Anglo-Danish Empire - A Companion to the Reign of King Cnut the Great

["Epilogue 479 fit each piece of evidence into the puzzle. If we play devil\u2019s advocate and date the potential invention of the fraternal bond between Sigvaldi and Thorkell to the very late twelfth century, when J\u00f3msv\u00edkinga saga probably was composed, we must also presume that, by the time Snorri Sturluson began to research Heimskringla a few decades later, the forger(s) had gone to the trouble of creating a back story for \u00de\u00f3r\u00f0r Sigvaldask\u00e1ld that linked him to Thorkell; as well as to the trouble of com- posing a poem on Thorkell\u2019s son Haraldr that could be represented as a still- remembered legacy in the early thirteenth century. Forgers might invent direct in- dividual links, but creating whole new chapters in the lives of the courtiers of those nobles they are concerned with, and making up formal laudatory poems for the nobles\u2019 children, seems a step too far. Also worth noting, slight though it may seem, is the plausibility of the chro- nologies of the poets named for Thorkell and his son Haraldr, which further suggests that here we are not dealing with outright invention. The chronology of the poet \u00dej\u00f3\u00f0\u00f3lfr Arn\u00f3rsson, who is also recorded as composing for Magn\u00fas \u00d3l\u00e1fsson (king of Norway in ca. 1035\u20131047), suggests that his composition in this period for this dynasty is possible; just as \u00de\u00f3r\u00f0r Sigvaldask\u00e1ld\u2019s for Thorkell would be, if we give it credence.78 One potential solution, that would allow Williams\u2019s arguments to stand, al- though she does not advance it, would be to suggest that there was another Thorkell in the dynasty of the Sk\u00e5ne earls who had a son named Haraldr, and that these two separate Thorkells were mistakenly conflated by later saga- writers. However, there are a few snippets of evidence which support the idea that the Haraldr concerned here had a career in England as well as in Scandina- via. Williams takes exception to the apparent link between two records: one is John of Worcester\u2019s record of a noble lady Gunnhild, the sister of King Cnut, who married Earl H\u00e1kon and then Earl Haraldr and had children named Hem- ming and Thorkell; the other is the record in the late \u201cSupplement\u201d to J\u00f3msv\u00ed- kinga saga that these same names were employed by members of Thorkell the Tall\u2019s proposed dynasty in Scandinavia.79 Yet as Keynes notes, an Earl Harold also appears in the English charter evidence in a spurious charter for Folke- stone purportedly of Cnut\u2019s reign, which has a witness list that does seem to have been composed from other contemporary documents.80 The same earl per- haps appears with the title minister immediately after the earls in another 78 \u00d3l\u00e1fs saga helga, ed. Bjarni A\u00f0albjarnarson, 333 (chap. 183) and 399 (chap. 239). 79 Chronicle of John of Worcester, ed. Darlington and McGurk, 540 (s.a. 1044). For previous discussion of this, see Freeman, History of the Norman Conquest, I, 655\u201356, and Encomium Emmae, ed. Campbell, 84, 89\u201390. 80 S. 981. See Keynes, \u201cCnut\u2019s Earls,\u201d 66.","480 Timothy Bolton charter of 1032, and certainly in a lease dated 1042, but then disappears from the English diplomatic material.81 These findings support an identification of him with the Haraldr who was identified by Adam of Bremen as a Danish prince murdered in Germany while on his way back to Denmark after a visit to Rome, in a series of events dateable to the period immediately after 1042.82 Adam notes that this murder was politically motivated and directed by King Magn\u00fas of Norway, for the victim Harald was \u201cde regali stirpe Danorum genitus propior sceptro videbatur quam Magnus\u201d (of the royal Danish stock . . . [and] appeared to stand nearer the scepter than did Magnus).83 John of Worcester\u2019s note about the exile of Earl Haraldr\u2019s wife and sons is dated to 1044, and implies that Haraldr was already dead. There is no definitive statement here that this Haraldr was a son of Thorkell the Tall. On the other hand, the surviving scraps of evidence hold together quite well, and they fit in 81 S. 1396. See Keynes, \u201cCnut\u2019s Earls,\u201d 66. The charter of 1032 is S. 964; although Keynes notes a Harald in S. 968 and in the spurious S. 965, his lowlier position in these charters may indicate that this Harald is another figure. 