York City, members of the gay community riot in protest. The event inspires the formation of a gay rights movement to campaign against discrimination (unfair treatment) toward LGBTQIA+ people. Sweden becomes the first country in the world to allow transgender people\u2014those who feel that the gender they were assigned (given at birth) is not who they are\u2014to change their gender by law. On April 1, the Netherlands becomes the first country in the world to legalize same-sex marriage. The first gay weddings (right) take place in Amsterdam shortly after midnight. SAME-SEX COUPLES CUTTING CAKE The US legalizes same-sex marriage in all fifty of its states. By 2021, same-sex marriage is legal in 30 countries. \u25c0 PRIDE PARADE On June 28, 1970, gay rights activists organized a march through New York City\u2019s streets to celebrate the first anniversary of the Stonewall riots. The Christopher Street Gay Liberation Day March, as it was called, was the first pride parade. Now pride events celebrating LGBTQIA+ culture take place in cities around the world and attract millions of people every year. 215","1900\u2013PRESENT 20th-century Wrapped around fashion Cheongsam At the beginning of the 20th century, fashion choices were limited, with most people in a region wearing Where Shanghai, China similar styles. But over the decades, fashion became When 1920s more free. This was partly because improved travel gave designers access to styles from around the This high-necked, close-fitting dress world. By the late 20th century, people were able (also known as qipao) is believed to to choose from a wide variety of fashion trends. have evolved from styles of the Qing era (see pp.140\u2013141). It was made popular by upper-class women in Shanghai, and came to be associated with the rise of the modern Chinese woman. Colonial style Postwar fashion Sapeurs Dior\u2019s New Look Where Congo Where Paris, France When 1930s When 1940s The arrival of French colonizers in Congo gave rise to the French designer Christian Dior\u2019s sapeur (\u201cdressed up\u201d) culture. Local Congolese adapted first clothing collection, the French styles, such as three-piece suits and silk socks, to \u201cNew Look\u201d was launched in challenge the supposed superiority of the colonists by 1947. It featured dresses with emulating their clothing in an extravagant way. Sapeur rounded shoulders, narrow style has seen a revival in the modern day. waists, and full skirts. The style became fashionable in the years following World War II, as it was different from the functional clothing of the war period. Snazzy formalwear Zoot suit Where US When 1940s This baggy suit style with shoulder pads and flared pants was inspired by the suits worn in dance halls in the 1930s. Zoot suits were popularized by Mexican- and Black American men from working class neighborhoods across the US, and went on to influence suit styles for decades. 216","Daring style Rebels of fashion 1900\u2013PRESENT Miniskirt Punk Where London, UK Where London, UK When 1960s When 1970s Breaking away from older Punk fashion came from fashions, young women of the the music movement of 1960s began wearing dresses the same name. People that were increasingly shorter. who followed this trend used The miniskirt, popularized by torn fabrics and wore skinny designer Mary Quant, became jeans, studded belts and other the most popular trend by the metal accessories, and working end of the decade. boots. This style was designed to shock, and to showcase Street fashion the wearer\u2019s individuality. Hip hop style Where New York When 1980s Hip hop music originated in the 1970s, and the fashion style that went with it became extremely popular in the 1980s. Hip hop fashion began with white sneakers, tapered jeans, tracksuits, jackets, and hooded sweatshirts. Over time, it has come to include trends such as gold chains, fur coats, large hats, and baggy clothing, inspired by Black American heritage. Fusion fashion Harajuku Where Tokyo, Japan When 1990s to present Named after the Harajuku district of Tokyo, this fashion movement was popularized by the youth of the city who wanted to break away from mainstream styles. Followers of this street fashion wear unique, elaborate, and colorful outfits. There are many styles, which can be influenced by Gothic elements, animated characters, and other quirky trends. 217","Independent Africa 1900 TO PRESENT During the 1950s and 1960s, most African nations gained independence from their European colonial rulers. Freedom brought hope and opportunity, though many countries had to tackle the problems left behind by years of colonial rule. In the 21st century, however, many nations are experiencing economic growth and stability. Colonization by European powers, and left millions of people hungry who had looted the continent\u2019s wealth and poor. In South Africa, the and natural resources, and imposed government started a system known their own culture on the population, as apartheid (see pp.202\u2013203), where left some of the newly independent Black people faced discrimination. nations of Africa ill-equipped to face the challenges of independence. Despite this, many nations have achieved some stability in the 21st In some countries, dictators took century. Countries such as Ghana control and refused to give up their and Nigeria have relied on their vast power. Many governments struggled reserves of mineral resources, such with civil wars and conflicts between as gold, diamonds, and oil, to boost different cultures and ethnic groups. their economies, while there are a Natural disasters such as droughts growing number of countries with ravaged some parts of the continent stable, democratic governments. \u25b2 PAN-AFRICANISM \u25c0 ORGANIZATION OF AFRICAN UNITY In the early 20th century, a worldwide movement promoting solidarity between After gaining independence African people began. It aimed to strengthen from European countries, the cultural bonds between people of African 32\u00a0African nations established origin. Ghana's first prime minister, Kwame the Organization for African Nkrumah (above), was a firm supporter of Unity (OAU) in 1963. The aim the Pan-African movement and advocated of the OAU was to encourage for the unity of all Africans. cooperation between all African countries. The OAU was replaced by the African Union in 2002. POST-COLONIAL CONFLICTS 1975\u20132002 1994 1983\u20132005 2011 After gaining independence, In Rwanda, more than 800,000 Rebel groups and the Sudanese The Libyan Civil War erupts Angola is caught up in a Tutsi people are killed by the government fight against each between Muammar Gaddhafi\u2019s violent civil war that lasts Hutu people in just 100 days. other in a brutal civil war that government and opposing 26 years\u2014one of the The Hutu government orders ravages the country for 22 years. rebel groups. Gaddhafi is longest civil wars in history. the slaughter. eventually overthrown. 218","\u25bc NELSON MANDELA \u25c0 CHALLENGES OF URBANIZATION South African activist and politician Nelson Mandela challenged the system Since gaining independence, countries in of apartheid and was imprisoned for Africa have seen a rise in urbanization\u2014 27 years (see p.203). After his release the large-scale movement of people from in 1990, he helped create a system where villages to cities and towns. This has every citizen could vote, regardless of their created multiple challenges such as a skin color. Mandela was elected as the lack of proper housing facilities leading country's first Black president in 1994. to an increase in slum areas, traffic on roads, and widespread pollution. 1900 TO PRESENT THE ENVIRONMENT \u25b6 In 1977, Kenyan environmentalist and feminist Wangari Maathai started the Green Belt Movement, empowering women in the villages of Kenya to plant trees to counter deforestation as well as provide a source of food and fuel. By the early 21st century, more than 30 million trees had been planted. Maathai's efforts won her the Nobel Peace Prize in 2004. \u25c0 2010 FIFA WORLD CUP The FIFA World Cup is one of the most widely watched sporting events in the world. Nelson Mandela campaigned to have South Africa as the host country for 2010, which was eventually granted, making South Africa the first African nation to host the tournament. Thousands of people came out to support their national team. CHILD IN TIME Born in 1991, Thandiwe Chama is a young activist from Zambia. She has campaigned for better educational facilities in Zambia, as well as for the welfare of people suffering from diseases such as HIV\/AIDS. Chama was awarded the International Children\u2019s Peace Prize in 2007. 