Big Ideas Simply Explained - The Classical Music Book

["See also: Ionisation 268\u2013269 \u25a0 Quartet for the End of Time 282\u2013283 \u25a0 CONTEMPORARY 299 4\u00b433\u02dd 302\u2013305 \u25a0 Gruppen 306\u2013307 \u25a0 Pithoprakta 308 \u25a0 Sinfonia 316\u2013317 Pierre Schaeffer I n the aftermath of World Pierre Henry, in concert in Paris in and Pierre Henry War II, composers were among 1952, used four large circular receiver the many creative figures who coils to show how sound transmitted Born in 1910 in Nancy, sensed a need for a new aesthetic. through four loudspeakers could be Schaeffer grew up in a family They sought to create works that shifted around a listening space. of musicians. He, however, would not be tainted\u2014as they felt studied engineering and complex state-sponsored orchestral Symphonie de bruits (\u201cSymphony received a diploma in radio music and opera were\u2014by any of sounds\u201d). Founded in 1942 by broadcasting from the \u00c9cole connections with previous regimes, theatre director Jacques Copeau Polytechnique before joining particularly the Third Reich, its and his pupils as the center of the the French radio and TV allies, and the countries it had Resistance movement in French broadcasting company occupied. Some turned to forms radio, the studio subsequently Radiodiffusion-T\u00e9l\u00e9vision of serialism (in which notes are became the cradle of musique fran\u00e7aise, in 1936. In 1949, repeated in a specific order) concr\u00e8te. In collaboration with Schaeffer met Pierre Henry, developed from the organic Pierre Henry, who joined the a composer and percussionist, structures of Anton Webern, an electronic studio in 1949, Schaeffer born in Paris in 1927, who earlier exponent of serial music developed his original Symphonie had studied at the Paris and one of the composers whose into the Symphonie pour un homme Conservatoire with the work had been denounced as seul (\u201cSymphony for a lone man\u201d), composers Nadia Boulanger \u201cdegenerate\u201d by the Nazi Party. premiered at the \u00c9cole Normale and Olivier Messiaen. de Musique in Paris, in 1950. Henry Together they formed the Others found a new beginning went on to run what was eventually Groupe de Recherche de by recording ordinary, everyday called the Groupe de Recherche de Musique Concr\u00e8te, remaining sounds and putting them together Musique Concr\u00e8te\u2014the body that close collaborators until 1958 into collagelike compositions studied and developed musique when the more prolific Henry that merely needed to be played concr\u00e8te from 1951 to 1958. left to found his own on a disk or a tape, rather than independent studio called interpreted by live musicians in The sounds of a life Applications de Proc\u00e9d\u00e9s a concert hall. This was the origin In its original form, the Symphonie Sonores en Musique of musique concr\u00e8te, an early consisted of 22 movements using Electroacoustique. form of electronic music. turntables and mixers. For a broadcast in 1951, this number Henry continued to write It was at the Studio d\u2019Essai de was reduced to 11, but then \u276f\u276f electronic scores for films la Radiodiffusion Nationale that and ballet, as well as his Pierre Schaeffer began work on the incomplete La Messe de Liverpool, an electronic mass Something new has been commissioned for the opening added, a new art of sound. Am of Liverpool Cathedral in the UK in 1968. Schaeffer I wrong in calling it music? composed little more, although Pierre Schaeffer he continued writing and teaching; his pupils included Jean-Michel Jarre, a pioneer of electronic music. Schaeffer died in Aix-en-Provence in 1995 aged 85. Henry died in Paris in 2017, at the age of 89. Other key collaborations 1950 La course au kilocycle (radio score) 1953 Orph\u00e9e 53 1957 Sahara d\u2019aujourd\u2019hui","300 ELECTRONIC MUSIC AND MUSIQUE CONCR\u00c8TE The soundtracks and effects increased to 12 for Henry\u2019s 1966 and Ero\u00efca, and a further two\u2014 for most programs made by the revision,which has become Collectif and Apostrophe\u2014suggest BBC were mixed in the control room accepted as the official version. verbal exchanges. Strette, the title at Alexandra Palace, London, until The symphony is an explorative of the last and longest movement, the early 1950s. work utilizing recorded sounds like the Italian term stretto, which and new techniques in a relatively is often used to describe fugues or simple and also somewhat crude operatic finales, indicates a faster manner, when compared with speed or richness of texture as what would later be achieved in earlier sounds are reprised. the field of electronic music. In his 1952 work, \u00c0 la recherche The first and seventh of the 12 d\u2019une musique concr\u00e8te (In search movements of Henry\u2019s 1966 revised of a Concrete Music), Schaeffer version are titled Prosopop\u00e9e 1 described the individual nature of and Prosopop\u00e9e 2, from the Greek the work and also listed some of its rhetorical term prosopopeia, in sonic elements. He declared that a which a speaker communicates in man could be his own instrument, the guise of someone else. Other using many more than the 12 notes movements are given musical of the singing voice: \u201cHe cries, he terms, such as Valse and Scherzo, whistles, he walks, he thumps his two are evocatively named Erotica fist, he laughs, he groans. His heart beats, his breathing accelerates, Sounds used in the 12 movements of he utters words, launches calls, Symphonie pour un homme seul and other calls reply.\u201d 1. Prosopop\u00e9e I Knocking, shouts, humming, whistling, and wordless The choreographer Maurice 2. Partita singing. B\u00e9jart, who sensed the further 3. Valse Mostly someone playing a prepared piano. expressive potential of the 4. Erotica Made up of the distorted sounds of an orchestra playing Symphonie, used it as a score for fragments of a waltz with various voices over the top. the dance piece that was also A woman\u2019s voice laughing and purring with pleasure. called Symphonie pour un homme seul, which he created in 1955. It 5. Scherzo Conversational speaking voices played at various speeds was B\u00e9jart\u2019s first success and has 6. Collectif and alternating with detached sounds from the piano. been revived several times. 7. Prosopop\u00e9e II Relaxed voices over soft, sustained piano chords. 8. Ero\u00efca The sound of footsteps alternates with various pitches A musical legacy 9. Apostrophe from the piano. Although Schaeffer was appointed 10. Intermezzo Busy clattering sounds with a voice played backward. professor of electronic composition 11. Cadence Male and female voices repeat lyrical phrases against short at the Paris Conservatoire in 1968, 12. Strette rhythmic ideas on the piano. he composed few works after Sounds like fragments of a collective prayer against a tense, 1962. He continued, however, to percussive accompaniment. pursue a vast range of artistic Sounds of knocking on wood and metal. interests and concepts, especially A loud, eruptive opening, then a summary of what has gone creative writing, theoretical studies before, with percussive sounds, crowd noises, and sirens. in musique concr\u00e8te and other electronic techniques, and the organization and running of groups dedicated to the new genres. Henry went on to explore the medium he had helped to invent in collaboration with B\u00e9jart, the choreographer Alwin Nikolais, his fellow composer Michel Colombier,","CONTEMPORARY 301 and the British rock band Spooky An opera for blind people, the BBC launched its Radiophonic Tooth. His work also influenced a performance without Workshop, which began to develop composers of multiple electronic argument, a poem made atmospheric music for radio and music styles, including the British of noises, bursts of text, television, such as the Dr Who musician and producer William spoken or musical. theme (1963), written by the Orbit, Mat Ducasse of the UK-based Pierre Schaeffer Australian composer Ron Grainer band Skylab, and the UK music and realized by Delia Derbyshire. producer and DJ Fatboy Slim. Describing the Symphonie in Important works by Var\u00e8se (his La musique concr\u00e8te (1973) Po\u00e8me electronique) and the Greek Other composers who worked Iannis Xenakis were created in briefly at the Groupe de Recherche to combine real sounds with European studios at this time. de Musique Concr\u00e8te included electronics in his masterly Gesang Karlheinz Stockhausen, Pierre der J\u00fcnglinge (1955\u20131956). In 1977, the Institut de Recherche Boulez, and the veteran Edgard et Coordination Acoustique\/ Var\u00e8se, who recognized the advent New experimental spaces Musique (IRCAM) opened in Paris. of a medium that he had longed Studios similar to those in Cologne Boulez was its head, and such for all his life. However, the main began to open across the world in figures as Berio and the French- contributions to the genre born New York, Tokyo, Munich, and in Slovenian composer and trombonist in Paris were made elsewhere. Milan, where the Italian composers Vinko Globokar were among its Luciano Berio and Bruno Maderna staff. Since then, many composers In 1952, the German theorist founded Europe\u2019s third electronic have experimented and realized and composer Herbert Eimert music facility. In London in 1958, compositions at IRCAM, using inaugurated a department for electronics and latterly computers. electronic music at the radio The organization has remained studios in Cologne. Stockhausen influential in making such joined him there and their focus techniques part of classical moved from sounds recorded in composition today. Major figures diverse contexts (as in musique to develop work there include concr\u00e8te) to sounds that were Jonathan Harvey, Harrison electronically produced. Between Birtwistle, George Benjamin, Kaija 1953 and 1954, Stockhausen Saariaho, Unsuk Chin, G\u00e9rard wrote two influential studies in Grisey, and Tristan Murail. \u25a0 pure electronics before going on The biblical tale of Hebrew youths Gesang der J\u00fcnglinge and Henry. It also reflects the surviving in a furnace, depicted here strong spiritual basis that on a Bible study card (c.1900), was a Karlheinz Stockhausen\u2019s Gesang Stockhausen\u2019s work almost potent inspiration for Stockhausen. der J\u00fcnglinge (\u201cSong of the always possessed. Using Youths\u201d) was created in the electronically generated studios of West German Radio tones and pulses, filtered white between 1955 and 1956. Its text noise, and the voice of 12-year- comes from the biblical Book of old choirboy Josef Protschka, Daniel where Nebuchadnezzar Stockhausen created a fiery had the Hebrew youths Shadrach, whirlwind of rich and complex Meshach, and Abednego cast into textures, operating at different a fiery furnace for refusing to speeds and dynamic levels, and worship his image. Remaining utilizing the space around the miraculously unharmed, they sang audience via four-channel God\u2019s praise from the flames. (originally five-channel) sound. The result is a virtuoso creation Some regard the work as the that maintains a consistent first masterpiece created using momentum due to its perfectly the sound techniques developed planned overall structure. from the experiments of Schaeffer","302 IN CONTEXT IFFNWTRRCHEHIIWAEGGYNOHHI\u2019PTLDTTEDEEEUONNANOPSEEDLNDD;EEEIR\u2019OOSAMSFFRTEAND FOCUS Indeterminacy, aleatory 4'33\\\" (1952), JOHN CAGE music, and silence BEFORE 1787 Mozart is thought to write \u201cInstructions for the composition of as many waltzes as one desires with two dice, without understanding anything about music or composition.\u201d 1915 Marcel Duchamp composes Erratum musicale for three voices, written by drawing cards out of a hat. AFTER 1967 Cornelius Cardew completes Treatise, a large graphic score with no musical parameters. 1983 Morton Feldman completes String Quartet No. 2, his longest work exploring the slow unfolding of music. F or centuries, \u201cindeterminacy\u201d has been a compositional feature of classical music\u2014 from Baroque works with a figured bass that trusts the keyboard player to fill in the harmony in a manner not stipulated by the composer, to the \u201cmusical dice games\u201d that were popular in the 18th century, in which players threw dice to decide on the order of a series of musical ideas given by a composer. A version of the game attributed to Mozart, for example, has the possibility of creating as many as 45,949,729,863,572,161 waltzes. In the 20th century, avant-garde composers pushed the concept further, and the term \u201caleatory","CONTEMPORARY 303 See also: Pierrot lunaire 240\u2013245 \u25a0 Parade 256\u2013257 \u25a0 Gruppen 306\u2013307 \u25a0 In C 312\u2013313 \u25a0 Six Pianos 320 \u25a0 Einstein on the Beach 321 Cage\u2019s experiments in sound led to his invention of the \u201cprepared piano,\u201d in which the piano has its sound altered by the placement of objects on or between the strings. view, espoused by Stravinsky, John Cage that even interpretation was unnecessary. The performer\u2019s Born in Los Angeles in 1912, only concern, it claimed, was John Cage studied music to reproduce the score without under Arnold Schoenberg and interference. This attitude reached Henry Cowell and used serial its apogee with the advent of techniques in his early works. integral, or total, serialism, in By 1939, he had started to which virtually all the musical experiment with the prepared parameters were controlled by piano, tape recorders, and the compositional system. other technology. His concert at the New York Museum of music\u201d was coined to describe Cage the anarchist Modern Art in 1943 brought compositions in which chance For the American composer John him to the attention of a wider plays a significant role. Early on, Cage, this imbalance of power musical community. Dadaists\u2014an avant-garde art toward the composer created movement\u2014saw that chance could a musical hierarchy in opposition In the years that followed, form a part of a new aesthetic. to his socialist and anarchist Cage explored Buddhism and French-American artist Marcel beliefs. The only way this hierarchy other eastern philosophies and Duchamp composed two aleatory could be undermined, he thought, became fixated on the nature works between 1913 and 1915, was if either the composer were of music and its absence. His while Frenchmen Francis Picabia less or the performer more a part compositions brought fame and Georges Ribemont-Dessaignes of the compositional process. \u276f\u276f and infamy. Although he never wrote works for performance at the fully abandoned notated Festival Dada in Paris, in 1920. If you develop an ear for scores, his experimentalism sounds that are musical, it is led to him becoming an icon The composer\u2019s role like developing an ego. You of the Fluxus movement, Although aleatory music originated begin to refuse sounds that espousing \u201cfound\u201d sound and in pure experimentalism, it was are not musical and that way materials. Plagued by poor considered a serious concept by cut yourself off from a good health, Cage suffered a fatal the mid-20th century, a reaction to stroke in 1992 at the age of 80. what had gone before. Ever since deal of experience. composers had moved from figured John Cage Other key works bass to full notation, performers had gradually lost a sense of being 1946\u20131948 Sonatas and actively creative musicians, and as Interludes improvised ornamentation fell by 1958 Concert for Piano and the wayside, and scores became Orchestra more detailed, there had been a 1974\u20131975 \u00c9tudes Australes 1987 Europeras I and II","304 INDETERMINACY, ALEATORY MUSIC, AND SILENCE This concept is particularly evident examines the human perception The first question I in Cage\u2019s Imaginary Landscape and experience of the space ask myself when something No.4 for 12 radios (1951), in which between things as a focus in its doesn\u2019t seem to be beautiful the \u201cperformers\u201d manipulate short- own right. Cage became fascinated wave radios and so require no by the idea of silence and went to is why do I think it\u2019s proficiency in an instrument. Harvard University to experience not beautiful. And very Cage remains the composer, as its anechoic chamber, in which the various frequencies that the all sound is absorbed. Cage was shortly you discover operators must find are detailed in shocked to find that even there, he that there is no reason. the score, but the sounds received could still hear two sounds\u2014one by the radios depend on when and high, one low\u2014which turned out John Cage where the concert takes place to be the sounds of his own body. and are therefore unpredictable. (which includes instructions for the The result is white noise interrupted In 4\u00b433\u02dd, Cage sought to portray performers), and in saying that the by snatches of speech and music. his realization that even in musical piece \u201cmay be performed by any silences, there was no true silence. instrumentalist,\u201d Cage is still allied Musical silence While audiences new to 4\u00b433\u02dd to the Classical tradition. Cage\u2019s seminal work, 4\u00b433\u02dd, in tend to think the work is absurd, which the performers sit in silence the experience of hearing the Defining music for the duration (four minutes ambient noises of the concert hall The first performance of 4\u00b433\u02dd in and 33 seconds), was inspired against which music is usually 1952 opened the doors to further by the idea of silence as a part of played is an enlightening one. speculation and experimentalism music. Musicians had long used Curiously, the duration of the work, into what actually constitutes silence in music\u2014Beethoven is roughly the length of the 78 rpm music. An extreme example was reputed to have said that the music record, was a direct challenge written by one of Cage\u2019s students, was in the silences\u2014but for Cage to the commodification of music, La Monte Young, whose 1960 Piano this was an engagement with the particularly pop music, which Piece for David Tudor #1 (the Japanese idea of Ma, which was a neatly packaged predictable American pianist and composer product. In publishing the score David Tudor had also premiered 4\u00b433\u02dd) gives only the following instructions: \u201cBring a bale of hay and a bucket of water onto the stage for the piano to eat and drink. The performer may then feed the piano or leave it to eat by itself. If the former, the piece is over after the piano has been fed. If the latter, it is over after the piano eats or An anechoic chamber in Bell Laboratories, New Jersey, in the 1950s, is lined with wedge-shaped pieces of fibre-glass, which was commonly used in such chambers to absorb echoes.","One of John Cage\u2019s aleatory methods CONTEMPORARY 305 Cage tossed I Ching Random numbers Music of Changes coins to arrive were also derived at numbers that from the Chinese In 1951, Cage was given a copy are then fed tradition of sorting of the I Ching by the American into the I Ching, and counting yarrow composer Christian Wolff. Also an ancient sticks and then used known as the Book of Changes, Chinese system to consult the I Ching. this ancient Chinese text used of divination. for divination inspired the title of Cage\u2019s Music of Changes Cage created a series of charts and came to inform much of to translate the results of his findings its content. Enthralled by the into sounds (including silence), concept of chance music, Cage duration, and volume. wrote the piece by making charts that, when used in decides not to.