82 Gesta Hammburgensis, ed. Schmeidler, 75 (II. lxxix). Keynes, \u201cCnut\u2019s Earls,\u201d 66. Two iden- tifications of this assassinated Haraldr have been advanced by scholarship. Strangely, both can be traced to a single publication in 1834: Johann Lappenberg\u2019s Geschichte von England, I, 451, 473, 498 and genealogical table \u2018H\u2019. On the first of these occasions Haraldr\u2019s father is stated to have been one \u201cThurkill,\u201d who is not identified further. However, Thorgils Spraka- legg, who was the father of Jarl \u00dalfr, does appear in the other references in the two forms of \u201cThorgils Sprakaleg\u201d and \u201cThurchill Sprakalaeg,\u201d despite the fact that the two first names are quite distinct from each other. These small errors come together in Lappenberg\u2019s edition of Adam of Bremen\u2019s text (printed in G. H. Pertz, MGH, Scriptores in Folio VII, in 1846), specifi- cally where he states (333, n. 57), that the Haraldr assassinated in 1042 was the \u201cfilius Thurkilli Sprakaloeg.\u201d These errors are repeated in Schmeidler\u2019s edition of Adam\u2019s text in 1917 (Gesta Hammburgensis, 137, n. 1), and enhanced when Schmeidler directs readers to the Encomium Emmae to read more on the exploits of this \u201cThorkell.\u201d Although Thorgils Sprakalegg is not mentioned in the Encomium Emmae, Thorkell the Tall features heavily in that narrative, and it is apparent that they have been conflated here, creating dynastic confusion. This error reap- pears in Tschan\u2019s translation of Adam\u2019s Gesta, History of the Archbishops, 109, n. 274, and most recently in Williams, \u201cThorkell the Tall,\u201d 157, n. 82: \u201cthis was Harold, son of King Cnut\u2019s brother in law, Jarl Ulfr.\u201d The first full discussion of the other identification is in Encomium, ed. Campbell, 85, with a later discussion in Stenton, Anglo Saxon England, 423\u201324 and Keynes, \u201cCnut\u2019s Earls,\u201d 66: it has the support of the English charter evidence and the implication of John of Worcester\u2019s note for the year 1044. Lasse C. A. Sonne, in his \u201cSvend Estridsens polit- iske liv\u201d [\u201cSvend Estrithsson\u2019s Political Life\u201d], 20\u201321, takes a more cautious line and suggests that this Haraldr might be a child or a grandchild of Cnut\u2019s elder brother, on the evidence of the similarity of their names. The present author and C. Sagemoen have a forthcoming article on these various identifications and the assassinated Haraldr. 83 Translation after Tschan, History of the Archbishops, 109.","Epilogue 481 with what the saga material states of Haraldr\u2019s career after the death of Thor- kell. The scraps of evidence we have suggest that we are dealing with a single Haraldr (and thus also a single Thorkell). My second example involves the record of Cnut\u2019s legal exactions from the Norwegian population, which are found variously in an episode in \u00c1grip, the Legendary Saga, and Heimskringla.84 Each of these sources sets out a series of exactions and royal rights, and details an agricultural tax that was to be sys- tematically rendered from all households at Christmas.85 We might set these ac- counts aside, if it were not for some short legal amendments added to the earliest Norwegian regional law codes of the Gulathing region and the Frostath- ing region, with content and specific legal terminology that indicates that suc- cessive kings in Norway after Cnut repealed such exactions. The Gulathing amendments fall in the reign of Magn\u00fas \u00d3l\u00e1fsson, in 1034\u20131047, and in that of his kinsman H\u00e1kon, in 1093\u20131094; the Frostathing amendments, in the joint reign of Sigur\u00f0r J\u00f3rsalafari with his two brothers Eysteinn and \u00d3l\u00e1fr in 1125\u20131130.86 The oldest manuscript of either of these two regional codes dates to signifi- cantly later, to the last decade of the twelfth century, but there are grounds for identifying the late eleventh century or the opening years of the twelfth as the point in which these Gulathing and Frostathing laws were codified in writing. Most of the legal clauses in the law codes state that St. \u00d3l\u00e1fr began the formula- tion and codification of written law, presumably before his expulsion in 1028. However, this is most probably in error, and while they may have been codified in an oral form earlier, the most likely period for a written codification of these Norwegian law codes is the last few decades of the eleventh century. The pres- ence of St. Hallvard at the head of the saints listed in the Christian section of the Gulathing law indicates a date after 1050, before which time he seems not to have held such prominence.87 In addition, details of ecclesiastical organiza- tion, such as the requirement of the bishop to have a fixed seat from which he dispensed justice, suggest that the earliest written form of the law predates the reorganization of the Norwegian church in 1111.88 84 See Bolton, Empire of Cnut the Great, 275\u201387, and Cnut the Great, 187\u201388. 85 \u00c1grip, ed. Driscoll, 40\u201342 (chap. 29); Legendary Saga of St. \u00d3l\u00e1fr, ed. Heinrichs, Janshen, Radicke, and R\u00f6hn, 172\u201374 (chap. 71); and \u00d3l\u00e1fs saga helga, ed. Bjarni A\u00f0albjarnarson, 399\u2013401 (chap. 239). 