219","1900 TO PRESENT RIGOBERTA MENCH\u00da Modern Latin America Rigoberta Mench\u00fa was born in 1959 into a peasant family of Maya descent Even though most countries in Latin America gained in rural Guatemala. She worked to independence from Europe in the 19th century (see p.163), promote the rights of Indigenous people with European roots have tended to hold on to power. The 20th century was a period of instability across much of the peoples during Guatemala\u2019s region, but in recent years most countries have been at peace. civil war of 1960\u2013 1995, and continues her fight today. She won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1992. \u25bc MILITARY RULE The Great Depression of the 1930s into communist hands during the (see p.187) and the outbreak of Cold War (see pp.198\u2013199). By 1975, Since 1945, most Latin American countries World War II had a disastrous effect only Colombia, Venezuela, and Costa have, for at least part of the time, been ruled on Latin America, which relied on Rica had democratic governments. by military dictators who have banned selling raw materials to the rest of The situation improved from the democracy. One such dictator was Chilean the world. Though many countries end of the 1980s as newly elected general Augusto Pinochet (below), who tried to improve their economies governments took power, and the overthrew the elected government of Chile after the war, they had limited 21st century has brought peace to and ruled until 1990. success, and poverty and the gap many nations that have long suffered between rich and poor worsened. from conflict. But many governments are fragile, and inequality and poverty This led to a series of military are still serious problems. coups (in which power was seized from governments by armies) that put brutal dictators in control. Most of these were supported by the US, who used the excuse that they wanted to prevent these countries from falling \u25bc UPRISINGS Revolutionary groups have risen up throughout Latin America to overthrow corrupt governments. In 1979, the Sandinista National Liberation Front (below) of Nicaragua ousted the dictatorship of the Somoza family. 220","\u25c0 PINK TIDE 1982 1980 1973 1964 CONFLICTS AND COUPS 1900 TO PRESENT Since the end of the 20th century, some Military rule is established in Brazil. Latin American countries have chosen The government improves the governments that support social reform\u2014 economy but bans all opposition. a wave called the \u201cpink tide.\u201d Hugo Ch\u00e1vez, The dictatorship lasts till 1985. who took power in Venezuela in 1999, was the first elected leader under this wave. In In Chile, the democratically elected 2006, Evo Morales (left) became the first government led by Salvador Allende Indigenous president of Bolivia. He held is overthrown in a military coup by that post for 13 years, during which he General Pinochet. started programs to reduce illiteracy, poverty, and racism. The communist Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path) group begins a FACT revolutionary war in Peru. The constitutions of The military government of Argentina both Costa Rica and invades the British-held Falkland Panama forbid them from Islands but is defeated. Argentines having a standing army, protest against the government, and although both have Argentina returns to civilian forces. democratic rule in 1983. \u25bc RECLAIMING ANCESTRAL LAND The US invades Panama, deposing dictator Manuel Noriega. The lifestyles of Indigenous peoples are under threat as their land is exploited by oil companies, loggers, miners, and farmers. But some Indigenous groups have successfully fought to reclaim their ancestral land. In 2019, the Waorani people of Ecuador (below) won a landmark victory when a court ruled that their land could not be sold to oil companies without their permission. 1989\u201390 LATIN AMERICAN CULTURE \u25bc Latin America is renowned for its music and dance. The Argentine tango (right) became known throughout the world in the early 20th century and has had a revival since the 1980s. The region\u2019s many notable writers include Colombian Gabriel Garc\u00eda M\u00e1rquez and Chilean novelist Isabel Allende. 221","1900 TO PRESENT The collapse of the USSR 1991 1990 1989 1985 In 1985, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev came to power in the USSR and began to introduce political and economic reforms. He rejected the Brezhnev Doctrine, which allowed the USSR to send in its army to other communist countries if their governments were threatened. The USSR withdrew its troops and support from Eastern Europe. Without that support, communist-led governments such as in Poland and Hungary were forced to hold free elections. The USSR itself collapsed in December 1991 and communist rule in Eastern Europe came to an end. THE FALL OF THE EASTERN BLOC Mikhail Gorbachev begins to reform the USSR with policies of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (reconstruction) to modernize the struggling country. MIKHAIL GORBACHEV Hungary opens its closed border with Austria, creating a route to western Europe. Thousands of East Germans use it to flee into West Germany. Without Soviet support, communist governments begin to fall across Eastern Europe. After the fall of the Berlin Wall, East and West Germany are reunited into one country. In 1991, the German parliament votes to make Berlin the capital of a united Germany. Free elections are held in all former communist countries, and democratic governments come to power by 1991. Gorbachev survives a coup planned by hard-line communists and he bans the Communist Party. Ukraine and other republics leave the USSR, which collapses at the end of the year as Gorbachev resigns. FALL OF THE BERLIN WALL \u25b6 In November 1989, a new communist leader in East Germany announced that the Berlin Wall would be opened to allow its citizens to visit West Berlin. Thousands of people poured through the openings, while demonstrators began to climb over the wall watched by nervous East German border guards. The symbol of a divided Europe was soon torn down and Germany was united. 222","","1900 TO PRESENT 1959 1947 KEY DEVELOPMENTS Modern East Asia Japan begins to modernize its economy, expanding production At the end of World War II in 1945, large areas of East and changing the way companies Asia were devastated and in need of rebuilding. Since then, are run to make them more the region has experienced an economic transformation, internationally competitive. and in the 21st century countries such as Japan, China, and South Korea are among the most prosperous and productive Taiwan begins to attract foreign in the world. investment and moves its focus from agriculture to industry, starting the Taiwan Economic Miracle. Its economy grows swiftly. 