\u201d Equally challenging notation was the graphic score. conjunction with the I Ching, to musical orthodoxy were some This generally presented very few generated pitches, note of American composer Morton parameters for the performers durations, dynamics, tempi, Feldman\u2019s works, which sought and instead proffered a visual silences, and even determined to redefine the act of listening by provocation against which they how many layers of sound unfolding music very slowly on a could create music. Some of these would be used. The resulting very large scale. Some listeners were a set of visual instructions rhythms were too complex used to classical works, which defining the broad shape of the to notate. Cage therefore average 25 to 30 minutes, were music, such as Cage\u2019s Aria (1958), used proportional notation, in dismayed by his Second String but others presented complex and which the distance between Quartet (1983), which lasts some subtle imagery that bore little notes on the page determined five hours in performance and relation to a performable sound. how long they were. In defies conventional development. addition to this, some parts In music on such a scale, which The preeminent example of of the composition were to be is seldom loud and never fast, and a graphic musical score was played on the piano strings where changes are subtle, each British composer Cornelius directly, and the pianist used sound takes on its own meaning. Cardew\u2019s Treatise (1963\u20131967), a beaters to create percussive 193-page graphic score that allows sounds on the piano\u2019s exterior. Graphic scores total interpretative freedom but The result was a piece for solo Composers also sought to create expects the performers to decide piano in four books, which notation that might empower rather on the meaning of certain features posed demanding challenges than enslave the performer. In in the score beforehand. Indeed, for David Tudor, Cage\u2019s his notation for Projections and as traditions of performance began customary pianist. Intersections (1950\u20131953), Feldman to coalesce, graphic scores were allowed the players to choose seldom used as inspirations for Every something pitches and rhythms themselves. improvisation but as a way for is an echo The most important new form of performer and composer to have of nothing. equal responsibility for the work. \u25a0 John Cage","306 HTVIIEMEHWEAASONFCDMHFAUONSRGIMCEADLOUR GRUPPEN (1955\u20131957), KARLHEINZ STOCKHAUSEN IN CONTEXT I n 1955, Westdeutscher both for the way it developed Rundfunk (WDR, the Studio for compositional technique and for FOCUS Electronic Music of the West its huge orchestral soundscape. Total serialism German Radio) commissioned a new work from the German Structure and space BEFORE composer Karlheinz Stockhausen. The key compositional technique 1948 In Paris, Pierre Schaeffer That August, he rented a room in of Gruppen lies in its structure. gives concerts of musique Paspels, eastern Switzerland, and In the 1920s, composers such as concr\u00e8te, featuring prerecorded planned a large and ambitious new Arnold Schoenberg had devised sounds electronically altered piece. Although he initially aimed a way of writing music based and manipulated. to write an electronic piece, he on set rows of 12 pitches. Later abandoned this idea in favor of composers, such as Pierre Boulez 1950\u20131951 Nummer 1 for two conventional instrumentation, and Stockhausen, took this pianos and Nummer 2 for 13 eventually conceiving a large-scale technique further, using series or instruments by Karel work for three orchestras playing groups of notes that determined not Goeyvaerts pioneer the simultaneously. Titled Gruppen only pitch but also musical elements technique of \u201ctotal serialism.\u201d (\u201cGroups\u201d), it became well known, such as the notes\u2019 volume and duration\u2014a method often known AFTER Repetition is based on as total serialism. The title of 1970 Mantra, for two pianos body rhythms, so we Gruppen refers to this technique, and electronics, begins identify with the heartbeat, as the work is based on 174 Stockhausen\u2019s preoccupation or with walking, or formulae (short groups of notes). with melodic-line formulae. Yet this was not the only influence with breathing. on its structure: the contours of the 1980 Stockhausen finishes Karlheinz Stockhausen mountains that Stockhausen saw Donnerstag (\u201cThursday\u201d), from his window in Switzerland the first of his Licht cycle inspired his organizational of operas. The operas are diagrams for the piece. composed using the serial technique of \u201csuperformulae.\u201d Stockhausen scored the work for three orchestras, each with its own conductor and playing at a different tempo, thereby transforming the usual conception of musical time. The orchestras are arranged in a","CONTEMPORARY 307 See also: Pierrot lunaire 240\u2013245 \u25a0 Webern\u2019s Symphonie, Op. 21 264\u2013265 \u25a0 Quartet for the End of Time 282\u2013283 \u25a0 Symphonie pour un homme seul 298\u2013301 The BBC Symphony Orchestra performs Gruppen for three orchestras on a designated \u201cStockhausen Day\u201d at the BBC Proms in 2008, with Martyn Brabbins, David Robertson, and Pascal Roph\u00e9 conducting. horseshoe shape, with one in front of the audience, one to its left, and one to its right. A huge variety of sounds comes from these three locations\u2014delicate high woodwind, passages of plucked strings, and powerful assaults from the brass. The three-orchestra format also allows the composer to use musical space dramatically, with the focus of the audience\u2019s interest passing from one orchestra to another. Material played by one ensemble can be picked up by another or tossed around between all three. Deviations from form to produce musical climaxes\u2014one prominent brass chords and a piano The most dramatic moments in highlighting violin solos by the cadenza. Despite these deviations, Gruppen occur when Stockhausen three orchestral leaders, another Stockhausen became known for his disregards the rigorous rules of involving percussive or plucked formulaic composition\u2014as well as total serialism. Three passages in sounds that bounce from one his experiments with spatialization, particular abandon serial control of orchestra to another, and a third, which culminated in his Helicopter tempo and range of notes in order near the end of the work, featuring String Quartet (1992\u20131995). \u25a0 Karlheinz Stockhausen Whenever I felt happy Stockhausen studio of WDR. This led to about having discovered was born in wide-ranging works, from something, the first encounter the Cologne Gruppen to electronic works \u2026 with other musicians, region of such as Kontakte (1958\u20131960). with specialists, etc, was Germany in His last great work before his 1928 and death in 2007 was Licht, a that they rejected it. studied at Cologne University cycle of seven operas. Karlheinz Stockhausen of Music. He later took lessons in Paris with Olivier Messiaen, Other key works whose serial compositional technique impressed him, 1955\u20131956 Gesang der J\u00fcnglinge and with Pierre Schaeffer, from (\u201cSong of the Youths\u201d) whom he learned about musique 1958\u20131960 Kontakte (\u201cContacts\u201d) concr\u00e8te. In 1953, he began 1968 Stimmung (\u201cVoice\u201d) working at the electronic music 1977\u20132003 Licht (\u201cLight\u201d)","308 EPMTEXHURPESLPIROECOTRIALUANEATLIO\u2026OFNTISHE PITHOPRAKTA (1955\u20131956), IANNIS XENAKIS IN CONTEXT I t was Olivier Messiaen who The role of the suggested that Iannis Xenakis musician must be this FOCUS should apply mathematical and fundamental research: to Music and mathematics engineering principles to musical find answers to phenomena composition. Xenakis, who had we don\u2019t understand. BEFORE studied engineering, was working 1742\u20131750 J.S. Bach writes in Paris for the avant-garde designer Iannis Xenakis the Art of Fugue comprising and architect Le Corbusier after 14 fugues and four canons. fleeing the anti-communist regime slides through different pitches) for in postwar Greece. each instrument. Punctuated by 1912 Arnold Schoenberg the wood block, trombones, and writes the hyperstructured Scientific basis xylophone, the effect is of a Pierrot lunaire. Pithoprakta, an early work whose seething, gaslike \u201csound mass.\u201d title comes from the Greek for 1933 Ionisation by Edgard \u201cactions through probabilities,\u201d Outlined in his book Musiques Var\u00e8se is premiered in New is typical of Xenakis\u2019s technique, formelles (Formalized Music, 1963), York. Xenakis greatly admired which he called \u201cstochastic,\u201d a Xenakis\u2019s style has had a lasting Var\u00e8se\u2019s originality. term relating to probability. Scored impact. Among others who cite his for 46 stringed instruments, two influence, Richard Barrett, a Welsh 1936 B\u00e9la Bart\u00f3k composes trombones, a xylophone, and a composer who studied genetics, Music for Strings, Percussion, wood block, the work was inspired says the book helped him decide and Celesta, incorporating by the scientific theory that a gas\u2019s to become a composer. \u25a0 symmetrical design. temperature derives from the movement of its molecules through 1950\u20131952 Pierre Boulez space. Compiling a sequence extends the scope of of imaginary temperatures and Schoenberg\u2019s 12-tone method pressures, Xenakis translated the by creating serial music. theory to stringed instruments moving through their pitch ranges, AFTER using a series of glissandi (rapid 1960 Krzysztof Penderecki creates blocks of sound in See also: Pierrot lunaire 240\u2013245 \u25a0 Quartet for the End of Time 282\u2013283 \u25a0 Threnody for the Victims Gruppen 306\u2013307 \u25a0 Threnody for the Victims of Hiroshima 310\u2013311 of Hiroshima.","CONTEMPORARY 309 NCWALALITLOTUSHMRETYACHLWOESMOPORMEIKOLUPNNLIOEOUNIRSISTHHIENG SAPRAARMTAKCHUASCH(1A9T5U6R,IrAeNv. 1968), IN CONTEXT T he ballet Spartacus, known with ordinary people and their best in its revised 1968 music, were key inspirations in FOCUS version, is a spectacle on a his music. The hauntingly exultant Ballet in Soviet Russia grand scale. Unlike most ballets, its \u201cAdagio of Spartacus and Phrygia,\u201d theme is not romantic but heroic\u2014 from Spartacus, and the \u201cSabre BEFORE a slave rebellion led by Spartacus Dance\u201d from the ballet Gayane, 1921 Mikhail Gnessin, who against his Roman masters. have been widely used in television later taught Khachaturian, and film. The full 1968 version of writes the opera Abraham\u2019s The ballet won Khachaturian Spartacus remains a staple of Youth, one of several works a Lenin Prize in the year of its Russian ballet repertoire. \u25a0 on Jewish themes. composition. The Soviet regime felt it symbolized the Russian 1927 Backed by the Kremlin, people\u2019s victory against tsarist The Red Poppy, a ballet with oppressors. Others, however, music by Reinhold Gli\u00e8re, now see it as referencing Soviet premieres at the Bolshoi repression. In 1948, together Theatre in Moscow. with Prokofiev and Shostakovich, Khachaturian had been denounced 1940 Prokofiev\u2019s Romeo and for bourgeois \u201cantidemocratic\u201d Juliet is widely regarded as the music, but he had regained official greatest ballet written during favor, especially after Stalin\u2019s the Soviet period. death in 1953. AFTER Childhood influences Aram Khachaturian, photographed 1976 Armenian composer Khachaturian had grown up in in later years at the height of his Edgar Hovhannisyan bases Georgia, steeped in the folk music fame, won worldwide acclaim for his opera-ballet Sasuntsi Davit of Armenia and the Caucasian his highly popular ballets, Spartacus on a ninth-century Armenian region. The melodies and harmonic and Gayane. epic poem. inflections of the composer\u2019s childhood, along with his commitment to \u201cclose communion\u201d See also: The Nutcracker 190\u2013191 \u25a0 Romeo and Juliet 272 \u25a0 Shostakovich\u2019s Fifth Symphony 274\u2013279","310 IEOMWFOTATHSIEOSNWTAROLURCCKKHABRYGTEHE THRENODY FOR THE VICTIMS OF HIROSHIMA (1960), KRZYSZTOF PENDERECKI IN CONTEXT F or many contemporary It is scored for a string orchestra of listeners, Polish composer 52 players, each one with their own FOCUS Krzysztof Penderecki\u2019s 1960 individual line and with the string Music behind the piece Threnody for the Victims of sections also divided into groups. Iron Curtain Hiroshima signaled an innovative The 24 violins, for example, are new phase of music in communist split into four groups of six each, to BEFORE eastern Europe. Until then, much experiment with locations of sound. 1946 Stalin-appointed Andrei of the region\u2019s music had adhered Zhdanov imposes a policy of to a traditional, socialist-realist The cenotaph in Hiroshima\u2019s Peace \u201csocialist realism,\u201d championing style. In Penderecki\u2019s Threnody, Park, Japan, commemorates those who conventional music in eastern however, audiences were exposed lost their lives in the atomic bombing Europe and shunning avant- to an unprecedented soundscape of Hiroshima, from which Threnody garde compositions. of strings, wails, and whispers. takes its title. 1958 Russian composers such as Edison Denisov and Sofia Gubaidulina begin to emulate western experimental music and are dubbed dissidents by the authorities. AFTER 1961 Hungarian-born, Austrian-resident Gy\u00f6rgy Ligeti composes Atmosph\u00e8res for orchestra, with its sliding and combining note clusters. 1970 Witold Lutos\u0142awski\u2019s Cello Concerto is premiered, bringing him international success in the wake of social unrest in his native Poland.","CONTEMPORARY 311 See also: Shostakovich\u2019s Fifth Symphony 274\u2013279 \u25a0 Spartacus 309 \u25a0 Lutos\u0142awski\u2019s Fourth Symphony 323 \u25a0 Ligeti\u2019s \u00c9tudes pour piano 324 A profoundly disturbing music and planned to call it 8'37\\\", Krzysztof Penderecki piece of apparently hopeless in reference to its length. However, even though the work had not been Born in De\u02db bica, Poland, in cataclysmic atmosphere inspired by the detonation of the 1933, Krzysztof Penderecki in a highly individual atomic bomb, he retitled the work was educated at the Krakow Threnody for the Victims of Academy of Music. Within technique of composition. Hiroshima to increase the piece\u2019s two years of graduating in Karl H. W\u00f6rner emotional impact before entering it 1958, he became well known for a UNESCO prize in composition. for Threnody for the Victims Author of Hiroshima. Many of his Penderecki also devised a subsequent pieces also As the piece begins, these four unique, graphic way of notating employed unconventional groups all play a note cluster near his music. Instead of bar lines, the instrumentation, such as the top of their registers. From composer gave timings in seconds the typewriter and musical there, and throughout the piece, at regular points in the score to saw. Still more popular the group members play at different denote tempo. Blocks of quarter was Penderecki\u2019s St. Luke pitches just a quarter step apart steps are shown on the score Passion (1966), which from each other in clusters of notes, as horizontal bands. Penderecki combined unusual textures causing a sense of unease that also created additional symbols, with a traditional form and permeates the piece. such as a note stem that instructs Christian theme. the player to bend the pitch up Playing with technique or down a quarter step and In the 1970s, Penderecki The Threnody is not structured wavering lines indicating a pitch- became a professor at the Yale conventionally but around blocks bending vibrato. Threnody made School of Music. His output of sound\u2014some of them based on Penderecki\u2019s name and influenced returned to a more conventional the opening note cluster, others other eastern European composers, musical style in pieces such on thinner textures, instrumental such as Henryk G\u00f3recki and as his Symphony No. 2 (1980). lines, or other material. Much of Kazimierz Serocki, in Poland, and With a catalogue of works the piece sounds striking because the Hungarian Gy\u00f6rgy Ligeti, to in various forms, Penderecki, of Penderecki\u2019s instructions that explore new sounds and textures who is still composing music, players produce unusual timbres and ways of writing music based is widely regarded as Poland\u2019s by means of irregular techniques. on blocks of sound. \u25a0 greatest living composer. These include bowing the strings on the bridge of the instrument, This was not really political Other key works along the fingerboard, or between music \u2026 but it was music the bridge and the tailpiece, or that was totally appropriate 1960 Anaklasis, for 42 strings hitting the body of the instrument to the time during which and Percussion with the bow, or their fingers. 1970\u20131971 Utrenja The result is a composition quite we were living. 1984 Polish Requiem unlike any of its time. Penderecki Krzysztof Penderecki 1988\u20131995 Symphony No. 3 conceived of the work as abstract","312 IDOSONMICN,EGWYIHOSAUDTBEYEAOCDUO\u2019RMEE AN IN C (1964), TERRY RILEY IN CONTEXT I n 1950s\u2019 America, a generation a new set of materials, including of artists, such as Donald sound \u201csamples\u201d recorded on FOCUS Judd, Richard Serra, and magnetic tape and played Minimalism Frank Stella, championed a new on a repeated \u201cloop.\u201d kind of minimalist art. Inspired BEFORE partly by Piet Mondrian and Breaking new ground 1893 Erik Satie composes other artists of the Dutch De Stijl In C was the work in which Terry \u201cVexations,\u201d a piano piece that movement founded in 1917, it Riley defined the musical style that is widely recognized as being relied on plain, often industrial, became known as minimalism. It a forerunner of minimalism. materials and was free of any features a steady pulse, gradual explicit meaning or influence. In transformation, and the repetition 1958 La Monte Young writes music, too, American composers, of short phrases or musical cells, his Trio for Strings, considered including La Monte Young, Steve focusing the attention, not on a to be the original work of Reich, and Terry Riley, looked to goal toward which the music is musical minimalism. strip notation, instrumentation, progressing, but on a continuous and rhythm to their barest process of change. 1960\u20131962 In Mescalin Mix, essentials. To this they added Riley develops the technique Riley did not begin with the of repetitions using tape delay. In C is revolutionary. aim of writing a \u201cminimalist\u201d piece. It introduces repetition In C emerged partly from his AFTER experimentation with tape loops, 1967\u20131968 Philip Glass writes as a primary particularly when he collaborated a succession of minimalist constructive force into with trumpeter Chet Baker on the pieces, including Gradus (for music for a theatre production, solo saxophone) and 1 + 1 Western music. called The Gift, in Paris in 1963. He (for amplified tabletop). Robert Davidson recorded Baker and his musicians then made loops from the tapes and 1971 The Who\u2019s song \u201cBaba Composer and student of Riley played them back simultaneously O\u2019Riley,\u201d dedicated to Terry but starting at different times so Riley, opens with a keyboard they repeated out of sync. riff inspired by trademark minimalist repetition. In C uses a similar technique but with live players rather than tapes. The piece consists of 53 musical phases of varying length (none longer than 32 beats) that","CONTEMPORARY 313 See also: 4\u00b433\u02dd 302\u2013305 \u25a0 Six Pianos 320 \u25a0 Einstein on the Beach 321 Seated at his keyboard, Terry Riley accompanies the Lahore-born musician Pandit Pran Nath\u2014one of his earliest mentors\u2014in a concert at Le Palace Theatre, Paris, in 1972. can be played by any number of experiments from the late 1950s Riley has rejected the \u201cminimalist\u201d instruments and ensembles of any and displays major differences label\u2014and resisted being limited size, although Riley prefers a group from many other works in the by any kind of \u201cism.\u201d In spite of of between 25 and 30 musicians. genre. In most minimalist pieces, this, his work has been hugely The performers play the phrases the composer typically controls the influential on composers such as in a set order but can repeat each material much more tightly than Michael Nyman and Gavin Bryars phrase as many times as they like, Riley, who leaves crucial decisions, in Britain, Americans Steve Reich creating a piece that can vary in such as the instrumentation and and Philip Glass, and the Estonian length from 20 minutes to several the number of repetitions, to the Arvo P\u00e4rt, who have all embraced hours. The musicians also start the performers. This is known as elements of minimalism in their phrases at different times, so they \u201caleatory,\u201d or chance-driven, work. Riley\u2019s hypnotic musical are not always synchronized. music (from the Latin alea, approach also influenced the rise meaning \u201cgame of dice\u201d). of \u201cambient\u201d music in the 1970s. \u25a0 The work is anchored by a rhythmic pulse provided by one musician who repeats the C note throughout\u2014acting as a kind of metronome. This is usually played on the piano or a percussion instrument, such as a marimba. A lasting presence Although In C has been called the first truly minimalist work, it followed a number of earlier Terry Riley Born in California in 1935, Terry continued to combine with his Riley met La Monte Young, with interest in avant-garde Western whom he was to forge a new and music and jazz. In the same radical approach to music, while decade, Riley began a long- studying composition at the lasting collaboration with the University of California. In the Kronos Quartet, producing 1960s, as well as pioneering the many works, including Sun use of tape loops, Riley embraced Rings, which features sounds electronic overdubbing, especially gathered from space. on the album A Rainbow in Curved Air (1969), on which he Other key works played all the instrumental parts himself\u2014a major influence on 1969 A Rainbow in Curved Air Mike Oldfield\u2019s similarly virtuosic 1971\u20131972 Persian Surgery album Tubular Bells (1973). In Dervishes the 1970s, Riley studied Indian 1989 Salome Dances for Peace classical music, which he has 2002 Sun Rings","314 IISNDITNEEGSNLISREEEPATASIONSCFIUALRLEVNTEOC\u2026NEEITAASSELF NOVEMBER STEPS (1967), TORU TAKEMITSU IN CONTEXT T akemitsu composed In November Steps, Takemitsu November Steps in his employs traditional Japanese FOCUS secluded private cottage instruments\u2014the shakuhachi East meets West on Mount Asama in central (an end-blown flute) and biwa (a Honshu, Japan\u2019s main island. The short-necked lute). His aim in this BEFORE only materials he had with him piece was not to blend their sounds 1903 Inspired by East Asia, were Debussy\u2019s original manuscript into the Western orchestra but to and the European trend of piano scores of Pr\u00e9lude \u00e0 l\u2019apr\u00e8s- contrast their timbre with those of exoticism, Claude Debussy midi d\u2019un faune and Jeux, with a Western ensemble. He succeeded mimicked Chinese and their multicolored notation and in reviving the essential nature of Japanese melodies in Pagodes, handwritten commentaries. the Japanese instruments, creating the first movement of his a striking intensity against the Estampes (Engravings). orchestra\u2019s sound stream, couched in a unique tone language. AFTER 1991 In his Quotation of A cosmic world of music Dream, subtitled \u201cSay Sea, Takemitsu was first exposed Take Me,\u201d from a poem by to Western Classical music, Emily Dickinson, Takemitsu represented by such figures as quotes Debussy\u2019s La Mer. Debussy, Alban Berg, and Olivier Messiaen, during military service 1998 Chinese American in World War II. He would later composer Tan Dun dedicates create his own cosmic world his Water Concerto for Water of music that infused these Percussion and Orchestra to influences with Eastern and the memory of Takemitsu. Japanese sensitivity. Inspired by Debussy\u2019s rare intuition, Takemitsu came to recognize the \u201clight and The traditional biwa, used in November Steps, is played here in 2007 in New York by Junko Tahara to music by Joji Yuasa, an early member of Takemitsu\u2019s experimental workshop.","CONTEMPORARY 315 See also: Das Lied von der Erde 198\u2013201 \u25a0 Pr\u00e9lude \u00e0 l\u2019apr\u00e8s-midi d\u2019un faune 228\u2013231 \u25a0 Quartet for the End of Time 282\u2013283 \u25a0 4\u00b433\u02dd 302\u2013305 I am a gardener of time. \u201cone tone of the shakuhachi can Toru Takemitsu I want to create a garden become Hotoke [God].