World War I - The Definitive Visual History

["MANFRED VON RICHTHOFEN The Flying Circus pilots, including Manfred\u2019s younger due to their \u201csorry machines.\u201d He TIMELINE Albatros aircraft of Richthofen\u2019s Jagda 1 fighter wing brother, Lothar. It was used as a used his prestige to push for the mass line up at an airfield in France. Jagda 1 was known as trouble-shooting formation, sent to manufacture of the Fokker Dr.1 \u25a0 May 3, 1892 Born into an aristocratic Prussian the Flying Circus because of its aircrafts\u2019 bright colors. whichever sector of the Western Front triplane, which would become his family near Breslau (now Wroclaw in Poland). Richthofen himself became known as the Red Baron. was thought most crucial at the time. most famous mount, and then for development of the Fokker D7, which \u25a0 1903 Enters military cadet school at the bombers, which were the German Combat takes its toll became the highest-performing \ufb01ghter age of 11. \ufb01ghters\u2019 principal targets, these tactics of the war. allowed Richthofen to build up a high By spring 1917, with over 50 kills to \u25a0 1911 Graduates from the Royal Military number of kills very quickly. his name, Richthofen was one of the By 1918, Richthofen was under Academy, joining an Uhlan light cavalry most famous men in Germany. He was pressure to withdraw from combat, regiment with the rank of lieutenant Flying ace invited to meet the Kaiser, and urged since his death would be a heavy blow in 1912. to write his memoirs as a morale- to German morale. But he refused, Richthofen became one of Germany\u2019s boosting tale for the German public. stating that it would be despicable to \u25a0 May 1915 Transfers from the cavalry to the elite band of pilots on November 23, Like all World War I \ufb02ying aces, preserve his \u201cvaluable life for the German air service, seeing action as an 1916, when he shot down one of however, he suffered from the nervous nation\u201d while \u201cevery poor fellow in observer on reconnaissance missions. Britain\u2019s most successful \ufb02ying aces, strain of combat and the frequent the trenches\u2026 has to stick it out.\u201d Major Lanoe Hawker. The British pilot, deaths of comrades. On July 6, 1917, \u25a0 October 1915 After meeting German flying caught \ufb02ying an inferior aircraft deep he was shot in the head by a Lewis On April 21, pursuing a potential ace Oswald Boelcke, he begins pilot training, behind German lines, was pursued gunner in a British two-seater. victim over British lines with qualifying in early 1916. relentlessly by Richthofen\u2019s faster Although almost blinded, he managed uncharacteristic recklessness, Albatros until the German was close to land his aircraft safely. However, his Richthofen was shot dead, either \u25a0 March 1916 Flies two-seater bomber aircraft enough to shoot him in the head. health never fully recovered. by Canadian pilot Roy Brown or by at Verdun and on the Eastern Front. Australian machine gunners on the In 1917, Richthofen was given The injury occurred at a moment ground. He was only 25 years old. \u25a0 August 1916 Becomes a fighter pilot, joining command of his own squadron and when Germany was losing Oswald Boelcke\u2019s squadron Jagdstaffel then of Germany\u2019s \ufb01rst \ufb01ghter wing, its technical superiority to (Jasta) 2 on the Western Front. the four squadrons of Jagdgeschwader a new generation of Allied (Jagda) 1. He excelled as a commander, aircraft. Richthofen \u25a0 September 1916 Achieves his first kills, taking time to teach new pilots how informed the German air shooting down two Allied aircraft. to \ufb01ght. The Flying Circus, as Jagda 1 staff of the \u201cpoor morale\u201d came to be called, nurtured many ace of German \ufb01ghter pilots \u25a0 October 1916 Witnesses the death of Boelcke in a collision during combat with German hero British aircraft. In addition to being Germany\u2019s most celebrated pilot, Manfred von Richthofen \u25a0 November 1916 Flying an Albatros D.1, was an outstanding leader of men. He he shoots down the British ace pilot Major was depicted by German wartime Lance Hawker. propaganda as a chivalrous \u201cknight of the sky.\u201d \u25a0 January 1917 Awarded the Pour le M\u00e9rite (Blue Max) for 16 kills, Richthofen is appointed commander of a fighter squadron, Jasta 11, in northern France. \u25a0 April 1917 Flying an Albatros D.3 fighter, he shoots down 21 Allied aircraft in a month during the Battle of Arras. \u25a0 June 1917 Appointed commander of a flight wing of four squadrons, Jagdgeschwader (Jagda) 1, known as Richthofen\u2019s Flying Circus. \u25a0 July 1917 Suffers a serious head wound in combat and has to undergo surgery. \u25a0 August 1917 Returns to command of Jagda 1 during the Third Battle of Ypres, flying the Fokker Dr.1 triplane for the first time. \u25a0 September 1917 Still suffering the effects of his wound, he takes convalescent leave to complete his memoirs, Der rote Kampfflieger (The Red Battle Flyer). \u25a0 March\u2013April 1918 Leading Jagda 1 in the German Spring Offensive, Richthofen raises his tally of kills to 80. \u25a0 April 21, 1918 Richthofen is killed either by ground or air fire while flying over the Somme. Hermann Goering takes over his squadron. Buried by the enemy REPLICA OF THE FOKKER DR.1 TRIPLANE The Australian Flying Corps gave Richthofen a military burial at Bertangles, near Amiens, on April 22, 1918. Some Allied fliers expressed respect for a fallen enemy, others were openly glad he was dead. \u201cI approached\u2026 and \ufb01red 50 bullets until the machine began to burn.\u201d MANFRED VON RICHTHOFEN, DESCRIBING HIS LAST KILL ON APRIL 20, 1918 299","VICTORY AND DEFEAT 1918 Allied Intervention in Russia From spring 1918, the Allies intervened in Russia in a way that called into question their true motives toward the country. Initially aimed at advancing the war effort against Germany, their actions soon developed into a confused bid to overthrow the Bolshevik regime. T he collapse of Russia was a severe As early as December 1917, the May and June 1918, however, Bolshevik propaganda setback for the Allies, because it Allies agreed in principle to elements of the Legion came into Proclaiming that \u201cthe enemy is at the freed Germany from the need to intervene in Russia to support con\ufb02ict with Bolshevik authorities, gate,\u201d a Bolshevik poster calls on the \ufb01ght a war on two fronts. The situation any political force prepared to who tried to disarm them and people to fight in defense of the in Russia was also dangerously chaotic. resume the war against Germany, obstructed their progress. Local clashes revolution. In 1918, the Bolshevik The Bolsheviks controlled Petrograd and to protect military supplies developed into full-scale \ufb01ghting. An regime was under siege and seemed and Moscow, but elsewhere former stockpiled in Russian ports from organized and motivated force of some unlikely to survive. tsarist of\ufb01cers led \u201cWhite\u201d armies, a falling into German hands. Action 50,000 men, the Czechs and Slovaks loose af\ufb01liation of anticommunist was slow to develop, however, soon had control of a substantial area Also in June 1918, forces, in revolt against Bolshevik rule. partly because of mutual suspicion of Russia along the line of the Trans- substantial numbers of Bolshevism was also contested by rival between the Allies. Japan was best Siberian Railway and at Vladivostok. Allied troops began to land revolutionaries and ethnic groups. placed to intervene, with troops in northern Russia. Large available to land at the key Russian KEY MOMENT stockpiles of munitions, BEFORE port of Vladivostok in eastern previously sent by Britain Russia, but fears of Japanese THE MURDER OF THE TSAR to aid their Russian allies, Revolutionary upheaval in Russia in territorial ambitions made the other had accumulated at the 1917 created a confused situation for Allies hostile to an independent From March 1917, former Tsar Nicholas II, Russia\u2019s military allies, who were Japanese initiative. his wife Alexandra, and their \ufb01ve children ports of Murmansk and desperate to keep Russia in the war. were placed under house arrest\u2014\ufb01rst at a Arkhangelsk. These were The Czech Legion palace in Tsarskoe Selo near Petrograd and vulnerable to attack by BOLSHEVIK REVOLUTION then at Tobolsk in German forces active in Tsar Nicholas II was forced to abdicate By a strange accident, the Allies Siberia. In April 1918, Finland. To secure the \u276e\u276e 210\u201311 in March 1917. The Provisional found themselves with a substantial the Bolshevik munitions, a few Government that replaced the tsar pledged to military force caught up in the chaos authorities moved the thousand British and continue the war, and was provided with of postrevolutionary Russia. The family to a house in French troops landed at money and arms by Britain, France, and the Czech Legion was a body of Czech and Ekaterinburg, a town United States. The failure of a Russian between Tobolsk and Murmansk, and in July summer offensive was followed by the 13,000 The number of Moscow, where they went on to occupy overthrow of the Provisional Government by American troops were subjected to Arkhangelsk. A the Bolsheviks \u276e\u276e 252\u201353 in November. involved in military intervention petty harassment. By subsidiary objective of in Russia. July, Ekaterinburg was this operation was to provide an PEACE TREATY alternative route for the Czech Legion The Bolsheviks arranged an 40,000 The number of to leave Russia and sail for France. armistice with the Central British troops sent The British, however, began to toy Powers in December 1917, to Arkhangelsk and Vladivostok. with an alternative plan for the revival but peace negotiations of war on the Eastern Front. They Slovak soldiers recruited during proposed that the Allied forces at proceeded slowly. Allied hopes 1916\u201317 from the Russian army and Arkhangelsk, the Czech Legion, and that the Bolsheviks could be prisoners of war or deserters from the the White Army of Admiral Alexander persuaded to resume the war Austro-Hungarian army. They intended Kolchak, based in Siberia, would join were dashed by the to \ufb01ght for the Allies in the hope of together to overthrow the Bolsheviks Brest-Litovsk Peace being rewarded with national and reopen Russia\u2019s war with Germany. Treaty \u276e\u276e 276\u201377 independence once the Central Powers in March 1918. had been defeated. under threat from the anti-Bolshevik forces of the Czech Legion. On July 16, the PROVISIONAL The Bolshevik government had Bolsheviks herded the entire family, along GOVERNMENT SOLDIER agreed to allow the Czech Legion to with their doctor and servants, into the cross Russia to Vladivostok, after which it could sail to France to join basement of the other Czechs and Slovaks \ufb01ghting house and shot on the Western Front. Strung out along them dead in a the Trans-Siberian Railway through clumsily executed massacre. The \u201c The strangling of bodies were buried Bolshevism at its birth in secret, the last would have been an untold remains not blessing to the human race.\u201d being discovered and identi\ufb01ed until 2008. WINSTON CHURCHILL, SPEECH, 1949 300","ALLIED INTERVENTION IN RUSSIA Mixed motives Graves, refused to Admiral Kolchak AFTER become involved in Backed by foreign forces, In summer 1918, Allied intervention anti-Bolshevik Admiral Alexander Kolchak Most Allied powers left Russia in early in Russia gained momentum. President adventures and headed an anti-Bolshevik 1919, except for the United States and Woodrow Wilson sent U.S. troops concentrated on White government based at Japan, which stayed on in Vladivostok. both to Arkhangelsk\u2014a move known making the Trans- Omsk in Siberia. In 1920, he as the Polar Bear Expedition\u2014and to Siberian Railway was captured by Bolshevik THE ALLIES DEPART Vladivostok. In August, 7,000 Japanese fully operational. forces and executed. Under pressure both from the Bolshevik Red troops poured into Vladivostok, By autumn 1918, the Army and war-weary public opinion at home, spreading out to occupy a substantial Bolsheviks had turned The end of the war Allied forces withdrew from Murmansk area of eastern Siberia. their newly founded Red on the Western Front at and Arkhangelsk in the \ufb01rst half of 1919. The Army into an increasingly least clari\ufb01ed the true French left Odessa in April 1919 after a mutiny The Allies were far from united in effective \ufb01ghting force. Allied and purpose of Allied intervention in their \ufb02eet. The Czech Legion negotiated their strategy or objectives, however. White Russian troops advancing south in Russia\u2014the straightforward support an armistice with the Bolsheviks and Contingents of British, French colonial, from Arkhangelsk faced vigorous of the White armies seeking to returned to newly independent Czechoslovakia and Italian troops landing at Bolshevik counterattacks. overthrow the Bolsheviks. The French in early 1920. The intervention at Vladivostok were ordered to head into even expanded intervention to a new Vladivostok lasted the longest, with central Russia to support a drive by the On November 11, 1918, the day of the front by landing troops at Odessa in most Allied troops, including the Americans, Czech Legion against the Bolsheviks. Armistice between the Central Powers southern Ukraine to aid White Army leaving in 1920. Japanese troops did not The Japanese concentrated on and the Allies on the Western Front, forces in December 1918. Allied withdraw until 1922. occupying territory in the east, which British, Canadian, and American troops war-weariness would, however, soon they hoped to hold on to after the war. were \ufb01ghting hard to repel a Red Army call a halt to such ventures. The commander of the 8,000 U.S. attack on the Dvina River at Tulgas. troops in Vladivostok, General William Allied troops in Vladivostok, 1918 French, British, American, and Japanese flags hang from a building in Vladivostok, on Russia\u2019s Pacific coast, during a parade of Allied forces. Various foreign troops occupied the port between 1918 and 1922.","VICTORY AND DEFEAT 1918 Writers at War \u201c My subject is war and the pity of war. both sides as insincere. Many were The poetry is in the pity\u2026 All a poet deeply moved by patriotism and the can do today is warn.