1978 1961 A period of rapid economic growth The post-war economic development initiative. Seen as a successor to begins in South Korea as the country of East Asia began in Japan, and then the ancient Silk Road (see p.51), this 2013 focuses on exporting goods. spread to Taiwan and South Korea. project aims to build a trade network These countries lacked raw materials, across Asia, Europe, and Africa by China\u2019s new leader, Deng Xiaoping, but had low-cost, skilled labor constructing new railroad lines, ports, opens up the economy to foreign available. As a result, they could airports, and roads in 71 countries. businesses and reduces government manufacture goods and export them control of companies. at low prices around the world. By the late 20th century, South Consumer goods (such as household Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, and China opens the world\u2019s longest appliances), ships, cars, and computer Hong Kong had also achieved rapid high-speed rail route\u2014nearly technologies, were the main exports. economic growth and came to be 1,430 miles (2,300 km) long\u2014linking known as the Four Asian Tigers. the capital city Beijing with the After the death of Chinese leader The next generation of resource-rich commercial center of Guangzhou. Mao Zedong in 1976, China also began nations\u2014Malaysia, Thailand, the to modernize. Today, it is one of the Philippines, Indonesia, and Vietnam\u2014 dominant economies of the world. continued to develop and are now In 2013, the Chinese government called the Tiger Cub Economies. announced its new Belt and Road \u25bc JAPAN After its defeat in World War II, Japan quickly revived its economy. By the mid-1950s, production was back to prewar levels and its economy grew on average by 10 percent a year. Fast trains called Shinkansen (below), ships, electronics, and other manufactured goods powered the economy forward. An angled nose helps the Shinkansen move at high speeds. SMALL AND PROFITABLE \u25b2 Several of Asia\u2019s smaller countries also experienced economic success after the 1950s. While Taiwan benefited from its electronics and information technology (IT) industries, Singapore specialized in finance and shipping (above). These were all valuable areas in the interconnected postwar world.","MODERN INVENTIONS East Asia has led the world in developing new electronic goods, such as digital cameras, video games, and personal stereos. In recent years, the region has also developed robotics, maglev trains (which run on magnets), and 3D-printed electric cars such as the LSEV. A knee joint DIGITAL CAMERA helps ASIMO run like a human. ASIMO LSEV \u25bc SOUTH KOREA In 1961, South Korea closed its borders to all imports except raw materials and began to promote its own conglomerates (big companies made up of lots of different businesses), such as Hyundai and Samsung. These produced cars, electronics, and other goods for export. As a result, the economy is now one of the largest in the world. MODERNIZATION OF CHINA \u25b6 When Chinese leader Deng Xiaoping came to power in 1978, he introduced massive economic reforms. Farmers were allowed to work their land for profit and entrepreneurs were encouraged to start new businesses. In 1985, the government also stopped setting the prices for goods. Many old cities such as Shanghai (right) were transformed. In 2010, China overtook Japan as the world\u2019s second largest economy, and is on track to overtake the US, the world\u2019s biggest, by 2026.","The climate crisis The negative impact of human activity on Earth\u2019s climate was first brought to wide public attention in the 1970s. Yet over the following decades, governments were slow to react to the issue. Today, young people around the world, angry at this inaction, are demanding environmental reforms. \u25b2 POLLUTION Since the Industrial Revolution in and is known as the \u201cGreenhouse the 18th century, human progress Effect.\u201d As carbon dioxide levels rise, When harmful materials, called pollutants, has been powered by the burning of temperatures rise, too, leading to are added to the environment, they can fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and gas. warmer oceans, melting polar ice, damage the quality of our air, water, and As we switched to producing goods and rising sea levels. land, which humans and animals depend by machine in factories, we started on for survival. Burning fuel for electricity, to burn more fossil fuels for energy. Young activists are impatient with and smoke from factories and cars, releases slow government action to reduce carbon dioxide and pollutes the air; sewage Burning these fuels releases carbon carbon emissions. They are pressuring can make people ill and damage sea life; dioxide into the air, which traps the for more action, and are also doing and chemicals used in farming can flow sun\u2019s heat, not letting it escape Earth\u2019s what they can to reduce their own into the land. atmosphere. This is similar to how carbon footprint\u2014the amount of the glass of a greenhouse works, carbon dioxide they release. FACT Sea ice reflects the sun\u2019s heat back up into space like a mirror. As Arctic ice melts, the ocean absorbs more sunlight and heats up, which scientists believe may result in ice-free summers by 2030. \u25bc PLASTIC \u25b2 GLOBAL WARMING The first plastics were only developed at The Greenhouse Effect causes temperatures around the world to the beginning of the 20th century, but in rise in a phenomenon called global warming. This term was first a relatively short time they have caused used by US geoscientist Wallace Broecker, who brought worldwide massive environmental problems. Plastic attention to global warming in 1975. Higher temperatures make waste can take hundreds of years to break natural disasters such as forest fires more common. down, and chemicals in plastic can also pollute water. But many plastics can be reused and recycled into new materials.","\u25c0 DEFORESTATION GRETA THUNBERG 1900 TO PRESENT Trees absorb harmful carbon In 2018, 15-year-old Greta Thunberg dioxide from the atmosphere. (born 2003) skipped school one Friday During deforestation\u2014when afternoon to sit alone outside the Swedish parliament with a banner huge areas of trees are cut that read \u201cschool strike for climate.\u201d down to graze cattle, grow crops, and build towns\u2014 Her strike inspired carbon dioxide is released millions and back into the atmosphere, launched a global climate contributing to climate movement. change. Animals that live in the forests also lose their homes. RENEWABLE ENERGY \u25b2 Advances in technology since the late 20th century mean that energy can now be produced from renewable sources such as the sun, wind, and water, which won\u2019t run out like fossil fuels. As the wind spins Orangutans are the giant blades of these wind at risk due to turbines, the energy generated is deforestation. converted into electricity. \u25c0 FRIDAYS FOR FUTURE Created by the Swedish activist Greta Thunberg in 2018, Fridays for Future is an international campaign group led by young people. Students skip school on a Friday afternoon and gather to demand that global leaders take action to overcome the climate crisis.","1900 TO PRESENT The modern MODERN MEGACITIES Middle East Over the years, the city of Dubai has With the discovery of vast oil fields in the early transformed from a small trading 20th\u00a0century, the Middle East went through a period center into a major international city of rapid development and modernization. Small villages with thousands of towering skyscrapers and settlements, home to nomadic Bedouin populations, dotting the skyline. It is home to modern grew into huge cities connected by fast highways. Today, architectural marvels, such as the Burj 10 of the Middle East\u2019s countries\u2014Iran, Iraq, Syria, Khalifa, the tallest building in the world, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Qatar, United Arab and the twisting Cayan Tower (right). Emirates (UAE), Oman, and Yemen\u2014have 48 percent of the world\u2019s known oil reserves. The tremendous wealth brought by the oil industry has led to improved living conditions for many people. However, the region still faces huge problems\u2014the long history of conflict (see p.201) is ongoing, and human rights abuses on issues such as freedom of speech and the treatment of women affect the region\u2019s standing on the world stage. \u25b2 IRRIGATION CANALS Much of the Middle East is made up of desert, and the region does not get a lot of rainfall. Fresh water for farming is pumped up from underground water reserves and transported through stone or brick irrigation canals, such as this one in Saudi Arabia. 