86 These amendments are edited separately from the main law codes in Norske middelalder- dokumenter, ed. Bagge, Holstad Smedsdal, and Helle, 18\u201323; with modern Norwegian transla- tion. Some brief scholarly comment can be found in Indreb\u00f8, \u201cAagrip,\u201d 43\u201345. 87 Hertzberg, \u201cVore \u00c6ldste Lovtexters,\u201d 112. 88 Hertzberg, \u201cVore \u00c6ldste Lovtexters,\u201d 107\u20138; endorsed and discussed further in Den eldre Gulatingslova, ed. Eithun, Rindal, and Ulset, 10\u201312.","482 Timothy Bolton Returning to the legal amendments fossilized within these law codes, we note that textual comparison of the clauses, in the narratives and in the legal amendments, reveals a markedly close relationship between them. Most impor- tantly, such legal terminology as we find here is novel and found nowhere else in the conservative and highly repetitive corpus of Norwegian medieval law. The first statement of the Gulathing amendments, that the \u201cIola giaver\u201d (Christ- mas tax) shall cease to be collected, gives a term reminiscent of \u00c1grip\u2019s state- ment that Cnut\u2019s tax should be collected \u201cat J\u00f3lum\u201d (at Christmas). These are the only occurrences of Christmas as a tax-collection point in extant Norwegian legal sources. The Frostathing amendments supply us with more details of this tax, again in legal terminology similar to that used by \u00c1grip. Where \u00c1grip specifies the payment of \u201cvinar toddi\u201d (translated as \u201ca piece of the meadow\u201d), we find in the amendment the repealing of the king\u2019s demands for \u201cviniar sponn\u201d (meaning \u201ca measure of the meadow\u201d).89 Furthermore, a match for the term \u201crykkjarto\u201d (translated as \u201ca lady\u2019s tow\u201d) from \u00c1grip, may be found in the amendments to the Frostathing law as \u201crygiar t\u00f3.\u201d90 Additionally, the term \u201cspann smj\u00f6rs\u201d (a \u201cmea- sure of butter\u201d) found in \u00c1grip, may lie behind an error in some manuscripts of the Frostathing law, where \u201cviniar sp\u00f6nn\u201d may represent both \u201cviniar toddi\u201d and \u201cspann smj\u00f6rs,\u201d whereby the scribe has accidentally removed two words.91 As the Frostathing amendments fail to specify the specific weights and measures behind these terms, we are unable to know if the amounts specified in \u00c1grip are accurate renditions of \u201cvinar toddi\u201d or \u201crykkjarto,\u201d but they do seem to bear witness to the existence of taxes with these names. Again, these terms appear nowhere else in Norwegian legal sources, and they appear in the narrative sources only in the con- text of Cnut\u2019s legislation. The remaining clauses in this law code relate to royal rights, and again, they appear to be directly repealed by the legal amendments. The legal amendment detailing that a man in peacetime may travel where and when he wishes, may be a response to the ban we find in \u00c1grip\u2019s statement that no one could leave the country without the king\u2019s permission at risk of forfeiture of his estates.92 \u00c1grip details that the farmers were collectively responsible for the construction of royal buildings and work on royal estates, whereas an amend- ment in the Frostathing-law states emphatically that only the royal official (the \u201c\u00e1rma\u00f0r\u201d), and not the landowners, were obliged to erect buildings for the king. Finally, the clause in \u00c1grip which states that the land and chattels of outlaws 89 See \u00c1grip, ed. Driscoll, 99, n. 90, for translation. 90 See \u00c1grip, ed. Driscoll, 99, n. 91, for translation. 91 This is certainly the conclusion in Norges Gamle Love, ed. Keyser and Munch, I, 124 (Frostathing Law, 16:2). 92 \u00c1grip, ed. Driscoll, 40.","Epilogue 483 were to pass to the king, and not to the heirs of an outlaw, is repealed in the amendments to both the Gulathing and Frostathing laws, stating in the latter that \u201cscal hinn n\u00e1nasti ni\u00f0r s\u00e1 er \u00ed erf\u00f0um er taldr taca arf \u00feann. en eigi konungr\u201d (the nearest relative in hereditary count from the outlaw shall take the inheri- tance, but not the king).93 In all, there is a plausibility to these clauses being the innovations of a foreign invader. In Norway in the early medieval period there was comparatively little royal power, and the laws there are more concerned with social regulation at the regional level. In essence, the Norwegian king en- dorsed and enforced the law, but he was not in a position to make many de- mands for payment through it, or to milk it for profits in same way that some of the rulers in more highly organized neighboring states could. Thus, royal de- mands such as those specified by \u00c1grip are virtually unprecedented in the extant Norwegian legal collections. It is extremely unlikely that these amendments in the law codes do not refer to the same exactions set out in the late narrative sources. However, whereas such sources are connected to Cnut\u2019s reign in the narratives, the amendments