\u201d perceived justice of their country\u2019s cause, emotions that only deepened WILFRED OWEN, BRITISH OFFICER AND WAR POET, 1918 as the death toll mounted. Kipling suffered irreparable grief over the T he writings of poets and novelists that \u201cthe German army and the Rudyard Kipling, and H.G. Wells, death of his son at the Battle of Loos who took part in World War I German people are one and the same.\u201d agreed to write essays and give public in 1915, but it did not alter his have shaped popular perception Novelist Thomas Mann, a future Nobel lectures in support of the war. commitment to Britain winning the of the war, chie\ufb02y through highlighting prize winner, was a prominent war. Even citizens of the initially the suffering and waste of life it supporter of the German cause, Fired by patriotism neutral United States were inspired by entailed. From the start of the war, asserting the superiority of Prussian the con\ufb02ict. The American novelist however, many established writers militarism as opposed to \u201cthe paci\ufb01st Much of the writing published during Edith Wharton, living in France when were inspired by patriotism and lined ideal of civilization.\u201d In Britain, at a the war was the work of individuals the war broke out, published essays up to serve their country. meeting organized by the employing the timeworn clich\u00e9s of expressing her admiration for the government\u2019s propaganda bureau in honor and glory. But it would be French, whom she described as nobly In October 1914, for example, September 1914, prominent authors, wrong to see those who wrote in engaged in a struggle for survival. 93 leading German intellectuals signed including Arthur Conan Doyle, support of the war effort on a manifesto defending Germany\u2019s Anti-war novel invasion of Belgium and declaring Henri Barbusse\u2019s controversial 1916 novel, Le Feu (Under Fire) captured the horrors of trench warfare. It made a big impact in France and was published in English the following year. 302","WRITERS AT WAR Wounded novelist only came after the war had ended\u2014 TIMELINE American writer Ernest Owen was unknown at the time of his Hemingway was wounded by death in November 1918. \u25a0 September 5, 1914 French poet Charles shrapnel while serving as an P\u00e9guy is killed at the Battle of the Marne. ambulance driver in Italy in Looking back 1918. He used his wartime \u25a0 April 23, 1915 Seven months after joining the experience in the novel In the 1920s, memoirs and war as a junior officer, English poet Rupert A Farewell to Arms. retrospective novels reshaped the way Brooke dies of an infected mosquito bite on the war was remembered. Not all his way to the Gallipoli landings. newspapers and the re\ufb02ected the disillusion that was truth of their daily widespread in the postwar period\u2014for \u25a0 1916 Henri Barbusse\u2019s antiwar novel Le Feu lives at the front. An example, Ernst J\u00fcnger\u2019s record of his (Under Fire) wins the Prix Goncourt. urge grew to testify to experiences as a German infantry the reality of the war of\ufb01cer, Storm of Steel, expressed the \u25a0 March 1916 French modernist poet Guillaume and to \ufb01nd a means excitement of battle as well as its Apollinaire, serving as an officer, suffers a head of expression suitable horrors. But more typical was the wound from which he never fully recovers. to its horrors and writing of Czech author Jaroslav humiliations. A Hasek, who forever \ufb01xed the image of \u25a0 June 1916 British poet Wilfred Owen joins the turning point was Manchester Regiment as a second lieutenant. marked by the publication of the \u25a0 1917 German novelist Thomas Mann publishes novel Le Feu (Under his essay Reflections of Nonpolitical Man in Fire) by the French praise of German militarism. author Henri Barbusse in 1916. Defying \u25a0 July 1917 British officer and poet Siegfried government censorship, and based on Sassoon publishes an open letter entitled the writer\u2019s own experience of the Finished with the War: A Soldier\u2019s Declaration. trenches, it provided the \ufb01rst graphic In the same month, young American writers description of the grim conditions and John Dos Passos and E.E. Cummings volunteer grotesque sufferings at the front. for ambulance service in France. A number of British soldier-poets The war poets were inspired by a similar impulse to \u25a0 April 1, 1918 British poet Isaac Rosenberg record and protest against the sordid is killed on the Somme. For younger writers, the situation was reality of the war. The verse of poets profoundly different because they \u25a0 May 1918 Ernest Hemingway signs up as became actively engaged in the war. an ambulance driver on the Italian front. The fashionable young English poet Rupert Brooke, who joined up as a \u25a0 November 4, 1918 Wilfred Owen is killed junior of\ufb01cer in September 1914, in action a week before the end of the war. wrote verse that epitomized the high-minded enthusiasm of the \ufb01rst \u25a0 1920 German officer Ernst J\u00fcnger\u2019s war memoir Storm of Steel is privately published. \u201c Heroes don\u2019t exist, only Private poet \u25a0 1928\u201329 A flood of war memoirs are published cattle for the slaughter and the Most writers serving in the war were officers, but the in Britain, including Robert Graves\u2019s Goodbye butchers in the general staffs.\u201d British-Jewish poet and artist Isaac Rosenberg served to All That and Edmund Blunden\u2019s Undertones as a private. Rosenberg produced this Self-Portrait in of War. a Steel Helmet shortly after enlisting in 1915. \u25a0 1929 Erich Remarque\u2019s antiwar novel All Quiet on the Western Front is a best seller. JAROSLAV HASEK, THE GOOD SOLDIER SCHWEIK, 1923 Austria-Hungary\u2019s war as a tragic farce in The Good Soldier Schweik, a satire phase of the war. His poems \u201cThe such as Siegfried Sassoon, Wilfred published posthumously in 1923. ALL QUIET ON THE WESTERN FRONT Soldier\u201d (\u201c\u2026 there\u2019s some corner of a Owen, Isaac Rosenberg, and Ivor German author Erich Remarque\u2019s foreign \ufb01eld\/That is for ever England\u201d) Gurney was later to be seen as a novel All Quiet on the Western Front was \u25a0 1933 Vera Brittain, a nurse during the war and and the series 1914, containing \u201cPeace\u201d landmark in English literature and the the most in\ufb02uential title in a wave of a pacifist campaigner, publishes her moving (\u201cNow God be thanked who has most enduring and moving memorial books inspired by a paci\ufb01st rejection war memoir Testament of Youth. matched us with his hour\u2026\u201d), were to the war dead. In particular, Owen\u2019s of the war in the late 1920s and early already famous when he died at the expression of what he called \u201cthe 1930s. Another example was Testament \u25a0 May 1933 All Quiet on the Western Front is age of 27 in April 1915. French poet pity of war\u201d and his anger at of Youth, the memoirs of Vera Brittain, banned and publicly burned by the Nazi regime Guillaume Apollinaire, a volunteer the \u201cold lie\u201d that it was sweet who served as a nurse on the Western in Germany. arriving at the front in 1915, wrote and honorable to die for one\u2019s \u201cAh Dieu! que la guerre est jolie\u2026\u201d country were to have Front and lost a brother and a (\u201cO God! How beautiful war is\u2026\u201d) lasting impact. The \ufb01anc\u00e9 in the con\ufb02ict. and celebrated the spectacle of triumph of British shells and \ufb02ares by night as a superb antiwar poetry, however, American author Ernest \ufb01rework display. Hemingway, who had served The Good Soldier as an ambulance Bitter experience Czech author Jaroslav Hasek volunteer on the Italian created Austria-Hungary\u2019s most front in 1918, These attitudes could not survive the famous antiwar hero in his popularized the idea long experience of trench warfare absurdist comedy The Good that those for whom and the apparently interminable Soldier Schweik. This image of the war was a formative prolongation of the con\ufb02ict. Like all the unwittingly subversive experience constituted soldiers, writers in uniform became Schweik was drawn by a \u201cLost Generation.\u201d disgusted at the gap between the cartoonist Josef Lada. War had profoundly patriotic rhetoric published in affected those it touched, and it continued to exert a powerful in\ufb02uence on postwar writers. 303","VICTORY AND DEFEAT 1918 Turning Point at Amiens In August 1918, an Allied offensive led by British and Commonwealth troops inflicted a sharp defeat on the Germans at Amiens. This demonstration of their increasing superiority over the enemy forced the Germans to accept that they could no longer hope to win the war. BEFORE A llied Supreme Commander 70 miles (113km) to the north Australian boots General Ferdinand Foch called for in Flanders. If the Germans These custom-made brown leather ankle boots By the summer of 1918, the German a continuous series of offensives became aware of the Canadian were worn by an Australian officer at the Battle of offensives begun in the spring had to maintain pressure on the Germans Corps\u2019s shift south to Amiens, Amiens. Australian and Canadian infantry were lost momentum. American troops after Allied success at the Second Battle they would have clear chosen to spearhead the Amiens offensive. were arriving in France in ever of the Marne. At a meeting on July 24, warning of the offensive. increasing numbers. British commander-in-chief Field avoided, leaving the Germans unaware Marshal Douglas Haig agreed to Foch\u2019s Deceiving the enemy of the troops\u2019 presence. More than plan. Britain\u2019s Fourth Army, 500 tanks, including 342 heavy Mark commanded by General Henry To hide the movement from Vs and 72 lighter Whippets, were Rawlinson, supported by the French, observation by German aircraft, the concealed in the countryside to the was to attack Amiens. The assault Canadians marched only by night. Two rear of the troops, undetected by would be led by the Australian Corps Canadian battalions were left in Flanders the enemy. As the tanks moved up under General John Monash and the and their radio operators kept up a to the front under cover of darkness on Canadian Corps under General Arthur constant stream of traf\ufb01c to persuade the Currie\u2014the Canadians and Australians Germans the Corps was still in place. being considered the freshest, hardest- The deception worked perfectly. \ufb01ghting troops on the Western Front. More than 2,000 guns and around The Australian Corps was already part 1,800 aircraft were assembled for the of the Fourth Army and had carried attack, but any increase in artillery out a successful attack on German bombardment or air activity was positions at Hamel near Amiens on July 4. The Canadians, however, were NETHERLANDS U.S. POSTER PROMOTING LIBERTY LOANS hannel Ostend Bruges Antwerp English Nieuport Ghent C GERMAN FAILURE From the Michael Offensive \u276e\u276e 278\u201379 Scheld ndre Dunkerque BELGIAN BELGIUM King Albert in March to the May Artois Offensive 8 Sept 28 Ypres 4TH ARMY Brussels \u276e\u276e 282\u201383, Germany had achieved striking 4th Battle of Ypres. successes. However, the arrival of U.S. 2ND ARMY Sixt von Armin De troops, backed by the country\u2019s \ufb01nancial might, changed the strategic balance. By July, the United Plumer F L A N D E R S e Li\u00e8ge GERMANY States had helped the French defeat the last German offensive at the Second Battle of Hazebrouck Lys Lille the Marne \u276e\u276e 286\u201387. 7 Sept 27 5TH ARMY Festubert Mons Charleroi Namur Meuse Allied attacks, July to September 1918 British 1st and 3rd armies Birdwood From mid-July 1918, the Allies took the offensive, 6TH ARMY driving the Germans back in a continuous series of breach Hindenburg Line assaults that culminated in a coordinated \u201cGrand between Cambrai 1ST ARMY Quast Offensive\u201d in late September. and St. Quentin. Horne 17TH ARMY Sambre KEY 4 Aug 21 Arras Qu\u00e9ant von Below British 3rd Army opens Maubeuge offensive along a 10-mile Aulnoye (16 km) sector. British 4th Army resumes its advance. Bapaume Cambrai 2ND ARMY 3RD ARMY Albert Le Cateau Marwitz Byng Amiens P\u00e9ronne St. Quentin M\u00e9zi\u00e8res LUXEMBOURG Chaulnes 4TH ARMY So Ois 18TH ARMY Luxembourg Rawlinson Oisemme 2 Aug 8 eLa F\u00e8re 4th Army opens \ufb01rst 1ST ARMY Montdidier British offensive, supported Debeney Noyon 9TH ARMY Hutier by French to the south. Eben 3RD ARMY Sedan Humbert 7TH ARMY Laon Boehn 5TH ARMY Longwy lle Gallwitz Mose 1ST ARMY 3RD ARMY Saar Thionville Soissons Aisne Eberhardt Einem Meuse 3 Aug 20 Vesle Marne U.S. army ALLIED FRONT LINE, JUL 18 Aisne Heights captured by 10TH ARMY F\u00e8re-en-Tardenois Reims Mont Blanc Argonne Verdun Belgian army American sector French 10th Army. Mangin British army Belgian sector Chantilly 4TH ARMY Forest Metz French army British sector Seine 5TH ARMY Ch\u00e2teau Thierry Gouraud Berthelot St. Menhould 1ST ARMY 19TH ARMY Chalons Pershing Troyon Bothmer German army French sector PARIS St. Mihiel American offensives Bar Le Duc British offensives ALLIED FRONT LINE, SEPT 25 100 km 1 Jul 18 Nancy French offensives American sector French launch counterattack 6 Sept 26 Fortified town to clear Marne salient. Argonne offensive opens. 