228","","The Information Age 1900 TO PRESENT The development of the first programmable computers in the 1843 1822 HISTORY OF COMPUTERS mid-20th century launched what is known as the Information Age. The first computers were huge and expensive but by the British inventor Charles Babbage 1980s scientists had developed small, low-cost computers that designs a machine called the people could use in their homes. By the 1990s, the invention Difference Engine, which is able of the World Wide Web had begun to transform the way we to perform difficult calculations. communicate, study, and work. British mathematician Ada Lovelace Electronic devices can turn information was well underway as computers 1982 1975 1946 works on Charles Babbage\u2019s into electrical signals and back again. became cheaper to produce and more new Analytical Engine, Two inventions in the mid-20th people were able to buy them for use an ancestor of modern century powered electronics forward. at home, work, and in schools. computers. She is the first All electronic devices are based on computer programmer. the transistor\u2014a switch that controls Today, technology makes it possible the flow of an electrical signal, turning for us to communicate across long ADA LOVELACE it on or off. The creation of the distances and gives us access to a microchip, which can store millions world of information on the internet US engineers develop the ENIAC of transistors on one tiny piece of at the touch of a button. Yet some (Electronic Numerical Integrator and material, made it possible to produce worry that we have become too reliant Computer), the first programmable electronic gadgets that were much on our devices, and that cutting down computer. It can perform 5,000 smaller, cheaper, and more reliable. on face-to-face communication has calculations per second. By the 1980s, the electronic revolution led to us feeling more isolated. The Cray-1 is invented. This ALAN TURING \u201csupercomputer\u201d can perform 240 million calculations per second. Alan Turing (1912\u20131954) was a British It is used to design nuclear weapons mathematician and a computing and for weather forecasting. pioneer. In 1936, he came up with the idea of a machine that could The Commodore 64 is released, and solve any mathematical problem becomes the biggest-selling home given the right instructions. He never computer of all time. It opens up built such a \u201cTuring machine,\u201d but the world of video games, word the idea led to the modern computer. processing, and spreadsheets to millions of people. \u25c0 PIONEERING WOMEN Many of the early pioneers in the field of computer programming were women. Black American computer programmer Melba Roy Mouton led a group of NASA scientists, known as \u201ccomputers,\u201d in their astronomical calculations. Another US computer scientist Grace Hopper (left) made a key contribution to the development of computer languages. 230","SMARTPHONES \u25b6 Smartphones such as the Apple iPhone, which was released in 2007, have changed the way we live our lives. We use them to access the internet, play games and music, take photos, and document our own lives on social media. On average, US adults now spend a quarter of their waking lives looking at their phones. Industrial robots place car frames on an assembly line. \u25b2 ROBOTS The first electronic programmable robotic arm was installed in a factory in the US in 1961. Robotic technology has since evolved, and robots are now able to recognize people and facial expressions, shop, cook, fly, play basketball, make music, perform medical procedures, and much more. FACT In 2017, the humanoid robot Sophia was granted citizenship of Saudi Arabia, making her the first robot to become a citizen of a country. \u25b2 THE WORLD WIDE WEB In 1989, the World Wide Web was invented by British scientist Tim Berners-Lee. He wanted to create a space where scientists around the world could easily share information. In December 1990, the world\u2019s first World Wide Web server ran on this computer at CERN, a physics research laboratory in Geneva, Switzerland. Sophia\u2019s humanlike hands can grasp objects. ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE \u25b6 The technology that allows a computer or machine to behave like a human is known as artificial intelligence or AI. Sophia is a realistic, human-shaped robot first activated in 2016. Her AI allows her to recognize faces and show emotion, and she will get smarter over time. 231","Glossary GLOSSARY abolition The act of doing away city-state A city, and its surrounding economy The system through with something completely. territory, that has its own which goods and services are independent government. produced, sold, and bought in allies\/allied forces People or countries a country or state. working together. In World War I and civil rights The rights of citizens World War II, the Allied forces were to be socially and politically equal. empire A group of lands or the countries fighting against Germany. peoples brought under the rule civil service All the government of one government or person. anti-Semitism Prejudice and hostility departments and employees of toward Jewish people. a country or state, not including epidemic A sudden spread of the armed forces. a disease within a specific region. Axis powers Nations on Germany\u2019s side in World War II, including Italy civil war A war between opposing fascism A political movement and Japan. groups of people in the same country. stressing nationalism, which places the strength of the state above bce Before Common Era. The civilization The culture and way of individual citizens\u2019 welfare. years before 1ce (Common Era). life of people living together in an This abbreviation has replaced bc organized and developed society. feudal system A social system (Before Christ). that developed in medieval Europe colonization The act of sending and Japan, in which lords granted Bronze Age A period of ancient settlers to establish a colony in land to people of lower rank in history when people mostly used another country, sometimes involving return for loyalty, military assistance, bronze for making tools and weapons. taking political control over the and services. people already living there. caliph The title of a political golden age A period of great success, and religious leader of an Islamic colony An area under the political development, or achievement. empire, or caliphate. control of another state; or the group of people who have settled there. guerrilla warfare A type of warfare in capitalism An economic system based which small groups of fighters, who on private ownership of property and communism The political belief in are not part of regular uniformed competitive conditions for business. a society in which ownership of armies, make use of sabotage and property and wealth is shared. surprise attacks against a larger force. casualties People killed or injured as a result of war or an accident. constitution A set of laws that hominin A member of the biological determines the political principles group that includes humans and their cavalry Military troops mounted of a government. extinct relatives. on horseback. culture The customs, beliefs, and Ice Age A period when global ce Common Era. The years from 1ce to behavior shared by a society. temperatures drop drastically and the present day. This abbreviation has large areas become covered by vast replaced ad (Anno Domini, which is dictator A leader who rules a country sheets of ice. There have been at Latin for \u201cin the year of our Lord\u201d). alone, with no restrictions on the least five ice ages in Earth\u2019s history. extent of their power. citizen A person who belongs to a Indigenous When applied to people, city or a bigger community such as a dynasty A royal family ruling a the word indigenous describes the state or country. country for successive generations. original settlers of a country or region. 