are not connected to him in the law codes and are introduced as the repealing acts of Norwegian kings who followed him in the eleventh and early twelfth centuries. For this reason, the two groups of sources most proba- bly share a common ancestor without having a direct textual relationship. On this basis, it is reasonable to suppose that the story of these exactions by Cnut in the late narrative sources is more likely to have a basis in fact than to be an invention of one or more saga-authors. Conclusions The source-critical approaches that attacked the use of these late narrative sources in the last decades of the nineteenth century and opening decades of the twentieth century were much needed and rightly swept away the naive scholarship that came before. However, this approach to the these sources has created a climate of fear around them which still to this day not only keeps scholars from looking at them, but also ensures that few with any historical background even know the rudiments of such texts and their nuances. Thus, the common options open to the modern historian when faced with having to use such material appear to have been: (1) avoidance, leaving such texts alone unless they receive confirmation from more reliable sources, and consigning 93 Norske middelalderdokumenter, ed. Bagge, Holstad Smedsdal, and Helle, 21.","484 Timothy Bolton the period they purport to discuss to a historical vacuum; (2) using them in a reduced capacity, with as many potential later accretions as possible removed; or (3) a confused (and confusing) approach in which these sources are included and assessed, but without substantial attempts to discuss their potential verac- ity, consigning them to the status of, at best, suggestions. As a scholar with a literary as well as historical background (like Campbell and Moberg before me), I have tried to find another path through the problems here, and have focused on individual facets in the narratives where these can be shown to have a substantial probability of reflecting an eleventh-century re- ality. The light shone by such studies is a tightly focused beam in a sea of dark- ness. However, in such a void as we have for eleventh-century Scandinavia, any points in which we can place some trust add greatly to our knowledge and often completely change our understanding of the period. Such studies may come littered with the words \u201cperhaps\u201d and \u201cprobably,\u201d but the benefits they promise will be significant. I remain convinced that Cnut the Great, spanning two distinct English and Scandinavian worlds, each with vastly different types of evidence in various states of survival to bear him witness, demands more of us than an approach that restricts itself to some disciplines or sources while shutting out others. Just as numismatics, archaeology, and skaldic literary stud- ies now hold a firm place in the picture of the man we construct, careful and painstaking work will ensure that parts of the Scandinavian narrative sources may be added to this pantheon. These need to be carefully sifted and assessed to see what else remains to be discovered.","Notes on Contributors Timothy Bolton, Fellow of the University of Bristol, and Head of Western Manuscripts Department, Bloomsbury Auctions, London Julian M.C. Bowsher, Senior Archaeologist and Numismatist Emeritus, Museum of London Archaeology John Clark, Curator Emeritus, Museum of London, and Honorary Associate Professor, Institute of Archaeology, University College London Barbara E. Crawford, Honorary Reader in History, University of St Andrews, and Member of the Norwegian Academy Caitlin Ellis, O'Donovan Scholar, School of Celtic Studies, Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, Dublin Alison Finlay, Professor Emeritus, Department of English and Humanities, Birkbeck College, London Laura Amalasunta Gazzoli, Postdoctoral Researcher, Institute for Medieval Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna Erin Goeres, Associate Professor of Old Norse Language and Literature, School of European Languages and Cultures, University College London Eldbj\u00f8rg Haug, Professor Emeritus, Department of Archaeology, History, Culture and Religious Studies, University of Bergen Jesper Hjermind, Museum Inspector and Medieval Archaeologist, Viborg Museum, Viborg Simon D. Keynes, Elrington and Bosworth Professor Emeritus of Anglo-Saxon, Department of Anglo-Saxon, Norse and Celtic, University of Cambridge, and Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge Ryan Lavelle, Professor of Early Medieval History, University of Winchester David McDermott, Visiting Lecturer, Department of History, University of Winchester Zoya Metlitskaya, Associate Professor, Department of History, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow Jakub Morawiec, Professor of History, Institute of History, Centre for Nordic and Old English Studies, University of Silesia at Katowice Richard North, Professor