5 Sept 12 Major railroad Belgian sector Slow progress is made Americans begin attack FRANCE over dif\ufb01cult country by on the St. Mihiel salient. British sector 0 French and U.S. forces. It is cleared by Sept 16. 100 miles French sector 0 304","\u201c August 8 was the blackest the attack on August 15. This was a The British on the offensive day of the German army in wise decision. Instead of persisting in Soldiers advance through German barbed wire the history of the war.\u201d the face of mounting casualties and as a tank is disabled by artillery fire. For British and diminishing gains, as had happened Commonwealth troops, the fighting in the summer of before, the Allies would now repeatedly 1918 continued to be a brutal experience, with over shift the point of assault, holding on 20,000 men killed or wounded at Amiens. to each limited advance. GENERAL ERICH LUDENDORFF, MY WAR MEMOIRS 1914\u201319 German reaction AFTER the eve of the attack, the noise of their and Canadians had penetrated the Meanwhile, the German high The Battle of Amiens marked the engines was masked by aircraft \ufb02ying German defenses to a depth of about command was appalled by the beginning of the Hundred Days back and forth overhead. 7.5 miles (12 km). readiness of so many German troops to Offensive, a series of operations surrender and the worsening balance that lasted until the end of the war. At 4:20am on August 8, the British From that point on, familiar of forces at the front. Convinced that artillery opened a devastating problems accumulated. Supply and victory was no longer possible, General THE BRITISH STRIKE bombardment accurately targeted at all communication dif\ufb01culties slowed the Erich Ludendorff offered to resign. On August 21, less than a week after the parts of the German defenses, from the pace of the advance, giving German His resignation was refused and the Amiens operation was halted, the British frontline trenches to the gun batteries reserves time to arrive and stiffen their German government continued to Third Army mounted an attack to the north at the rear. Taken completely unawares, defenses. Tanks suffered mechanical assure its people of imminent victory. and took the town of Albert. With the aid of the German troops scarcely had time to failure or were taken out by German In private, however, the German Fourth Army, they took Baupaume on man defensive positions before Australian antitank weapons. After considerable leadership began looking for a way August 26. Meanwhile, General Charles and Canadian troops were upon them, hesitation, Haig and Foch agreed to halt out of the war. Mangin\u2019s French Tenth Army attacked emerging out of mist and smoke. successfully at the Aisne. Attack after attack 1.2 MILLION The number of German soldiers who Amply supplied with grenades, ri\ufb02e were killed, wounded, or taken grenades, and Lewis guns, the Allied prisoner during the Hundred troops set about clearing the German Days Offensive. trenches. Tanks provided support, trundling forward to take out GERMANY WEAKENED strongpoints that might have held The American Expeditionary Force (AEF) up the advance. The Germans were saw its \ufb01rst independent action at the St. Mihiel outnumbered and stunned by the salient 306\u201307 \u276f\u276f on September 12. It then unexpectedness of the offensive. The attacked, with French support, in the Meuse- second wave of Allied troops, following Argonne Offensive 308\u201309 \u276f\u276f, part of a wider up the \ufb01rst attack, passed large Allied assault on the German Hindenburg numbers of German prisoners heading Line 312\u201313 \u276f\u276f. Germany was further thwarted in the opposite direction. By the when its allies\u2014Austria-Hungary, Turkey, and afternoon of August 8, the Australians Bulgaria\u2014were defeated. In October, the German leaders sought an armistice. German prisoners at Amiens More than 15,000 German soldiers were taken prisoner on the first day of the Battle of Amiens. Their reluctance to fight to the death was a clear sign of the declining morale of the German army. 305","VICTORY AND DEFEAT 1918 Taking the St. Mihiel Salient In September 1918, after months of preparation, an American army entered battle in Europe for the first time. The U.S.-led attack on the exposed St. Mihiel salient yielded a decisive victory for General Pershing\u2019s men\u2014a prelude to much tougher fighting ahead. I n the summer of 1918, 300,000 supply the Americans with artillery, attack the St. Mihiel salient. This was fresh U.S. troops were arriving in France every month. By August, tanks, transport vehicles, and aircraft, an area south of Verdun that had been about one and a half million \u201cdoughboys\u201d (an informal term, with as long as the Americans supplied men. held by Germany since 1914. Something unknown origins, for an American soldier) were learning \ufb01ghting skills. U.S. commander General John of a backwater by this stage of the war, it In training camps or as combatants Pershing was, 450 The number of was not heavily in American formations, these men however, determined German guns defended and served under overall French or British that his troops would captured by the Americans was therefore a tempting command. After four long years of not become cannon- at the Battle of St. Mihiel. target for costly war, the Allies needed infantry in fodder for Allied a quick success. greater numbers. They were happy to generals to use up. 16,000 The number BEFORE His aim was to build of German American rage A year and a half separated America\u2019s an independent troops taken prisoner at the Pershing and his staff declaration of war in April 1917 from the \ufb01rst entry of an independent U.S. American army Battle of St. Mihiel. wanted to be more than army into action in France at St. Mihiel. and lead it in a battle a sideshow, however, CHANGE OF PLAN Appointed commander of the \ufb01rst American planned and commanded by and extended the plan to include a American ace Expeditionary Force to be deployed in Eddie Rickenbacker was the most successful American France, General John Pershing sought Americans. The U.S. First Army was follow-up attack eastward to the fighter pilot in World War I. He was awarded the to assemble, train, and organize an entire Distinguished Service Cross for exceptional heroism mass army before entering combat. But thus created on August 10, 1918. fortress city of Metz. This would during the St. Mihiel Offensive. German successes in May 1918 threatened to \ufb01nish the war before the Americans arrived Pershing agreed with Allied Supreme cut major transportation links and take Foch went to Pershing\u2019s headquarters and this idea had to be modi\ufb01ed. Fighting and declared he had changed his mind. alongside the French armies, U.S. divisions Commander General Ferdinand Foch the \ufb01ghting to the German border. He wanted U.S. forces to abandon the played a major combat role from Belleau St. Mihiel operation and instead Wood in June \u276e\u276e 284\u201385 through to the that the new army would be used to More than half a million U.S. soldiers cooperate with French forces in a major Second Battle of the Marne \u276e\u276e 286\u201387. offensive in the Champagne and Montana assembled opposite the salient, along Meuse-Argonne regions. A furious row peak hat with over 50,000 French troops who erupted, with Pershing refusing to see his army dispersed to provide units for were to play a supporting role. wider Allied operations. It would \ufb01ght as \u201can independent American army\u201d Planning and organization or not at all. were well advanced Three days later they reached a compromise. On September 12, the when, on U.S. First Army would go ahead with its attack on the St. Mihiel salient but August 30, abandon the advance to Metz. Once the salient was taken, the American force Khaki would transfer to the Meuse-Argonne tunic sector, where it would lead an offensive, with French support, from September 26. Ammunition Pershing thus kept his army together pouch but was committed to \ufb01ghting two offensives just a fortnight apart. By this stage in the war the Germans were being forced back to the strongly FRENCH POSTER WELCOMING THE AMERICANS Doughboy uniform U.S. troops wore a close-fitting khaki tunic of wool or cotton. The \u201cMontana peak\u201d hat was replaced in the course of the war by a soft side cap. Each pouch carried two containers of five-round ammunition. \u201cWe have developed a type of manhood superior in initiative to that existing abroad which, given equal training, developed a superior soldier.\u201d GENERAL JOHN PERSHING, SPEAKING OF AMERICANS, SEPTEMBER 1918 306","TAKING THE ST MIHIEL SALIENT Battle from the air Advances from the south AFTER This oil painting by an unknown and west brought the artist was based on an aerial salient under American Even before the victory at the photograph taken during the fighting control by September 16. St. Mihiel salient was complete, the at St. Mihiel. Smoke and gas habitually United States was preparing for a obscured battlefields on the Western The end game larger offensive at the Argonne forest. Front, hiding potential targets from artillery or air bombardment. Although they suffered PLAN OF ATTACK 7,000 casualties, the The Meuse-Argonne Offensive 308\u201309 \u276f\u276f prepared defensive other Allied countries as well as doughboys had come opened on September 26, 1918, as part of positions of the American pilots in British- or French- through their baptism of Foch\u2019s wider plan for concerted Allied attacks Hindenburg Line. supplied machines. Launched on \ufb01re well. Logistical support to breach the German Hindenburg Line Regarding the St. Mihiel September 12, the operation was for the men in the \ufb01eld defenses 312\u201313 \u276f\u276f. The transfer of troops salient as indefensible, a precise and effective set-piece attack had not been as successful. and equipment from the St. Mihiel salient to a they began preparing a withdrawal as that took the Germans by surprise. Inadequate U.S. staff work new front 60 miles (97 km) distant in ten days soon as the buildup of U.S. troops in had led to huge traf\ufb01c jams developing was a triumph of logistics. Masterminded by the sector became evident. This further The battle opened with a four-hour behind the lines. Many frontline Colonel George Marshall, a future Chief of weakened defenses that stood no artillery bombardment, followed troops went short of food and water chance of resisting an attack of by the advance of infantry and tanks because of serious failings in supplies. Staff, the offensive continued overwhelming force. behind a creeping barrage. American In the euphoria of a \ufb01rst American until the Armistice in troops had to force a path through victory, however, there was no November 322\u201323 \u276f\u276f, Battle commences barbed wire entanglements, coming inclination to analyze weaknesses. by which time the under intersecting \ufb01re from concealed President Woodrow Wilson Americans were close In addition to half a million infantry, machine gun nests, and being cabled his congratulations to to taking Sedan. Pershing had 267 French Renault threatened by buried mortar bombs Pershing, writing: \u201cThe boys light tanks\u2014the majority of them strewn as booby traps across their line have done what we expected of with American crews\u2014under the of advance. Some German soldiers them, and done it the way we command of Colonel George Patton. were quick to surrender, but others most admire.\u201d The French supplied 3,000 artillery fought on with great tenacity. pieces to support the offensive. Victorious American troops In the air, General Billy Mitchell, Cheering U.S. soldiers put up a sign dedicating their the head of the U.S. Army Air Service, victory at the St. Mihiel salient to President Woodrow commanded a force of around 1,400 Wilson. War-weary Europeans were impressed by the aircraft that included squadrons from high morale and good physical condition of the men.","VICTORY AND DEFEAT 1918 BEFORE The Meuse-Argonne Offensive In August 1918, the Allied armies began a relentless series of attacks. The onslaught, known as the Hundred Days Offensive, consisted of a series of battles along the Western Front. Although mostly forgotten today, the Meuse-Argonne Offensive was the largest battle in the U.S. Army\u2019s history, involving 1.2 million troops and lasting 47 days. A brutal struggle against a capable enemy, it was America\u2019s biggest contribution to Germany\u2019s defeat on the Western Front. T he Meuse-Argonne Offensive was Battle scarred a daunting task for which General U.S. infantry advance through the village of John Pershing\u2019s First Army was Varennes, taken by 28th \u201cKeystone\u201d Division inadequately prepared. The Americans on the first day of the offensive. The ruins were to advance up the west bank of are evidence of the hard fighting that was the Meuse River, supported by the needed to seize the village. French Fourth Army on their left. The SHEET MUSIC FOR A MARCHING SONG forested, hilly terrain was described by Launched on September 26, the often failed to reach troops U.S. general Hunter Liggett as a Meuse-Argonne Offensive soon engaged in combat on the AMERICAN TROOPS SEE ACTION \u201cnatural fortress.