232","Iron Age The historical period peasant A worker on the land, socialism The belief that the characterized by the use of iron usually an agricultural laborer. government should have some for making weapons and tools. control over the economy and be persecute To oppress or harass a able to spread wealth more evenly medieval period Also known as the person or group because of their among the people. Middle Ages, the period in European origins or beliefs. history that lasted from about the species A group of organisms that 5th to the late 15th centuries ce. philosophy A set of ideas or beliefs. are similar to, and can breed with, each other. Mesopotamia The region of modern- plantation A large area of fertile GLOSSARY day Iraq lying between the Tigris land within a landowner\u2019s estate state A country\u2014or a region within and Euphrates rivers, where many where a certain type of crop a country\u2014and its people. A state of the earliest civilizations began. is grown. is ruled by a government. metallurgy The study of metals pre-Columbian The time period suffrage The right to vote. and their uses. before the arrival of Christopher Columbus in the Americas. superpower A country with great metalworking The process of political and military power, capable creating or shaping things out of republic A country without a of influencing international politics. metal. monarch or emperor. Modern republics are usually led by terra-cotta A reddish-brown clay missionary A religious person who presidents. that is used for making pottery, seeks out and persuades others to sculptures, or ornaments. adopt their religion. revolution A sudden and fundamental change in society treaty An official, written agreement monarchy A type of government in brought about by an organized between warring parties to bring which a king or queen is recognized group of protesters. Can also be hostilities to an end. as the head of state, whether or not used to mean a major change in they hold real power. the way that people do things or urbanization The large-scale think about things. movement of people from rural nation An independent country, areas to urban areas such as or a group of people who share samurai A Japanese warrior who towns and cities. historical or cultural ties. owes allegiance to a daimyo (a landowning noble) and follows USSR The Union of Soviet Socialist nationalism Loyalty and devotion to a strict code of honor. Republics, the communist state a nation, and the political belief that that existed from 1922\u20131991 in the its interests should be pursued as the script The written characters that former Russian Empire, with its primary goal of a political policy. make up a writing system, such capital in Moscow. as an alphabet. Neolithic Age The later Stone Age, West, the Europe and North America, during which improved stone tools serf A peasant who is obligated or their ideals and culture when seen and weapons were made and the to undertake agricultural work on in contrast to other civilizations. first farming began. their lord\u2019s land. woodblock printing The process nomadic Describing people who siege To surround a city or fortress of using carved blocks of wood move from place to place without with the intention of capturing it. for printing on cloth or paper. This establishing a permanent settlement. technique originated in China and Silk Road An ancient trade route was widely used across East Asia. pandemic A sudden and widespread that extended from eastern China outbreak of disease. to the Mediterranean Sea. 233","INDEX Index Apollo missions 208 Austria-Hungarian Empire C aqueducts, Roman 47 178, 179 Page numbers in bold Arab invasions 40, 76 Cabot, John 130 indicate main entries. Arab\u2013Israeli wars 200, 201 Austrian Empire 166, 167 Arab Spring 201 Ayurveda 33 Cabral, Pedro \u00c1lvares 109, 113 A architecture Ayyubid Dynasty 63 Caesar, Julius 43, 46, 47 Aztecs 92, 112, 113 Abbas I, Shah 114 African kingdoms and empires 84, 96 calendars, Maya 38 Abbasid Caliphate 62, 64, 67, 88 ancient India 32\u20133 B acupuncture 161 Byzantine 58, 59 Calvin, John\/Calvinism 119 Adena people 72 castles and fortresses 86\u20137 Babbage, Charles 230 Adwa, Battle of 159 Islamic 64, 76, 114 Babur, Emperor 120 Cambyses II of Persia 40 Aethelberht I of Kent 61 medieval Europe 76 Babylonia 17, 41 affranchis 162 medieval India 56, 57 Bacon, Francis 123 Canada 78, 130 Afghanistan, war in 199 modern Middle East 228\u20139 bacteria 160, 161 Africa Mughal 120, 121 Baghdad canals 144 Ottoman 100 colonization 172, 173 Renaissance 104\u20135 Islamic Caliphate 62, 64 C\u00e3o, Diego 108 conquest 158\u20139 Roman 47, 48\u20139 Siege of 88 early civilizations 24\u20135 Ardashir I of Persia 41 Bahrain 228 capitalism 127, 198 empires 84\u20135 Argentina ball game, Mesoamerican 39 enslavement 132\u20133 Falklands War 221 Bangladesh 196 carbon dioxide levels 226 great kingdoms 98\u20139 independence 163 banking 90 independence movements 197 women\u2019s rights 185 barter system 90 cards, playing 116 independent 218\u201319 Aristarchus 28 Basil II, Emperor 59 migration from 8, 9, 10\u201311 Aristotle 27, 28, 138 Bastille, storming of the 154 Caribbean, enslavement 133 Vandals in 52 arms and armor baths, Roman 48\u20139 voyages of exploration 108 Japanese 75 Batista, Fulgencio 205 cars 149, 211 African National Congress metal weapons 14 Baudouin of Belgium 197 Viking 79 Bazalgette, Joseph 147 Carthage 36 (ANC) 202, 203 Armstrong, Neil 208 Beatles, The 212 Age of Exploration 108\u20139 artificial intelligence 231 Beijing 97 Cartier, Jacques 130 agriculture arts and crafts Belgium castles and fortresses 86\u20137 Benin 94\u20135 colonial empire 158, 197 ancient Egypt 20 bronze sculptures 15 World War I 178, 179 Castro, Fidel 205 and climate crisis 226 Byzantine 58 Bell, Alexander Graham 146 early Americas 38, 72, 73, 92, 93 cave paintings 10, 11 Belt and Road initiative 224 \u00c7atalh\u00f6y\u00fck (Turkey) 13 early farming 11, 12\u201313 Celtic 42, 43 Benin, Kingdom of 94, 173 mechanization 148 Chinese 68, 69, 96, 140 Benz, Karl 149 Catherine II (the Great) of Russia Mesopotamia 16 Dutch Golden Age 126 Berlin 191 124, 142, 143 North America 131, 156, 157, 187 early Japanese 18, 19 Berlin Wall 198, 222\u20133 air travel 210 Edo period 128\u20139 Bessemer, Henry 149 Catherine of Aragon 110 Akbar, Emperor 120 first pottery 13 Bible, translations 118 Celts 42\u20133 Akkadian Empire 17 Inca 93 bicycles 210 Aksum, Kingdom of 24, 31, 45 Islamic 64 Biko, Steve 202 Central Pacific Railroad 157 al-Jazari, Ismail 65 Kushite 24\u20135 birth control 184 al-Kindi, Abu Yusuf Ya\u2019qub medieval India 56, 57 Black Americans 170, 171, 179, Chagatai Khanate 89 Mississippian cultures 73 Chama, Thandiwe 219 ibn Ishaq al-Sabbah 138 Mughal 120, 121 186, 206\u20137 Al-Qaeda 201 Renaissance 104\u20135 Black Death 77 Champa Kingdom 70 Alaric I of the Visigoths 45 Safavid Empire 114, 115 Black Lives Matter 173, 207 Alaska 156, 157 Viking 79 Blitz, The 190 Chandragupta Maurya 32 Aldrin, Buzz 208 Aryabhatta 33 blood groups 160 Alexander I, Czar 143 Asante Empire 95 board games 117 Chang\u2019an 50, 66 Alexander II, Czar 143 Ashikaga Shogunate 74 Boleyn, Anne 110 Alexander III, Czar 143 Ashikaga Takauji 74 Bol\u00edvar, Sim\u00f3n 163 chariots 16\u201317, 20\u20131 Alexander the Great 26, 27, 32, 40 Ashoka, Emperor 30, 32, 44 Bolivia 163, 221 Charlemagne, Emperor 77 Algeria, independence 197 Asia Bolshevik Party 182, 183 American Revolution\/Revolutionary colonization 172, 173 Bonaparte, Napoleon see Napoleon I, Charles V, Emperor 113 independence movements 196 War 131, 150\u20131, 163 kingdoms of southeast 70\u20131 Emperor Chartists 167 Americas modern East 224\u20135 Boniface, St. 61 World War II 194\u20135 Boris I of Bulgaria 83 Ch\u00e1vez, Hugo 221 Colonial North 130\u20131 astronomy 64, 65 Boston Tea Party 131 colonization 172, 173 Atahualpa 113 Boudicca, Queen of the Iceni 43 chess 116 conquest 112\u201313 Athens 26 Boxer Rebellion 141 cultures of North America 72\u20133 atomic bombs 194, 195 Boyle, Robert 123 Chile enslavement 132 Attila the Hun 37 Brazil pre-Columbian 15 Augsburg, Peace of 119 independence 163 voyages of exploration 108, 109 Augustine, St. 60\u20131 independence 163 see also countries by name; Augustus, Emperor 44, 46 military rule 221 military rule 220, 221 Aurangzeb, Emperor 120, 121 Portuguese conquest 109, 113 Latin America Auschwitz-Birkenau 193 Brezhnev, Leonid 222 Chim\u00fa Empire 93 amphitheaters, Roman 30 Australia Bridges, Ruby 206 Amsterdam (Netherlands) 127 colonization 152\u20133, 172, 173 Britain China ancestor worship 13 early humans 10 Chartists 167 communist 176\u20137 Ancestral Puebloans 72, 73 voyages of exploration 109 Roman conquest 43 early dynasties 34\u20135 Anglo\u2013Mysore Wars 173 Australopithecus 8 women\u2019s rights 184 Han 50\u20131 Anglo-Saxons 52, 53, 61 World War I 178, 179 Ming 96\u20137 Angolan Civil War 199, 218 World War II 190, 191 Anguissola, Sofonisba 104 see also England modern 224, 225 animals, domestication 12, 13 British Empire 131, 150, 152, 153, 158, Anne of Cleves 110 Mongol Empire 88\u20139 anti-Semitism 189, 192\u20133 173, 196\u20137 Qing 140\u20131 antiseptics 160, 161 Bronze Age 14, 15, 16, 42 Apaches 157 Buddhism 30\u20131, 32, 33, 51, 56, 70, space program 209 apartheid 202\u20133, 218 Tang and Song 66\u20139 128 