of English, Department of English, University College London https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1515\/9781501513336-023","486 Notes on Contributors Eleanor Parker, Lecturer in Medieval English Literature, Brasenose College, Oxford Russell Poole, Distinguished University Professor Emeritus, Department of English, The University of Western Ontario Andrew Reynolds, Professor of Medieval Archaeology, Institute of Archaeology, University College London Marie B\u00f8nl\u00f8kke Spejlborg, First Conservator, Ryfylke Museum, Sand, Ryfylke Simon Thomson, Senior Lecturer in Old and Middle English, Heinrich-Heine University, D\u00fcsseldorf Michael Treschow, Associate Professor and Head of the Department of English and Cultural Studies, University of British Columbia Okanagan, Okanagan Campus Barbara Yorke, Professor Emeritus of Early Medieval History, University of Winchester and Honorary Professor, Institute of Archaeology, University College London","General Bibliography Icelandic authors without surname are collated by forename; the letters \u00e6, \u00e4, and \u0153, \u00f8, \u00f6, and \u00fc are ordered respectively as ae, oe, and ue. 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Beech, George T. \u201cThe Naming of England.\u201d History Today 57.10 (October 2007): 32\u201335. Behrends, Frederick, ed. and trans. The Letters and Poems of Fulbert of Chartres. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1976. Berg, Arno. Harald Hardr\u00e5de. Oslo: Selskabet for Oslos vel, 1966. Bergsagel, John. \u201cSongs for St. Knud the King.\u201d Musik & Forskning 6 (1980): 152\u201366. Bethurum, Dorothy, ed. The Homilies of Wulfstan. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1957. Bible: The Holy Bible: Douay-Rheims Version. Rockford: TAN Books, 1971.","490 General Bibliography Biddle, Martin. \u201cExcavations at Winchester 1965: Fourth Interim Report.\u201d AntJ 46 (1966): 324\u201332. Biddle, Martin. \u201cWinchester: the Development of an Early Capital.\u201d In Vor- und Fr\u00fchformen der europ\u00e4ischen Stadt im Mittelalter: Bericht \u00fcber ein Symposium in Reinhausen bei G\u00f6ttingen in der Zeit vom 18. bis 24. April 1972, edited by Herbert Jankuhn, Walter Schlesinger, and Heiko Steuer, 229\u201361. G\u00f6ttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1973. Biddle, Martin. \u201cFelix Urbs Winthonia: Winchester in the Age of Monastic Reform.\u201d In Tenth- Cenury Studies. Essays in Commemoration of the Millennium of the Council of Winchester and \u201cRegularis Concordia\u201d, edited by David Parsons, 123\u201340. Chichester: Phillimore, 1975. Biddle, Martin. \u201cTowns.\u201d In The Archaeology of Anglo-Saxon England, edited by David M. Wilson, 99\u2013150. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976. Biddle, Martin, ed. Winchester in the Early Middle Ages: An Edition and Discussion of the Winton Domesday, Winchester Studies 1. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1976. Biddle, Martin. \u201cThe Study of Winchester: Archaeology and History in a British Town, 1961\u201383.\u201d Albert Reckitt Archaeology Trust Lecture, PBA 69 (1983): 93\u2013135. Biddle, Martin. \u201cLondon on the Strand.\u201d Popular Archaeology (June 1984): 23\u201327. Biddle, Martin. \u201cA City in Transition: 400\u2013800.\u201d In The British Atlas of Historic Towns Volume III: The City of London from Prehistoric Times to ca. 1520, edited by M. D. Lobel, 20\u201329. Oxford: Oxford University Press\/The Historic Towns Trust, 1989. Biddle, Martin. \u201cK\u00f6nigsh\u00e4user: Alfred, Knut und andere in den M\u00fcnstern von Winchester vom 7. bis zum 12. Jahrhundert.\u201d In Dome \u2013 Gr\u00e4ber \u2013 Grabungen. Winchester und Magdeburg. Zwei Kulturlandschaften des 10. Jahrhunderts im Vergleich, edited by Stephan Freund and Gabriele K\u00f6ster, 115\u201337. Schriftenreihe des Zentrums f\u00fcr Mittelalterausstellungen Magdeburg, 2. Regensburg: Schnell & Steiner, 2016. Biddle, Martin, and David Hill. \u201cLate Saxon Planned Towns.\u201d AntJ 51 (1971): 70\u201385. Biddle, Martin, and Daphne Hudson, with Carolyn M. Heighway. The Future of London\u2019s Past: A Survey of the Archaeological Implications of Planning and Development in the Nation\u2019s Capital. Worcester: Rescue, 1973. Biddle, Martin, and Derek Keene. Winchester in the Early Middle Ages: An Edition and Discussion of the Winton Domesday, Winchester Studies 1. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1976. Biddle, Martin, and Derek Keene. The Winchester Historic Town Atlas. Winchester Studies 11, and British Historic Towns Atlas 6. Oxford: Oxbow Books, 2017. Biddle, Martin, and Birthe Kj\u00f8lbye-Biddle. Winchester: Saxon and Norman Art. The Artistic Achievement of an Early Medieval Capital A.D. 900\u20131150 \u2013 A Revised Exhibition. Winchester: Winchester Cathedral Treasury, 1973. Biddle, Martin, and Birthe Kj\u00f8lbye-Biddle. \u201cThe Excavated Sculptures from Winchester.