\u201d That is, a connecting to infinite time. single tone can embody cosmic Born in Tokyo, Japan, in 1930, nature. In the West, by contrast, Takemitsu briefly studied Toru Takemitsu tones are joined together into composition with Yasuji Kiyose melodies, rhythms, and harmonies. in 1948 but was essentially shade of sound\u201d and what he called Takemitsu never used conventional self-taught. In 1951, he a \u201cdensity of tones.\u201d From Messiaen, Western musical forms. Most of organized the experimental Takemitsu learned \u201cthe conception his works are short, reflecting workshop \u201cJikken Kobo\u201d with of the form and color of time,\u201d as characteristics of Japanese the poet Shuzo Takiguchi and he put it, and in fact wrote his literature, such as Haiku poetry. others pursuing avant-garde piano piece Rain Tree Sketch II methods. Takemitsu\u2019s (1992) in memory of the composer. Colorful sonorities are one Requiem for Strings (1957), hallmark of Takemitsu\u2019s music. As written after the death of Unlike Messiaen, Takemitsu did the Western orchestra possesses composer Fumio Hayasaka not belong to a particular religion perhaps the greatest capacity to whom he adored, was praised but considered himself a religious create different tone colors, it is by Stravinsky. A decade later, person. The act of composing was no coincidence that he wrote a the success of November Steps for him a prayer: he likened it to large number of orchestral works. established his international \u201ctaking out a part of an eternal Takemitsu also devised unique reputation as the leading \u2018river of sound\u2019 running through compositional techniques, later Japanese composer. From the the world surrounding us.\u201d Like adopted by younger Japanese 1970s, he used fewer Japanese his close friend John Cage, who composers. In the piano piece instruments in his works, was fascinated with fungi, and Les yeux clos (\u201cEyes closed,\u201d 1979), preferring conventional Messiaen, a passionate bird lover, he created layers of simultaneous Western instruments and Takemitsu related deeply to the melodies with slightly different note more tonal sonorities, as natural world. As the titles of many values so that each note makes a in pieces such as A String of his works indicate, he felt his tiny anticipation, or delay, erasing around Autumn (1989). He music was intimately linked to the sense of beats and creating a composed a large number of both nature and the universe. fluidlike texture. Takemitsu\u2019s works with Western idioms music is wholly original\u2014a unique and wrote music for more than Silence and sound juxtaposition of Japanese and 90 Japanese films. Takemitsu Takemitsu had a profound interest Western musical traditions. \u25a0 died in Tokyo in 1996. in the relationship between silence and sound. The Eastern concept of A Western tone walks Other key works \u201cMa,\u201d an intense silence between horizontally but a tone sounds, was for him contrary to the of the shakuhachi rises 1957 Requiem for Strings Western idea of a musical \u201crest\u201d\u2014 vertically like a tree. 1979 In an Autumn Garden literally, a resting silence. In the 1994 Archipelago S. East, too, according to Takemitsu, Toru Takemitsu","316 IDWTANHNOOMEDNRM\u2019UTTSSSREGEIA:CELTNTV\u2026HSEBEFSEYOTTREHTMVIENORGLVSOER SINFONIA (1968\u20131969), LUCIANO BERIO IN CONTEXT T he 1960s\u2014a decade of The Swingle Singers perform in profound social change\u2014 1965, typically with only drums and FOCUS reached its height in 1968, double bass as accompaniment. The Quotation and collage the year in which Luciano Berio\u2019s French group made jazzy covers of Sinfonia had its first performance. both popular and classical pieces. BEFORE These changes\u2014the Civil Rights 1906 American composer Movement, student protests, new Sinfonia\u2014the title of which is Charles Ives writes \u201cCentral mass media channels, and the a deliberate allusion to the old- Park in the Dark,\u201d an early clash of high art and popular fashioned symphony genre\u2014 example of musical collage. culture\u2014were happening on established Berio as one of the streets and in homes around the most inventive composers of his 1952 Imaginary Landscape world, and all made their way into generation. Commissioned by No. 5 by John Cage creates an Italian composer Luciano Berio\u2019s Leonard Bernstein and the New unpredictable collage using 42 dismantling and reconstruction York Philharmonic Orchestra, it is records as its source materials. of classical music history. best known for its extraordinary AFTER 1977 Alfred Schnittke composes his Concerto Grosso No. 1 in an example of the collage technique that he called \u201cpolystylism.\u201d 1981 The Adventures of Grandmaster Flash on the Wheels of Steel showcases the virtuoso DJ mixing techniques that were a foundation of early hip-hop.","CONTEMPORARY 317 See also: Magnus liber organi 28\u201331 \u25a0 Ives\u2019s Symphony No. 4 254\u2013255 \u25a0 Symphonie pour un homme seul 298\u2013301 \u25a0 Gruppen 306\u2013307 third movement, which consists of to stand alone. \u201cO King,\u201d the work\u2019s Luciano Berio a whirl of musical quotations from second movement, was written in Bach to Pierre Boulez. Running 1967 as a tribute to the Reverend Berio was born in the town throughout its 12 minutes is the Martin Luther King Jr. After of Oneglia, Italy, in 1924. His largest quotation of all: the dancing, King\u2019s assassination in April 1968, father and grandfather, who spinning Scherzo from Mahler\u2019s Berio decided to incorporate it were both organists, taught Symphony No. 2, \u201cResurrection.\u201d into Sinfonia, expanding that into him to play the piano. After a work for four singers and full World War II, he went to study The quotation technique orchestra and serving now as a at the Milan Conservatory, Composers had used quotation and memorial to the Civil Rights leader. but an injury to his hand even collage techniques before; as Its text simply repeats King\u2019s name, forced him to give up piano early as 1906, and before artists separated into \u201cphonemes\u201d (the studies for composition. such as Picasso and Braque had smallest individual sounds of a He married the American painted visual collages in the early word) and stretched across wide singer and composer Cathy 1910s, Charles Ives had layered intervals of time, as though Berberian in 1950, writing different melodies and musical evaporating into the air. several works for her before styles in \u201cCentral Park in the Dark.\u201d their divorce in 1964. More recently, John Cage had Other influences begun experimenting with playing Sinfonia\u2019s fourth movement is also Berio\u2019s interest in the records and differently tuned radios a lament, in which Berio mourns avant-garde movement began simultaneously. In a way, quotation all of the lost heroes and ideas of in the 1950s, and he became had been a part of classical music movements two and three. Unlike Italy\u2019s leading composer in the since the masters of organum used these, the first movement is a study genre. In 1955, he established Gregorian chants to make their in Brazilian origin myths, drawing an electronic studio in Milan\u2014 polyphonic church music in the on text extracted from Claude L\u00e9vi- one of the world\u2019s first\u2014with 12th century. However, Sinfonia Strauss\u2019s revolutionary, and recently Bruno Maderna. Berio was was the first time quotation had published study in mythology, The also a respected teacher of been used to such an extent: it was Raw and the Cooked (1964). The composition, particularly at a whole movement for full orchestra, fifth and final movement, which the Juilliard School in New created almost entirely from Berio added only after the work\u2019s York. His pupils included borrowed materials. premiere, synthesizes and reflects Steve Reich and Grateful Dead upon the previous four. \u25a0 guitarist Phil Lesh. Berio died On top of all of this are the vocal in Rome in 2003. lines. Eight singers perform from Using Mahler was a a text in which passages from tribute to Leonard Other key works Samuel Beckett\u2019s The Unnamable Bernstein, who has done are mixed with extracts from so much for his music. 1958 Thema (Omaggio James Joyce, Paul Val\u00e9ry, musical Luciano Berio a Joyce) directions, and slogans from the 1966 Sequenza III Paris protests. In order for the 1977 Coro singers to be heard, their voices needed to be amplified, and Berio turned to the Swingle Singers, a popular group in their day, because of their familiarity with microphone technique. Sinfonia is a five-part meditation on the past and the future. The first part was originally intended","318 IBAFELYIAOEU,BLLTEAETCLKILTLMIEE EIGHT SONGS FOR A MAD KING (1969), PETER MAXWELL DAVIES IN CONTEXT W ith some exceptions\u2014 to a traditional past rather than such as the areas pointing toward an exciting FOCUS of psychology and new future. As the 1960s arrived, Theatre and radicalism imagination explored in the operas however, with their release of in English music of Benjamin Britten and Michael long pent-up desires for social Tippett\u2014British classical music and political change, a similar BEFORE after World War II was generally in revolution in classical music 1912 Arnold Schoenberg\u2019s thrall to convention. Prominent new was about to erupt. song-cycle melodrama Pierrot works, such as Sinfonia antartica lunaire launches the concept (1952) by Ralph Vaughan Williams, New blood of the avant garde. or William Walton\u2019s Cello Concerto When Peter Maxwell Davies (1956), were seen as looking back entered the Royal Manchester 1968 The ritualistic violence College of Music in 1952, he found of Harrison Birtwistle\u2019s opera a number of like-minded radical Punch and Judy disconcerts fellow-students: composers listeners at the UK\u2019s Aldeburgh Harrison Birtwistle and Alexander Festival, including its founder, Goehr, trumpeter and conductor Benjamin Britten. Elgar Howarth, and pianist John Ogdon. This new \u201cManchester AFTER School\u201d was an informal group of 1972 Maxwell Davies\u2019s opera very different artistic personalities. Taverner, an ambitiously While Goehr\u2019s music related to the dramatic portrait of the Tudor modern Austro-German tradition composer John Taverner, is of the inter-war years, with its roots first performed at the Royal in the style and technical method Opera House, Covent Garden. of Arnold Schoenberg, Birtwistle looked to reconnect with ancient 1986 Birtwistle\u2019s \u201clyric theatrical ritual, particularly Greek tragedy\u201d The Mask of Orpheus, a theatrical representation on The ravings of the mentally an immense scale of multiple afflicted George III (1738\u20131820), King of versions of the Orpheus Great Britain and Ireland, provided the legend, premieres in London. disconcerting basis for the libretto of Eight Songs for a Mad King.","CONTEMPORARY 319 See also: Pierrot lunaire 240\u2013245 \u25a0 A Child of Our Time 284\u2013285 \u25a0 Peter Grimes 288\u2013293 \u25a0 In Seven Days 328 theatre. Davies meanwhile rebelled screaming and screeching, Peter Maxwell Davies against conventional teaching extremely high or low notes, methods in the quest for a modern and even simultaneous notes Born in Salford, Lancashire, composing idiom developed from sung together in chords. in 1934, Davies won a place at the musical techniques and the Royal Manchester College structures of Renaissance Europe. Fusion sounds of Music. After further study Although the work was a huge in Italy, he taught music at Music theatre success, Davies soon moved away Cirencester Grammar School, In the 1960s, the avant-garde from composing purely avant-garde starting a lifelong commitment genre of \u201cmusic theatre\u201d provided pieces. From 1972, he turned his to musical education. After Davies with a vehicle for his attention to classical forms and spells studying and teaching modernist style. In music theatre, went on to write 10 orchestral in the US and Australia, he musicians shared the stage with symphonies, many of which were returned to England in 1966, vocal and theatrical performers, inspired by his new home of where he gained a reputation all taking part equally in the Orkney, Scotland. as a controversial figure in drama. The idea had its origins contemporary music. in Schoenberg\u2019s groundbreaking Over the course of his career, atonal work Pierrot lunaire (1912), Davies gained a reputation for A visit to the Orkney with its new kind of part-singing, polystylism\u2014combining disparate Islands in Scotland in 1970 part-spoken vocal performance genres in one piece. By the turn of began a deep involvement and strong theatrical elements. the 21st century, classical music with the islands and their in Britain had similarly moved far culture. He settled on Hoy in In 1967, Davies and Birtwistle beyond the dominance of any one 1974, later moving to another founded a chamber group to set of stylistic values. The music island, Sanday. In 1976, perform Pierrot lunaire and more of Jonathan Harvey mastered the he founded the St. Magnus contemporary pieces. It was called fusion of vocal, instrumental, and International Festival, named the Pierrot Players, after the electronic sounds, whereas John after Orkney\u2019s patron saint, Schoenberg work, and in 1970 Tavener successfully absorbed involving local people reformed as The Fires of London. the music of Eastern Orthodox alongside professional The group set out to stage Christianity into the Western musicians. Davies was Master provocatively subversive dramatic concert hall. The music of Mark- of the Queen\u2019s Music from works in small venues. Among Anthony Turnage, meanwhile, 2004 until his death in 2016. these was Eight Songs for a Mad has boldly incorporated elements King, portraying the unhinged of jazz into classical pieces. \u25a0 Other key works psychological world of the British monarch King George III. Some of Sometimes I suspect that 1960 O Magnum Mysterium the group\u2019s players were deployed Davies himself may be a 1962\u20131970 Taverner on stage in cages to represent the 1969 Worldes Blis caged birds that the king liked to little bit mad. 1976\u20131977 The Martyrdom talk to. Alongside the traditional Peter G. Davis of St Magnus instruments used, such as violin, cello, and clarinet, were unusual Music critic (1983) examples, including a railway whistle, steel bar, didgeridoo, and toy bird calls. The vocal part, written for the South African baritone Roy Hart, exploited an extraordinary range of sounds, from singing to","320 FSTOHUREBSPRTREIOSTCTUSETSINSGOBFEATS SIX PIANOS (1973), STEVE REICH IN CONTEXT F irst performed in New York Although his style was initially in 1973, Reich\u2019s Six Pianos controversial, by 1976 Reich\u2019s Music FOCUS employs the \u201cphasing\u201d for 18 Musicians was well received. Late minimalism technique the American composer In the 1980s, he moved away from had developed in the 1960s. The six strict minimalism, developing BEFORE pianists play the same repeated richer harmonies and melodies. 1958 American composer eight-beat rhythmic pattern, but La Monte Young completes each strikes different notes. The Notable later works by Reich, his pioneering minimalist repeated pattern produces richly whose style has influenced both work, Trio for Strings. textured, shifting waves of sound classical and popular music, as the pianists move in and out of include Different Trains (1988) 1964 Terry Riley\u2019s In C is an phase with each other. and The Cave (1993), a multimedia influential minimalist work; it opera created with his wife, the uses simple musical fragments Rhythm and repetition video artist Beryl Korot. \u25a0 to create a wavelike sound. Reich was an early adherent of the minimalist style that began to Reel-to-reel tapes and other AFTER emerge in the United States in the recording equipment enabled Reich, 1978 Brian Eno\u2019s Ambient 1: late 1950s. Pioneered by La Monte shown here in 1982, to perfect the Music for Airports introduces Young and Terry Riley, soon joined phasing techniques that he would minimalism into popular by Philip Glass and Reich, it was a then apply to live instruments. music, helping to create the reaction against the serialism of new genre of ambient music. European composers such as Arnold Schoenberg and Pierre 1982 Minimalism and Boulez. In contrast to melodies and medieval Gregorian chant harmonies based on the 12-tone influence the Estonian Arvo chromatic scale, minimalism used P\u00e4rt in works such as his repeated chords or sequences that St. John Passion. changed only by tiny increments over the course of a piece. It was also marked by strong rhythms. See also: Pierrot lunaire 240\u2013245 \u25a0 Gruppen 306\u2013307 \u25a0 Threnody for the Victims of Hiroshima 310\u2013311 \u25a0 In C 312\u2013313 \u25a0 Einstein on the Beach 321","CONTEMPORARY 321 ESWAVHOEEEFRWAAYDREOR\u2026NBEEEHSBEIOLENSCFDEAAURSSTEAYED EINSTEIN ON THE BEACH (1976), PHILIP GLASS IN CONTEXT C reated in collaboration with I was in that generation of the avant-garde theatre people who could look beyond FOCUS director Robert Wilson, Minimalism and opera Philip Glass\u2019s opera Einstein on the the borders of Europe and Beach was first performed in 1976, North \u2026 and South America. BEFORE in Avignon, France. Inspired by the 1954 Glass visits Paris and life of the physicist Albert Einstein, Philip Glass sees films by Jean Cocteau it has no plot but works through that later become the basis for image, dance, and music, using in his words, \u201con repetitive and his operas, Orph\u00e9e (1993), La recurring projected images to cyclic structures.\u201d The result was Belle et la b\u00eate (1994), and Les evoke aspects of Einstein\u2019s world. often hypnotic\u2014arpeggio and Enfants terribles (1996). There is no orchestra but only an harmonic motifs repeated for long ensemble of electronic keyboards stretches virtually unchanged. 1965 In an early involvement and wind instruments. Words are with avant-garde theatre, sparse and incantatory. The work His success with Einstein Glass writes music for Samuel has no intervals and lasts five on the Beach was followed by Beckett\u2019s one-act Play. hours, during which the audience Satyagraha (1980), Akhnaten (1984), can come and go as they please. and a number of other operas, AFTER film scores, symphonies, and other 1977 David Bowie\u2019s albums Powerful, hypnotic music works. Glass influenced musicians Low and \u201cHeroes,\u201d created Einstein on the Beach was the fruit such as David Bowie, Brian Eno, with Brian Eno, will later of a decade of experimenting. Glass and the band Pink Floyd; their inspire Glass\u2019s symphonies was classically trained, but like music also influenced his own. \u25a0 No. 1 (1992) and No. 4 (1996). Reich and others in the emerging minimalist movement, he rejected 1990 Glass and Indian earlier styles. After transcribing musician Ravi Shankar some of Ravi Shankar\u2019s Indian sitar release Passages, an album music and traveling in India and of chamber music that they North Africa in the 1960s, he began have composed together. to develop a style of his own based, See also: Gruppen 306\u2013307 \u25a0 In C 312\u2013313 \u25a0 Eight Songs for a Mad King 318\u2013319 \u25a0 Six Pianos 320","322 FOCTIHFHRIASASNRTMGTPEUU\u2026SURTSPTBOOESETHE APOCALYPSIS (1977) R. MURRAY SCHAFER IN CONTEXT C onceived on the grandest feminism, sentiment, and art). This scale, with multiple vision, clearly opposed to Schafer\u2019s FOCUS ensembles, singers, and ethics, is vanquished in the second Sonic ecology instrumentalists, Schafer\u2019s musical part, \u201cCredo.