234 Bulgars 83 traditional medicine 161 Bull Run, Battle of 170 Byzantine Empire 41, 52, 58\u20139, 82 Chinese Civil War 177 Chola Empire 56 Chongzhen, Emperor 97 Christianity colonization and 153, 172 Germanic peoples 52, 53 in Japan 128 in medieval Europe 59, 76, 82, 83 in the Americas 112, 113 Reformation 110, 118\u201319 spread 60\u20131 cities first 13, 16 Industrial Revolution 146\u20137 city-states 16, 26, 27, 29, 40, 59, 104 Civil Rights Movement 206\u20137 civil service, Chinese 66, 67","Cixi, Empress Dowager 141 culture cont equality Gaozu, Emperor 50, 66, 67 INDEX Clark, William 156 Roaring Twenties 186 female 184\u20135 Garibaldi, Giuseppe 167 class struggle 166 Southeast Asia 70, 71 racial 202\u20133, 206\u20137 Gaul\/Gauls 42, 43, 53 climate change\/crisis 10, 11, 52, 226\u20137 Tudor 110, 111 Gautama, Siddhartha (Buddha) 33 clothing Equiano, Olaudah 133 Gaza 200 cuneiform script 16, 106 Eratosthenes 28 geishas 129 early humans 10 Curie, Marie 164\u20135 Ethiopia Genghis Khan 88, 89 see also fashion Cyrus II (the Great) of Persia 40, 41 Genko\u00af War 74 Clovis I of the Franks 53 forts 86 genocide 192, 218 CND (Campaign for Nuclear D Italian invasion 159 Genpei War 75 Disarmament) 213 Euphrates River 16, 20 germ theory 160 coins 91 D-Day Landings 191 Europe German peoples 52\u20133, 61, 76 Byzantine 59 da Gama, Vasco 109 1848 revolutions 166\u20137 Germany Celtic 43 Dachau 193 Celtic 42\u20133 Cold War 198\u20139, 220 Dahomey, Kingdom of 159 decline of communism 222\u20133 1848 revolutions 166 Colombia 163, 220 Dai Viet Kingdom 70, 71 Enlightenment 136\u20137 colonial empire 158 colonization daimyo 128 expansion 108\u20139, 130\u20131, 152\u20133 fascism 188\u20139 Africa 158\u20139 Dan-no-ura, Battle of 75 medieval eastern 82\u20133 World War I 178\u20139 effects of 159, 172\u20133 Danube River 52 medieval western 76\u20137 World War II 189, 190\u20131 and enslavement 132\u20133 Darius I of Persia 40, 41 Reformation 118\u201319 Geronimo 157 European expansion 108\u20139 Darwin, Charles 165 Renaissance 104\u20135 Gettysburg, Battle of 171 independence movements 163, Daudi Chwa of Buganda 159 rise of fascism 188\u20139 Ghana de Beauvoir, Simone 138 spread of Christianity 61 economy 218 196\u20137 de Klerk, F. W. 203 World War I 178\u20139 independence 197 post-colonial conflicts 218 Declaration of the Rights of Man 154 World War II 190\u20131 Ghana Empire 84 Colosseum (Rome) 30 deforestation 227 evolution 165 Ghazi, Osman 100 Columbian Exchange 108 Delaware, crossing the 150\u20131 exploration ghettos, Jewish 192 Columbus, Christopher 108, 130 Delhi Sultanate 56, 57 Chinese 97 Ghorid Dynasty 57 Commonwealth 173 de\u2019 Medici, Lorenzo 104 European 108\u20139 gladiators 49 communism democracy North America 156 glasnost 222 China 176\u20137 Ezana of Aksum 45 global warming 226 Cold War 198, 199 Arab Spring 201 Go-Daigo, Emperor 74 Cuba 205 Athenian 26 F gods and goddesses decline of 222\u20133 Cold War 198 Aztec 92 Karl Marx 166 Deng Xiaoping 224 factories 144, 146 Celtic 43 Russia 182\u20133 Denmark 166 Falklands War 221 Egyptian 22 Vietnam 204 Descartes, Ren\u00e9 136, 139 Farouk of Egypt 197 Germanic 53 computer science 230\u20131 Dickens, Charles 147 fascism, rise of 188\u20139 Maya 38, 39 concentration camps 192, 193 Diderot, Denis 137 fashion, 20th century 186, Roman 49 Concord, Battle of 150 Diocletian, Emperor 47 gold 14, 15, 37, 153, 156 Confederate States 170\u20131 Dior, Christian 216 212, 216\u201317 Golden Horde, Khanate of the 89 Confucius\/Confucianism 50, 67, disease 77, 108, 112, 113, 146, 147, Fatimid Caliphate 63, 64 Gorbachev, Mikhail 222 February Revolution 183 Goryeo Kingdom 102 102, 138 152, 160, 173, 180\u20131 feminism 139, 184\u20135 Granada (Spain) 76 Constantine I (the Great), Emperor Djenn\u00e9, Great Mosque of (Mali) 85 Feodor I, Czar 124, 125 grave goods 14, 19, 21, 51 Dmitri, False 125 Fertile Crescent 12 Great Depression 187, 220 47, 59 dolmens 30\u20131 feudal system Great Sphinx (Giza) 30 Constantinople, fall of 58, 59 Dome of the Rock ( Jerusalem) 62\u20133 Great Stupa (Sanchi) 30\u20131 Cook, Captain James 152 domestication 12, 13 Japan 74, 86, 128, 168 Great Wall of China 86\u20137 Cooke, William 149 druids 42 medieval Europe 76 Great Zimbabwe 84\u20135 Copernicus, Nicolaus 105, 122 Du Bois, W. E. B. 139 FIFA World Cup 219 Greece, ancient 15, 26\u20139, 36, copper 14, 15 Dubai 228\u20139 Fiji 80, 81, 109 Coral Sea, Battle of the 195 Dust Bowl 187 Final Solution 193 40, 41 Corinth, Battle of 27 Dutch East India Company 126 Finland 184 Greece, fascism 189 corruption 218 Dutch Golden Age 126\u20137 fire 9 Greek\u2013Persian Wars 27 Cort\u00e9s, Hern\u00e1n 112 Dutch Republic 126, 127 First Australians 10, 152, 173 Greenhouse Effect 226 Costa Rica 220, 221 flappers 186 griots 85 cotton industry 144, 148 E Florence (Italy) 104 Group Areas Act COVID-19 180 Foot, Philippa 139 Cr\u00e9cy, Battle of 77 East Germany 222 Forbidden City (Beijing) 97 (South Africa, 1950) 202 Crimean War 143 East India Company 120 Ford Motor Company 211 Guatemala 112, 220 criollos 163 Eastern Bloc 222 Fort Sumter, Battle of 170 gunpowder 67, 68 Croatia 189 Eastern Front (World War I) 179 fossil fuels 226, 227 crossword puzzles 116 Eastern Orthodox Church 59, 82, 83 France Crusades 59, 63, 76 Eastern Roman Empire 47, 58, 59 1848 revolution 166 cryptocurrency 91 Ebola 180 colonial empire 131, 158, 162, Cuban Missile Crisis 199 Ecuador 163, 221 Cuban Revolution 205 Edison, Thomas 146 197, 204 culture Edo period 128\u20139 French Revolution 154\u20135, 163 education Roman conquest 43, 47 African 24, 84, 98 student protests 213 ancient Greek 27, 28\u20139 for women\/girls 137, 142, 184, 185 World War I 178, 179 ancient Roman 48 Industrial Revolution 147 World War II 190, 191 Aztec 92 Japanese 169, 198 Francis I of France 105 Celtic 42\u20133 Edward VI of England 110, 111 Frank, Anne 192 Chinese 68\u20139, 96 Egypt, ancient 14, 20\u20133, 24, 30, Frankfurt Parliament 166 Dutch Golden Age 126 Franklin, Benjamin 137 Indian 32\u20133, 56, 70, 36, 106 Franks 52, 53, 61, 77 Egypt, Republic of 197 Franz Ferdinand, Archduke 179 120, 121 Eighty Years\u2019 War 127 Fridays for Future 227 Islamic 62, 64, 65 Eisenhower, Dwight D 207 Friedan, Betty 185 Japanese 18\u201319, 128\u20139 electricity 137, 146, 147 Joseon 102 Elizabeth I of England 110, 111 G Latin American 221 Emancipation Proclamation 171, 206 medieval European 76 encomienda system 112 Gagarin, Yuri 199, 208, 209 North American 72, 73 England Galatia 42, 43 Phoenicians 36 Galilei, Galileo 123 Polynesian 80, 81 medieval 52, 53 Gallipoli Campaign 179 Renaissance Europe 104\u20135 Tudor Dynasty 110\u201311 games 116\u201317 Enlightenment 136\u20137 Gandhi, Mahatma 196 environmental issues 219, 226\u20137","INDEX Gupta Empire 32, 33, 56 Indus Valley Civilization 32, 106 Kievan Rus 78, 82, 83 McCormick, Cyrus 148 Gutenberg, Johannes 107 Industrial Revolution 144\u20139 Kilwa Sultanate 84 Gyeongbokgung Palace (Seoul) 102 industrialization 142, 158, 168, 224 Kindertransport 193 Machu Picchu (Peru) 93 Information Age 230\u20131 King, Martin Luther 207 H International Space Station (ISS) 209 knights, medieval European 76 Magyars 83 inventions Koch, Robert 160 Maharero, Samuel 172 habitat loss 227 Kofun period 19 Hadrian, Emperor 47 ancient China 51 Kongo, Kingdom of 95 mahjong 117 Hagia Sophia (Istanbul) 59 Industrial Revolution 148\u20139 Korea, Joseon Dynasty 102\u20133 Haitian Revolution 162 Information Age 230\u20131 Korean War 199 Maiden Castle (England) 43 Hallstatt culture 42 modern 225 Kublai Khan 88, 89 maize 72 Hammurabi of Babylon 17 Scientific Revolution 122, 123 Kush, Kingdom of 24\u20135 Hampi (India) 57 transportation 210\u201311 Kushan Empire 32, 37 Malaysia 224 Han Dynasty\/Empire 50\u20131, 66 Iran 228 Kuwait 228 Harajuku 217 Iranian Revolution 201 Malcolm X 207 Haroun al-Rashid 62, 64 Iraq 228 L Hatshepsut, Pharaoh 44 Iraq War 201 Mali Empire 84, 85 Hawaii 80, 81, 156, 157 Iron Age 14\u201315, 42\u20133 La T\u00e8ne culture 43 helicopters 211 Iron Bridge (England) 145 Lalibela rock-hewn churches 85 Mamluk Dynasty 57 Hendrix, Jimi 213 Iroquois 73 Landsteiner, Karl 160 Henry VII of England 110 irrigation 228 Lapita people 80, 81 Manchuria 169, 177 Henry VIII of England 110, 111, 118 Isandlwana, Battle of 158 las