\u201d In Dominic Tweddle, Martin Biddle, and Birthe Kj\u00f8lbye-Biddle, Corpus of Anglo-Saxon Stone Sculpture IV: South-East England, 274\u2013333. Oxford: Oxford University Press for the British Academy, 1995. Biddle, Martin, and Birthe Kj\u00f8lbye-Biddle. \u201cWinchester from Venta to Wintancaestir.\u201d In Pagan and Christians \u2013 from Antiquity to the Middle Ages: Papers in Honour of Martin Henig, presented on the Occasion of his 65th Birthday, edited by Lauren Gilmour, 189\u2013214. BAR, International Series 1610. Oxford: Archaeopress, 2007. Biddle, Martin, and Birthe Kj\u00f8lbye-Biddle. \u201cDanish Royal Burials in Winchester: Cnut and His Family.\u201d In Danes in Wessex, edited by Lavelle and Roffey, 212\u201349.","General Bibliography 491 Bill, Jan. \u201cRoskilde 6.\u201d In Vikings: Life and Legend, edited by Gareth Williams, Peter Pentz, and Matthias Wemhoff, 228\u201333. Copenhagen: Nationalmuseet, 2013. Bird, Joanna, Mark Hassall, and Harvey Sheldon, eds. Interpreting Roman London: Papers in Memory of Hugh Chapman. Oxford: Oxbow Books, 1996. Birkeli, Fridtjov. \u201cThe Earliest Missionary Activities from England to Norway.\u201d NMS 15 (1971): 27\u201337. Birkeli, Fridtjov. Tolv vintrer hadde kristendommen v\u00e6rt i landet. Stavanger: Verbum, 1995. Bisson, Thomas. The Crisis of the Twelfth Century: Power, Lordship, and the Origins of European Government. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2008. Bjarni A\u00f0albjarnarson. Om de norske kongers sagaer. Oslo: I Kommisjon hos Jacob Dybwad, 1937. Bjarni A\u00f0albjarnarson, ed. Heimskringla I, by Snorri Sturluson, \u00cdF 26. Reykjavik: Hi\u00f0 \u00edslenzka b\u00f3kmenntaf\u00e9lagi\u00f0, 1941; reprinted 1979. Bjarni A\u00f0albjarnarson, ed. Heimskringla II: \u00d3l\u00e1fs saga helga, by Snorri Sturluson, \u00cdF 27. Reykjav\u00edk: Hi\u00f0 \u00edslenzka fornritaf\u00e9lag, 1949; reprinted 1979. Bjarni A\u00f0albjarnarson, ed. Heimskringla III, by Snorri Sturluson, 3 vols. \u00cdF 28. Reykjavik: Hi\u00f0 \u00edslenzka b\u00f3kmenntaf\u00e9lagi\u00f0, 1951; reprinted 1979. Bjarni Einarsson, ed. \u00c1grip af N\u00f3regskonungas\u01ebgum. Fagrskinna \u2013 N\u00f3regs konunga tal. \u00cdF 29. Reykjav\u00edk: Hi\u00f0 \u00edslenzka fornritaf\u00e9lag, 1985. Bjarni Gu\u00f0nason, Um Skj\u00f6ldungas\u00f6gu. Reykjav\u00edk: B\u00f3ka\u00fatg\u00e1fa Menningarsj\u00f3\u00f0s, 1963. Bjarni Gu\u00f0nason. \u201cThe Icelandic Sources of Saxo Grammaticus.\u201d In Saxo Grammaticus: A Medieval Author between Norse and Latin Culture, edited by Karsten Friis-Jensen, 79\u201393. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1981. Bjarni Gu\u00f0nason, ed. Danakonunga S\u01ebgur: Skj\u01ebldunga Saga, Kn\u00fdtlinga Saga, \u00c1grip af S\u01ebgu Danakonunga. \u00cdF 35. Reykjav\u00edk: Hi\u00f0 \u00edslenzka fornritaf\u00e9lag, 1982. Bj\u00f8rn, Anathon, and Haakon Shetelig. Viking Antiquities in Great Britain and Ireland: Part 4, Viking Antiquities in England. Oslo: H. Aschehoug, 1940. Blackburn, Mark. \u201cEnglish Dies Used in the Scandinavian Imitative Coinages.\u201d Hikuin 11 (1985): 101\u201324. Blackburn, Mark. \u201cDo Cnut the Great\u2019s First Coins as King of Denmark Date from before 1018?\u201d In Sigtuna Papers: Proceedings of the Sigtuna Symposium on Viking-Age Coinage, 1\u20134 June 1989, edited by Kenneth Jonsson and Brita Malmer, 55\u201368. Stockholm: Kungl. Vitterhets-, Historie- och Antikvitetsakademien, 1990. Blackmore, Lyn. \u201cFrom Beach to Burh: New Clues to Entity and Identity in 7th to 9th Century London.\u201d In Papers of the \u201cMedieval Europe Brugge\u201d Conference: Vol. 1: Urbanism in Medieval Europe, edited by Guy De Boe and Frans Verhaeghe, 123\u201332. Zwilk: IAP Rapporten 1, 1997. Blair, John. Anglo-Saxon Oxfordshire. Stoud: Sutton \/ Oxfordshire Books, 1994. Blair, John. Building Anglo-Saxon England. Princeton, NJ and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2018. Blair John, and Barbara E. Crawford. \u201cA Late-Viking Burial at Magdalen Bridge, Oxford?\u201d Oxoniensia 62 (1997): 135\u201343. Blom, Grethe A. Trondheims Historie, 997\u20131997. Vol. 1: Hellig Olavs By, Middelalder til 1537. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 1956. B\u00f8dker Enghoff, Inge. See Enghoff, Inge B\u00f8dker. Bojsen Christensen, Karen Marie. See Christensen, Karen Marie Bojsen.","492 General Bibliography Bolton, Brenda, and Christine Meek, eds. Aspects of Power and Authority in the Middle Ages. International Medieval Research 14. Turnhout: Brepols, 2007. Bolton, Timothy. \u201cNew Perspectives on the Christianization of Scandinavia and the Organisation of the Early Church.\u201d In Scandinavia and Europe 800\u20131350: Contact, Conflict, and Coexistence, edited by Jonathan Adams and Katherine Holman, 163\u201375. Turnhout: Brepols, 2004. Bolton, Timothy. \u201cAn Historical Perspective on the Recent Archaeological Discoveries at Viborg S\u00f8nders\u00f8.