\u201d Here, Schafer adapts spectacle Apocalypsis (1977) is 12 meditations from Giordano BEFORE part of a long tradition in Western Bruno\u2019s cosmological treatise De 1912 Mahler writes his Eighth art music that extends back to la causa, principio et uno of 1584. Symphony, a bid \u201cto imagine Monteverdi\u2019s Vespers. An even Each starts, \u201cLord God is universe,\u201d the whole universe beginning earlier inspiration is Tallis\u2019s motet creating a cumulative, ritualistic to ring and resound.\u201d Spem in alium, whose immersive effect. The last proclaims \u201cUniverse use of eight five-voice choirs is one: one act, one form, one soul, 1966 Schafer begins Patria, influenced the 12 spatially arranged one body, one being, the maximum, a cycle of large-scale music choirs used in the second part of and only,\u201d encapsulating Schafer\u2019s theatre works conceived for Apocalypsis, \u201cCredo.\u201d spiritual and ecological beliefs. \u25a0 special (often outdoor) spaces. Opposing sound pollution Schafer\u2019s Apocalypsis is inspired by AFTER Schafer, who founded the study the vision in Revelation in which four 1994 The Apocalypse by John of acoustic ecology in the 1960s, horsemen, depicted here in a woodcut Tavener is premiered at the pursues ecological themes in his by Christoph Murer (1558\u20131614), are BBC Proms. work, opposing the gradual masking the harbingers of the Last Judgment. of the natural soundscape by 2003 With Sonntag, Karlheinz man-made noise. Such themes Stockhausen completes his are the subject of Apocalypsis. seven-opera cycle Licht. The first part, \u201cJohn\u2019s Vision,\u201d 2006 John Luther Adams\u2019s tells of the destruction of the world The Place Where You Go To using texts from the Bible\u2019s Book of Listen, a sound and light Revelation and a new Antichrist\u2019s installation reflecting natural vision of good (cities, jet aircraft, rhythms, opens in Alaska. computers, and \u201cthe habit of energy\u201d) and evil (museums, See also: Spem in alium 44\u201345 \u25a0 Monteverdi\u2019s Vespers 64\u201369 \u25a0 St. Matthew Passion 98\u2013105 \u25a0 Elijah 170\u2013173 \u25a0 The Dream of Gerontius 218\u2013219","CONTEMPORARY 323 IFCRCROOEMUATLTEDHOSERTCDAHREARTOOISNUAITTND FOURTH SYMPHONY (1993) WITOLD LUTOS\u0141AWSKI IN CONTEXT T he life of Polish composer It [music] always fascinated Witold Lutos\u0142awski me, and I couldn\u2019t imagine FOCUS coincided with a turbulent \u201cControlled aleatory\u201d period in Eastern Europe. At the any other profession composition time of his birth in 1913, Poland than musician, and was partitioned between Austria, BEFORE Prussia, and Russia. In World even composer. 1958 John Cage composes his War II, the composer was briefly Witold Lutos\u0142awski Concert for Piano and Orchestra. imprisoned by the Nazis, and after the war, he was hounded by the up is only partly predictable\u2014they 1961 After hearing a snippet communist authorities. Only in may start at different times, for of Cage\u2019s Concert on the radio, his last years was Poland free. example. The method is evident in Lutos\u0142awski uses \u201ccontrolled the Fourth Symphony\u2019s first section: aleatory\u201d for the first time in While Lutos\u0142awski believed in at three points, rhythmic music his Jeux v\u00e9nitiens. the autonomy of art, critics often dissolves into disarray, like a false perceive the reflection of outside start to a race, creating a sense of AFTER tensions in his music. Like many of anticipation that is resolved in the 2003 Lutos\u0142awski\u2019s Polish his pieces, his Fourth Symphony, work\u2019s more assertive second half. colleague Wojciech Kilar whose composition spanned the fall composes September of communism, has two halves\u2014a The Fourth Symphony was Symphony (Symphony No. 3) halting introduction, followed by a Lutos\u0142awski\u2019s last work. He died to commemorate the 9\/11 decisive and conclusive statement. in 1994, a year after conducting attacks in New York City. its Los Angeles premiere. \u25a0 An element of chance 2011 Liza Lim\u2019s Tongue of From the early 1960s, a consistent the Invisible is one of many feature of his music was his use of contemporary works since \u201ccontrolled aleatory\u201d passages, in Lutos\u0142awski\u2019s death that which the coordination between combine controlled instrumental parts is partially improvisation with passages governed by chance. They may be in conventional notation. fully written out, but how they line See also: Webern\u2019s Symphonie, Op. 21 264\u2013265 \u25a0 Shostakovich\u2019s Fifth Symphony 274\u2013279 \u25a0 4\u00b433\u02dd 302\u2013305 \u25a0 Gruppen 306\u2013307","324 DOVOABZLSZCELASINSNIIGCV\u2014,EEXAPNADNSIVE, \u00c9TUDES (1985\u20132001) GY\u00d6RGY LIGETI IN CONTEXT T he term \u201cfractal\u201d was first piano music of Bill Evans and used in 1975 by the Thelonius Monk. To synthesize FOCUS mathematician Benoit these influences, he turned to the Fractal music Mandelbrot, though the concept is piano study, or \u00e9tude, a form used much older. It describes images, by Chopin, Liszt, and Debussy. BEFORE surfaces, sounds, or other patterns 1915 Debussy\u2019s 12 \u00c9tudes made up of mini-versions of the Ligeti\u2019s 18 \u00c9tudes all employ introduce pictorial imagery whole, which they continue to rhythmic and melodic processes to the \u00e9tudes genre. resemble however tiny they are that interact, conflict, and even and however often subdivided. cancel each other out. Their titles, 1947 Conlon Nancarrow such as Disorder and Vertigo, writes rhythmically elaborate The composer Gy\u00f6rgy Ligeti reflect the images their streams of studies for a pianola. first came across fractals in 1984, notes evoke. Works of fantasy, they in images by the mathematician are a major contribution to the late 1959 Ligeti uses what he Heinz-Otto Peitgen. Ligeti 20th-century repertoire. \u25a0 later called \u201cmicropolyphony\u201d recognized that the principle of in his orchestral Apparitions. internal symmetry had been In my music one finds \u2026 present in his music for years. He a unification of construction 1984 Charles Wuorinen\u2019s had used a technique he called Bamboula Squared employs \u201cmicropolyphony,\u201d overlaying with poetic, emotional a computer-generated tape multiple closely related versions imagination. partly inspired by Benoit of the same musical line to create Mandelbrot\u2019s work on fractals. dense, shimmering textures. Gy\u00f6rgy Ligeti AFTER Studies in fractal style 2003 Ligeti\u2019s student Unsuk Ligeti began to employ ideas Chin completes her own set derived from mathematics and the of 12 \u00c9tudes, continuing broader theory of chaos. He had her teacher\u2019s interest in also become interested in Central complex rhythms. African music, the pianola studies of Conlon Nancarrow, and the jazz See also: The Art of Fugue 108\u2013111 \u25a0 Chopin\u2019s Pr\u00e9ludes 164\u2013165 \u25a0 Pr\u00e9lude \u00e0 l\u2019apr\u00e8s-midi d\u2019un faune 228\u2013231 \u25a0 Pithoprakta 308","CONTEMPORARY 325 IFMSOYRWMERUAISTRITSCEN L\u2019AMOUR DE LOIN (2000), KAIJA SAARIAHO IN CONTEXT F innish composer Kaija Saariaho\u2019s opera, L\u2019Amour FOCUS de loin (2000), was one of Opera into the 21st century the first new operas of the 21st century. The lavish production, BEFORE premiered at the Salzburg Festival, 1992 Peter Sellars stages Austria, renewed excitement in the Olivier Messiaen\u2019s opera genre of grand opera involving large Saint Fran\u00e7ois d\u2019Assise, in casts and orchestras; in the late Salzburg, Austria; Saariaho 20th century, inexpensive chamber finds it inspiring. operas had been more popular. AFTER Love from afar Kaija Saariaho works on a score in 2003 The opera Rasputin by Written to a French libretto by Paris, France, her home since 1982, Finnish composer Einojuhani Amin Maalouf, L\u2019Amour de loin is when she first studied at IRCAM, the Rautavaara receives its world based on a sketch of Jaufr\u00e9 Rudel, acoustic music research institute that premiere in Helsinki. a 12th-century French troubadour, strongly influenced her early style. and his love for Cl\u00e9mence, a woman 2008 The Minotaur by he has idealized from a distance\u2014 Since then, it has become one of Harrison Birtwistle to a libretto hence the title, meaning \u201clove the most frequently performed by poet David Harsent is from afar.\u201d The small solo cast is operas in the 21st century, with premiered at the Royal Opera complemented by a chorus and productions in Paris, London, House in London. sizeable orchestra that features New York, and Toronto. accessible, consonant harmony, 2015 Jennifer Higdon\u2019s with electronic elements and The success of L\u2019Amour de loin grand opera, Cold Mountain, attention to tone color\u2014all led to renewed interest in grand premieres in Santa Fe, New hallmarks of Saariaho\u2019s style. opera and further commissions. Mexico, United States. Saariaho\u2019s second grand opera, Following the opera\u2019s world Adriana Mater, followed in 2005. \u25a0 premiere at the Salzburg Festival in Austria, critics praised its lyricism. See also: Peer Gynt 208\u2013209 \u25a0 The Wreckers 232\u2013239 \u25a0 Peter Grimes 288\u2013293 \u25a0 Einstein on the Beach 321\u2013322","326 PBSOLKUSY.ESIW\u2026BIHLELITRIKIEEESATLSHLOEAR BLUE CATHEDRAL (2000), JENNIFER HIGDON IN CONTEXT T he unifying theme of and experimental music that had Jennifer Higdon\u2019s music often alienated the general public. FOCUS is her compositional To attract audiences, ensembles Return to lyricism philosophy of communicating therefore chose to perform older effectively. Her work blue cathedral works that entailed little risk. BEFORE achieves this through her Higdon\u2019s blue cathedral, however, 1984 The New York characteristic exploration of tone with its warmth, lyricism, and Philharmonic programs color (the quality that gives an emotion, demonstrated that modern \u201cHorizons \u201984: The New instrument its distinct sound), music could appeal to audiences of Romanticism\u2014a Broader combined with expressive lyricism. all ages and demographics, opening View\u201d draw mass public the door for an exciting period of attention to Neo-romanticism. In the latter half of the 20th new music in the 21st century. century, many artistic ensembles 1991 John Corigliano\u2019s opera were struggling financially. Love, life, and death The Ghosts of Versailles Contemporary music had been Higdon was commissioned to premieres at the Metropolitan associated with trends such as write blue cathedral to mark the Opera, New York City. It is post-minimalism, electronic works, 75th anniversary of the American the company\u2019s first new conservatory, the Curtis Institute of opera since the 1960s. I don\u2019t think you should Music. Although initially conceived have to know anything as a celebration, the composer AFTER about my music, or anything was at the time mourning the 2009 Film composer, John about music in general, death of her younger brother, Williams\u2019s On Willows and to enjoy it \u2026 I look at Andrew Blue Higdon. Both events Birches (Concerto for Harp and informed the title: \u201cblue,\u201d in Orchestra) premieres with the music as a mirror. memory of her brother Andrew, to Boston Symphony Orchestra. Jennifer Higdon whom the score is dedicated, and \u201ccathedral\u201d to represent Curtis as 2017 The (R)evolution of Steve a place of learning and growth. Jobs, by Mason Bates, opens at Opera Santa Fe, Santa Fe, In this tone poem, Higdon\u2019s New Mexico. heavenly music suggests a cathedral in the sky. It features numerous solo instruments, most prominently the flute and the clarinet, to represent the","CONTEMPORARY 327 See also: Symphonie fantastique 162\u2013163 \u25a0 Saint-Sa\u00ebns\u2019 Piano Concerto No. 2 in G minor 179 \u25a0 Das Lied von der Erde 198\u2013201 \u25a0 Pr\u00e9lude \u00e0 l\u2019apr\u00e8s-midi d\u2019un faune 228\u2013231 \u25a0 The Lark Ascending 252\u2013253 \u25a0 Appalachian Spring 286\u2013287 Higdon siblings who played those The work premiered on May 1, The solo clarinet features instruments. As Higdon is the 2000, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, prominently in blue cathedral. It was older sibling, the flute appears with Robert Spano as conductor. the instrument played by Higdon\u2019s first, followed by the clarinet. Musicians and critics lauded brother, who died of skin cancer shortly This duet briefly returns near the Higdon\u2019s ability to communicate before Higdon composed the piece. end, before the flute ceases, leaving the universal themes of love, the clarinet (Andrew) to continue life, and death. The work\u2019s strong The conductor initiated what its journey alone. lyricism, exploration of orchestral would become known as the color, and programmatic content Atlanta School of Composers, Additional extended solos are made it a great success, and it a group comprising Higdon, presented by the English horn and became one of the 21st century\u2019s Christopher Theofanidis, Osvaldo a violin; both are complemented most popular compositions, with Golijov, Michael Gandolfi, and by smaller instrumental melodies some 600 productions (at all levels) Adam Schoenberg. Although that represent the lives a single performed across the world. diverse in musical style, the person touches in his or her journey. composers are unified by their In the introduction and coda, The Atlanta School dedication to tonality and melody, Higdon also experiments with the Following blue cathedral\u2019s premiere, as well as their incorporation of percussion section, utilizing some Higdon began a long and fruitful world music and popular culture. unorthodox orchestration, such as association with the Atlanta Together, they have redefined the crystal glasses and Chinese bells, Symphony Orchestra led by Spano. genre of contemporary music. \u25a0 to create an ethereal atmosphere. Jennifer Higdon Jennifer Higdon was born in Concerto, Grammy Awards Brooklyn, New York, in 1962, for her Percussion Concerto and then moved with her family and Viola Concerto, and an first to Atlanta and then to the International Opera Award for Appalachian Mountains in her first opera, Cold Mountain, Tennessee. After teaching herself based on the bestselling novel to play the flute at the age of 15, of the same name by Charles she began formal music studies Frazier. Her popularity allows at 18 and went on to pursue her to compose exclusively composition studies at graduate on commission. level alongside two of America\u2019s most significant composers of the Other key works 20th century, Ned Rorem and George Crumb. 2005 The Percussion Concerto 2008 The Singing Rooms Higdon has received many 2009 Violin Concerto awards, including the Pulitzer 2015 Cold Mountain Prize in Music for her Violin","328 BFGTRHUROEIOLMWMDISUTNHSGOEIRCBRGLEUAOS\u2026NCEIKSCSASLAILMNYPDLE IN SEVEN DAYS (2008), THOMAS AD\u00c8S IN CONTEXT V isual accompaniments to shapes, patterns, waves, and flows, music have been known yet these are actually derived from FOCUS for centuries, becoming pictures of London\u2019s Royal Festival Music and multimedia ubiquitous and infinitely more Hall and the Los Angeles Walt varied in recent times. In British Disney Concert Hall, which jointly BEFORE composer Thomas Ad\u00e8s\u2019s In Seven commissioned the work. 1910 In Prometheus: The Days, a depiction of the biblical Poem of Fire, Alexander creation story, his collaborator Tal Ad\u00e8s and Rosner call their work Scriabin calls for a \u201ccolor Rosner\u2019s video illustrates, enriches, a \u201cvisual ballet,\u201d and when used, organ\u201d to fill the concert hall and expands on the music\u2014a set the video is generally projected on with colored light. of variations on two themes, for screens above the orchestra. The piano and orchestra. Ad\u00e8s adds music can also be played alone, but 1952 John Cage\u2019s Theatre an unusual twist. His themes are together the two create a powerful Piece No. 1, with paintings not introduced at the beginning multimedia experience. \u25a0 by Robert Rauschenberg and but at the end, in a short final dance by Merce Cunningham, movement, which distills the The better you play it, is staged in North Carolina. core essence from the earlier six and the closer you come movements corresponding to the to his idiosyncratic vision, 2003 Olga Neuwirth combines six days described in Genesis. video, music, and theatre in In this music, creation evolves the more wonderful her adaptation of David from chaos into order. it sounds. Lynch\u2019s film Lost Highway. Images enhancing sound Simon Rattle AFTER In Rosner\u2019s visual accompaniment 2010 Michel van der Aa\u2019s to In Seven Days, images dance Up-close combines video opera and spin in time with the sounds, (incorporating video images) echoing the music\u2019s kaleidoscopic and cello concerto. depiction of the balance between chaos and order. The video is 2016 Everything Is Important mostly abstract, with geometrical by Jennifer Walsh uses music and film to explore modern life. See also: Ives\u2019s Symphony No. 4 254\u2013255 \u25a0 Jan\u00e1c\u02c7ek\u2019s Sinfonietta 263 \u25a0 Pithoprakta 308 \u25a0 Ligeti\u2019s \u00c9tudes pour piano 324","CONTEMPORARY 329 NOTAHENFEIDWSDWHITSOHOTAWBHTEEEWCAEROERE ALLELUIA (2011), ERIC WHITACRE IN CONTEXT E ric Whitacre, one of the Alleluia retains many aspects most popular 21st-century from the choral tradition that make FOCUS composers, is an advocate it just as gratifying to sing as to Choral music in for the uplifting power of choral listen to: richly ringing harmonies, the 21st century music. The majority of his works phrases that fit well with natural are choral, including Alleluia (2011), breath, and allusions to ancient BEFORE though the origins of that piece chant and Renaissance polyphony. 1921 Vaughan Williams are instrumental\u2014a composition Yet in its mysterious folklike writes \u201cA Pastoral Symphony\u201d titled October evoking the colors opening, and the way harmonies (Symphony No. 3) that helps and radiance of autumn. Inspired are used as resonating chambers establish the lyrical sound of by the 20th-century pastoralism of for the solo lines, it also achieves the English pastoral school. English composers such as Ralph a contemporary sound. \u25a0 Vaughan Williams, Whitacre had 1977 Arvo P\u00e4rt\u2019s Missa written October for wind orchestra syllabica, Fratres, and Cantus (actually school bands) in 2000. in memoriam Benjamin Britten introduce a new style of A decade later, Nevada-born devotional composition. Whitacre, who describes himself as spiritual rather than religious, 1997 Sir John Tavener\u2019s Song decided to set liturgical text to for Athene, composed in 1993 music for the first time, choosing as a tribute to a family friend, the words \u201cAlleluia\u201d and \u201cAmen\u201d is performed at the funeral of and uniting them with October, Diana, Princess of Wales. whose simplicity and elegance transferred well to a choral setting. AFTER 2013 Caroline Shaw wins the Eric Whitacre, pictured here in 2011 Pulitzer Prize for Music for her at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, Partita for eight voices. Britain, while Composer in Residence, was inspired to write Alleluia by his 2014 Gabriel Jackson writes work with the chapel choir. Seven Advent Antiphons, one See also: Canticum Canticorum 46\u201351 \u25a0 Monteverdi\u2019s Vespers 64\u201369 \u25a0 of his many liturgical settings. St. Matthew Passion 98\u2013105 \u25a0 Elijah 170\u2013173 \u25a0 The Dream of Gerontius 218\u2013219","DIRECT","ORY","332 DIRECTORY I n addition to the composers covered in the preceding chapters in this book, numerous others have also made an impact on the development of classical music. The music represented by those listed here\u2014many of whom were also teachers, scholars, and virtuoso soloists\u2014is diverse, ranging from the choral works of the great Spanish composer of the Renaissance, Tom\u00e1s Luis de Victoria, to the loud and unsettling symphonies of Anton Bruckner, while the particular impact of Mily Balakirev was in leading the circle of composers known as Russia\u2019s \u201cMighty Handful,\u201d or \u201cFive.