Casas, Bartolom\u00e9 de 113 Henry the Navigator of Portugal 108 Islam Latin America Manchus 96, 97, 140 hieroglyphs 20, 106 Arab conquest 59, 76 hillforts, Celtic 43 early Islamic world 62\u20135 culture 221 Mandate of Heaven 35 Hinduism 32, 56, 70, 196 in Africa 84 liberation 163 hip-hop 217 in India 56, 196 modern 220\u20131 Mandela, Nelson 202, 203, 219 hippies 212 Islamic golden age 62 law codes 17, 58, 83 Mansa Musa I of Mali 85 Hippocrates 29 Ismail I, Shah 114 Lee, General Robert E. 171 Hiroshima ( Japan) 195 isolationism, Japan 168 Leif Erikson 78 Manzikert, Battle of 59 Hitler, Adolf 188\u20139, 190 Israel 200 Lenin, Vladimir 183 HIV\/AIDS 180, 219 Italy Leonardo da Vinci 105 Mao Zedong 176\u20137, 224 Hohokam people 73 1848 revolutions 166, 167 Leonov, Alexei 208 Holocaust 192\u20133 colonial empire 158, 159 Lewis, Meriwether 156 Ma\u00aforis 81, 109, 153 homelands 202 fascism 189 Lexington, Battle of 150 Homer 28 Ostrogoths 52 LGBTQIA+ people 214\u201315 Marathon 27 Homestead Act (US, 1862) 157 Ivan IV (the Terrible), Czar 124, 125 Libyan Civil War 218 Homo erectus 8, 9 Iwakura Tomomi 168 Lincoln, Abraham 170, 171, 206 Marie Antoinette, Homo habilis 8 Iwo Jima, Battle of 195 Linde, Carl von 149 Homo Heidelbergensis 9 Lindisfarne (England) 78 Queen of France 155 Homo sapiens 8, 10 J Linnaeus, Carl 136 homosexuality 215 Lisbon earthquake 137 Marne, Battle of the 179 Hong Kong 140, 224 Jacquard, Joseph Marie 148 Lister, Joseph 161 Hongwu, Emperor 96, 97 jade 39 literature Maroons 133 Hopewell people 72 Jahangir, Emperor 120, 121 Chinese 68, 69 Hopper, Grace 230 Jamaica 133 English 111, 147 Mars 209 horses 68\u20139 Janissary guards 100\u20131 Greek 28 Marx, Karl 166 House of Wisdom (Baghdad) 64 Janssen, Hans and Zacharias 122 Joseon Dynasty 103 Howard, Catherine 110 Janszoon, Willem 109 Persian 65 Mary I of England 110, 111 Hubble Space Telescope 209 Japan Roman 48 Hulagu Khan 88 Russian 142 mathematics 26, 28, 33, 64, 65, 123, humans, early 8\u201311, 72 castles 86\u20137 Safavid 115 Humayun, Emperor 120 early 18\u201319 Little Rock Nine 207 138, 139, 230 Hundred Years\u2019 War 77 Edo period 128\u20139 Lodi Dynasty 57 Hungary Meiji Restoration 168\u20139 London (UK) 144, 147, 160, 167, Mau Mau revolt 197 modern 224 1848 revolutions 166, 167 shoguns 74\u20135 190, 216, 217 Mauryan Empire 32, 44 fall of communism 222 war with China 177 Long March 177 medieval 82, 83 World War II 194\u20135, 224 longhouses, Viking 79 Maxim, Hiram Stevens 158 Huns 37, 52 jazz age 186 Louis Philippe of France 166 Maya civilization 38\u20139, 45, 112 hunter-gatherers 12, 18, 72 Jefferson, Thomas 156 Louis XVI of France 154, 155 Hussein, Saddam 201 Jenner, Edward 160 Louisiana Purchase 156 Median Empire 41 Jerusalem 59, 62, 63 Louverture, Toussaint 162 medicine 29, 33, 64, 160\u20131 I Jews, persecution 189, 192\u20133, 200 Lovelace, Ada 230 Jin Dynasty 88 Luddites 144 Mehmed II, Sultan 100 Ibn Sina 65 Jinnah, Muhammad Ali 196 Luther, Martin 118 Meiji Restoration 128, 168\u20139 Ice Age 10, 11 Johnson, Lyndon B. 204 Luxor Temple 23 Mench\u00fa, Rigoberta 220 ice, melting 226 Jomon people 18, 19 Lydian Empire 41 Idia, Queen Mother of Benin 94 Jordan 200 Mendeleev, Dmitri 165 Il-Khanate 89 Joseon Dynasty 102\u20133 M Mesa Verde (US) 72 Imjin War 103 Justinian I (the Great), Emperor 58, 59 Incas 86, 93, 113 Justinian II, Emperor 59 Ma\u2019afa 132\u20133 Mesopotamian civilizations 15, India Maathai, Wangari 219 16\u201317, 36 K McCarthy, Joseph\/McCarthyism 199 ancient 32\u20133 metalworking 14\u201315, 19, 42, 43, 79 British rule 173 Kabuki 128 hill forts 87 Kamakura Shogunate 74 Mexico independence and partition 196 Kangxi, Emperor 140, 141 Aztecs 92, 112 medieval 56\u20137 Kant, Immanuel 136 Mughal Empire 120\u20131 Kennedy, John F. 208 independence 163 voyages of exploration 109 Kenya Maya 38\u20139 Indigenous peoples Australia 10, 152, 173 environmental issues 219 Middle East Latin American 112\u201313, 221 independence 197 conflicts 200, 201 New Zealand 81, 109, 153 Khaliji Dynasty 57 modern 228\u20139 North America 130, 131, 156, 173 Khayyam, Omar 65 Indonesia 224 Khmer Empire 70, 71 middle passage 132 Khomeini, Ayatollah 201 236 Midway, Battle of 195 Mieszko I of Poland 82 Minamoto Yoritomo 74 Ming Dynasty 96\u20137, 140 Mino 159 Minoan civilization 27 Mississippian cultures 73 Moai (Easter Island) 80\u20131 Mogollon people 73 Moncada Barracks (Cuba) 205 money 90\u20131 Mongol Empire 62, 88\u20139, 96, 97 monuments, ancient 30\u20131 moon landings 208, 209, 212 Morales, Evo 221 Morocco, kasbahs 87 Morse code 171 movable type 67","Mozart, Wolfgang Ottoman Empire 58, 59, printing 104, 107 S INDEX Amadeus 136 100\u20131, 114, 179 Protestantism 110, 111, 118\u201319 proxy wars 198, 199 Sacagawea 156 Mughal Empire 56, \u00d6tzi the Iceman 14 Prussia 166 sacrifices, human 92 57, 120\u20131 punk 217 Safavid Dynasty 100, 114\u201315 P Puyi, Emperor 177 St. Petersburg (Russia) 125, Muhammad, the pyramids Prophet 62 Pacific, colonization 182, 183 of the 152\u20133 Egyptian 20, 21 Saint-Domingue 162 mummification 22\u20133 Kushite 24 Salah al-Din 63 Murad I, Sultan 100 Pacific, War Mesoamerican 30\u20131, 38 Samarkand (Uzbekistan) 89 Mussolini, Benito 189 in the 194\u20135 same-sex marriage 215 Mutapa, Q, R Samoa 80, 81, 153 Pagan Kingdom 71 samurai 75, 168 Kingdom of 95 Pakal the Great 38, Qarawiyyin, University of (Fez) 65 San Mart\u00edn, Jos\u00e9 de 163 Mutsuhito, Prince Qatar 228 sanitation 146, 147 39, 45 Qianlong, Emperor 140 Sannai-Maruyama 19 168, 169 Pakistan Qin Dynasty 35, 44, 51 Sanskrit 33 Mycenaean Qin Shi Huangdi, Emperor 35, 37, sapeur culture 216 creation 196 Sappho 28 civilization 27 women\u2019s rights 185 44, 50 Sargon of Akkad 17 mythology, Palestine 200 Qing Dynasty 96, 140\u20131, 176, 216 Sasanian Empire 40, 41 Pallava Empire 32, 33 Quant, Mary 216 Saudi Arabia 228 Greek 28\u20139 Palmyra 45 quipus 93 science Pan-Africanism 218 Quit India movement 196 N Panama 163, 221 Qutb Minar (Delhi) 57 ancient Greeks 26, 28 pandemics, global Dutch Golden Age 126, 127 Nabataeans 31 180\u20131 radio 186 Enlightenment 136, 137 Nagasaki ( Japan) 195 Panipat, Battle of 120 railroads Islamic 64, 138 Namibia 172 Pankhurst, Emmeline 184 medical milestones 160\u20131 Nanking, Papacy 59, 110, 118, 119, 167 Industrial Revolution 144, 145, Renaissance 104, 105 paper, invention of 51, 64, 106 147, 219 scientific progress 164\u20135 Treaty of 141 Parks, Rosa 206 Scientific Revolution 122\u20133 Napoleon I, Parr, Catherine 110 Japan 168\u20139 Scythians 37 Parthian Empire 40, 41 North America 157 Seacole, Mary 160 Emperor 142, 155, 163 Pasteur, Louis 160 Razia Sultana 56 segregation, racial 202 Narmer, Pharaoh 20, 21 Pearl Harbor 194 Reconstruction Era 171 Sejong the Great Nasrid Dynasty 76 Pedro I of Brazil 163 Reformation 110, 118\u201319 Nationalist Party (China) 176, 177 Peloponnesian War 27 refugees 196, 200 of Joseon 102, 103 natural disasters 218 penal colonies 152 Reign of Terror 155 Sekigahara, Battle of 74 navigation 108 perestroika 222 religion Selim I (the Grim), Sultan 100 Nazi Party\/Nazism 187, 188\u20139, Perry, Commodore Matthew 168 ancestor worship 13 Seljuk Empire 59, 63, 65 Persepolis 40 ancient Chinese 50, 51 Senate, Roman 46 190\u20133, 208 Persia, Islamic Empire 62\u20135 ancient Egyptians 22\u20133 Senones tribe 43 Neanderthals Persian Empire 27, 40\u20131, 114 Aztecs 92 Serbia 83, 178 Persis 40 Celts 42, 43 serfdom, in Russia 124, 142 (Homo neanderthalensis) 9, 10 perspective 105 early Japanese 19 Seymour, Jane 110 Neolithic Age 12 Peru medieval western Europe 76 Shah Jahan, Emperor 121 Netherlands, The Incas 93, 113 Mesopotamia 16, 17 Shaka Zulu 159 independence 163 Reformation 118\u201319 Shakespeare, William 111 democracy 166 Sendero Luminoso 221 Romans 49 Shang Dynasty 35 Dutch Golden Age 126\u20137 Spanish conquest 113 Vikings 78 Shanghai (China) 216 New Deal 187 Peter I (the Great), Czar 124, 125 see also religions by name Sharpeville Massacre 202 New Look 216 Petra ( Jordan) 31 Renaissance 76, 104\u20135 Sherman, General William T. 171 New Romantics 217 pharaohs 20\u20133, 44 renewable energy 227 Shiloh, Battle of 170 New York (US) 130 Philip II of Macedonia 26, 43 revolts, slave 133 Shin Saimdang 103 New Zealand Philip II of Spain 111 revolutions of 1848 166\u20137 Shinobi 75 colonization 