\u201d In Viborg S\u00f8nders\u00f8 1018\u20131030, edited by Iversen, Robinson, Hjermind, and Christensen, 499\u2013502. Bolton, Timothy. \u201cEnglish Political Refugees at the Court of King Sveinn \u00c1str\u00ed\u00f0arson.\u201d MS 15 (2005): 17\u201336. Bolton, Timothy. \u201c\u00c6lfgifu of Northampton: Cnut the Great\u2019s \u2018Other Woman,\u2019\u201d NMS 51 (2007): 247\u201367. Bolton, Timothy. \u201cA Newly Emergent Mediaeval Manuscript containing Encomium Emmae Reginae with the Only Known Complete Text of the Recension prepared for King Edward the Confessor.\u201d MS 19 (2009): 205\u201321. Bolton, Timothy. The Empire of Cnut the Great: Conquest and the Consolidation of Power in Northern Europe in the Early Eleventh Century. The Northern World: North Europe and the Baltic ca. 400\u20131700 A.D.: Peoples, Economies and Cultures 40. Leiden: Brill, 2009. Bolton, Timothy. Cnut the Great. New Haven, CT and London: Yale University Press, 2017. Bowsher, David, Anthony Dyson, Nick Holder, and Isca Howell. The London Guildhall: An Archaeological History of a Neighbourhood from Early Medieval to Modern Times, 2 vols. MoLAM 36. London: Museum of London Monographs, 2007. Bowsher, Julian. Shakespeare\u2019s London Theatreland: Archaeology, History and Drama. London: Museum of London Archaeology, 2012. Bowsher, Julian M. C., and Geoff Egan. \u201cMedieval Coins and Tokens.\u201d In Ayre and Wroe-Brown, \u201cThe Eleventh- and Twelfth-Century Waterfront and Settlement at Queenhithe,\u201d 237\u201340. Bowsher, Julian, and Pat Miller. The Rose and the Globe: Playhouses of Shakespeare\u2019s Bankside, Southwark. London: Museum of London, 2010. Bradley, Richard. The Passage of Arms: An Archaeological Analysis of Prehistoric Hoards and Votive Deposits. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990. Bradley, Richard. A Geography of Offerings: Deposits of Valuables in the Landscapes of Ancient Europe. Oxford: Oxbow Books, 2017. Bradley, Simon, and Nikolaus Pevsner. The Buildings of England: London I: The City of London. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1997. Brendalsmo, Jan, and Knut Paasche. \u201cStavanger \u2013 f\u00f8r det ble en by.\u201d Historisk tidsskrift 96.2 (2017): 103\u201323. Bresslau, Harry, ed. Die Werke Wipos. 3rd edition. MGH, SRG 61. Hanover and Leipzig: Hahnsche Buchhandlung, 1915. 1\u201362 (Gesta Chuonradi II imperatoris). Brilioth, Yngve. Den p\u00e5fliga beskattningen af Sverige intill den stora schismen. Uppsala, 1915. Brink, Stefan. \u201cThe Formation of the Scandinavian Parish, with Some Remarks Regarding the English Impact on the Process.\u201d In The Community, the Family and the Saint: Patterns of Power in Early Medieval Europe, edited by Joyce Hill and Mary Swan, 19\u201344. Turnhout: Brepols, 1998. Br\u00f8gger, A. W. Stavangers historie i middelalderen. 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Brooks, Nicholas P., and Susan Kelly, ed. Charters of Christ Church, Canterbury, Parts I and II. Anglo-Saxon Charters 17 and 18. Oxford: Oxford University Press for the British Academy, 2013. Bruce, Alexander M., ed. and trans. Scyld and Scef: Expanding the Analogues. London: Routledge, 2002. Burch, Mark, and Phil Treveil, with Derek Keene. The Development of Early Medieval and Later Poultry and Cheapside: Excavations at 1 Poultry and Vicinity, City of London. MoLAM 38. London: Museum of London, 2011. Burdon, Nikola, Adrian Green, and Cheryl Smith. \u201cPortable Antiquities from the Thames Foreshore.\u201d LArch 9.5 (2000): 123\u201328. Burgess, Glyn S., trans. and Keith Busby, introduction. The Lais of Marie de France. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1986. Butler, Emily. Language and Community in Early England: Imagining Distance in Medieval Literature. London: Routledge, 2017. Butler, Jon. \u201c1600 Years of the City Defences at Aldersgate.\u201d LArch 9.9 (2001): 235\u201344. Butler, Veronica J., and R. H. M. Dolley. \u201cNew Light on the Nineteenth-Century Find of Pence of \u00c6thelr\u00e6d II from St. Martin\u2019s-Le-Grand.\u201d BNJ 29 (1958\u201359): 265\u201374. Byock, Jesse L. \u201cSigur\u00f0r F\u00e1fnisbani: An Eddic Hero Carved on Norwegian Stave Churches.\u201d In Poetry in the Scandinavian Middle Ages: The Seventh International Saga Conference, edited by Teresa P\u00e0roli, 619\u201328. Spoleto: Centro italiano di studi sull\u2019alto Medioevo, 1990. Byock, Jesse L., ed. and trans. The Saga of the Volsungs: The Norse Epic of Sigurd the Dragon Slayer. London: Penguin, 1999. Callesen, Frederik, Jesper Hjermind, and Morten S\u00f8vs\u00f8. \u201cGenstande af tr\u00e6.\u201d In Viborg S\u00f8nders\u00f8 1018\u20131030, edited by Iversen, Robinson, Hjermind, and Christensen, 439\u201357. Campbell, Alistair. \u201cThe Opponents of Haraldr H\u00e1rfagri at Hafrsfj\u01ebr\u00f0r.