\u201d The Germans had ran into trouble. German forward front. Even the weather was Following the victory of British and improved on nature, creating a positions were overrun by weight of hostile, with persistent rain Commonwealth troops at Amiens, in formidable defensive network in depth. numbers but U.S. losses were heavy. adversely affecting the U.S. August \u276e\u276e 304\u201305 the Germans knew they This was manned by the battle- Inexperienced American of\ufb01cers \ufb02ung soldiers\u2019 morale. could no longer take the offensive. Instead, hardened soldiers of the German Fifth men forward in frontal attacks only for they sought to delay the Allied advance Army under General Max von Gallwitz. them to be mown down by machine By September 28, the with a stubborn defense. gun \ufb01re. Pershing was concerned offensive had bogged down and Short on resources about the poor coordination between the Germans were mounting Throughout the summer of 1918, artillery and infantry, with some units counterattacks. One of these ever-increasing numbers of U.S. troops in Although 600,000 U.S. soldiers were forced to carry out assaults without severely mauled the U.S. 35th France tipped the balance of forces available for the offensive, most of any artillery support. Division (National Guardsmen against Germany. Formally created in August, them had not previously experienced from Missouri and Kansas) and the American First Army entered combat at combat and many were poorly trained. By contrast, German artillery \ufb01re, forced its withdrawal from the St. Mihiel salient on September 12 The Americans were strong on infantry both with explosive and gas shells, battle. Then, poorly trained \u276e\u276e 306\u201307. After swiftly capturing the numbers but remained heavily was terrifyingly effective, the gunners African-American troops of the salient, the army moved northward in dependent on the British and French bene\ufb01ting from intelligence provided 92nd Division, under the preparation for the Meuse-Argonne Offensive. for tanks, artillery, and aircraft. Since by German observation aircraft, which command of indifferent white of\ufb01cers, the Meuse-Argonne attack was timed dominated the sky. U.S. logistical broke and \ufb02ed under German \ufb01re at U.S. SOLDIER (1887\u20131964) to coincide with British and French problems meant that, as advances were Binarville, in the Argonne Forest. offensives elsewhere on the front, the made, food and ammunition supplies This episode later became a point ALVIN C. YORK Allies had withdrawn equipment and of reference for those who wanted to personnel to meet their own needs, denigrate the \ufb01ghting spirit of African- American war hero Alvin C. York came leaving Pershing with far fewer tanks Americans, which was, in fact, amply from a poor background in rural and aircraft than he\u2019d had for the smaller demonstrated elsewhere in the war. Jamestown, Tennessee. In 1917, he battle of St. Mihiel two weeks earlier. requested exemption from the draft on Pershing regroups religious grounds, but his application was denied. By the time of the Meuse-Argonne After the battle, Allied Supreme Offensive, York was a corporal in the 82nd Commander Marshal Ferdinand Foch Infantry Division. He killed 32 German believed U.S. generals had proved soldiers with ri\ufb02e \ufb01re, helped capture 132 incapable of handling a large-scale others, and seized 35 machine guns during offensive and made a move to bring action outside the French village of American troops under French Ch\u00e2tel-Ch\u00e9h\u00e9ry on October 8, 1918. command. Pershing, however, clung to his independence. After a pause for York was awarded the Medal of Honor reorganization, on October 4 he for his bravery, and after the war was relaunched the offensive with more promoted as a celebrity. His life story experienced troops in the lead. formed the basis for the 1941 \ufb01lm Sergeant York, directed by Howard Hawks. \u201c We were stumbling over dead horses and dead men... shells were bursting all around.\u201d CORPORAL ALVIN C. YORK, DIARY ENTRY, OCTOBER 5, 1918 308","THE MEUSE-ARGONNE OFFENSIVE U.S. troops mostly fought Heroic pigeon half of October, he strove to imbue his AFTER with outstanding The homing pigeon Cher Ami lost a leg army with the tactical sophistication it courage and while carrying a message from the \u201cLost had lacked under Pershing. Infantry The Americans suffered 122,000 enthusiasm, but Battalion\u201d through German fire.The were to advance in small units, some casualties in the Meuse-Argonne again the gains were pigeon was honored for its bravery \ufb01ring to cover the movement of Offensive, including 26,277 dead. hard-won and losses with the Croix de Guerre medal. others; artillery was to coordinate German losses were on a similar scale. severe. In one notable Its stuffed body is preserved in closely with infantry, providing a episode, six companies the Smithsonian Institution creeping barrage behind which they GERMANY SUCCUMBS of the 77th Division, in Washington, D.C. could advance. Tanks and aircraft were The relentless pressure kept up by the U.S. and led by Major Charles to support the infantry. supporting French troops in the Meuse-Argonne Whittlesey, were Momentum had sector prevented the Germans from reinforcing surrounded by German again been Hard-won victory the Hindenburg Line farther north. This was forces, their only method exhausted, taken by the British and French in late of keeping in touch with the however, and On November 1, it all came together September and early October 312\u201313 \u276f\u276f. rest of the army being by when an assault by the U.S. V Corps carrier pigeon. This \u201cLost Pershing decided to broke the Kriemhilde Stellung. Along with the defeat of Germany\u2019s allies Battalion\u201d held out for six reorganize his forces. Exploiting their training and on other fronts\u2014Turkey in Palestine, Bulgaria days before it was rescued To accommodate increasing experience, the U.S. soldiers crossed in Macedonia, and Austria-Hungary in from encirclement. Only 194 of its numbers of troops\u2014about 1 million the Meuse River and advanced along Italy\u2014these German setbacks on the Western original force of 554 men were still by mid-October\u2014he created a new opposite banks, driving back the Front led Germany to seek an armistice \ufb01t for action. Second Army under General Robert German forces. By November 9, 322\u201323 \u276f\u276f on November 11. By that time, the Bullard. At the same time, he the Americans had progressed American Expeditionary Force (AEF), like other Gradually and painfully, progress was transferred command of the First Army 25 miles (40 km) to reach the hills armies on the Western Front, was in the grip made. By October 12, the Germans had to General Liggett, assigning himself a overlooking the city of Sedan. When of an influenza epidemic that would kill been cleared from the Argonne Forest supervisory role. the Armistice stopped the \ufb01ghting two 25,000 Americans, compared to a total of and U.S. troops were facing the Liggett was an excellent \ufb01ghting days later, Pershing claimed the 53,000 killed in combat. Kriemhilde Stellung, the southernmost general. While the desperate attritional Meuse-Argonne Offensive as a victory, part of the Hindenburg Line. struggle continued through the second even if it was achieved at great cost. Montfaucon in ruins The village of Montfaucon d\u2019Argonne was held by the Germans from September 1914 until its capture by U.S. forces in September 1918.The remains of a German observation post are on the left of the ruined church. 309","VICTORY AND DEFEAT 1918 AMERICAN GENERAL Born 1860 Died 1948 John Pershing \u201cThe ri\ufb02e and bayonet remain the supreme weapons of the infantry.\u201d GENERAL JOHN PERSHING, OCTOBER 19, 1917 A merican General John Ferdinand Foch, for example, or Pershing was an un\ufb02appable, German General Erich Ludendorff\u2014 hardworking, and competent Pershing had considerable previous army of\ufb01cer. He earned advancement experience of combat. He had pursued on merit, but also bene\ufb01ted from Native American warriors in the last in\ufb02uential connections. He was a friend days of the Wild West, fought Spanish of President Theodore Roosevelt and troops in Cuba, and suppressed a married the daughter of the senator rebellion in the Philippines. In 1916, who chaired the Military Affairs while European armies were \ufb01ghting Committee. Without such contacts, the battles of Verdun and the Somme Pershing would not have been promoted on the Western Front, Pershing was from captain to general in 1906\u2014a leading a 12,000-strong military career leap that drew sharp criticism. expedition across northern Mexico His detractors were soon silenced, in pursuit of the bandit Pancho Villa. however, by his evident \ufb01tness for Chosen by the president command. Unlike many other senior commanders of World Enthusiastically covered in the War I\u2014French General American press, the Mexican expedition gave Pershing a high public pro\ufb01le in American warrior the period before the United States General John Pershing declared war on Germany. Yet he was brought a single-minded by no means the obvious choice to lead determination to the the American Expeditionary Force task of building a mass (AEF). His own highest aspiration was American army to fight to command a division. in the war in Europe. President Woodrow Wilson and his Secretary of War, Newton Baker, had other ideas. They wanted a trustworthy general without political ambitions, who would loyally carry out their instructions and concentrate on military matters. Pershing \ufb01tted their requirements. Creating an army Pershing built the AEF with energy and determination. A good judge of character, he promoted or relegated of\ufb01cers without regard for seniority or sentiment. General Robert Bullard observed that \u201cPershing intends to build an army; he will crush anyone who gets in his way and ruin anyone who disappoints him.\u201d Pershing was equally ruthless in his dealings with America\u2019s European allies. Like many Americans\u2014including the president\u2014he saw Europe as a corrupt place, contact with which might taint American","JOHN PERSHING Guerrilla expedition TIMELINE Pershing leads cavalry in pursuit of revolutionary leader Pancho Villa, in Mexico in 1916. Villa had provoked the \u25a0 September 13, 1860 John Joseph Pershing is U.S. incursion by mounting a cross-border raid against born into a prosperous family in Laclede, Missouri. the American town of Columbus, New Mexico. \u25a0 1873 His father loses most of his money in a Commander, would have \ufb01red Pershing financial crash, forcing Pershing to earn a living if he\u2019d been able to. But George while pursuing his education. Marshall, an of\ufb01cer on Pershing\u2019s staff during the offensive, later recorded his \u25a0 1882 Enters West Point Military Academy, impression of Pershing\u2019s unshakeable graduating in 1886. \u201cdetermination to force the \ufb01ghting over all the dif\ufb01culties and objections\u201d \u25a0 1886\u201391 Serves as a second lieutenant with as an incomparable example of Sixth U.S. Cavalry in Arizona and North Dakota, leadership under pressure. Pershing\u2019s seeing action against Apache and Sioux warriors. decision to reorganize his forces during the offensive, which involved creating \u25a0 1898 Fights in Cuba in the Spanish-American the Second Army and delegating War as a first lieutenant with the African- battle\ufb01eld command to subordinates, American Tenth Cavalry Division, distinguishing was both brave and successful. himself at the Battle of San Juan Hill. \u25a0 1901\u20131903 Plays a leading part in the American pacification of the Moro population of Mindanao in the Philippines. Excluded from the peace \u25a0 1905 Appointed U.S. military attach\u00e9 in Tokyo; marries senator\u2019s daughter Helen Warren. When the prospect of an armistice was \ufb01rst proposed in October 1918, Pershing \u25a0 1906 Promoted from captain to brigadier- expressed a strong preference for general, with the backing of President Roosevelt. demanding unconditional surrender. idealism. He fully endorsed his orders continued to focus on the ultimate This led to his only disagreement with \u25a0 1909\u20131913 As military governor of Mindanao, from the president, which were to goal\u2014of creating an army that would President Wilson and to his exclusion he shows personal bravery at the Battle of Bud keep U.S. forces \u201cseparate and distinct.