\u201d What unites them is the way they have enriched the lives of their audiences and influenced the compositions of their peers with new ideas or refinements of existing ones. JOHANNES OCKEGHEM Italian (madrigals), French (chansons), JAN PIETERSZOON SWEELINCK and German (Lieder). His sacred music c.1410\u20131497 includes settings of the psalms, notably 1562\u20131621 a sequence of penitential psalms, Psalmi Born in Flanders, Johannes Ockeghem Davidis poenitentiales (published in Dutchman Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck made his name in Paris at the court of 1584). His music has an emotional was the most influential performer and King Charles VII and his successors, intensity, reflecting the words he set composer of organ music before J.S. becoming one of the most celebrated to music, that preempts the Baroque Bach. Before the age of 20, he succeeded composers of early Renaissance Europe. style of the 18th century. his father as organist at Amsterdam\u2019s Much of his work has been lost, but Oude Kerk (Old Church), where he surviving compositions include 14 TOM\u00c1S LUIS DE VICTORIA would later be succeeded by his own Masses and 10 motets (religious choral son. He wrote vocal music, both sacred works) along with 20 secular chansons. c.1548\u20131611 and secular, but is remembered for Ockeghem introduced richer, more his innovative organ works, in which, sonorous harmonies to Renaissance Spain\u2019s greatest Renaissance composer, among other things, he developed the music, exploring the lower reaches of Tom\u00e1s Luis de Victoria, was born near fugue form. As an organist, he was the bass part for the first time. His \u00c1vila in central Castile. He enjoyed royal famous for his virtuoso improvisations works are contrapuntal, weaving patronage from an early age, and in his before and after services. His many together two or more melodic lines. late teens, King Philip II sent de Victoria pupils spread across Protestant northern to Rome, where he was ordained a priest Germany, themselves influencing the ORLANDO DI LASSO but also practiced as a musician\u2014 young Handel and Bach. probably studying under the composer 1532\u20131594 Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina. He CARLO GESUALDO returned to Spain around the age of 40, As a boy chorister in Mons (in modern becoming director of music and later 1566\u20131613 Belgium), Orlando di Lasso was so organist at the wealthy convent of Las renowned for the beauty of his voice that Descalzas Reales in Madrid. His work A man of passionate and often he was kidnapped three times by those is dramatic and sometimes vividly melancholy temperament, Neapolitan keen to have him in their choirs. In pictorial, as in the motet Cum Beatus nobleman Carlo Gesualdo, Prince 1556 he moved to Munich, where he Ignatius, where the music evokes the of Venosa, is believed to have been remained for the rest of his life, serving wild beasts tearing at the Christian personally responsible for the revenge as kapellmeister (director of music) to martyr Ignatius of Antioch. His deep murder of his first wife and her lover, the Duke Albrecht V of Bavaria. As a spirituality is expressed in settings Duke of Andria. Gesualdo also published composer, he was both versatile and of the psalms and several Masses, three books of motets (religious choral prolific, writing more than 2,000 works. including the Missa O quam gloriosum works) and six of madrigals. The later His secular pieces include songs in and the Missa Ave Regina coelorum. books of madrigals, in particular, show","DIRECTORY 333 an innovative use of harmony, unparalleled Venice under Giovanni Gabrieli. In 1617, servant to the wealthy dramatist and in Renaissance music, which won him following his return to Germany, he was poet Giulio Strozzi, who adopted Barbara many admirers in later centuries. appointed kapellmeister at the court of and may well have been her biological the electors (rulers) of Saxony in Dresden. father. Strozzi studied under the ORLANDO GIBBONS His settings of biblical and sacred texts composer Francesco Cavalli and was a transformed Lutheran church music, member of the Accademia degli Unisoni 1583\u20131625 ranging from early psalm settings, (Academy of the Like-Minded), a group Psalmen Davids (1619), to the great of intellectuals founded by Giulio Strozzi. Orlando Gibbons came from a musical Christmas Oratorio (1664), and three She published eight volumes of music, English family. A celebrated keyboard a cappella Passions (1665), dramatizing mostly arias and cantatas for solo voice. player, he was appointed organist the trial and death of Jesus. Most are settings of poems dealing with of London\u2019s Chapel Royal at the love and its pains, including the cantata age of 21 and later became organist JOHANN HERMANN SCHEIN Lagrime mie (\u201cMy tears\u201d) and the aria at Westminster Abbey. His sacred \u201cChe si pu\u00f2 fare\u201d (\u201cWhat can I do\u201d). compositions included popular anthems, 1586\u20131630 such as \u201cO clap your hands together\u201d MARC-ANTOINE CHARPENTIER for Church of England services. Among Alongside Sch\u00fctz, Johann Hermann his secular works, he won the greatest Schein was a key figure in bringing 1643\u20131704 fame for songs such as \u201cThe Silver Swan\u201d Italian Baroque influences into German and \u201cWhat Is Our Life\u201d written in the music. A native of Saxony, in 1616 he From a family of painters, French madrigal style of which he was a master. was appointed to the prestigious post composer Marc-Antoine Charpentier His volume Parthenia with pieces for of cantor at Leipzig\u2019s Thomas Church. switched his allegiance to music after the virginals (a smaller version of the An early publication, Banchetto being influenced by the composer harpsichord) was the first collection of musicale (\u201cMusical banquet,\u201d 1617), was Giacomo Carissimi in Rome. On his keyboard music published in England. one of his few instrumental collections. return to Paris, he held various posts, His vocal music includes both secular including that of composer to Louis GIROLAMO FRESCOBALDI and sacred works. An outstanding work XIV\u2019s cousin, the Duchesse de Guise. is Israelsbr\u00fcnnlein (\u201cFountains of Israel\u201d) He worked with the dramatist Moli\u00e8re, 1583\u20131643 (1623), a collection of 26 motets based on writing music for plays, including Le Old Testament texts written in the style Malade imaginaire (1673), and wrote a Born in Ferrara in northern Italy, Girolamo of Italian madrigals. successful opera, M\u00e9d\u00e9e (1693), based Frescobaldi moved to Rome while still in on a play by Pierre Corneille. His best- his teens and was appointed organist at JOHANN JAKOB FROBERGER known sacred works are dramatic St. Peter\u2019s Basilica in 1608. Apart from a motets (or short oratorios) written for period as court organist to the Medici 1616\u20131667 the Jesuit community. His reputation rulers of Florence, he remained at suffered from comparisons with his St. Peter\u2019s for the rest of his life. His Born in Stuttgart, Johann Jakob archrival Jean-Baptiste Lully until his work music, mostly for organ, has a strongly Froberger introduced Italian and French was rediscovered in the 20th century. contemplative, mystical quality. Even keyboard styles into German music. He his toccatas (pieces written to allow studied in Rome with Frescobaldi before JOHANN CHRISTIAN BACH performers to show off their skills) are being appointed organist at the court of remarkable, less for virtuoso display than the Habsburg emperor in Vienna in 1641. 1735\u20131782 for dramatic intensity. One of his most An organist as well as harpsichordist, he famous publications was Fiori musicali was the first German composer to write The youngest of J.S. Bach\u2019s surviving (Musical Flowers, 1635), a collection of important works for the harpsichord. sons, Johann Christian Bach studied in organ pieces for church services. Most influential were his dance suites, Berlin and Italy, where he was briefly with pieces drawing on French tradition organist at Milan cathedral and had HEINRICH SCH\u00dcTZ in which each movement is inspired by his first opera, Artaserse, performed a different dance form. in Naples. In 1762, he was appointed 1585\u20131672 composer at the King\u2019s Theatre in BARBARA STROZZI London, remaining in Britain for the rest Widely credited as the greatest German of his life. He became a dominant figure composer before J.S. Bach, Heinrich 1619\u20131677 in English musical life, partly through Sch\u00fctz was a major figure in introducing the series of highly popular concerts the new styles of the Italian Baroque to The Venetian Barbara Strozzi was he organized each year with his Germany. An early patron, Maurice of known as a singer as well as composer. countryman Carl Friedrich Abel. Apart Hesse-Kassel paid for him to study in Her mother was Isabella Garzoni, a from his operas, he was known for his","334 DIRECTORY piano concertos, which were an The latter was his most important operas in total. His serious works include important influence on the young legacy. His pupils included Beethoven, Lucrezia Borgia (1833) and Linda di Mozart, who met Bach in London. Schubert, and Liszt. Chamounix (1842). His comic works include L\u2019elisir d\u2019amore (The elixir of CARL DITTERS VON JAN LADISLAV DUSSEK love; 1832) and Don Pasquale (1843). DITTERSDORF A major influence on Verdi, Donizetti 1760\u20131812 is credited with introducing northern 1739\u20131799 European Romanticism into Italian opera. As the Classical movement gave Carl Ditters von Dittersdorf was a boy way to Romanticism, the pianist and VINCENZO BELLINI prodigy as a violinist in Vienna, but as composer Jan Ladislav Dussek was an adult he made his name with light- a major musical figure. Born in Caslav 1801\u20131835 hearted operas. His most productive (in the modern Czech Republic), he years followed his appointment as court traveled widely in Europe before The Sicilian-born Vincenzo Bellini wrote composer to Philipp Gotthard von settling in London in 1789. Bankruptcy 10 operas, of which the masterpieces are Schaffgotsch, Prince-Bishop of Breslau, after the failure of his music publishing La sonnambula (1831), Norma (1831), and whose castle was an important cultural business forced him to leave London I Puritani (1835). In 1827, Il pirata\u2014 the and intellectual hub. Dittersdorf\u2019s in 1799, and he ended his days in the first of six collaborations with the greatest operatic success, Doktor und household of the French statesman librettist Felice Romani\u2014won him Apotheker (1786), helped to define the Prince of Talleyrand. Dussek is best international acclaim at La Scala in Singspiel genre (mingling songs and remembered for his piano sonatas, Milan. Encouraged by Rossini, he moved choruses with spoken dialogue), which inspired Beethoven. to Paris where I Puritani was premiered. which his friend Mozart would take With a gift for vocal melody, Bellini to new heights in Die Zauberfl\u00f6te GIACOMO MEYERBEER was the master of the Italian bel canto (The Magic Flute) in 1791. (\u201cbeautiful singing\u201d) style, expressed, 1791\u20131864 for example, in the famous song \u201cCasta LUIGI BOCCHERINI diva\u201d (\u201cChaste goddess\u201d) from Norma. Born into a wealthy Jewish banking 1743\u20131805 family in Berlin, Giacomo Meyerbeer MIKHAIL GLINKA won acclaim as a pianist while in his Born in Lucca in central Italy, Luigi early 20s, but his real ambitions lay in 1804\u20131857 Boccherini had studied and worked in composition. After a period of study both Rome and Vienna by the age of 20. in Venice, where he came under the sway Mikhail Ivanovich Glinka came from He became composer to the Spanish of Rossini\u2019s music, he had some success a wealthy Russian landowning family king\u2019s music-loving brother, Don Luis de with the opera Romilda e Costanza and abandoned a civil service career to Borb\u00f3n, in Madrid, then later was court (1817), but his breakthrough work was study music in Italy and Berlin. Back in composer to King Frederick William II of Robert le diable, based on a libretto by Russia, his first opera, A Life for the Tsar Prussia. A cellist by training, Boccherini the French playwright Eug\u00e8ne Scribe. (or Ivan Susanin, 1836), based on the wrote symphonies and concertos (mostly First performed at the Paris Op\u00e9ra in story of a 17th-century Russian hero, for cello) but is best remembered for 1831, it was a massive hit. Alongside was well received in St. Petersburg. In more than 300 chamber works, string Meyerbeer\u2019s Les Huguenots (1836) and this and later works, Glinka drew upon quintets in particular. Le Proph\u00e8te (1849), it helped to define the folk songs to create music that was emerging genre of grand opera, appealing authentically Russian. In 1845, Hector ANTONIO SALIERI to the audience\u2019s love of spectacle. His Berlioz conducted a concert in Paris influence was noticeable in the operas with excerpts from Glinka\u2019s works; this 1750\u20131825 of Verdi and even Wagner. was the first time Russian music had been played in the West. The Venetian-born Antonio Salieri went GAETANO DONIZETTI to Vienna at the age of 16 and remained CLARA WIECK SCHUMANN there for the rest of his life, as court 1797\u20131848 composer to the Habsburg emperor and 1819\u20131896 later imperial Kapellmeister. He made Gaetano Donizetti, born in Bergamo, is his name as a composer of operas\u2014of regarded as the most important Italian A child prodigy, Clara Wieck won which the best regarded is Tarare (1787), opera composer between Rossini and Europe-wide fame while still in her written for a Parisian theatre\u2014but in Verdi. Starting with Enrico di Borgogna, teens. Around that time, she fell in love 1804, he abandoned opera and began first performed in Venice in 1818, his with Robert Schumann, one of the pupils writing sacred music and teaching. output was prolific, with 65 completed of her father, who was a well-known","DIRECTORY 335 piano teacher. She and Robert married ALEKSANDR BORODIN in Rome, but back in Paris, his early in 1840, defying her father\u2019s opposition. successes did not continue, and his Despite having eight children, Schumann 1833\u20131887 opera Les p\u00eacheurs de perles (The Pearl maintained an active musical career of Fishers; 1863) was disappointingly performing and teaching. Her works, all The illegitimate son of a Georgian received. A one-act piece, Djamileh of which date from before her husband\u2019s nobleman and an army doctor\u2019s wife, (1872), was more successful and led to early death in 1856, include collections Aleksandr Borodin trained as a scientist. a commission to write an opera based of Lieder, chamber music, an early In 1864, he became professor of on a novel by Prosper M\u00e9rim\u00e9e. The piano concerto, and what is generally chemistry at the Imperial Medical and result, Carmen, opened in March 1875, regarded as her finest work, the Piano Surgical Academy in St. Petersburg. drawing unenthusiastic reviews until Trio in G minor, Op. 17 (1846). As an enthusiastic amateur musician, Bizet\u2019s sudden death of an undiagnosed he was also a member of a group of heart condition in June, when the critics C\u00c9SAR FRANCK young composers, called \u201cThe Five,\u201d abruptly reversed their verdicts. Carmen determined to fashion a truly Russian became a landmark of French opera\u2014 1822\u20131890 tradition of classical music. He wrote tautly dramatic with a strongly realist two symphonies, two string quartets, focus on ordinary working people. In his teens, the Belgian-born C\u00e9sar and a tone poem, In Central Asia (1880). Franck was already studying at the His greatest work, the opera Prince Igor, NIKOLAY RIMSKY-KORSAKOV Paris Conservatory and performing as a based on a medieval Russian epic, was concert pianist. In his late 20s, however, unfinished when Borodin died of a heart 1844\u20131908 following the poor reception of an attack. It was completed by Nikolay oratorio he had composed, he abandoned Rimsky-Korsakov, another of the Five, A naval officer who turned to music, his career as a composer and performer with his pupil Aleksandr Glazunov. Rimsky-Korsakov had the most lasting and started to earn his living as an impact of the Russian composers organist and teacher. Only in his 50s MILY BALAKIREV known as \u201cThe Five.\u201d In 1871, he was did Franck resume a more public profile, appointed professor of composition after accepting the post of organ 1836\u20131910 and orchestration at the St. Petersburg professor at the Paris Conservatoire. Conservatory. Unlike his fellows in He became an influential composition Demanding, often tyrannical, Mily \u201cThe Five,\u201d he had a high regard for teacher and started writing again. His Alekseyevich Balakirev was the driving the academic disciplines of composition, works include a symphony, organ pieces, force behind \u201cThe Five\u201d\u2014a group of which he passed on to his pupils. and a series of chamber works, notably ardently nationalist young Russian After the deaths of Mussorgsky and the Piano Quintet in F minor (1879), composers who came together in Borodin, he edited and completed their Violin Sonata in A major (1886), and St. Petersburg in the 1860s. He was works. His own talent for colorful String Quartet in D major (1889). also a founding member of the Free orchestration is seen in pieces such School of Music, which was set up as as Capriccio espag\u00f1ol (1887) and ANTON BRUCKNER a less academic alternative to the Scheherazade (1888), as well as his St. Petersburg Conservatory. He suffered operas, notably Sadko (1897) and The 1824\u20131896 a nervous breakdown in the 1870s and Golden Cockerel (1909). withdrew from the musical world for five The Austrian Anton Bruckner was a years, working as a railway clerk. When RUGGERO LEONCAVALLO bold, if unlikely, musical innovator, best he returned, he had lost much of his known for his nine symphonies and his former spirit. His works include a piano 1857\u20131919 religious works. Bruckner worked piece, Islamey (1869), and a symphonic as a teacher until 1855, when he was poem, Russia (1887), but his major The Neapolitan opera composer Ruggero made chief organist at Linz Cathedral. achievement was to have brought Leoncavallo is remembered for one great In Linz, following years of intensive together \u201cThe Five,\u201d who collectively work, Pagliacci (\u201cThe players\u201d), which study of composition, he wrote his first transformed Russian classical music. was first staged at La Scala in Milan major works: three Mass settings and a in 1892. The son of a police official, symphony. In 1868, he took up a teaching GEORGES BIZET Leoncavallo had written other operas post at the Conservatory in Vienna, with no success. For Pagliacci, he turned where he lived for the rest of his life. 1838\u20131875 to a new Italian school of opera known An admirer of Wagner, he expanded the as verismo (literally, \u201ctruth-ism\u201d or scope of the late Romantic symphony The French composer Georges Bizet \u201crealism\u201d), characterized by sensational with complex harmonies, dissonances, wrote a symphony when he was 17, and plots drawn from everyday life. His short, and the rich weaving together of the his first opera was performed the next two-act work\u2014supposedly inspired by different instrumental parts. year. He then spent three years studying a case his father was involved in\u2014tells","336 DIRECTORY the story of love and jealousy among a Inextinguishable, 1916) and Fifth (1922) children. Born in Hungary, he studied at troupe of actors, culminating in murder. were responses to the brutality of World Budapest\u2019s Academy of Music alongside Leoncavallo wrote several more operas, War I. The Sixth and last (Sinfonia B\u00e9la Bart\u00f3k, with whom he went on but none had the success of Pagliacci. semplice, 1925) was the most challenging, expeditions into the countryside to perhaps reflecting Nielsen\u2019s fatal heart collect folk music. The techniques they FREDERICK DELIUS condition. He also wrote operas, but his devised were influential for those who best works, outside the symphonies, are a followed in the study of indigenous music 1862\u20131934 Wind Quintet (1922) and two concertos, traditions. Later, Kod\u00e1ly also developed for flute (1926) and clarinet (1928). a method to teach children to sight-read The son of a German wool merchant, music when singing. As a composer, his Frederick Delius started studying music FERRUCCIO BUSONI major works are Psalmus Hungaricus in his spare time while managing an (1923) for tenor, chorus, and orchestra orange plantation in Florida. Once back 1866\u20131924 and a comic opera, H\u00e1ry J\u00e1nos (1926). in Europe, he continued his studies in Leipzig then settled in France. His Partly Italian, partly German, Ferruccio ARTHUR HONEGGER works included six operas, only two of Busoni gave his first piano recital aged which, Koanga, composed in 1895\u20131897, 10 in Vienna. After studying in Leipzig, 1892\u20131955 and A Village Romeo and Juliet (1900\u2013 he became professor of piano in Helsinki 1901), were staged in his lifetime. His and later took up posts in Moscow, Born to Swiss parents living in France, most successful pieces\u2014introduced