\u201d Saga-Book of the Viking Society 12 (1937\u201345): 232\u201337. Campbell, Alistair, ed. and trans. Encomium Emmae Reginae, including \u201cSupplement to J\u00f3msv\u00edkinga Saga (Appendix IV).\u201d Camden Third Series 72. London: Royal Historical Society, 1949); reprinted with an Introduction by Simon [D.] Keynes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998. Campbell, Alistair, ed. The Chronicle of \u00c6thelweard: Chronicon \u00c6thelweardi. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1962. Campbell, Alistair. Skaldic Verse and Anglo-Saxon History. Dorothea Coke Memorial Lecture in Northern Studies, University College London. London: Viking Society for Northern Research, 1970.","494 General Bibliography Campbell, James. \u201cBede\u2019s Words for Places.\u201d In Names, Words, and Graves: Early Medieval Settlement, edited by Peter H. Sawyer, 34\u201354. Leeds: University of Leeds, 1976. Campbell, James. \u201cEngland, France, Flanders, and Germany in the Reign of Ethelred II: Some Comparisons and Connections.\u201d In Essays in Anglo-Saxon History, by James Campbell, 191\u2013207. London: Hambledon Press, 1986. Campbell, James. \u201cSome Agents and Agencies of the Late Anglo-Saxon State.\u201d In Domesday Studies, edited by J. C. Holt, 201\u201318. Woodbridge: Boydell, 1987. Campbell, James. \u201cWas it Infancy in England? Some Questions of Comparison.\u201d In England and her Neighbours, 1066\u20131453: Essays in Honour of Pierre Chaplais, edited by Michael Jones and Malcolm Vale, 1\u201317. London: Hambledon, 1989. Cant, Ronald G. \u201cThe Church in Orkney and Shetland and its Relations with Norway and Scotland in the Middle Ages.\u201d Northern Scotland 1 (1972): 1\u201318. Carelli, Peter. \u201cSchack. Det medeltida feodalsamh\u00e4llet i miniatyr.\u201d In Kulturen: Metropolis Daniae: Ett stycke Europa, edited by Claes Wahl\u00f6\u00f6, 135\u201347. Lund, Kulturhistoriska F\u00f6reningen f\u00f6r S\u00f6dra Sverige, 1998. Carelli, Peter. \u201cLunds \u00e4ldsta kyrkog\u00e5rd \u2013 och f\u00f6rekomsten av ett senvikingatida danskt parochialsystem.\u201d Aarb\u00f8ger for Nordisk Oldkyndighed og Historie 2000 (2001): 55\u201390. Carnicelli, T. A., ed. King Alfred\u2019s Version of St. Augustine\u2019s Soliloques. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1969. Carroll, Jayne. \u201cConcepts of Power in Anglo-Scandinavian Verse.\u201d In Aspects of Power and Authority, edited by Bolton and Meek, 217\u201333. Carroll, Jayne, ed. \u201cMark\u00fas Skeggjason: Eir\u00edksdr\u00e1pa.\u201d In Poetry from the Kings\u2019 Sagas 2, edited by Gade, 432\u201360. Carroll, Jayne, ed. \u201c\u00de\u00f3r\u00f0r Kolbeinsson: Eir\u00edksdr\u00e1pa.\u201d In Poetry from the Kings\u2019 Sagas 1, edited by Whaley, 486\u2013513. Caruth, Cathy. Unclaimed Experience. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996. Caruth, Cathy. Literature in the Ashes of History. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2013. Carver, Martin, O. H. The Birth of a Borough: An Archaeological Study of Anglo-Saxon Stafford. Woodbridge: Boydell, 2016. Cavill, Paul. Maxims in Old English Poetry. Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 1999. Chambers, R. W. Beowulf: An Introduction to the Study of the Poem. 2nd edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1932. Charles-Edwards, Thomas M. Wales and the Britons 350\u20131064. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2013. Chase, Martin, ed. and trans. Einarr Sk\u00falason\u2019s Geisli: A Critical Edition. Toronto, Buffalo and London: University of Toronto Press, 2005. Chetwood, James. \u201cRe-Evaluating English Personal Naming on the Eve of the Conquest.\u201d Early Medieval Europe 26.4 (2018): 518\u201347. Chibnall, Marjorie, ed. The Ecclesiastical History of Orderic Vitalis: Volume 5: Books IX and X. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1975. Christensen, Eric. The Norsemen in the Viking Age. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2006. Christensen, Charlie, and Morten Fischer Mortensen. \u201cLandskab og milj\u00f8 f\u00f8r og under bos\u00e6ttelsen \u2013 geologi og pollenanalyse.\u201d In Viborg S\u00f8nders\u00f8 1018\u20131030, edited by Iversen, Robinson, Hjermind, and Christensen, 141\u201350. Christensen, Karen Marie Bojsen. \u201cKnogle og tak.\u201d In Viborg S\u00f8nders\u00f8 1000\u20131300, edited by Hjermind, Iversen, and Krongaard Christensen, 123\u201336.","General Bibliography 495 Christensen, T., A.-C. Larsen, S. Larsson, and A. Vince. \u201cEarly Glazed Ware from Medieval Denmark.\u201d Medieval Ceramics: Bulletin of the Medieval Pottery Research Group 18 (1994): 67\u201376. Christophersen, Axel. H\u00e5ndverket i forandring. Acta Archaeologica Lundensia, Ser. In 4o 13. Bonn: Rudolf Habelt Verlag and Lund: CWK Gleerup, 1980. Chronicon Roskildense. See Gertz, M. Cl., ed. Chronicon S. Michaelis Luneburgensis. See Weiland, L., and Georg Heinrich Pertz, ed. 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