152, 153 Philippines 224 Rhine River 52 ships Europeans reach 109 philosophy 28, 64, 136, 138\u20139 Rhodesia 197 Lapita people 80, 81 Phoenicians 36, 106 Richard I (the Lionheart) Age of Exploration 108\u20139 women\u2019s rights 184 Pilgrims 130 Chinese 67, 97 Newton, Isaac 123 Pinochet, Augusto 220, 221 of England 76 Joseon Korean 102 Nicaragua 220 pit and pebble game 116\u201317 Richard III of England 110 Phoenician 36 Nicholas I, Czar 143 pit houses 18 Roaring Twenties 186 Polynesian 81 Nicholas II, Czar 143, 183 Pizarro, Francisco 113 Robespierre, Maximilien 155 slave 132 Nigeria 218 plantations 133 robotics 231 steam 210 Nightingale, Florence 160 plastic waste 226 role-playing games 117 Viking 78\u20139 Nile River 20 Plato 28, 138 Roman Catholic Church 59, 76, 83, Shivaji 120 #NiUnaMenos 185 Plymouth colony 130 shoguns 74\u20135, 128 Nkrumah, Kwame 197, 218 Pocahontas 130 110, 111, 118, 119 Siemens, Werner von 146 Nok culture 24 poetry, Chinese 68, 69 Roman Empire 26, 41, 42, 43, 44, silk 51, 69, 140 nomads, steppe 37, 88 Poland Silk Road 51, 89, 114, 224 Non-Aligned Movement 199 free elections 222 46\u20139, 52, 53, 61 Silla Kingdom 102 Non-Cooperation Movement 196 medieval 82 Roman Republic 27, 46 silver 14, 15, 36, 91, 113 Noriega, Manuel 221 pollution 226 Roman Republic (1849) 167 Singapore 224 Nubia 20, 24 polo 68 Romanov Dynasty 124, 125, 142\u20133 Sino\u2013Japanese War 176, 177 nuclear weapons 194, 195, 198, Polynesia, expansion 80\u20131 Rome, ancient 46\u20139 Sisulu, Albertina 202 Pombal, Marquis de 137 Romulus and Remus 46 Slater, Samuel 145 199, 213 Pompeii 48 R\u00f6ntgen, Wilhelm 161 slavery Numidia, Kingdom of 24 poppies 179 Roosevelt, Franklin D. 187 enslaved Africans 132\u20133, 158 Nur Jahan 120 porcelain, Chinese 68, 69, Rurik Dynasty 124 Haiti 162 nursing 160 97, 140 Russia Roman 49 Portugal US 170, 171, 206 O colonial empire 113, 158, 163, 197 Czardom 124\u20135 smallpox 160 fascism 189 Imperial 142\u20133 smartphones 231 obelisks 31 voyages of exploration 108, 109 medieval 78, 82, 83 smelting 14 October Revolution 183 poverty 33, 76, 110, 146, 166, 187, Russian Revolution 182\u20133 Smith, Bessie 186 Odoacer 47 220, 221 World War I 178, 179 Smith, Samantha 198 oil industry 228 prehistoric monuments 30\u20131 see also USSR Oleg of Novgorod 82 Russian Civil War 183 237 Olmecs 38 Russian Revolution 143 Olympic Games 29 Russo\u2013Japanese War 169 Oman 228 Rwandan genocide 218 Operation Barbarossa 191 Opium Wars 141 Organization of African Unity 218 Ostrogoths 52 Otis, Elisha 149","INDEX society T transatlantic slave trade 132\u20133 warfare cont Chinese 176 transportation 210\u201311 Japanese 168, 169 Dutch 127 Taejo of Joseon 103 trench warfare 178 Maya 38\u20139 Enlightenment 136 Taiping Rebellion 141 Trent, Council of 119 Mesopotamia 16 French 154 Taira clan 74, 75 Trump, Donald 185 Mongols 89 Inca 93 Taiwan 224 Tudor Dynasty 110\u201311 nuclear 198, 199 Industrial Revolution 146 Taizong, Emperor 67 Tughlaq Dynasty 57 Persian Empire 41 Japanese 168 Talas, Battle of 67 tulips 127 Roman 46\u20137 LGBTQIA+ in 215 Tang Dynasty 66\u20139 Turing, Alan 230 see also wars and battles by name Roman 49 tank warfare 178 Turkana Boy 9 Russian 124 Tarquin the Proud 46 Tutankhamen, Pharaoh 21 Wars of Religion 119 under fascism 189 Tasman, Abel 109 Tyre (Lebanon) 36 Warsaw Ghetto 192 US 207 telegraph 149, 171 Washington, George 150\u20131 women in 139 temples U Watts, James 144, 145 weapons see arms and armor soccer 219 ancient Egypt 22, 23, 30 Umayyad Caliphate 62 West Bank 200 sociology 139 ancient Greece 26\u20137 Union Pacific Railroad 157 West Germany 222 Socrates 28 Aztec 92 Union States 170\u20131 Western Front (World War I) 178\u20139 Somme, Battle of the 179 Buddhist 51 United Arab Emirates (UAE) Western Roman Empire 47, 52, 58, 59, 76 Song Dynasty 66\u20139, 97 Indian 33, 56, 57 Wheatstone, Charles 149 Songhai Empire 95 Maya 38 228 Whitney, Eli 148 Sorghaghtani Beki 89 Mesopotamia 17 United Nations 184, 200 wildlife 227 South Africa, apartheid 202\u20133, 218 Roman 49 United Provinces 127 Winter Palace (St. Petersburg) 182 South Korea 224, 225 Southeast Asian 70\u20131 United States Wollstonecraft, Mary 137 Soviet Union see USSR Tenochtitl\u00e1n (Mexico) 92 women Soweto Uprising 203 Teotihuac\u00e1n (Mexico) 31 American Revolution 131 space exploration 199, 208\u20139, 211 Terra-Cotta Army 34\u20135 Civil Rights Movement 184, ancient Greek 29 Spain terrorism 201 Neolithic Age 13 Tet Offensive 204 206\u20137 Renaissance 104 colonial empire 112\u201313, 126, 127, Thai Kingdoms 71 Civil War 170\u20131 rights 137, 184\u20135, 228 131, 158, 163, 197 Thailand 224 Cold War 198\u20139 Roman 49 Thales of Miletus 28 Constitution 150 Viking 78 conquistadors 39, 92, 93, 112\u201313 theater expansion 156\u20137 World War I 179 Islamic Kingdoms 76 Chinese 68 Great Depression 187 Women\u2019s Liberation Movement 185 Visigoths 53 Elizabethan 110, 111 imperialism 153 Woodstock festival (US) 213 voyages of exploration 108, 109 Greek 29 independence 150\u20131, 156 workhouses 147 Spanish Armada 111 Japanese 128 space exploration 208\u20139 World War I 178\u20139, 183, 190 Spanish flu 180\u20131 Theodoric the Great 52 Vietnam War 204 World War II 176, 189 Spanish\u2013American War 163 Thirteen Colonies 131, 150, 157 women\u2019s rights 184, 185 in Europe 190\u20131 Sparta 26, 27 Thule people 73 World War I 178, 179 Holocaust 192\u20133, 200 speech, freedom of 136 Thunberg, Greta 227 World War II 191, 194\u20135 in the Pacific 194\u20135 spells 23 Tiger Cub Economies 224 Ur (Iraq) 16, 17 World Wide Web 230, 231 Sputnik 1 208 Tigris River 16 urbanization 219 Wright, Orville and Wilbur 210 Srivijaya Empire 70 Timbuktu (Mali) 94 Uruk (Iraq) 16, 17 writing 106\u20137 Stalingrad, Battle of 190 Timur 89 USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Chinese 35 Stamford Bridge, Battle of 78 Tipu Sultan 173 Egyptian 20, 106 star forts 87 Tokugawa Iesada 168 Republics) Korean 103 steam power 144\u20135, 210 Tokugawa Ieyasu 74, 128 Cold War 198\u20139 Maya 38, 39 Stefan Du\u0161an of Serbia 83 Tokugawa Shogunate 74, 128, 168 collapse of 198, 222 Phoenician 36, 106 Stephenson, George 144, 210 tombs, rock-cut 31 creation of 183 Wu, Emperor 50 steppe nomads 37 tools space exploration 208\u20139 Wu Zetian, Empress 67 Stolen Generations 152 early humans 8, 11 World War II 190, 191, 193 Wu of Zhou 35 Stone Age 8\u20139, 14 metal 14\u201315 see also Russia stone circles 31 Torricelli, Evangelista 123 X, Y, Z Stonehenge (England) 31 trade V Stonewall riots 215 Celts 43 X-rays 161 Sudanese Civil War, Second 218 China 96 V-2 rockets 208, 211 Xia Dynasty 35 Suffragettes 184 Dutch 126 vaccinations 160 Xin Dynasty 50 Suleiman I (the Magnificent), Japan 128, 168 Vandals 52 Xinhai Revolution 176, 177 Kilwa Sultanate 84 Venezuela 163, 220, 221 Xiongnu of Mongolia 37 Sultan 100 Mesopotamia 17 Venus 209 Xuande, Emperor 97 Sumer 16, 17 metals 14 Vermeer, Johannes 126 Yamato clan 18 Summer of Love 213 Phoenicians 36 Vesalius, Andreas 122 Yayoi people 18, 19 sumo wrestling 129 Romans 48 Vespasian, Emperor 46 Year of Africa 197 Sun Yat-Sen 176 trans-Saharan 94 Vesuvius, Mount (Italy) 48 Yemen 228 Sutton Hoo (England) 53 Vikings 78 video games 117 Yongle, Emperor 97 swine flu 180 Trail of Tears 156, 173 Vietnam 224 Yongzheng, Emperor 140 Swinging Sixties 212\u201313, 216 Vietnam War 199, 204 Yorkist Dynasty 110 Syria 228 Vijayanagar Empire 56, 57 Yousafzai, Malala 185 Syrian Civil War 201 Vikings 78\u20139 Ypres, Battles of 179 Visigoths 45, 53 Yuan Dynasty 89 Vodou 162 Zagwe Dynasty 84, 85 Volta, Alessandro 146 Zapotecs 38 Voltaire 136 Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra 45 voting rights Zhao Kuangyin 66 Zheng He 97 Black Americans 184, 206, 207 Zhengtong, Emperor 97 women 184 Zhou Dynasty 35 Voyager spacecraft 209 Zhu Wen 67 ziggurats 17 W Zimbabwe 197 Zulu Empire 158, 159 wagon trains 156 Zwingli, Ulrich 118 Waitangi, Treaty of 153 Wall Street Crash 186, 187 war on terror 201 warfare Aztec 92 Celtic Europe 42, 43 Egyptian 20\u20131 238","Acknowledgments Dorling Kindersley would like to thank the following Images:\u00a0Michael Ochs Archives \/ Stringer (cl).\u00a024 Alamy Collection (bl).\u00a066 Getty Images \/ iStock:\u00a0Godwater (tl). 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