Boston, and Berlin. He was renowned as Honegger belonged to \u201cLes Six,\u201d a group to British audiences by the conductor one of the great pianists of the time but of young composers who emerged in Sir Thomas Beecham\u2014were Sea Drift was also a teacher, musical theorist, and Paris in the 1920s, including Francis (1904), a setting of a Walt Whitman composer. His book, The New Aesthetic Poulenc and Darius Milhaud. He is poem, and a series of orchestral idylls and of Music (1907), was a key inspiration remembered for his five symphonies, tone poems, including Brigg Fair (1907), for figures such as the avant-garde collectively regarded as one of the most In a Summer Garden (1908), and North French composer Edgard Var\u00e8se. His impressive symphonic oeuvres of the Country Sketches (1914). compositions include operas, orchestral 20th century. His other works include pieces, and solo piano works, notably Pacific 231 (1923) and Rugby (1928), in PIETRO MASCAGNI Fantasia after J.S. Bach (1909) and which he sought to express in music Fantasia contrappuntistica (1910\u20131921). the impressions of a locomotive and a 1863\u20131945 rugby match, respectively. Honegger\u2019s GUSTAV HOLST dramatic works included film scores, Pietro Mascagni\u2019s one-act opera ballets, and an oratorio Jeanne d\u2019Arc Cavalleria rusticana (\u201cRustic chivalry\u201d), 1874\u20131934 au b\u00fbcher (Joan of Arc at the Stake) premiered in 1890, was the earliest (1935), with a libretto by the writer major success of the Italian school of An influential teacher and composer, Paul Claudel. verismo (\u201crealism\u201d). Based on a short Gustav Holst was one of the fathers of the story by Giovanni Verga, it tells a tale of English school of the 20th century that DARIUS MILHAUD passion and betrayal in a Sicilian village, gave rise to figures such as Benjamin climaxing in a fatal duel between two Britten and Michael Tippett. Holst was 1892\u20131974 rival lovers. As with Leoncavallo\u2019s interested in both English folk music and Pagliacci, with which it is often Hindu mysticism, reflected in his Choral With more than 400 works to his credit, performed as a double bill, it was the Hymns from the Rig-Veda (1912). His Darius Milhaud was one of the most Tuscan-born Mascagni\u2019s only major hit. most famous work is the orchestral suite, prolific 20th-century composers. From The Planets (1916). His vocal works include a Jewish family living in Provence, CARL NIELSEN operas, song cycles, the choral piece The he studied in Paris and, in 1917\u20131918, Hymn of Jesus (1917), and Ode to Death traveled to Brazil with the poet, 1865\u20131931 (1919), based on a Walt Whitman poem. dramatist, and diplomat Paul Claudel. He was a member of the group of Danish composer Carl Nielsen was one ZOLT\u00c1N KOD\u00c1LY composers known as \u201cLes Six,\u201d through of the great symphonic writers of the whom he met the surrealist writer and early 20th century. He completed his 1882\u20131967 designer Jean Cocteau. His collaboration First Symphony in 1892, but it was the with Cocteau produced the ballets Le Third (titled Sinfonia espansiva, 1911) Zolt\u00e1n Kod\u00e1ly was a pioneer in the field Boeuf sur le toit (1919) and Le Train bleu that started to establish his reputation of ethnomusicology (the study of music (1924), while his work with Claudel as a composer with an original use of in its ethnic and cultural context) and in yielded musical dramas, including Les tonality and harmony. The Fourth (The modern methods for teaching music to Cho\u00e9phores (1915), Christophe Colomb","DIRECTORY 337 (1928), and David (1954). During the Brecht. These included the two satirical (1959), and Music for Orchestra II (1962). 1940s, he taught composition at Mills operas Die Dreigroschenoper (The She also worked with Hammer Film College, California. One of his pupils was Threepenny Opera; 1928), adapted Productions, writing scores for horror the pioneer of minimalism, Steve Reich. from an 18th-century English ballad movies to earn money. opera, and Aufstieg und Fall der Stadt PAUL HINDEMITH Mahagonny (\u201cRise and fall of the ELLIOTT CARTER city of Mahagonny\u201d; 1930). Drawing 1895\u20131963 inspiration from cabaret and jazz as well 1908\u20132012 as his classical training, Weill created Paul Hindemith taught composition at bitingly surreal numbers, such as the In the 1930s, New Yorker Elliott Carter Berlin\u2019s School of Music until he was famous \u201cBallad of Mack the Knife\u201d from was one of many Americans who studied forced to resign in 1937, due to his Die Dreigroschenoper. In 1933, following under Nadia Boulanger in Paris. Back in opposition to the Nazi regime. He went Hitler\u2019s appointment as chancellor, the the United States, he developed his own to the United States, teaching at Yale Jewish Weill fled Germany, first for style, with different instrumental parts from 1940 to 1953 before returning to Paris, then the United States, where following different lines, interacting Germany. His textbooks, starting with he wrote a series of Broadway musicals with one another like characters in a The Craft of Musical Composition (1941), before his death in 1950. play. Carter\u2019s important orchestral works are still widely studied. His compositions included his Cello Sonata (1948), two include chamber works, symphonies, and JOAQU\u00cdN RODRIGO String Quartets (1950\u20131951 and 1959), operas, most famously Mathis der Maler a Double Concerto for Harpsichord and (\u201cMatthias the painter\u201d), which premiered 1901\u20131999 Piano (1961), and a Piano Concerto in Zurich in 1938. Telling the story of (1964\u20131965), a response to the building German painter Matthias Gr\u00fcnewald, Blind from the age of three, Joaqu\u00edn of the Berlin Wall. From the 1970s, he who joined a peasants\u2019 uprising in 1525, Rodrigo nonetheless studied music in turned to vocal music, with settings of it concerns an artist living in troubled Paris. He returned to his native Spain in contemporary North American poets, times and trying to follow his conscience 1939 after the end of the civil war there. such as Elizabeth Bishop in A Mirror in the face of an oppressive regime. His most famous piece, the Concerto on Which to Dwell (1975). de Aranjuez for guitar and orchestra, HENRY COWELL inspired by the gardens of the royal SAMUEL BARBER palace of Aranjuez, premiered the next 1897\u20131965 year. Other works include 11 concertos; 1910\u20131981 another guitar piece, Fantasia para In the 1920s and 1930s, the Californian un gentilhombre (\u201cFantasia for a Samuel Barber was born in Pennsylvania composer, pianist, and teacher Henry gentleman\u201d; 1954), and an opera, El in 1910 and became one of the most Cowell toured North America and hijo fingido (\u201cThe false son\u201d; 1964). celebrated American composers of the Europe, shocking audiences with century. His most popular work was one works such as The Tides of Manaunaun ELISABETH LUTYENS of his earliest\u2014the Adagio for Strings (1912), The Aeolian Harp (1923), and The (1938), an orchestration of the Adagio Banshee (1925). These involved creating 1906\u20131983 movement from a String Quartet he had \u201ctone clusters\u201d by placing his fist or written two years earlier. An alumnus of forearm on the keyboard while the other For much of her life, Elisabeth Lutyens\u2019s Philadelphia\u2019s Curtis Institute of Music, hand played the notes as normal or uncompromising Modernism drew blank Barber was later known for vocal works, placing one hand inside the piano and incomprehension from her fellow Britons. such as Knoxville: Summer of 1915 for strumming the strings like a harp. Lutyens studied in Paris and at the solo soprano (1948), the Hermit Songs Cowell was eclectic, drawing inspiration Royal College of Music in London. Her cycle (1952\u20131953), and two operas: Vanessa from his own Irish roots, hymns, or early works included a Concerto for (1958), and Antony and Cleopatra (1966), Japanese or Indian music. Through his Nine Instruments (1939), composed in which was written for the inauguration periodical, New Music, he was an active a style individual to her but somewhat of the Metropolitan Opera\u2019s new theatre promoter of other people\u2019s works. akin to the serialism developed by at New York\u2019s Lincoln Center in 1966. Arnold Schoenberg. Vocal works KURT WEILL included literary settings, notably a MILTON BABBITT motet using texts from the philosopher 1900\u20131950 Ludwig Wittgenstein (1952). Among her 1916\u20132011 stage works were the chamber opera German composer Kurt Weill is best Infidelio (1954) and Isis and Osiris (1969\u2013 The avant-garde American composer, known for his collaborations with the 1970). Her best-known orchestral pieces teacher, and theorist Milton Babbitt had left-wing dramatist and poet Bertolt include Six Tempi (1957), Quincunx a background in both mathematics and","338 DIRECTORY music. Babbitt was a firm proponent of The quietness, he said, meant that Luigi Nono, he coined the term \u201cmusique serialism, as well as a pioneer of electronic audiences could hear the sounds. In concr\u00e8te instrumentale\u201d (\u201cconcrete music. His most important works include 1977, he composed Neither for soprano instrumental music\u201d). In Pression (1970) Three Compositions for Piano (1947), and orchestra, a setting of a monologue for solo cello, he uses not only the sounds Ensembles for Synthesizer (1962\u20131963), by the playwright Samuel Beckett. His the cellist has been trained to produce and Philomel (1964) for solo soprano later works, such as the String Quartet II but also other more mechanical sounds, with electronic accompaniment. (1983), which lasts for five hours without as when the bow is pressed down hard break, were immersive, almost mystical on the strings. He also incorporates LUIGI NONO experiences for listeners. recordings (often distorted) of well- known pieces, such as Mozart\u2019s Clarinet 1924\u20131990 HANS WERNER HENZE Concerto, into his compositions, as in his work for clarinet, orchestra, and tape, The Venetian Luigi Nono was a radical 1926\u20132012 Accanto (1976). Other pieces include in music and politics alike, and often NUN (1999) for flute, trombone, male combined the two. His Il canto sospeso A German living in Italy, Hans Werner chorus, and orchestra, and an opera, (\u201cThe interrupted song\u201d; 1955\u20131956)\u2014 Henze is known for a shimmering Das M\u00e4dchen mit den Schwefelh\u00f6lzern for solo voices, chorus, and orchestra\u2014 lyrical style that drew inspiration from (\u201cThe little match girl\u201d) in 1997. excerpts letters written during World traditions as varied as Romanticism, War II by members of the anti-Nazi neoclassicism, and jazz. Highly prolific, ARVO P\u00c4RT resistance awaiting execution. Nono\u2019s he wrote 10 symphonies as well as solo Marxist beliefs are also clear in his instrumental, chamber, and orchestral 1935\u2013 first opera, Intolleranza (1960), about an music. He found fame, above all, for his Italian migrant looking for work. In the operas, including two collaborations The Estonian-born P\u00e4rt\u2019s early works 1960s, he began staging pieces, such as with the English poet W.H. Auden: include unmistakably Modernist pieces, La fabbrica illuminata (\u201cThe illuminated Elegy for Young Lovers (1961) and such as Nekrolog (1960) and his first two factory\u201d; 1964), in factories and other The Bassarids (1966). symphonies (1963 and 1966). From 1968, places of work. however, he almost completely ceased HARRISON BIRTWISTLE composing for eight years, partly in PIERRE BOULEZ response to the repressive censorship in 1934\u2013 his still Soviet-controlled homeland, but 1925\u20132016 also in the light of his devout Russian Harrison Birtwistle was part of a group Orthodox faith. His new style emerged The avant-garde French composer Pierre of students at the Royal Manchester in a short solo piano piece, F\u00fcr Alina Boulez was a hugely influential figure in College of Music in northern England, (1976), remarkable for its pared-back the late 20th century. One of his most who became known as the Manchester minimalism and the bell-like quality of admired early works was Le Marteau School. Modernists, they also drew the sound. A stream of works followed, sans ma\u00eetre (The Hammer without a inspiration from medieval and early including Tabula Rasa (1977), Summa Master; 1954), a setting of poems by the Renaissance music. Birtwistle came into (1977), the Cantus in memoriam surrealist Ren\u00e9 Char. A decade later, he his own in the 1960s with works such Benjamin Britten (1977), and a St. John composed the successful Pli selon pli as Tragoedia (1965) for wind quintet, Passion (1982). (\u201cFold upon fold\u201d; 1964) for soprano and harp, and string quartet and his first orchestra. Among his later works was opera, Punch and Judy (1968). Operas ARIBERT REIMANN R\u00e9pons (1985), for chamber orchestra remain an important part of his output, with six percussive soloists and live including The Mask of Orpheus (1986), 1936\u2013 electronics. Boulez had an international Gawain (1991), and The Minotaur (2008); career as a conductor, including periods his instrumental works include Exody Aribert Reimann, a Berlin-born with the New York Philharmonic and the (1997) for orchestra, The Cry of Anubis composer, pianist, and teacher, has BBC Symphony Orchestra in London. (1994) for tuba and orchestra, and written chamber works, concertos, and Harrison\u2019s Clocks (1998) for solo piano. orchestral pieces but is mainly known MORTON FELDMAN for his deft use of the human voice\u2014 HELMUT LACHENMANN Reimann had a long, close association 1926\u20131987 with the baritone Dietrich Fischer- 1935\u2013 Dieskau, for whom he often acted as Born in Queens, New York, Morton accompanist. Reimann wrote a series Feldman was notable for the slow, The German Helmut Lachenmann\u2019s goal of successful operas, mostly based on deliberate quietness of his music and as a composer is to open up new \u201csound the works of famous dramatists. Lear, the exceptional length of his later works. worlds.\u201d A Modernist who studied under adapted from the Shakespeare play, is","DIRECTORY 339 widely seen as his most successful work. updated to the urban world of the 21st His vocal works, which constitute a A Modernist in style, Reimann is also century. Inspired by composers such as large proportion of his output, have influenced by Indian music. Jan\u00e1c\u02c7 ek and Stravinsky, Weir draws on included Cantos Sagrados (1990), a the folk traditions not only of her native setting of poems by the Latin American JOHN TAVENER Scotland and Europe but also of South writers Ariel Dorfman and Ana Maria Asia. Weir\u2019s work pays particular Mendosa; the cantata Quickening (1998); 1944\u20132013 attention to narrative; King Harald\u2019s two operas; and settings of liturgical Saga (1979), for solo soprano, is a texts and the Catholic Mass. With influences including Stravinsky medieval historical drama compressed and Messiaen, John Tavener found fame into less than 15 minutes. Meanwhile, MARK-ANTHONY TURNAGE in 1970 when his cantata, The Whale\u2014 her instrumental works include her based on the biblical tale of Jonah\u2014was 15-minute Piano Concerto (1997), 1960\u2013 released by the Apple record label. The another gem of distillation, and London-born Tavener\u2019s conversion to The Welcome Arrival of Rain (2001). In British composer Mark-Anthony Russian Orthodox Christianity in 1977 2014, Weir was appointed Master of the Turnage\u2019s first opera, Greek, is based on was the fruit of a long-standing spiritual Queen\u2019s Music in succession to Sir Peter a version of Sophocles\u2019s tragedy Oedipus quest that gave rise to richly mystical Maxwell Davies. Rex, set in London\u2019s East End. The opera pieces, including Ikon of Light (1984), was an instant success when premiered The Protecting Veil (1989), and Song for MAGNUS LINDBERG at the Munich Biennale in 1988. Drawing Athene (1993). In 2003, he wrote The on jazz and rock as well as the classical Veil of the Temple: a huge choral work 1958\u2013 tradition, Turnage\u2019s music is streetwise, intended to last all night in an Orthodox expressionistic, and often humorous. His vigil service and regarded by Tavener as The orchestra is the Finnish composer stage works have included two further his \u201csupreme achievement.\u201d Magnus Lindberg\u2019s first love, and he has operas\u2014The Silver Tassie (2000) and established himself as one of the world\u2019s Anna Nicole (2011)\u2014and the ballets JOHN ADAMS most popular composers of ambitious UNDANCE (2011), Trespass (2012), and orchestral pieces. His beginnings were Strapless (2016). Among his instrumental 1947\u2013 avant-garde, as seen in works such as works are Three Screaming Popes Action\u2013Situation\u2013Signification (1982) (1989), inspired by paintings by the Younger than his fellow minimalists, and Kraft (Power; 1985). Later his music artist Francis Bacon; the trumpet Steve Reich and Philip Glass, the New became more eclectic, drawing on concerto From the Wreckage (2005), England\u2013born Adams made his name classical tradition (including the works written for Swedish trumpeter H\u00e5kan with pieces such as Shaker Loops (1978) of his Finnish predecessor, Sibelius) Hardenberger; and a violin concerto, and Grand Pianola Music (1982). His and with richer melodies and color. His Mambo, Blues, and Tarantella (2008). music is often humorous, referencing major pieces from the 1990s were Aura popular culture. Adams is arguably more (1994) and Arena (1995), and his works GEORGE BENJAMIN concerned than most minimalists with since 2000 have included concertos for harmony and progression. This can be clarinet (2002) and violin (2006), as well 1960\u2013 seen in his Harmonielehre (1985), a as his first vocal work for a soloist, three-movement orchestral work, and his Accused; three interrogations for One of the elderly Messiaen\u2019s last and first opera, Nixon in China (1987), inspired soprano and orchestra (2014). best loved students, Benjamin is unusual by President Richard Nixon\u2019s 1972 visit. among British composers for his affinity In addition to two more operas, his later JAMES MACMILLAN with French avant-garde music. His works have included concertos for violin output has been remarkable for its (1993), clarinet (1996), and piano (1997) 1959\u2013 combination of precision with color and and Scheherazade.2 (2014), a \u201cdramatic sensuousness. His breakthrough came at symphony\u201d for violin and orchestra. Catholic spirituality, progressive politics, the age of 20, when his orchestral piece, and Scottish folk tradition have been Ringed by the Flat Horizon, premiered at JUDITH WEIR inspirations for the Scottish Modernist the BBC Proms in 1980. His works since James MacMillan. His first big success then have included At First Light (1982) 1954\u2013 was with an orchestral work, The for chamber orchestra; Upon Silence Confession of Isobel Gowdie, which (1990) for soprano and string ensemble, Born in England to Scottish parents, was first performed at the BBC Proms and Palimpsests (2002) for full orchestra. Weir is known above all for her operas\u2014 in 1990. Two years later, he wrote Veni, He has also written three operas with from her high-spirited debut work, A Veni, Emmanuel\u2014a concerto for the playwright Martin Crimp: Into the Night at the Chinese Opera (1987), to percussion and orchestra\u2014for the great Little Hill (2006), Written on Skin (2012), Miss Fortune (2011), a Sicilian folktale Scottish percussionist Evelyn Glennie. and Lessons in Love and Violence (2018).","340 GLOSSARY A cappella Unaccompanied Cadenza Originally an improvised the staff; a treble clef, for example, singing by a soloist or group. solo by the soloist in a concerto; marks the bottom line of a staff as from the 19th century, it became being an E, whereas a bass clef Alto The highest male and lowest more formalized, less spontaneous. means it should be read as a G. female voice; also a term describing an instrument that is lower in pitch Canon A contrapuntal composition Coda Literally \u201ctail\u201d in Italian; a than a treble instrument. in which the separate voices enter final section of a piece of music, one by one. In a strict canon, each distinct from the overall structure. Aria A vocal piece for one or more part repeats the melody exactly. voices in an opera or oratorio. Concerto A large piece for solo Cantata A programmatic piece, instrument and orchestra, designed Atonal Without a recognizable key; generally for voice and orchestra, to showcase the soloist\u2019s skills; the the opposite of tonality. designed to tell a story; a cantata Baroque concerto grosso, however, da camera is a secular piece, while has a more equal interplay between Baritone The male voice between cantata da chiesa is a sacred one. the smaller orchestra (ripieno) and tenor and bass, or an instrument a group of soloists (concertino). within this tonal range. Chamber music Pieces for small groups of two or more instruments, Consonance A chord or interval, Baroque Music composed between such as duets, trios, and quartets. such as a third or fifth, that sounds 1600 and 1750; describes pieces pleasing; opposite of dissonance. from the period before the Classical. Chord A simultaneous combination of notes. The most frequently used Consort An instrumental ensemble Bass The lowest in tone: describes are called \u201ctriads,\u201d which consist of popular during the 16th and 17th the lowest male voice; the lowest three distinct notes built on the first, centuries in England; the term is part of a chord or piece of music; or third, and fifth notes of a scale. For also used to describe the music the lowest instrument in a family. example, in the key of C major, the played by these ensembles as well notes of the scale are C, D, E, F, G, as the performance itself. Basso continuo Harmonic A, and B; the C major triad consists accompaniment, usually by a of the notes C, E, and G. Contralto Term describing the harpsichord or organ and bass lowest of the female voices (alto) viol or cello, extensively used in Chromatic Based on the scale of in an opera context. the Baroque period. all 12 semitones in an octave, as opposed to diatonic, which is Contrapuntal Using counterpoint: Bel canto Meaning \u201cbeautiful based on a scale of seven notes. the simultaneous playing or singing song\u201d in Italian; an 18th- and early of two or more melodic lines. 