\u201d enter battle under his command. It was Bagsak (June 1913), thus completing the a stance that infuriated other Allied suppression of the Moro rebellion. Britain and France were desperate commanders, but neither their pleas for American manpower, but Pershing nor bullying could shake his resolve. \u25a0 1914 Returns to the U.S. as commander of the refused to commit his soldiers Eighth Brigade in San Francisco, California. piecemeal to the battle and continued with the slow process of building an Hard lessons \u25a0 August 26, 1915 His wife and three daughters independent American mass army. are killed in a fire at their home in the San Even after Pershing had been forced to Unfortunately, Pershing\u2019s distrust of Francisco Presidio. bend a little, allowing some U.S. troops Europe extended to its \ufb01ghting style. to \ufb01ght as part of larger Allied Seeing the stalemate of trench warfare \u25a0 March 1916 Leads an expedition into Mexico formations from May 1918, he as evidence of poor military leadership, in pursuit of guerrilla commander Pancho Villa. he failed to recognize the progress that Foch and Pershing had been made by 1918 in infantry \u25a0 May 1917 After the United States enters World Relations between Pershing and Allied Supreme tactics and combined arms warfare. War I, Pershing is appointed commander-in- Commander Marshal Ferdinand Foch were often Ignoring the importance that light chief of the American Expeditionary Force (AEF). strained. Pershing resisted Foch\u2019s attempts to split machine guns, grenades, and mortars up his army and place it under French command. had assumed in infantry assaults, he \u25a0 May 1918 Reluctantly allows some U.S. divisions continued to preach the preeminence to enter combat as part of the Allied armies. of the ri\ufb02e and bayonet. \u25a0 August 10, 1918 Creates the U.S. First Army as U.S. troops did receive training from an independent force on the Western Front. British and French advisers, but Pershing never appreciated how much \u25a0 September 12, 1918 Commands the First they had to learn. He neglected issues Army in the Battle of the St. Mihiel Salient. such as the importance of close cooperation between infantry and \u25a0 September 26, 1918 Leads the First Army at artillery. Lessons that could have been the launch of the Meuse-Argonne Offensive. learned on the training ground were instead learned on the battle\ufb01eld. War documentary \u25a0 October 15, 1918 Pershing\u2019s Crusaders was the first war documentary Made U.S. Supreme When Pershing led the American First released by the U.S. Committee of Information in 1918. Commander of Army into battle in September 1918, it Its title is indicative of the general\u2019s status as a focus the First and marked a triumph of willpower and for high-flown wartime idealism. Second Armies. organization. But World War I battles rarely made generals look from the Paris Peace Conference. \u25a0 October 30, 1918 good, and Pershing was no exception to Although laden with honors, Pershing Advises the Allied this rule. The bloodbath during the was never especially popular. Proposed Supreme War Council opening phase of the Meuse-Argonne as a candidate for the presidency in to continue fighting Offensive, in particular, brought 1920, he received little support. until Germany\u2019s total him little credit. A week into that surrender. operation, Foch, as Allied Supreme Pershing lived long enough to see World War II run its course\u2014a war he \u25a0 1919 Awarded the blamed on the failure of the Allies to achieve total victory in World War I. rank of General He died in Washington, D.C., in 1948. of the Armies. PERSHING\u2019S TOMBSTONE \u25a0 1921 Becomes U.S. Army Chief of Staff, a post he holds until his retirement in 1924. \u201c No commander was ever privileged \u25a0 1931 Publishes his memoir, My Experiences in the to lead a \ufb01ner force.\u201d World War. \u25a0 1948 Dies on July 15, and is buried in Arlington Cemetery, Virginia. GENERAL JOHN PERSHING, DESCRIBING THE AMERICAN EXPEDITIONARY FORCE, 1931 311","VICTORY AND DEFEAT 1918 Attacking the dry along part of its length, but was Hindenburg Line still a major obstacle, impassable to tanks and dominated by German forces During the last week of September 1918, the Allied armies on the Western Front broke through on higher ground. Masterminded by the formidable fortifications of the Hindenburg Line. A series of offensives demonstrated the Canadian General Arthur Currie, the Allies\u2019 superior tactics and technology, pushing Germany to the brink of military defeat. assault used massed artillery and machine gun \ufb01re to suppress enemy BEFORE T he Hindenburg Line was a offensives with appalling casualty lists. defenses, enabling troops to cross the collective name for a series In September, however, under the canal. Combat engineers followed to From summer 1918, the balance of of linked German defensive leadership of Supreme Commander of improvise bridges, while guns were forces on the Western Front shifted in positions that stretched from the coast the Allied Armies Marshal Ferdinand moved forward to support the infantry favor of the Allies with the arrival of of Belgium to Verdun in northeastern Foch, the decision was taken to mount advancing on the other side. large numbers of U.S. troops. France. Under construction from late simultaneous offensives along the 1916, the Wotan, Siegfried, Alberich, entire length of the German line. St. Quentin Canal AMERICAN SMITH & Brunhilde, and Kriemhilde Stellungs WESSON REVOLVER (positions) were systems of trenches, Foch adopted the slogan \u201cTout le monde On September 29, the British Fourth strongpoints, barbed wire, machine \u00e0 la bataille\u201d (\u201cEveryone into battle\u201d). In Army launched an offensive at the ALLIES ADVANCE gun emplacements, and artillery the northern sector of the front, Belgian St. Quentin Canal in the southern A French-led counterattack at the batteries, often 10 miles (16 km) in King Albert I was given command of an sector of the Siegfried Stellung. Marne \u276e\u276e 286\u201387 in July and a depth. They incorporated existing Allied army group to launch an offensive A formidable obstacle, the canal successful offensive by British and in Flanders. The British were to lead an served as a moat in front of the Commonwealth forces at Amiens features of the landscape, such as assault on the Siegfried Stellung, the German defensive position. With \u276e\u276e 304\u201305 in August initiated a series ridges, rivers, and canals,to improve strongest sector of the line, between steep sides plunging into deep water of Allied advances. Further attacks pushed their defenses. By late summer Cambrai and St. Quentin. In the and mud, lined with barbed wire and the Germans back to the Hindenburg Line. southeast, the U.S. First Army was covered by German machine guns, Meanwhile, in mid-September, the U.S. First 1918, the line offered a fallback entrusted with leading the Franco- the canal appeared impregnable. Army went into action. With the help of position for German forces American Meuse-Argonne Offensive. the French, they captured the St. Mihiel battered by Allied offensives and Along one 3-mile (5 km) stretch, salient \u276e\u276e 306\u201307 south of Verdun. desperate to stop foreign troops from The Allies did not have vastly more however, the waterway passed through reaching German soil. troops, but their soldiers were better fed a tunnel, offering ground across which Attacking the Hindenburg Line was a and supplied than their opponents. They daunting prospect. Allied commanders had thousands of tanks and trucks, an attack could be launched. The feared a repeat of battles such as the whereas the Germans had few motor Germans had identi\ufb01ed Somme or Third Ypres\u2014stalled vehicles of any kind. Allied aircraft \u201cFor the \ufb01rst time in the war Weapon of destruction all the Allied armies\u2026 were The British used two naval guns mounted on train cars on the move together.\u201d for long-range bombardment during the last months of the war. They struck targets such as railroad junctions BRITISH OFFICIAL HISTORY OF THE GREAT WAR behind the German defenses. dominated the skies. Above all, the Allies had developed a skill in coordinating artillery and infantry that made a successful assault feasible even against the best organized defenses\u2014as long as everything went according to plan. A tough \ufb01ght On September 26, the launch of the Meuse-Argonne operation showed how hard the \ufb01ghting was going to be, as inexperienced U.S. troops became bogged down in a brutal attritional struggle. The following day, the British Third and First Armies attacked at the northern end of the Siegfried Stellung in the direction of Cambrai. The Canadian Corps was given the unenviable task of crossing the Canal du Nord. This half-built waterway was 312","ATTACKING THE HINDENBURG LINE this weak spot and concentrated British troops broke out of the Ypres British liberators AFTER maximum defensive \ufb01repower on salient, retaking Passchendaele in Territorials of the Liverpool Irish Regiment it. The main attack across the tunnel a day. In places, German reserves march through the French city of Lille, While the Allies advanced, Germany was entrusted to Australian troops and moving up to the front were jeered which they had helped liberate from suffered the collapse of its allies and two U.S. regiments, under the command at for prolonging a hopeless situation German occupation on October 17. The social upheaval at home. of Australian General John Monash. by the soldiers they were relieving. British soldiers received a warm welcome It was a costly failure. The Australians At the end of September, the German from the local people. GERMANY FOUNDERS blamed inexperienced U.S. troops, but high command told its government At the same time as the Allies attacked the it was inadequate coordination with to seek an immediate armistice. over broken ground. After Hindenburg Line, Bulgaria asked for an artillery that left Allied infantry and a two-week delay on the armistice and Turkey was defeated by tanks unable to advance. In October, however, German Flanders front, King Albert the British offensive in Palestine resistance stiffened. Many machine relaunched his offensive on 316\u201317 \u276f\u276f. In October, Austria-Hungary The situation was saved by the action gunners were still ready to \ufb01ght to the October 14. Lille was taken began to disintegrate, with different national of the British North Midland Division. death to hold up the Allied advance. and so were the Belgian ports groups declaring independence. Italy Ordered to carry out a diversionary The Allies encountered the usual from Ostende to Zeebrugge. launched a final offensive against attack farther south, it devised a problems in moving supplies, Austro-Hungarian forces at Vittorio Veneto plan for soldiers\u2014many of them tanks, and artillery forward Farther south, however, on October 27 318\u201319 \u276f\u276f. nonswimmers\u2014to cross the canal, Allied forces encountered wearing lifejackets borrowed from some of the \ufb01ercest \ufb01ghting of the war ARMISTICE SOUGHT cross-Channel ferries. Remarkably, the at the Battle of Selle (October 17\u201326). In Germany, a new government installed plan worked. German defenses were Although an armistice was already on October 3 sought a compromise peace deal. crushed by the weight of artillery and being discussed by then, the Allied While progress toward an armistice stalled, a machine gun \ufb01re. The British infantry commanders continued to prepare for naval mutiny sparked a revolutionary uprising established a bridgehead on the far further military campaigns into 1919. in Germany that overthrew the monarchy bank, capturing 4,000 prisoners. 320\u201321 \u276f\u276f. Germany signed the Armistice Out\ufb02anked, the German troops Canal crossing on November 11 322\u201323 \u276f\u276f. defending the tunnel crossing had to On September 27, 1918, Canadian soldiers moved withdraw and the canal was taken. ammunition forward across the dry bed of the Canal du Nord. Crossing the canal was an important stage Crisis point in the Allied attack on the Hindenburg Line. With the Siegfried Stellung breached, it appeared as if the German armies might collapse. In Flanders, King Albert\u2019s Belgian, French, and 313","","Breaking the Hindenburg Line Brigadier General J.V. Campbell addresses British troops of the 137th Brigade (46th Division) from the Riqueval Bridge after their capture of the St. Quentin Canal in October 1918.","VICTORY AND DEFEAT 1918 BEFORE Turkey and BulgariaTurkeyenteredthewarasanallyof the Central Powers in October 1914, as did Bulgaria a year later. Defeated CHANGING FORTUNES Bulgarian troops helped defeat Serbia \u276e\u276e 140\u201341 in autumn 1915 and Romania the following year \u276e\u276e 194\u201395. In autumn In 1918, the southern flank of Germany\u2019s alliance system unraveled. Defeats for Turkey at 1915, Allied forces landed at Salonika in northern Greece, across the border from Megiddo in Palestine and for Bulgaria in Macedonia left both countries with no choice but to Bulgaria and Serbia. Greece entered the seek an armistice. Germany was no longer capable of military intervention to save its allies. war on the Allied side in June 1917. Although Turkey repulsed Allied landings at T he troops of the multinational Gallipoli \u276e\u276e 110\u201315 from April 1915 and Allied army established in the was victorious at Kut al-Amara \u276e\u276e 122\u201323 Macedonian region of northern in Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq) in April 1916, it lost Baghdad in 1917. In Palestine, Greece from October 1915 were British troops led by General Edmund Allenby dubbed the \u201cgardeners of Salonika,\u201d and Arab rebels led by Emir Faisal and because of their relative inactivity. T.E. Lawrence captured Jerusalem in Despite intermittent offensives and December 1917 \u276e\u276e 258\u201359. counteroffensives, the Macedonian front remained largely passive, with far heavier losses to disease than combat. The arrival of a new commander, the French General Louis Franchet d\u2019Esp\u00e8rey, in June 1918 shook the Allied army out of its torpor. His force of French, British, Greek, Serbian, Italian, and Czech troops numbered over half a million. The Bulgarian T.E. LAWRENCE'S AGAL forces entrenched opposite the Allies German military support since spring Bulgarian troops advance were similar in number but had been 1918, when all German resources were Infantry of the Bulgarian army walk towards shellfire in demoralized by the withdrawal of redeployed to the Western Front. Macedonia in 1918. Bulgarian troops used German Franchet d\u2019Esp\u00e8rey planned a equipment and often fought under German command. \u201c We could see the enemy two-pronged operation. French and left the Allies free to attack Austria- Serbian troops would lead a surprise bolting like rabbits. We had offensive through mountainous Hungary to the north or the Turkish had orders to go forward\u2026 The southern Serbia, while British and capital Constantinople to the east. Greek forces attacked farther east at Lake Doiran, a site of earlier March on Anatolia \ufb01ghting that was well forti\ufb01ed by its Meanwhile, British progress in Bulgars have broken at last!