19th-century school of singing Classical The post-Baroque characterized by a concentration period, approximately 1750\u20131820; Counterpoint see Contrapuntal. on beauty of tone, virtuosic agility, also a term used to distinguish and breath control. Western music written for a formal Diatonic Based on a scale of seven context, such as a church or concert notes with no sharps or flats, only Cadence The closing sequence of hall, from informal music styles. the white piano keys. a musical phrase or composition. A \u201cperfect cadence\u201d creates a Clef A symbol placed at the Dissonance Notes played together to sense of completion; an \u201cimperfect beginning of a musical staff to create discord (sounds unpleasing cadence\u201d sounds unfinished. determine the pitch of the notes on to the ear); opposite of consonance.","GLOSSARY 341 Dynamics Differences in volume to indicate the presence of its sound-world involving of a piece or section of music; also associated character, emotion, an almost hypnotic texture of refers to the notation system of or object. repeated short patterns. markings on sheet music that instruct players on volume. Libretto The text of an opera or Minor A term applied to a key other vocal dramatic work. signature or chord, triad, or scale Flat A note that has been lowered in a minor key; has a relative major by a half step (B lowered by a half Lied Traditional German song, key. Different to its relative major in step is B-flat); also describes an popularized by Schubert. that the third note (and sometimes instrument or voice that is out sixth and seventh) are flatted, of tune by being lower than the Madrigal Secular \u201ca cappella\u201d leading to a darker sound. intended pitch. song that was popular in Renaissance England and Italy; Mode Seven-note scale inherited Fugue From the Italian fuga, often set to a love poem. from Ancient Greece via the Middle \u201cto chase\u201d; a highly structured Ages, in which they were most contrapuntal piece, in two or more Major A term applied to a key prevalent; they survive today in parts, popular in the Baroque era. signature or any chord, triad, or folk music and plainsong. The separate voices or lines enter scale in a major key. The intervals one by one imitatively. in a major key consist of two whole Modulation A shift from one key steps followed by a half step, then to another\u2014for example, from C Harmony The simultaneous three whole steps followed by a half major to A minor. playing of different (usually step. Major keys are often described complementary) notes. The basic as sounding happy, while minor Monody Vocal style developed in unit of harmony is the chord. keys are subdued and sad. the Baroque period with a single, dominant melodic line; can be Interval The difference in pitch Mass Main service of the Roman accompanied or unaccompanied. between two notes, expressed Catholic Church, highly formalized numerically to show how many half in structure, comprising specific Monophonic Describes music steps apart they are; can be called sections\u2014known as the \u201cOrdinary\u201d\u2014 written in a single line, or melody \u201cmajor,\u201d \u201cminor,\u201d or \u201cperfect,\u201d for performed in the following order: without an accompaniment. example, a \u201cminor third\u201d is an Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus with interval of three semitones, while Hosanna and Benedictus, and Motet A polyphonic choral a \u201cmajor third\u201d is an interval of four. Agnus Dei and Dona nobis pacem. composition based on a sacred text, usually unaccompanied. Key The tonal center of a piece of Measure A segment of musical music, based on the first note (or time containing a fixed number Movement A self-contained tonic) of the scale. of beats, depending on the time section of a larger work; so called signature; measures are visualized because each has a different, Key signature A written indication by vertical lines on a score. autonomous tempo indication. of which key to play in, shown by a group of accidentals\u2014 sharps or Melody A series of notes that Musique concr\u00e8te Electronic flats\u2014at the beginning of a staff. together create a tune or theme. music comprising instrumental Rather than writing in a sharp for and natural sounds, often altered or each F and C in a piece in D major, Mezzo-soprano Literally \u201chalf distorted in the recording process. for example, the two sharps would soprano\u201d; the lowest soprano voice; be included on the staff. one tone above contralto. Natural A note that is neither sharp nor flat. A natural symbol Leitmotif Literally \u201cleading motif\u201d Minimalism A predominantly can be used following a sharp or in German; a short musical phrase American school of music from the flat introduced earlier in a measure, that recurs through the piece mid-20th century, which favored a to indicate that the player not flat","342 GLOSSARY or sharp the note anymore, or to Ornamentation Embellishment Requiem A piece written as a override sharps or flats in the work\u2019s of a note or chord with, for example, memorial; also specifically a setting key signature. a trill or a short fragment such as a of a Catholic Requiem Mass, which turn\u2014the note above the main note, celebrates the dead. Obbligato An accompaniment the main note, and the note below, that is important (and therefore played in quick succession. Rhythm The pattern of relative \u201cobligatory\u201d); often describes durations of and stresses on notes a countermelody played by an Ostinato Repeated musical figure, in a piece, commonly organized in instrument in an ensemble or a usually in the bass part, providing regular groups or measures. Baroque keyboard accompaniment a foundation for harmonic and written out in full rather than with melodic variation above. Romantic The cultural epoch the standard figured bass notation. heralded in music by Beethoven, Overture French for \u201copening\u201d; which dominated the 19th century; Octave The interval between one an instrumental introduction to characterized by the abandonment pitch and another with double or an opera or ballet; presents some of traditional forms, inspiration by half its frequency\u2014for example, on of the main thematic material. extra-musical subjects, an increase a piano, there is an octave between in the scale of composition, and use high C and the next highest C note. Pianola A self-playing piano in of chromaticism. which the keys are operated by air Opera Drama in which all or most that is pumped through perforated Rondo Piece or movement of music characters sing and in which music paper fed by a roller. based on a recurring theme with is an important element; usually all interspersed material; follows a dialogue is sung. Pitch The position of one sound form such as ABACADAE. in relation to the range of tonal Opera buffa Type of comic opera sounds\u2014how high or low it is\u2014 Sarabande A slow court dance in popular in the 18th century; which depends on the frequency triple time, popular in Europe from opposite of opera seria. of sound waves per second (hertz). the 17th century. Op\u00e9ra comique An exclusively Plainsong Medieval church music Scale A series of notes that define French type of opera that, despite also known as plainchant; consists a tune and, usually, the key of the its name, is not always comic, nor of a unison, unaccompanied vocal piece. Different scales give music particularly light; also includes line in free rhythm, like speech, a different feeling and \u201ccolor.\u201d spoken dialogue. with no regular measure lengths. Scherzo Lively dance piece (or Opera seria Literally \u201cserious Polyphony Meaning \u201cmany movement) in triple time. opera,\u201d the direct opposite of opera sounds,\u201d this refers to a style of buffa; characterized by heroic or composition in which all parts are Semitone Also known as a half mythological plots and formality independent and of equal value. step or half tone; the smallest in both music and action. musical interval between notes in Program music Any music Western tonal music. There are Operetta Italian for \u201clittle opera,\u201d written to describe a nonmusical two semitones in a whole tone and and sometimes known as \u201clight theme, such as an event, 112 semitones in an octave. On a opera\u201d; a lighter 19th-century style landscape, or literary work. keyboard, a semitone is found including spoken dialogue. where two keys are as close Recitative Style of singing in together as possible\u2014for example, Oratorio A work for vocal soloists opera and oratorio closely related to E to F is a semitone. See also Tone. and choir with instrumental the delivery of dramatic speech in accompaniment; differs from an pitch and rhythm; often used for Serial music System of atonal opera in that an oratorio is a dialogue and exposition of the plot composition developed in the 1920s concert piece, not a drama. between arias and choruses. by Arnold Schoenberg and others,","GLOSSARY 343 in which fixed sequences of music Soprano The highest of the four Tonality System of major and are used as a foundation to create standard singing voices\u2014above minor scales and keys; forms the a more complex whole work. alto, tenor, and bass; term for a basis of all Western music from the female or a young boy singing in 17th century until Schoenberg in Sharp A note that has been raised this vocal range. the early 20th century. Tonal music by a half step\u2014for example, F adheres to the principles of tonality. raised by a half step is F-sharp; also Staff The grid of five horizontal describes an instrument or voice lines on which music is written; Tone Two half steps; equal to that is out of tune by being higher also called a \u201cstave.\u201d the interval of a major second, than the intended pitch. comprising two adjacent positions Suite Multimovement work\u2014 on a staff. See also semitone. Singspiel Literally \u201csong play\u201d in generally instrumental\u2014made up German, a type of comic opera of a series of contrasting dance Tone poem Extended single- with spoken dialogue rather than movements, usually all in one key. movement symphonic work, usually recitative; typified in Mozart\u2019s programmatic, often describing The Magic Flute. Symphony Large-scale work landscape or literary works; also for full orchestra; Classical and called a \u201csymphonic poem.\u201d Sonata Popular instrumental piece Romantic symphonies both contain for one or more players; originated four movements\u2014traditionally an Tonic The first note, or degree, of in the Baroque period, when the allegro, a slower second movement, any diatonic (major or minor) scale; term referred to a short piece for a a scherzo, and a lively finale. Later most important note of the scale, solo or small group of instruments symphonies can contain more or providing the focus for the melody accompanied by a basso continuo. fewer\u2014the first movement is often and harmony of a piece of music; in sonata form, and the slow also describes the main key of a Sonata da camera \u201cChamber movement and finale may follow piece of music. sonata\u201d in Italian; a type of a similar structure. chamber piece\u2014usually for two Treble The highest unchanged violins with basso continuo\u2014from Temperament Tuning an male voice, or the highest the late 17th and early 18th century. instrument by adjusting intervals instrument or part in a piece of between notes to enable it to play music; also the name for the symbol Sonata da chiesa \u201cChurch sonata\u201d; in different keys. Most keyboard (clef) used to indicate notes above a multi-instrumental piece similar instruments are tuned using \u201cequal middle C on the piano. to the sonata da camera, usually temperament\u201d based on an octave comprising four movements: a slow of 12 equal half steps. Triad A three-note chord that introduction, a fugal movement, a consists of a root note plus the slow movement, and a quick finale. Tempo The pace of a work; intervals of a third and a fifth. indicated on sheet music with There are four types: major (e.g. Sonata principle A musical form terms such as allegro (\u201cquickly\u201d) C\u2013E\u2013G), minor (e.g. C\u2013E-flat\u2013G), made up of the exposition (two or adagio (\u201cslowly\u201d). augmented (e.g. C\u2013E\u2013G-sharp), and subjects linked by a bridge section, diminished (e.g. C\u2013E-flat\u2013G-flat). the second of which is in a different Tenor The highest natural adult key), the development (expounding male voice; also a term describing Vibrato The rapid, regular upon the exposition), and the an instrument in this range. variation of pitch around a single recapitulation, an altered restating note for expressive effect. of the exposition in the tonic key. Timbre The particular quality (literally \u201cstamp\u201d), or character, 12-tone music Works in which Song cycle A group of songs that of a sound that enables a listener each degree of the chromatic scale tells a story or shares a common to distinguish one instrument (or is ascribed the same degree of theme; designed to be performed voice) from another; synonymous importance, eliminating any in a sequence as a single entity. with \u201ctone color.\u201d concept of key or tonality.","344 INDEX Page numbers in bold refer to main entries; those B blue cathedral (Higdon) 326\u2013327 in italics refer to captions. The Blue Danube (J. Strauss II) 178 Babbitt, Milton 337 Bluebeard\u2019s Castle (Bart\u00f3k) 270 1 + 1 (Glass) 312 Bach, Carl Philipp Emanuel 82, 105, 120\u2013121 Boccherini, Luigi 334 4\u00b433\u02dd (Cage) 304 Bach, Johann Christian 86, 97, 120, 333 Borodin, Aleksandr 335 Bach, Johann Sebastian 25, 48, 78, 80, 82, 83, 94, Boris Godunov (Mussorgsky) 207 A Boris Godunov (Rimsky-Korsakov) 207 95, 98\u2013105, 103, 105, 108\u2013111, 121, 165, 171, Boulanger, Lili 234, 235 The Abduction from the Seraglio (Mozart) 136 264, 280, 285, 308 Boulanger, Nadia 235, 238, 287, 299 Abelard, Peter 26 Bachianas brasileiras (Villa-Lobos) 280\u2013281 Boulez, Pierre 229, 264, 283, 301, 306, 308, 320, 338 Abraham\u2019s Youth (Gnessin) 309 Balakirev, Mily 207, 335 Brahms, Johannes 155, 158, 164, 166, 173, 179, \u201cabsolute music\u201d 273 Ballet m\u00e9canique (Antheil) 268 Actions for free jazz orchestra (Penderecki\/Cherry) 258 ballet music 188\u2013189, 188, 213, 214, 236, 266 Adam de la Halle 33\u201334 com\u00e9die-ballet 70 Brandenburg Concertos (J.S. Bach) 80, 94 Adams, John 329 Romantic 190\u2013191 The Brandenburgers in Bohemia (Smetana) 212, 213 Adams, John Luther 322 Soviet 309 Brewster, Henry 236, 238 Ad\u00e8s, Thomas 328 Ballets Russes 112, 248, 249, 251, 256, 262 Brigg Fair (Delius) 253 Adriana Mater (Saariho) 325 Balzac, Honor\u00e9 de 197 Britten, Benjamin 68, 155, 198, 237, 239, 266, 273, The Adventures of Grandmaster Flash on the Bamboula Squared (Wuorinen) 324 The Banjo (Gottschalk) 259 282, 284, 285, 288\u2013293, 318 Wheels of Steel 316 Barber, Samuel 286, 337 Bruckner, Anton 192, 335 Aeolian Harp (Cowell) 268 The Barber of Seville (Rossini) 148 Brumel, Antoine 44 African American music 214\u2013215, 254\u2013255, 258, Barbieri, Francisco Asenjo 222 B\u00fclow, Hans von 188 Baroque music 58\u2013111 Burleigh, Harry 214, 214 259, 260, 285 Colossal Baroque 44 Busoni, Ferruccio 266, 336 Aida (Verdi) 175, 199 English 74\u201377 Buxtehude, Dieterich 78\u201379, 79 Alb\u00e9niz, Isaac 210, 222 French 70\u201371, 82\u201383 Byrd, William 52\u201353, 57, 252 Albinoni, Tomaso 91, 94 High Baroque 100\u2013105 Albion and Albanius (Grabu) 74 Italian 90\u201391, 94\u201397 C Alceste (Lully) 71 The Bartered Bride (Smetana) 206, 213 Alcina (Handel) 88 Bart\u00f3k, B\u00e9la 212, 242, 252, 261, 266, 270\u2013271, 270, 308 Caccini, Francesca 234 Aldeburgh Festival 293, 318 basso continuo 66, 81 Caccini, Giulio 63, 66 aleatory music 302\u2013305, 313, 323 Bates, Mason 326 Cadmus et Hermione (Lully) 107 Alleluia (Whitacre) 329 Battle Cry of Freedom (Gottschalk) 216 Cage, John 257, 269, 273, 298, 302\u2013305, 315, 316, Alleluia nativitus (P\u00e9rotin) 30 Bay Psalm Book 216 Alma redemptoris mater (Power) 42 Bayreuth Festival 182, 183, 186\u2013187, 293 317, 323, 328 Alsop, Marin 238, 238 BBC Radiophonic Workshop 301 Caldwell, Sarah 238 Ambient 1: Music for Airports (Eno) 320 Beach, Amy 234 Cannabich, Christian 116, 117 ambient music 313, 320 Beckett, Samuel 317, 321 canons 50, 74, 110\u2013111 \u201cAn die ferne Geliebte\u201d (Beethoven) 152 Beecham, Thomas 238 cantatas 101, 103, 173 Anonymous IV 28\u201329, 31 Beethoven, Ludwig van 86, 90, 96, 101, 105, 121, 127, cante jondo 223 Antheil, George 268 128, 131, 132, 133, 134, 137, 138\u2013141, 148, 152, Canticum Canticorum 51 anthems 102 156\u2013161, 161, 166, 169, 177, 182, 188, 208, 265, 304 cantus firmus 36, 37, 42 antiphons 23, 68 The Beggar\u2019s Opera (Gay) 88, 135 canzoni 55, 68 The Apocalypse (Taverner) 322 bel canto 183, 197, 211 Caprices (Paganini) 146, 147 Apocalypsis (Schafer) 322 Bellini, Vincenzo 334 Cardew, Cornelius 302, 305 The Apostles (Elgar) 218, 219 Belshazzar\u2019s Feast (Walton) 284 Carmen (Bizet) 175, 195, 195 Appalachian Spring 286\u2013287, 287 Benjamin, George 265, 301, 339 Carnaval (Schumann) 164 Apparitions (Ligeti) 324 Berg, Alban 261, 264, 265, 290 Carter, Elliot 286, 337 Arabic poetic conventions 33 Berio, Luciano 254, 301, 316\u2013317 Caserta, Philippus de 37 Arezzo, Guido d\u2019 24\u201325, 25 Berlioz, Hector 131, 146, 149, 155, 162\u2013163, 163, Cavalleria rusticana (Mascagni) 174, 194, 197 The Armed Man (Jenkins) 42 167, 169, 172\u2013173, 176, 177, 186, 210 Cavalli, Francesco 63, 76, 77 The Arrival of the Queen of Sheba (Handel) 106 Biber, Heinrich 44 The Cave (Reich) 320 Ars nova 36\u201337 Billy Budd (Britten) 237, 293 Cavos, Catterino 207 The Art of Fugue (J.S. Bach) 109, 111, 308 Birtwistle, Harrison 209, 290, 301, 318, 319, 325, 338 Cello Concerto (Lutos\u0142awski) 310 Art of Noises (Russolo) 268 biwa 314, 314 Cello Concerto (Walton) 318 art song 152, 155 see also Lieder Bizet, Georges 175, 195, 198, 237, 335 Celtic Requiem (Tavener) 282 Athalie (Racine) 208 Bj\u00f8rnson, Bj\u00f8rnstjerne 209 \u201cCentral Park in the Dark\u201d (Ives) 316, 317 Atl\u00e1ntida (Falla) 223 Blow, John 74, 75 Cesti, Antonio 63 Atmosph\u00e8res (Ligeti) 310 chamber music 80, 124, 127, 234 atonality 242\u2013245 Chaminade, C\u00e9cile 234","INDEX 345 The Charlatan (Haas) 263 Daphnis et Chlo\u00e9 (Ravel) 228 Elizabeth I 45, 52\u201353, 57 Charpentier, Marc-Antoine 70, 333 Das klagende Lied (Mahler) 199 Ellington, Duke 215 A Child of Our Time (Tippett) 218, 284\u2013285, 284 Das Lied von der Erde (Mahler) 198, 200\u2013201 \u00c9luard, Paul 262 Chin, Unsuk 301, 324 Daughters of the Lonesome Isles (Cage) 273 English Musical Renaissance 173 Chopin, Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric 96, 164\u2013165, 164, 166, 178, 179 Davies, Peter Maxwell 318\u2013319 Enigma Variations (Elgar) 219, 290 choral music De institutione musica (Boethius) 24 Eno, Brian 320, 321 Debussy, Claude 149, 155, 164, 199, 209, 211, 222, The Entertainer (Joplin) 259 19th-century 170\u2013173 Erben, Karel 206 21st-century 329 228\u2013231, 242, 243, 248, 256, 258, 259, 266, 270, \u201cErik\u00f6nig\u201d (Schubert) 153, 154 Baroque 66\u201369, 100\u2013105 273, 314, 324 Erratum musicale (Duchamp) 302 chori spezzati 55, 66, 69 Delibes, L\u00e9o 190 Essercizi per gravicembalo (D. Scarlatti) 90, 91, 132 English 44\u201345, 218\u2013219, 284\u2013285 Delius, Frederick 253, 336 Estampes (Debussy) 199, 314 polychoral style 44, 45 Der Freisch\u00fctz (Weber) 134, 137, 149, 182 Esther (Handel) 86, 100 Renaissance 44\u201345 \u201cDer Wanderer\u201d (Schubert) 153 \u00e9tudes 