\u201d Bulgarian defenders. Palestine had been halted by the The French and Serbians launched transfer of troops to the Western Front. their attack on September 15 and Although British General Edmund MAJOR ALFRED BUNDY, MIDDLESEX REGIMENT, SEPTEMBER 15, 1918 advanced 19 miles (30 km) in three Allenby had occupied Jerusalem in days. At Lake Doiran, the Bulgarians December 1917, Turkish troops, with repulsed the British and Greeks on German support and under German TSAR OF BULGARIA (1861\u20131948) September 18\u201319, in\ufb02icting heavy command, held positions north of the losses on infantry mounting frontal city. While waiting for reinforcements FERDINAND I assaults. However, the Bulgarians were from India, Allenby planned an attack immediately forced to withdraw from on the coastal plain of western An Austrian aristocrat related to the Lake Doiran Palestine followed European royalty, Ferdinand was invited region in an 90,000 The number of by an advance to take the vacant throne of Bulgaria in attempt to block Bulgarian soldiers north through 1887. In 1908, he asserted Bulgaria\u2019s the French and who were either killed in combat Syria into the full independence from Ottoman Serbian advance or died of disease in World War I. Anatolian Turkey, taking the title of tsar. The from the west. Around 1.2 million men served in heartland Balkan Wars of 1912\u201313, in which Earlier in the war, the country\u2019s wartime army. of Turkey. Bulgaria was ultimately on the losing German forces On September 19, side, left Ferdinand with a bitter would have been swiftly deployed to he launched his meticulously planned hostility to Serbia. In October 1915, he the Macedonian front to stabilize the offensive at the Battle of Megiddo. His joined the Central Powers to attack the situation, but none were now available. forces were impressive, with 35,000 Serbs and win territory in Macedonia. Antiwar demonstrations broke out in infantry supported by the cavalry of The unpopularity of the war in Bulgaria Bulgarian towns as the military the Desert Mounted Corps, 500 undermined his authority and he was situation deteriorated. Bulgaria\u2019s King artillery pieces, and more than 100 powerless to prevent his government Ferdinand I wanted a \ufb01ght to the aircraft. The Turkish trenches were seeking an armistice in September death, but his government requested overrun by noon on the \ufb01rst day and 1918. He abdicated on October 4. an armistice. This came into force on cavalry broke through, forcing the September 30. The collapse of Bulgaria Turks and Germans to retreat. Over the 316","TURKEY AND BULGARIA DEFEATED AFTER following days, Turkish hand grenade The defeat of Bulgaria on November 3, four days after \ufb02eeing troops were The standard Turkish grenade had a attacked by air and five-second fuse, which was lit by a and Turkey sealed the Turkey, and Germany followed out\ufb02anked by matchhead struck on an abrasive igniter. pursuing cavalry and Shortages of munitions were a problem for fate of Austria-Hungary suit on November 11. armored cars. the Turks during the later stages of the war. and Germany. Meanwhile, Arab troops stood between the Allied irregulars led by Emir army in Macedonia and TERRITORIAL LOSSES Faisal and Colonel Constantinople. The Young Turks who T.E. Lawrence captured Dera on had led the country into war fell from IMPACT ON THE WAR Bulgaria and Turkey were the eastern side of the River Jordan. power and on October 14 a \u201cpeace At the end of September, Australian government\u201d was formed under The collapse of Bulgaria left punished for their support of horsemen entered Damascus, where General Ahmed Izzet. An armistice was they were joined by Faisal\u2019s Arabs the negotiated on board the British warship the Central Powers with an Germany and Austria-Hungary. following day. HMS Agamemnon, off the Greek island of Lemnos, and signed on October 30. undefended southern Under the terms of the 1919 General Mustafa Kemal, commanding the Turkish Seventh Army, strove to front. The Allies advanced Treaty of Neuilly, Bulgaria establish a defensive line to protect Anatolia, but the situation was northward through ceded Western Thrace to Greece hopeless. To the east, in northern Mesopotamia, a British Indian army Serbia, and captured and lost territory to the future was occupying the oil \ufb01elds of Mosul. To the west, only a thin line of Turkish Belgrade on November 1. Yugoslavia. The Turkish Ottoman With no troops available to BRITISH POSTCARD Empire was dismembered by the prevent an Allied invasion of FROM SALONIKA Treaty of S\u00e8vres in 1920. their countries, both Austria-Hungary and A nationalist revolt established a Turkish Germany sought a way to end the war. Republic in 1922, which successfully revoked Austria-Hungary signed an armistice some of the treaty\u2019s terms. Bitter experience A Bulgarian officer mourns at the graveside of a comrade. Participation in World War I was a catastrophe for Bulgaria, which not only suffered heavy military casualties but also civilian hardship.","Italians ready for action Occupying a rocky outcrop east of Lake Garda in 1918, these Italian soldiers are better equipped than their Austrian opponents. Their weapons include a Lewis gun, supplied by their allies.","ITALY VICTORIOUS Italy Victorious In June 1918, the Italians repulsed a major Austro-Hungarian attack at the Battle of the Piave River. The Italian army launched its own offensive at Vittorio Veneto in the last weeks of the war, contributing to the final collapse of Austria-Hungary. T he Austro-German breakthrough This ambitious plan ignored the change With General Diaz content to sit on at Caporetto in October 1917 had placed major Italian cities, in the relative strength of the opposing the defensive, there was little action including Venice and Verona, under threat. In June 1918, Austria-Hungary armies on the Italian front since on the Italian front through summer prepared an offensive to capture these prestigious prizes and drive Italy out of Caporetto. The transfer of German 1918. On August 9, Italian patriots the war. According to the plan, troops under Field Marshal Svetozar Boroevic troops to \ufb01ght on the Western Front were enthused when the poet and would cross the Piave River, while, farther north, Field Marshal Conrad from spring 1918 left Austria-Hungary nationalist Gabriele d\u2019Annunzio led an von H\u00f6tzendorf advanced from the mountainous Trentino region. reliant on its own forces, which were air squadron on a long-distance \ufb02ight BEFORE short of food and weakened by to the Austrian capital, Vienna, where After the Central Powers\u2019 victory at desertions. In addition, formations it dropped lea\ufb02ets informing the Reviewing the troops Caporetto in October 1917, Italy\u2019s Austro-Hungarian Emperor Charles I meets some of his leaders worked hard to restore the recruited from Austria-Hungary\u2019s Slav population that they were losing the soldiers. The young emperor tried to improve conditions morale of Italian troops and civilians. in the army, for example by abolishing flogging, but AUSTRIA-HUNGARY WEAKENS minorities had become unreliable. The war. This was not news to the Austro- discontent was rife in the ranks. While Italian General Armando Diaz had restored army morale after Italy\u2019s Italian forces, meanwhile, had been Hungarians. The failure of the offensive The offensive was launched on defeat at Caporetto \u276e\u276e 246\u201347, in October 24. For two days, the Austro- Austria-Hungary food and fuel shortages led to bolstered with Allied troops and on the Piave revealed the poor state of Hungarian army fought \ufb01ercely, popular unrest. In April 1918, Italy hosted but from October 26 it began to a Congress of Oppressed Nationalities in equipment. Under the command Austria-Hungary\u2019s armed forces. The disintegrate. Italian progress was rapid, Rome, at which ethnic groups, including Poles, and Vittorio Veneto fell on October 30. Czechs, Slovaks, and Serbs, asserted a right of General Armando Diaz, collapse of its economy was More than 300,000 Austro-Hungarian to independence from Austria-Hungary. soldiers were taken prisoner. An The Allies sent troops to support the Italians they were dug into evident in the malnutrition armistice was arranged on November 3, while German forces were moved from Italy but the Italians continued to advance to the Western Front. defensive positions on the streets of Vienna. for another two days, regaining the territory lost after Caporetto. POLISH LEADER J\u00d3ZEF PILSUDSKI\u2019S UNIFORM prepared in depth. The surrender of Bulgaria AFTER in late September left Defeat in World War I brought about Failure on the Piave Austria-Hungary exposed to the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian state and the drawing of new borders On June 10, Boroevic\u2019s attack through the Balkans. in Central Europe. Fifth and Sixth Armies Emperor Charles appealed THE EMPIRE DISINTEGRATES Austria-Hungary had in effect ceased to crossed the Piave River on to American President exist before the Armistice was arranged. The country\u2019s Poles joined the new Polish pontoon bridges and Woodrow Wilson for a peace state. Czechs and Slovaks declared Bohemia and Moravia independent on made inroads into Italian deal but was rebuffed. In an October 18, 1918. The South Slavs\u2014Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes\u2014declared independence defenses near the Adriatic attempt to stave off political on October 29. Hungary quit the union with Austria. Emperor Charles renounced his role coast. Conrad\u2019s offensive collapse, on October 16 as head of state on November 11. in the Trentino region Charles announced a major TERRITORIAL GAINS The peace treaty of St.-Germain-en-Laye, followed on June 15. reform of the constitution, concluded with Austria in 1919, reduced Austria to a small republic of Within a week, but various ethnic groups predominantly ethnic Germans. Italy gained some territory at Austria\u2019s expense, however, both operations were already setting up their including South Tyrol and Trieste, but less than it had hoped, leaving a legacy of bitterness. had failed. The bridges own councils to prepare for By the 1920 Treaty of Trianon, Hungary had lost 70 percent of its prewar territory to across the Piave came independence. Romania, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia. under attack from Allied Medal of honor With Austria-Hungary aircraft and many were This bronze war medal, disintegrating, the Italians swept away in the decorated with the helmeted decided to embark on an current. The Austro- head of Italy\u2019s King Victor offensive that would Hungarian armies came Emmanuel III, was awarded in strengthen their position in under counterattack. 1920 to all Italian soldiers who future peace negotiations. Forced to abandon their had served in World War I. Diaz planned an advance bridgehead, they suffered from Monte Grappa in the heavy losses as they retreated across north and across the Piave toward the the river. In the Trentino region, the city of Vittorio Veneto. He had 51 Austro-Hungarian onslaught caused Italian divisions, \ufb01ve French and panic in the British-held sector of the British divisions, and token Czech and Asiago, but defensive discipline was American contingents. On paper, the soon restored. Conrad\u2019s costly frontal opposing sides were evenly matched, assaults barely dented the Allied line but in reality the Austro-Hungarian before the offensive was called off, just divisions were at half strength, short of six days after it had begun. artillery, and demoralized. \u201cWe all knew that Italy had been saved, and we rejoiced together.