165 chorales 78\u201379, 103, 105, 172, 271, 285 Derbyshire, Delia 301 \u00c9tudes (Debussy) 324 Ch\u00f4ros (Villa-Lobos) 281 D\u00e9serts (Var\u00e8se) 298 \u00c9tudes (Ligeti) 324 Chr\u00e9tien de Troyes 34 Desprez, Josquin 43 Euridice (Peri) 63 Christmas Oratorio (Bach) 101, 103 The Devil to Pay (Coffey) 135\u2013136 Everything Is Important (Walshe) 328 chromatic scale 242, 243, 264, 265 Dia, Beatriz, Comtessa de 26 Classical era 105, 108\u2013109, 112\u2013141, 160, 168, 170 Diabelli, Anton 160 F Clementi, Muzio 132\u2013133 Diaghilev, Sergei 223, 248, 251, 251, 256 The Cobbler and the Fairy (Ricci) 148 Dido and Aeneas (Purcell) 74\u201377, 290 The Fairies (Wagner) 149, 182\u2013183 Cocteau, Jean 256, 257, 262, 299, 321 Didone (Cavalli) 76, 77 The Fairy Queen (Purcell) 75, 77 Codax, Martin 35 Die Feen (Wagner) 149 Falla, Manuel de 222, 223 Codex Psalmorum 43 Die Fledermaus (Strauss) 137 Falstaff (Verdi) 175 Coffee Cantata (Bach) 101 Die Jagd (Hiller) 134, 136 Fantasia chromatica (Sweelinck) 108 Coffey, Charles 135\u2013136 Die sch\u00f6ne M\u00fcllerin (Schubert) 152, 153\u2013154 Fantasia Concertante on a Theme of Corelli Cold Mountain (Higdon) 325, 327 Different Trains (Reich) 320 collage 254\u2013255, 316\u2013317 discants 29, 31 (Tippett) 96 com\u00e9die-ballet 70 Ditters von Dittersdorf, Carl 125, 136, 334 Fantasia on a Theme of Thomas Tallis (Vaughan Concert for Piano and Orchestra (Cage) 323 Diversions (Britten) 266 concerti di camera see chamber music Don Carlos (Verdi) 175 Williams) 45 Concerti ecclesiastici (Viadana) 66 Don Giovanni (Mozart) 182, 212, 254 Fantasie (Alkan) 266 Concerti grossi (Corelli) 80\u201381 Don Pascuale (Donizetti) 148 Farrenc, Louise 234 Concerto for Double String Orchestra (Tippett) 252 Donizetti, Gaetano 148, 174, 334 Faur\u00e9, Gabriel 155, 209, 210\u2013211, 210, 228, 267 Concerto for Piano and Orchestra (Cowell) 254 Donnerstag (Stockhausen) 306 Faust (Goethe) 153, 176\u2013177 concertos 67, 68, 70, 80, 94\u201397 Dowland, John 56\u201357 Faust (Gounod) 195 concerti grossi 80\u201381, 94, 96, 216 Dowland, Robert 57 Faust et H\u00e9l\u00e8ne (Boulanger) 234 piano concertos for the left hand 266\u2013267 Dr Who 301 Faust Symphony (Liszt) 162, 163, 167, solo concertos 179 The Dream of Gerontius (Elgar) 170, 218\u2013219 Concierto de Aranjuez (Rodrigo) 222 Dryden, John 74, 77 176\u2013177, 177 Concord Sonata (Ives) 286 Duchamp, Marcel 302, 303 Fayrfax, Robert 44\u201345 contemporary music 298\u2013329 Dufay, Guillaume 42, 42 Feldman, Morton 302, 305 Contrasts (Bart\u00f3k) 261 Dunstable, John 42, 44 female composers 26\u201327, 232\u2013239 Copland, Aaron 215, 235, 286\u2013287 Dussek, Jan Ladislav 334 female conductors 238 Copp\u00e9lia (Delibes) 190 Dvo\u02c7r\u00e1k, Anton\u00edn 96, 155, 179, 206, 212\u2013215, 235, Festa, Costanzo 48 Cordier, Baude 37 252, 263 Fidelio (Beethoven) 134, 137, 182 Corelli, Arcangelo 80\u201381, 86, 90, 91, 94 Dzerhinsky, Ivan 276 Field, John 164, 165 Corigliano, John 326 Figure humaine (Poulenc) 262 Corsi, Jacopo 62, 63 E Finlandia (Sibelius) 221 Cosi fan tutte (Mozart) 148 First Construction (in Metal) (Cage) 269 Counter-Reformation 48, 50\u201351 early music 18\u201337 First New England School 216 counterpoint 86, 100, 101, 108\u2013111 Ebony Concerto (Stravinsky) 261 Five Sacred Songs (Webern) 242 Couperin, Fran\u00e7ois 82\u201383 Ecce beatam lucem 44 A Florentine Tragedy (Zemlinsky) 192 courtly love 34, 35 Edgar (Puccini) 195 Flute Concerto in A major (C.P.E. Bach) 120\u2013121 Cowell, Henry 254, 255, 268, 303, 337 Egmont (Goethe) 208 Fluxus movement 303 The Creation (Haydn) 171 Eight Songs for a Mad King (Pierrot Players) 318, 319 The Flying Dutchman (Wagner) 183, 237 Crumb, George 327 Eimert, Herbert 301 folk music 212\u2013215, 248\u2013249, 252\u2013253, 263, Czech Suite (Dvo\u02c7r\u00e1k) 214 Ein feste Burg (Luther) 78 Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott (Buxtehude) 79 270\u2013271, 280 D Einstein on the Beach 321 For Children (Bart\u00f3k) 252 electronic music 268, 269, 298\u2013301, 306, 307 The Forest (Smyth) 235 Dadaism 256\u2013257, 303 Elektra (Strauss) 193, 238 Foster, Stephen 216 dance forms 57, 82, 91, 165, 178, 213, 214, 222, 260 Elgar, Edward 89, 96, 163, 170, 173, 208, 209, Four Last Songs (R. Strauss) 155, 193 Four Penitential Motets (Poulenc) 282 see also ballet music 218\u2013219, 266, 290 Four Saints in Three Acts (Thomson) 286 Danish Folksongs Suite (Grainger) 252 Elijah (Mendelssohn) 100, 171, 172, 172, 173, 218 The Four Seasons (Vivaldi) 94, 96\u201397, 96 fractal music 324 Froberger, Johann Jakob 333","346 INDEX Franck, C\u00e9sar 163, 335 Grandval, Marie de 234 Howarth, Elgar 318 Frauenliebe und leben (Schumann) 155 The Great Gatsby (Harbison) 286 Howell, Herbert 284 Frescobaldi, Girolamo 333 Great Service (Byrd) 53 Hugh the Drover (Vaughan Williams) 290 fugues 48, 50, 108\u2013111, 264 Greber, Jakob 74 Hungarian Dances (Brahms) 189, 214 Futurist manifestos 268, 269 Gregorian chant 22, 23, 23, 25, 69, 317, 320 hymns 48, 50, 67, 78\u201379 \u201cGretchen am Spinnrade\u201d (Schubert) 153 Hymnus paradisi (Howell) 284 G Grieg, Edvard 179, 208\u2013209, 217, 220, 235 Gruppen (Stockhausen) 306\u2013307 IJ Gabrieli, Andrea 55, 66, 68 Gubaidulina, Sofia 310 Gabrieli, Giovanni 55, 68 Guerrero, Francisco 49 I Ching 305 Gaelic Symphony (Beach) 234 Guidonian Hand 24\u201325, 24 Iberia (Alb\u00e9niz) 222 Gagliano, Giovanni Battista da 63 Ibsen, Henrik 208\u2013209 Gagliano, Marco da 63 H Idomeneo (Mozart) 118, 135 galant music 107 Il Parnasso confuso (Gluck) 119 gamelan music 248, 273 Haas, Pavel 263 Il ritorno d\u2019Ulisse in patria (Monteverdi) 62, 63 Gandolfi, Michael 327 Hadley, Henry Kimball 293 Il trovatore (Verdi) 174, 175 Gautier, Th\u00e9ophile 155 Hail to Stalin (Prokofiev) 276 Imaginary Landscape (Cage) 298, 304, 316 Gay, John 88, 135 The Hammer without a Master (Boulez) 264 impressionist musical works 228\u2013231, 256, 262, 286 Geminiani, Francesco 81 Hammerklavier Sonata (Beethoven) 132 In C (Riley) 312\u2013313, 320 Gerber, Ernst Ludwig 125 Handel, George Frideric 25, 74, 77, 80, In nomine genre 45 German, Edward 290 In Seven Days (Ad\u00e8s) 328 German Requiem (Brahms) 173, 189 84\u201389, 91, 100, 101, 102, 106, 119, 121, incidental music 208\u2013209 Gershwin, George 215, 258\u2013261 171, 218, 284, 285 Institut de Recherche et Coordination Acoustique\/ Gershwin, Ira 261 Hans Heiling (Marschner) 149 Gesamtkuntswerk (complete art work) 182\u2013187 Harbison, John 286 Musique (IRCAM) 301 Gesang der Junglinge (Stockhausen) 298, 301 harmonic ideals 42 international style 86\u201389 Gesualdo da Venosa, Carlo 54, 332 harmony-singing 28\u201331 Invitation to the Dance (Weber) 178 Gibbons, Orlando 54, 333 Harold en Italie (Berlioz) 146 Ionisation (Var\u00e8se) 268\u2013269, 308 Gilbert, W.S. 290 harpsichord 56, 82\u201383, 90\u201391, 90 Iphig\u00e9nie en Aulide (Gluck) 107 Ginastera, Alberto 280 Harris, Roy 286 Itiber\u00ea, Bras\u00edlio 280 Giraud, Albert 244 Harrison, Lou 273 Ivan Susanin (Cavos) 207 Glass, Philip 235, 273, 312, 313, 320, 321 Hart, Roy 319 Ives, Charles 155, 254\u2013255, 286, 316, 317 Glennie, Evelyn 269 Harvey, Jonathan 301, 319 Jackson, Gabriel 329 Gli\u00e8re, Reinhold 309 Hauptmann, Moritz 100 J\u00e4ger March (Sibelius) 220 Glinka, Mikhail 207, 334 Hayasaka, Fumio 315 Jahn, Otto 100 Globokar, Vinko 301 Haydn, Joseph 86, 96, 116, 120, 121, Jan\u00e1c\u02c7 ek, Leo\u0161 206, 212, 263 Gluck, Christoph Willibald 107, 118\u2013119 122\u2013127, 127, 128, 132, 138, 139, Jarre, Jean-Michel 299 Gnessin, Mikhail 309 152, 158, 171 jazz 258, 260\u2013261 Godowsky, Leopold 147 Haydn Variations (Brahms) 189 Jehin, L\u00e9on 210 Goehr, Alexander 318 Heinrich, Anthony 216 Jenkins, John 56 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von 153, 159, The Heirs of the White Mountain (Dvo\u02c7r\u00e1k) 214 Jenkins, Karl 42 Helicopter String Quartet (Stockhausen) 307 Jenu\u00b0 fa (Jan\u00e1c\u02c7 ek) 206 176\u2013177, 208 H\u00e9loise, Abbess 26 Johannes de Garlandia 24 Goeyvaerts, Karel 306 Henry of Meissen 34 jongleurs 35 Goldberg Variations (J.S. Bach) 111 Henry, Pierre 299\u2013301, 299 Jonny Plays (Krenek) 261 goliards 35 Henze, Hans Werner 261, 339 Jonson, Ben 74 Golijov, Osvaldo 327 Herder, Johann Gottfried von 159 Joplin, Scott 259 Golliwogg\u2019s Cakewalk (Debussy) 258, 259 Hermann, Woody 261 J\u00f3runn Sk\u00e1ldmaer 26 Gombert, Nicolas 48, 67 heterophony 30 Judd, Donald 312 Goodman, Benny 261, 271 Higdon, Jennifer 325, 326\u2013327 Juliana of Li\u00e8ge 26 G\u00f3recki, Henryk 282, 311 Hildegard of Bingen 26\u201327, 26 Jutta of Sponheim 26, 27 G\u00f6tterd\u00e4mmerung (Wagner) 184, 185, 186 Hiller, Johann Adam 134, 136 Gottschalk, Louis Moreau 147, 216, 259 Hindemith, Paul 337 KL Gould, Glenn 111, 111 Hippolyte et Aricie (Rameau) 70, 107, 107 Gounod, Charles 177, 195 Hoffmann, E.T.A. 134, 137, 138, 149 Kapsberger, Giovanni Girolamo 56 Goyescas (Granados) 223 Hofmannsthal, Hugo von 193 Kennedy, Nigel 96 Grabu, Louis 74 Hogan, Eric 258, 259 Khachaturian, Aram 272, 309, 309 Graduale Cisterciense 29 Holidays (Ives) 254 Kilar, Wojciech 323 Gradus (Glass) 312 Hollis, Margaret 238 King, Martin Luther, Jr. 317 Gradus ad Parnassum 108 Holm\u00e8s, Augusta 234 King Arthur (Purcell) 70, 75, 77 Graham, Martha 286, 287 Holst, Gustav 74, 252, 253, 290, 336 Knoxville: Summer of 1915 (Barber) 286 Grainer, Ron 301 Holst, Imogen 239, 292 Knussen, Oliver 290 Grainger, Percy 252, 253 homophony 50 Koch, Heinrich Christoph 138 Granados, Enrique 223 Honegger, Arthur 262, 268, 336 Kod\u00e1ly, Zolt\u00e1n 212, 252, 271, 336 Grande Messe des morts (Berlioz) 210 Horn Concertos (Mozart) 96 Grande valse brillante (Chopin) 178 Hovhannisyan, Edgar 309","INDEX 347 Korot, Beryl 320 M Milhaud, Darius 248, 262, 336 Kraft, Anton\u00edn 96 Mingus, Charles 261 Krenek, Ernst 261 McCarthy, Nicholas 266 minimalism 251, 312\u2013313, 320\u2013321 Kronos Quartet 313 MacDowell, Edward 216\u2013217 Minnelieder 35 Kullervo (Sibelius) 220, 221 MacDowell Colony 217, 217 Minnesinger 35 Kurt\u00e1g, Gy\u00f6rgy 270 Machaut, Guillaume de 37 The Minotaur (Birtwistle) 325 La Boh\u00e8me (Puccini) 195\u2013196 MacMillan, James 284, 339 minstrels 35 La clemenzia di Tito (Gluck) 118, 135 Maconchy, Elizabeth 239 Miss Fortune (Weir) 239 La Creation du monde (Milhaud) 248 McPhee, Colin 273 Missa Caput 36 La Dafne (Peri\/Corsi) 62, 63 Madame Butterfly (Puccini) 194 Missa da Requiem (Verdi) 175 La Jeune France 282 Maderna, Bruno 301, 317 Missa et ecce terrae motus (Brumel) 44 La Mer (Debussy) 229, 314 madrigals 48, 54, 102, 234 Missa L\u2019homme arm\u00e9 (Dufay) 42, 50 La Messe de Liverpool (Henry) 299 The Magic Flute (Mozart) 130, 134\u2013137, 135, 149 Missa Pange lingua (Desprez) 43 La Pas Ma La (Hogan) 258, 259 Magister Albertus Parisiensis 28 Missa Papae Marcelli (Palestrina) 50\u201351 La serva padrona (Pergolesi) 107 Magnificat 102, 120 Missa prolationum (Ockeghem) 50 La Sylphide (Schneitzhoffer) 190 Magnus liber organi (L\u00e9onin) 29 Missa Repleatur os meum (Palestrina) 51 La traviata (Verdi) 68, 174\u2013175, 174 Mahler, Gustav 149, 155, 176, 188, 189, 192, Missa Salisburgensis (Biber) 44 Lachenmann, Helmut 338 modal rhythm 31 Lachner, Franz 130 198\u2013201, 238, 277, 317, 322 modernism 193, 224\u2013293 Lachrimae (Dowland) 57 Malats, Joaquim 222 modes 24, 25 Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk (Shostakovich) 272, 276 Mallarm\u00e9, St\u00e9phane 228, 231 Moli\u00e8re 70 Lambert, Constant 284 Manelli, Francesco 62 Monk, Thelonius 324 L\u2019Amour de loin (Saariaho) 234, 325 Manfred (Byron) 208 monophony 50 Lanier, Nicholas 74, 76 Mannheim school 116\u2013117, 129 Monteverdi, Claudio 48, 54, 62, 63, 64\u201369, 102, The Lark Ascending (Vaughan Williams) 253 Manon Lescaut (Puccini) 195 Lassus, Orlande de 51 Mantra (Stockhausen) 306 107, 322 Le bourgeois gentilhomme (Lully) 70\u201371 Maple Leaf Rag (Joplin) 259 Morley, Thomas 54 Le Jeu de Robin et de Marion 33\u201334, 33 \u201cThe March of the Women\u201d (Smyth) 238 Moses und Aaron (Schoenberg) 264 Le Roman de Fauvel (Gervais du Bus) 36, 37 The Marriage of Figaro (Mozart) 135, 148 motets 36, 37, 44, 45, 48, 50, 51, 53, 55, 101\u2013102, 264 Le villi (Puccini) 194\u2013195 Marschner, Heinrich 149 Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus 86, 88, 90, 94, 96, 102, Leb\u00e8gue, Nicholas-Antoine 82 Martinu, Bohuslav 263 Leh\u00e1r, Franz 137 Marx, Joseph 242 108, 116, 117, 118, 121, 125, 127, 128\u2013131, 133, leitmotifs 185, 186, 187, 260 Mascagni, Pietro 174, 194, 336 134\u2013137, 148, 149, 152, 158, 182, 208, 212, 254, 302 Leoncavallo, Ruggero 194 Maschera, Fiorentio 55 M\u00fcller, Wilhelm 152, 153 L\u00e9onin 28\u201329, 31 The Mask of Orpheus (Birtwistle) 318 multimedia experiences 320, 328 Les Biches (Poulenc) 262 The Mask of Time (Tippett) 284 Mundy, William 52 Les nuits d\u2019\u00e9t\u00e9 (Berlioz) 155 Mass 22, 23, 36, 37, 42, 43, 45, 49, 50, 67, 101 Murail, Tristan 301 Les Six 251, 257, 262 Musgrave, Thea 239 Les Yeux clos (Takemitsu) 315 requiem mass 210\u2013211 Music for 18 Musicians (Reich) 320 Lesh, Phil 317 Mass in B Minor (Bach) 101 music dramas 184 Let\u2019s Make an Opera (Britten) 293 Massenet, Jules 195 Music for the Royal Fireworks (Handel) 86, 88 Leutgeb, Joseph 96 Massine, L\u00e9onide 190, 223, 256 Music for Strings, Percussion, and Celesta Levi, Hermann 235 The Master-Singers of Nuremberg (Wagner) 186 (Bart\u00f3k) 308 L\u00e9vi-Strauss, Claude 317 mathematical principles 308, 324 music theatre 319 Lewis, John 261 Matisse, Henri 251 \u201cmusical dice games\u201d 302 Licht (Stockhausen) 307 Mazeppa (Grandval) 234 The Musical Offering (Bach) 111 Lieder 152\u2013155, 234 mazurka 165 musique concr\u00e8te 298\u2013301, 306 Life Is Short (Falla) 223 melismas 23, 31, 76 Musique de table (Telemann) 106 A Life for the Tsar (Glinka) 207 Mendelssohn, Fanny 234 Mussorgsky, Modest 155, 207, 207 Ligeti, Gy\u00f6rgy 270, 310, 311, 324 Mendelssohn, Felix 78, 100, 105, 108, 158, 167, muwashah music 33 Lim, Liza 323 My Homeland (Smetana) 206, 213, 263 L\u2019incoronazione de Poppea (Monteverdi) 67, 69 170\u2013173, 173, 179, 208, 218 Mystery Plays 32 Lind, Jenny 172 Menhuin, Yehudi 105 Lindberg, Magnus 339 Mephisto-Waltz (Liszt) 176 NO L\u2019isle joyeuse (Debussy) 229 Meredith, George 253 Liszt, Franz 49, 96, 131, 132, 146\u2013147, 162, 163, 167, Merrie England (German) 290 Nabucco (Verdi) 174, 175 The Merry Widow (Leh\u00e1r) 137 Nancarrow, Conlon 324 169, 176\u2013177, 179, 192, 217, 270 Mescalin Mix (Riley) 312 naqqara 35 The Little Barber of Lavapi\u00e9s (Barbieri) 222 Messe de Notre Dame 37 nationalism, musical 202\u2013223 liturgical dramas 26, 27, 32 Messiaen, Olivier 228, 248, 262, 273, 282\u2013283, 298, Locke, Matthew 55, 75 American 216\u2013217, 286\u2013287 Lohengrin (Wagner) 183 299, 307, 308, 315, 325 Czech 206, 212\u2013214, 263 L\u2019Orfeo (Monteverdi) 62, 63, 66, 67, 107 Messiah (Handel) 88, 89, 170, 218, 285 Finnish 220\u2013221 Lully, Jean-Baptiste 70\u201371, 71, 86, 102, 107 Metastasio, Pietro 118 folk music 212\u2013215 lute 35, 54, 56\u201357 Meyerbeer, Giacomo 183, 334 French 256 Luther, Martin 48, 52, 78, 103 Micrologus (d\u2019Arezzo) 24\u201325 Russian 207 Lutos\u0142awski, Witold 310, 323 micropolyphony 324 Spanish 222 Lutyens, Elisabeth 239, 253, 337 The Midsummer Marriage (Tippett) 290 Native American music 215, 217 Lyric Pieces (Grieg) 217 A Midsummer Night\u2019s Dream (Mendelssohn) 208","348 INDEX Neo-romanticism 326 P Poulenc, Francis 155, 262, 282 neoclassicism 248, 251, 282, 286 Power, Leonel 42 Nepomuceno, Alberto 280 Pacific 231 (Honegger) 268 Pran Nath, Pandit 313 neumes 24, 31 Pacius, Fredrik 220 Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun (Debussy) Neuwirth, Olga 328 Paganini, Niccol\u00f2 96, 146\u2013147, 147, 179 Newman, John Henry 218, 219 Pagliacci (Leoncavallo) 194 228\u2013231, 230, 242 Nielsen, Carl 220, 336 Paisiello, Giovanni 148 Pr\u00e9ludes (Chopin) 165 Nietzsche, Friedrich 103, 193 Palestrina, Giovanni Pierluigi da 42, 46\u201351, 264 Pr\u00e9ludes (Messiaen) 228, 283 Nights in the Gardens of Spain (Falla) 222 Pankhurst, Emmeline 235 \u201cprepared piano\u201d 303 Nijinsky, Vaslav 230, 248, 250 pantomime 34 Prez, Josquin des 48, 50 Nikolais, Alwin 300 Parade (Satie) 256\u2013257 Priest, Josias 75, 76 nocturnes 164, 165 Parsifal (Wagner) 183, 187, 198, 218 prima pratica 66, 67, 69, 101 Nono, Luigi 338 P\u00e4rt, Arvo 313, 320, 329, 338 primitivism 248\u2013251 North, Roger 81 Partita (Shaw) 329 The Prince of the Pagodas (Britten) 198 The Nose (Shostakovich) 276, 277 passacaglia 76 Prokofiev, Sergei 251, 266, 268, 272, 276, 309 notation passaggi 55 Prometheus: The Poem of Fire (Scriabin) 328 Patria (Schafer) 322 Protestant Reformation 48, 50, 78 early 22, 24\u201325 pavan 57 psalm settings 66, 67, 86, 216 revolution 36\u201337 The Pearl Fishers (Bizet) 198, 237 public concerts, establishment of 88 Notre Dame School 28, 31 Pears, Peter 291, 293 Puccini, Giacomo 194\u2013197 November Steps (Takemitsu) 314\u2013315 Pedrell, Felipe 222, 223 Pulcinella (Stravinsky) 190, 223 The Nutcracker (Tchaikovsky) 191, 191 Peer Gynt (Ibsen\/Grieg) 208\u2013209, 208 Punch and Judy (Birtwistle) 290, 318 Nyman, Michael 313 Pell\u00e9as et Melisande (Debussy) 229 Purcell, Henry 70, 72\u201377, 86, 102, 124, 290 O Care, thou wilt despatch me (Weelkes) 54 Penderecki, Krzysztof 100, 258, 261, 308, 310\u2013311 Purgatory (Weisgall) 290 Oberon, King of the Elves (Wranitzky) 134, 136\u2013137 P\u00e9n\u00e9lope (Faur\u00e9) 210 Obrecht, Jacob 43, 100 percussion 251, 268\u2013269, 273 QR Ockeghem, Johannes 50, 332 The Perfect Fool (Holst) 290 Octet (Stravinsky) 286 Pergolesi, Giovanni Battista 107 Qawwali music 29 October (Whitacre) 329 Peri, Jacopo 62\u201363 Quartet for the End of Time (Messiaen) 282\u2013283 \u201cOde to Joy\u201d (Schiller) 159, 162 P\u00e9rotin 28, 29, 30, 31, 31, 124 Querelle des Bouffons 107 Odo of Cluny 24 Perugia, Matteo da 37 Quiet Flows the Don (Dzerhinsky) 276 Offrandes (Var\u00e8se) 242 Peter Grimes (Britten) 237, 239, 290\u2013293, 291 Quotation of Dream (Takemitsu) 314 Ogdon, John 318 Peter and the Wolf (Prokofiev) 272 quotation technique 317 Oldfield, Mike 313 Petrucci, Ottaviano 43 Rachmaninoff, Sergei 96, 147, 207, 260, 266, 272 On Willows and Birches (Williams) 326 Petrushka (Stravinsky) 190 Raff, Joachim 217 The Opening of the Wells (Martinu) 263 Piano Concerto in A minor (Grieg) 179 ragtime 258\u2013260 opera Piano Concerto for the Left Hand (Ravel) 266\u2013267, Rain Tree Sketch II (Takemitsu) 315 20th-century British 290\u2013293 A Rainbow in Curved Air (Riley) 313 21st-century 325 267 The Rake\u2019s Progress (Stravinsky) 68 Baroque 74\u201377 Piano Concerto No. 1 in E minor (Chopin) 179 Rameau, Jean-Philippe 70, 107 characteristics 102 Piano Concerto No. 2 in G minor (Saint-Sa\u00ebns) 179 Rasputin (Rautavaara) 325 Czech 206 Piano Sonata in B minor (Liszt) 132, 270 Rastell, John 43 early 62\u201363 Piano Sonata in F-sharp minor (Clementi) 132, 133 Rattle, Simon 328 female composers 234\u2013239 Piano Sonata No. 2 \u201cConcord\u201d (Ives) 254 Rautavaara, Einojuhani 325 French 107 Piano-Rag-Music (Stravinsky) 260 Ravel, Maurice 178, 198, 207, 211, 228, 253, 256, 258, German Romantic 137, 149, 182\u2013185 Piazzolla, Astor 280, 281 Italian 174\u2013175 Picabia, Francis 303 260, 266\u2013267, 273 minimalist 321 Picasso, Pablo 223, 251, 256 Read, Daniel 216 Neapolitan School 116, 118 Pictures at an Exhibition (Mussorgsky) 207 recitative 63, 66, 67, 74, 118, 197, 260 opera buffa 86, 107, 135, 148 Pi\u00e8ces de clavecin (Couperin) 82\u201383 The Red Poppy (Gli\u00e8re) 309 opera seria 118\u2013119, 135 Pierrot lunaire (Schoenberg) 242, 244\u2013245, 244, Reich, Steve 312, 313, 317, 320, 320 semi-opera 77 Reichardt, Louise 234 Singspiel 134\u2013137, 149 308, 318, 319 Reimann, Aribert 338 verismo 194\u2013197 Pierrot Players (later, The Fires of London) 242, 319 Reincken, Johann Adam 79 zarzuela 222, 223 Pietrobono 56 Rel\u00e2che (Satie) 256 Zauberoper (\u201cmagic opera\u201d) 134, 137 Pink Floyd 321 Renaissance music 38\u201357 oratorios 86, 89, 100, 101\u2013105, 171\u2013172, 218, 284 Pithoprakta (Xenakis) 308 Requiem (Berlioz) 172\u2013173 see also choral music The Place Where You Go To Listen (Adams) 322 Requiem (Faur\u00e9) 210\u2013211 Orbit, William 301 plainsong 22\u201323, 26, 37, 49, 50, 67, 68 Requiem (Verdi) 173, 210 Ordo Virtutum (Hildegard of Bingen) 27 The Planets (Holst) 290 Requiem for Strings (Takemitsu) 315 Oresme, Nicole 36 Pleyel, Ignace Joseph 127 The (R)evolution of Steve Jobs (Bates) 326 Orfeo ed Euridice (Gluck) 118\u2013119 Po\u00e8me \u00e9lectronique (Var\u00e8se) 269, 301 Revueltas, Silvestre 280, 281 organa 28\u201331 polka 213, 214 Rhapsody in Blue (Gershwin) 258, 259, 260 orientalism 71 polonaise 165 The Rheingold (Wagner) 184, 187 Orpheus 62, 62, 63 polyphony 28\u201331, 36\u201337, 48\u201351, 66, 67 Ribemont-Dessaignes, Georges 303 Otello (Verdi) 174, 175 polystylism 276, 278, 316, 319 Ricci, Federico 148 ouverture 71 Porgy and Bess (Gershwin) 260\u2013261, 261 Ricci, Luigi 148 Owen, Wilfred 282, 285 The Ox on the Roof (Milhaud) 262"]