\u201d HISTORIAN G.M. TREVELYAN, SERVING WITH THE BRITISH RED CROSS AT THE BATTLE OF PIAVE RIVER, JUNE 1918 319","VICTORY AND DEFEAT 1918 Mutiny and Revolution In October 1918, Germany announced that it was seeking an armistice. As politicians rushed to introduce democratic reforms, a mutiny in the navy triggered uprisings in German cities. Kaiser Wilhelm was deposed, leaving Germany\u2019s new leaders to end the war. O n September 29, Germany\u2019s indefensible. Germany had no spare Germany humiliated under Prince Max included the release military leaders, Paul von soldiers to transfer to the Balkans A French poster from 1918 depicts the Kaiser with a of political prisoners and the Hindenburg and Erich following the defeat of Bulgaria or broken sword, kneeling before the massed flags of introduction of freedom of speech. Ludendorff, told the German civilian to prop up Austria-Hungary. the Allies, including the Stars and Stripes. Racked by hunger and shortages, government that it must seek an German cities seethed with unrest. immediate armistice. This was a brutal Search for an exit surrender and the Kaiser would have The left-wing Independent Social shock to the politicians who, like the to be removed. Wilson handed over the Democratic Party, which had deputies German people, had been kept in the Certain that the strategic situation task of formulating the precise terms of in the Reichstag and links with radical dark about the true military situation. was hopeless, the German Supreme an armistice to the Allied commanders. union representatives in factories, Command sought to escape the To the east, German armies had consequences of total military defeat German U-turn 340,000 The estimated occupied large areas of the former by luring the Allies into an armistice. number of Russian Empire, and to the west they Their main hope lay in U.S. president By this time, the German armies had German soldiers who surrendered were still \ufb01ghting in France and Woodrow Wilson, who in January shown they were able to \ufb01ght on and in the last four months of the war. Belgium. But with Allied forces 1918 had made an idealistic fourteen- the prospect of their collapse receded. breaking through the Hindenburg Line, point declaration of war aims. The Hindenburg and Ludendorff reversed advocated the overthrow of the Kaiser. Germany\u2019s military leadership feared Fourteen Points seemed to provide the their support for an armistice, Released from prison in October, Karl that the Western Front defenses were ground for a peace deal that would expressing outrage at Allied terms. On Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg, about to collapse. They also knew that leave German military forces intact, the October 24, ignoring the government, leaders of the far-left Spartacus League, their southern \ufb02ank had become Kaiser on his throne, and German they ordered the German armies to agitated for a revolutionary upheaval territory free of foreign occupation. \ufb01ght to the death. Two days later, after to found a socialist state. Revolution in Germany a row with the Kaiser, Ludendorff was On November 11, 1918, the French newspaper Le Petit Recognizing Wilson\u2019s predilection for replaced by General Wilhelm Groener. Naval mutiny Journal announced a revolution in Germany and the democracy, the German leaders\u2019 \ufb01rst Hindenburg remained at his post. abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II. The Armistice was move was to appoint a new chancellor, Meanwhile, the German people were On October 28, the German Admiralty signed on the morning this report appeared. the moderate conservative Prince Max thrown into confusion by the prospect ordered the High Seas Fleet at von Baden, as head of a liberal civilian of defeat. The liberalization of Germany Wilhelmshaven to put to sea for a last BEFORE government. For the \ufb01rst time in its history, the German government was encounter with the Royal Under the leadership of Field Marshal representative of the majority in the Navy\u2019s Grand Fleet. Paul von Hindenburg and General Reichstag, including members from the Blockaded in port for most Erich Ludendorff, Germany sought Social Democratic Party (SDP) and of the war, poorly fed, and to establish German dominance in from Zentrum, the Catholic party. On alienated by arrogant Europe through military victory. October 4, Prince Max sent a note to of\ufb01cers, German sailors President Wilson requesting an were in no mood for a LAST GASP armistice and accepting the Fourteen death-or-glory sortie. They Germany\u2019s defeat of Russia, con\ufb01rmed by Points as the basis for negotiations. the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk \u276e\u276e 276\u201377 Inciting revolution in March 1918, was followed by a series of Wilson initially responded favorably to Karl Liebknecht, one of the leaders of offensives on the Western Front. These the German proposal, only requesting Germany\u2019s Spartacus League, addresses failed to win the war, however, and from that the Germans withdraw their armies a gathering of soldiers and sailors in August the Germans were driven into retreat, from occupied territory as a prelude to Berlin. Liebknecht wanted a \ufb01rst to the Hindenburg Line \u276e\u276e 312\u201313 an armistice. But a hostile reaction from Bolshevik-style revolution to make and then beyond. Germany\u2019s allies, Bulgaria, other Allied leaders and military Germany a workers\u2019 state. Turkey, and Austria-Hungary, successively commanders\u2014including American sought armistice agreements to exit the war. General John Pershing\u2014as well as public opinion in the United States soon forced Wilson to stiffen his position. On October 10, a German U-boat sank the Irish ferry Leinster, killing over 500 people. Wilson demanded an immediate end to submarine warfare plus real progress toward democracy in Germany. Prince Max complied, calling off the U-boats and pushing through reforms to make Germany a constitutional monarchy. On October 23, Wilson made it clear that to obtain an armistice Germany would have to 320","Fighting on the streets The streets of Berlin saw fighting between soldiers and civilians on both sides. German army leaders refused to defend the monarchy against armed attack by revolutionaries in the crisis of November 1918. \u201c The old and rotten, the monarchy has AFTER collapsed\u2026 Long live the German Republic!\u201d After the war, a liberal democratic PHILIPP SCHEIDEMANN, DECLARATION FROM THE REICHSTAG BUILDING, NOVEMBER 9, 1918 government came to power in Germany but it was undermined refused to sail. The mutiny spread to Before agreement was reached, by right-wing militarists. the port city of Kiel, which was taken however, the German Empire ceased to THE WEIMAR REPUBLIC After the Armistice 322\u201333 \u276f\u276f, efforts to over by revolutionary sailors\u2019 councils, exist. On November 9, as revolutionary turn Germany into a revolutionary socialist state failed. An uprising in Berlin led by the modeled on the Russian soviets. upheaval reached Berlin, Prince Max Spartacists was suppressed in January 1919. Germany emerged as the center-left Through the \ufb01rst week in November, handed the chancellorship to moderate Weimar Republic. the uprising spread. Workers\u2019, soldiers\u2019, Social Democrat Friedrich Ebert. 14 The number of years that the German Weimar and sailors\u2019 councils took control of Meanwhile, another Social Democrat, Republic lasted, before Adolf Hitler was appointed chancellor. cities across Germany. In Munich, Philipp Scheidemann, on The Treaty of Versailles 338\u201339 \u276f\u276f was Independent Socialists led by Kurt his own initiative declared Germany signed by German delegates under duress in June 1919. Right-wing militarists, including Eisner declared a republic. Hindenburg and Ludendorff, created the myth that the German army had lost due Bavaria a republic. 1.45 MILLION The number Ebert formed a to a \u201cstab in the back\u201d by Jews and In army units in of working days lost revolutionary socialist subversives. Germany, of\ufb01cers to strikes in Germany in 1918. government of 321 were disarmed by People\u2019s Commissars, soldiers and stripped of their insignia. drawn from the Social Democrats and On the Western Front, discipline held Independent Socialists. Kaiser Wilhelm, and German troops continued \ufb01ghting. at the German military headquarters at Spa in Belgium, was informed by Balcony speech On the afternoon of November 9, 1918, German Social Germany becomes a republic Groener that the army would not \ufb01ght Democrat politician Philipp Scheidemann announced the creation of a German Republic, addressing a crowd On the night of November 7, a German to keep him on the throne. He \ufb02ed from a balcony of the Reichstag building in Berlin. delegation traveled through Allied lines across the border into exile in the for face-to-face armistice negotiations. neutral Netherlands.","The signing of the Armistice The Armistice In a train car in the F\u00f4ret de Compi\u00e8gne, the leader of the German delegation, Matthias Erzberger, faces On November 11, 1918, an armistice brought an end to more than four years of slaughter. There Marshal Ferdinand Foch across the table on which the were scenes of rejoicing on city streets in the victorious countries, but relief and pride were Armistice will be signed. tempered by grief for the fallen. In the defeated countries, chaos and bitterness reigned. BEFORE O n the night of November 7, Foch was not certain that Germany at home. The newly installed a German delegation, headed by would accept these terms, which by government of the German Republic, In autumn 1918, the deterioration of the respected politician Matthias rendering their country indefensible proclaimed on November 9, was fully Germany\u2019s military situation and the Erzberger, was taken to Rethondes in effectively constituted a surrender occupied with establishing a hold on collapse of its allies forced the eastern France. Supreme Commander rather than a cessation of hostilities. power in Berlin. country\u2019s leaders to seek an armistice. of the Allied Armies Marshal Ferdinand Allied attacks on the Western Front Foch and other Allied of\ufb01cers awaited continued unabated, as did planning 5,000 The number of DEFEAT ON ALL FRONTS their arrival on a train in a siding in the for future operations, into 1919. locomotive engines The success of Allied armies on the Western F\u00f4ret de Compi\u00e8gne. that were to be surrendered to the Front culminated in the breaching of the Opinion among Allied generals was Allies by the Germans under the Hindenburg Line \u276e\u276e 312\u201313 in late The Allies had agreed to present divided. British commander Field terms of the Armistice. September. Meanwhile, the defeat of harsh armistice terms. Germany was Marshal Douglas Haig, impressed by the Bulgaria left the Allies free to march through to withdraw all of its troops from strength of German resistance, was eager On the evening of November 10, a the Balkans, with French and Serbian troops France, Belgium, and Alsace-Lorraine; for an immediate end to the \ufb01ghting. telegram from the government reaching Belgrade on November 5. Turkey German territory on the west bank of American General John Pershing hoped authorized Erzberger to accept the agreed to an armistice \u276e\u276e 316\u201317 on the Rhine would be occupied by Allied the Germans would reject the Armistice Allied terms. Around 2am on the October 30. Austria-Hungary was troops, who would also hold so that they could be more thoroughly morning of November 11, the German defeated by the Italians \u276e\u276e 318\u201319 at bridgeheads across the Rhine; and beaten in battle. \u201cWhat I dread,\u201d delegation stepped down from their Vittorio Veneto and signed an armistice on large quantities of military equipment, Pershing said, \u201cis that Germany doesn\u2019t train and walked on planks across November 3. Germany was in the grip of surface warships, and submarines were know that she is licked.\u201d muddy ground to Foch\u2019s train car. For revolution, leading to the fall of the Kaiser to be handed over to the Allies. The the following three hours, various and the proclamation of a republic on naval blockade of Germany would Any possibility of the Germans points in the Armistice agreement were November 9 \u276e\u276e 320\u201321. continue to operate. rejecting the Armistice terms was annulled by the outbreak of revolution 322","THE ARMISTICE Cheering for victory AFTER Soldiers of the Irish Guards raise their helmets aloft to cheer the The Armistice was followed by a peace announcement of the Armistice at conference in Paris in 1919, at which Maubeuge in northern France. the victors discussed the terms to be imposed on the defeated. discussed, but there were \u201cNo more slaughter, no more no real negotiations. maiming, no more mud and THE FALLOUT Erzberger read out a blood, and no more killing.\u201d The delay in \ufb01nalizing peace terms slowed the statement of protest, demobilization of Allied armies, and concluding: \u201cA people of BRITISH LIEUTENANT R.G. DIXON, ROYAL ARTILLERY, ON THE ARMISTICE soldiers demanded the right to go home. Many 70 million are suffering, civilians in Germany and former Austria- but they are not dead.\u201d Hungary suffered hardship due to the continuing Allied blockade and economic and At 5:10am the Armistice political dislocation. All countries experienced was signed by Foch and high death rates from an in\ufb02uenza British First Sea Lord pandemic that in total probably killed more Admiral Rosslyn Wemyss people than the war. The Treaty of for the Allies, and by Versailles 338\u201339 \u276f\u276f, signed by the Erzberger and three of his Germans under protest in June 1919, formally colleagues for Germany. ended the war. Matthias It was agreed that, since it Erzberger was assassinated by was the eleventh day of the German nationalist extremists eleventh month, hostilities would cease in 1921 for his \u201ccrime\u201c in at 11am, to complete the coincidence. signing the Armistice. The last shots The war continued until the last minute. Everywhere, Allied troops were advancing. The Belgians had just retaken Ghent, the Canadians Mons, As the watches of the of\ufb01cers ticked to received the telegram announcing his SPANISH FLU OVERTAKES THE ANGEL OF PEACE 11 o\u2019clock, the order was given to cease death in combat as the bells were \ufb01ring. An uncanny silence fell along ringing for the Armistice. In Belgium, German army had been beaten. One the front. Soldiers realized, with celebration of the German defeat corporal, Adolf Hitler, heard the news amazement, that the war really had was accompanied by retribution of the Armistice while in the hospital stopped. As the guns fell silent, against collaborators and pro\ufb01teers. recovering from a gas attack. In his reactions were mixed. At the front, Belgian women alleged to have had memoirs, Mein Kampf, he described his there was no fraternization between relationships with German soldiers anguish at the realization that four opposing troops. Allied soldiers still were forced to walk naked through the years of \ufb01ghting had \u201call been in vain.\u201d manned their positions, while to the streets with their heads shaved, and The reactions of men such as Hitler to rear reactions ranged from decorous traders believed to have exploited food the experience of defeat were to ceremonies to riotous celebrations shortages for pro\ufb01t had their shops become a dangerous factor in postwar with the local population. looted and burned. German political life. Public reactions There was no rejoicing in the defeated countries. In Germany, shock and The most joyous scenes took place in bitterness were widespread among Allied cities. In London\u2019s Trafalgar civilians who had thought their Square, on Broadway in New York, and country would win the war and along the Seine in Paris, crowds danced soldiers who could not believe the and sang. Political leaders\u2014Georges Celebratory feast Clemenceau in France, David Lloyd The annual Thanksgiving celebrations had special George in Britain\u2014made speeches. In significance for Americans in November 1918. As this some places, such as Chicago and menu shows, the traditional turkey dinner was served in Melbourne, Australia, celebrations London to American soldiers who had survived the war. degenerated into disorder. More frequently, well-behaved street parties and the Americans M\u00e9zi\u00e8res. There took place, as families waited to be were 11,000 Allied casualties on the reunited with loved ones. morning of November 11, as of\ufb01cers ordered attacks to seize key points For many people, in mourning for ahead of the cease-\ufb01re. Outside Mons, relatives killed in the \ufb01ghting or struck three British soldiers who had survived down by the deadly in\ufb02uenza epidemic four years of combat were killed by a then sweeping the world, the rejoicing burst of machine gun \ufb01re. seemed inappropriate. The family of the English poet Wilfred Owen Canadian Private George Price is recognized as the last British and Anglo-American celebrations Commonwealth fatality of the war, In Paris, on November 11, 1918, two British soldiers, an shot dead by a sniper at 10:58. American sailor, and an American nurse celebrate the Armistice together. An apparently interminable conflict had come to a surprisingly sudden end. 323","Victory parade French civilians and American soldiers celebrate the conclusion of the war. The collapse of the German army led the country\u2019s leaders to sign an armistice with the Allies on November 11, 1918.","","","7 AFTERMATH 1919 \u2013 1923 The postwar peace conference failed to create a new world order based on harmony and justice. While people sought solace by commemorating the fallen, local wars and political conflicts continued and the seeds of another world war were sown.","AFTERMATH 1919\u20131923 AFTERMATH The Irish War of German hardship in the Cemeteries and memorials are built at Independence ends in immediate aftermath of all the major battlefields after the war. The 1921, with the setting up of the Irish Free State as a the war is severe and citizens Lone Pine Cemetery commemorates the British dominion. Northern are reduced to searching Anzac troops who died at Gallipoli in Ireland, dominated by 1915. Such cemeteries continue to be Protestants, remains part through garbage for fuel and of the UK. Civil war breaks edible refuse. The Allied places of pilgrimage to the present day. out in 1922 between the economic blockade on Irish Free State government and Republicans. Germany is maintained until the peace is signed. Y ICELAND A N NORW FINLAND SWEDE EUROPE BRITAIN FAEROE ISLANDS N O R W AY FINLAND AT L A N T I C GERMANY POLAND USSR (Denmark) SWEDEN FRANCE tic Sea Caspian SeaOCEANI TA LYBlack Sea TUNISIA ESTONIA PORTUGAL S PA I N TURKEY IA N North IT AFGHANISTA LATVIA SPANISH MOROCCO CYPRUS SYRIA PERSIA B a l LITHUANIA MOROCCO PALESTINE (French TIBET Sea DENMARK (British mandate) mandate) IRAQ (British mandate) (autonomous) DANZIG GER. USSR ALGERIA LIBYA KUWAIT NEPAL BAHRAIN IRISH (League of Nations POLAND EGYPT TRANSJORDAN QATAR FREE NETH. Administration) (British mandate) STATE BRITAIN RIO DE ORO GERMANY NEJD TRUCIAL I N D I A BEL. LUX. ANGLO- (Saudi) OMAN FRENCH WEST AFRICA EGYPTIAN ASIR OMAN HADHRAMAUT SAAR TOGO CAMEROONS SUDAN YEMEN (League of Nations CZECHOSLOVAKIA (French mandate) (British mandate) GAMBIA (British mandate) ADEN PROTECTORATE Administration) SWITZ. AUSTRIA HUNGARY PORTUGUESE GUINEA NIGERIA FRENCH ERITREA FRENCH SOMALILAND CEYLON FRANCE SIERRA LEONE EQUATORIAL ABYSSINIA BRITISH ALY YUGOSLAV ROMANIA Black Sea LIBERIA AFRICA SOMALILAND BULGARIA TOGO GOLD NDA ITALIAN (British mandate) COAST CAMEROONS UGA KENYA SOMALILAND (French mandate) PORTUGAL SPAIN ALB. BELGIAN TANGANYIKA INDIAN CONGO (British mandate) GREECE T U R KEY Me d iterr ANGOLA NYASALAND SYRIA ALGERIA TUNISIA IRAQ O C E A NNORTHERN RHODESIA (France) (France) a n ean DODECANESE SOUTHERN MADAGASCAR (Italy) MOROCCO RHODESIA (France) S e a CYPRUS SOUTH WEST BECHUANA- PORTUGUESE (Britain) EAST AFRICA LAND AFRICA LIBYA (Italy) EGYPT (South African mandate) (Britain) UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA The Treaty of Versailles Polish independence, The Paris Peace between the Allies and celebrated in this poster, is Conference in January 1919 Germany is signed achieved in November 1918. fails to satisfy the demands of The state of Poland, which did on June 28, 1919, watched many delegates, including by a crowd of onlookers. not exist before the war, Prince Faisal, who hopes to Most Germans do is created from Germany, not accept that the peace gain Arab independence. terms are just. Russia, and the former Austria-Hungary. T hroughout World War I, people had been told that their redrawn as a result of the collapse of the Russian, Austro-Hungarian, efforts and sacrifices would lead to the building of a better and Ottoman Empires. Nationalist movements created new states world where peace and justice would reign. The Paris Peace such as Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Yugoslavia. The peacemakers Conference of 1919 inevitably disappointed these high aspirations. determined the new borders. The Treaty of Versailles imposed on Germany was a compromise that embittered the Germans without sufficiently guaranteeing French There was much disappointment, even among the victors. Italy did security. The map of Europe and the Middle East was extensively not gain the territory it had expected, while the Arabs saw their part of the former Ottoman Empire divided between Britain and France. 328","AFTERMATH 1919\u20131923 1919 \u2013 1923 GREENLAND CANADA NEWFOUNDLAND MONGOLIA President Woodrow Wilson is the focus for hopes of a \u201cjust peace\u201d in 1919. He CHINA fails to sell the peace treaty to the U.S. Congress UNITED STATES and the American people, with the result that OF AMERICA the United States never joins the League of Nations. JAPANESE EMPIRE BRITISH HONDURAS MEXICO CUBA DOMINICAN REPUBLIC AT L A N T I C HAITI VIRGIN ISLANDS Mariana Hawaiian Islands PACIFIC LEEWARD ISLANDS Islands WINDWARD ISLANDS (Japanese mandate) SIAM FRENCH PHILIPPINE GUAM OCEAN GUATEMALA HONDURAS BARBADOS OCEAN INDOCHINA ISLANDS EL SALVADOR NICARAGUA Christmas BRITISH Marshall Islands Island COSTA RICA TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO NORTH BORNEO (Japanese mandate) VENEZUELA BRITISH GUIANA BRUNEI Caroline CANAL ZONE PANAMA DUTCH GUIANA SARAWAK Islands (Japanese mandate) Gilbert COLOMBIA FRENCH GUIANA MALAYA Islands TERRITORY Cook ECUADOR DUTCH OF NEW GUINEA Nauru Islands (Australian mandate) (Australian mandate) PAPUA EAST INDIES Solomon BRAZIL Islands Ellice UAY Islands PERU PORTUGUESE New WESTERN French Polynesia TIMOR Hebrides (mNaenwSdAaZMteea)OlaTnAodngSAaAMMEORIACAN Fiji BOLIVIA AUSTRALIA New PARAG Caledonia CHILE URUGUAY ARGENTINA NEW ZEALAND The Spanish flu pandemic FALKLAND is at its peak in 1918\u201319. It kills ISLANDS 50\u2013100 million people worldwide, THE WORLD IN including one in five people in DECEMBER 1923 Samoa. Here, the virus is depicted Frontiers saddening the angel of peace. Much of the postwar world seethed with discontent and was In 1923, France and Belgium sent troops into Germany to secure immersed in suffering. An influenza pandemic in 1918\u201319 may have reparations payments imposed by the Treaty of Versailles. Ravaged been the most costly natural disaster ever to strike the human race. by hyperinflation and threatened by political extremists, the German In the former Russian Empire, millions died in civil war and famine Republic survived to achieve a fragile return to normality by 1924. before the establishment of the Communist-ruled Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) at the end of 1922. There were wars The war was obsessively memorialized, but most people hoped between the Irish and British, Poles and Russians, Turks and Greeks. it would never be repeated. German resentment and bitterness, however, led directly to the outbreak of World War II in 1939. 329","AFTERMATH 1919\u20131923 TIMELINE 1919 \u2013 1923 Paris Peace Conference \u25a0 Treaty of Versailles \u25a0 Remembrance ceremonies \u25a0 Russian Civil War \u25a0 Irish independence \u25a0 Fascist triumph in Italy \u25a0 Turkey becomes a republic \u25a0 Ruhr occupied \u25a0 German hyperinflation 1919 1920 JANUARY JUNE 28 OCTOBER 19 JANUARY 20 AUGUST 10 World is in the grip of The Treaty of Versailles In Russia, Red cavalry Georges Turkey signs the Spanish flu pandemic. is signed in Paris. defeats White army Clemenceau Treaty of S\u00e8vres, advancing on the city resigns as French the terms of which JANUARY 15 JULY 19 of Tula. prime minister and include transfers of The Spartacist uprising The Cenotaph is retires from territory to Greece. in Berlin is crushed, unveiled in London. NOVEMBER 11 politics. ending the attempt Ceremonies on the AUGUST 12\u201325 to carry out a first anniversary Georges Clemenceau\u2019s Bolshevik Russian communist revolution. of the Armistice begin office seal forces are defeated the tradition of by the Poles at the JANUARY 18 remembrance. MARCH 8 Battle of Warsaw. First plenary session of NOVEMBER 19 Arab leader Faisal Paris Peace Conference. U.S. Senate fails is declared king NOVEMBER 11 to ratify the Treaty of Syria. Burials of the Unknown JANUARY 21 of Versailles. Warriors take place in Sinn Fein MPs meet in MARCH 13 Dublin and proclaim an German naval flag Kapp Putsch by London and Paris. Irish Republic. paramilitary NOVEMBER 27 Freikorps against NOVEMBER 14 Bulgaria signs the German government. It Russian Civil peace treaty of Neuilly collapses five days later. War ends with the with the Allies. evacuation of White troops from the Crimea. The Paris Peace Conference JANUARY 25 MARCH 23 AUGUST 1 Paris Peace Conference Benito Mussolini In Hungary, Bela Kun\u2019s agrees in principle to founds the Italian communist regime is the creation of the Fascist movement. overthrown. League of Nations. APRIL 23 AUGUST 11 MARCH 21 Italian prime minister Founding of German Communists led by Vittorio Orlando walks Weimar Republic. Bela Kun take power out of the peace in Hungary. conference after Italian demands are not met. MAY 4 MARCH 19 The body of Britain\u2019s Unknown Chinese protest against U.S. Congress rejects Warrior is taken home decision to grant the Treaty of Versailles Shantung to Japan. and membership in the NOVEMBER 15 League of Nations. The former port of MAY 7 Danzig is made a free The Allies present APRIL 23 city to give Poland peace terms to Mustafa Kemal opens a access to the sea. Germany. They include National Assembly in loss of territory, limits SEPTEMBER 10 Ankara in opposition to on armed forces, and The Treaty of Ottoman government. payment of reparations. St. Germain formalizes peace between the JUNE 4 JUNE 21 Allies and Austria. Treaty of Trianon The German High formalizes peace Seas Fleet is scuttled between the wartime off the British naval Allies and Hungary. base at Scapa Flow in the Orkneys, in protest of peace terms. Protection against Spanish flu A postage stamp from the Free City of Danzig 330","TIMELINE 1919\u20131923 \u201cI have endeavored to destroy\u2026 that Treaty which\u2026 contains the vilest oppression that peoples and human beings have ever\u2026 put up with.\u201d GERMAN F\u00dcHRER ADOLF HITLER ON THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES, APRIL 28, 1939 1921 1922 1923 JANUARY 29 JULY 29 FEBRUARY 28 NOVEMBER 1 An Inter-Allied Adolf Hitler becomes Britain ends its The Turkish National Reparations leader of the small protectorate over Assembly abolishes Commission decides extremist Nazi Party Egypt, declaring the the Ottoman sultanate. on the sum of German in Germany. country independent. war reparations. Germany rejects the AUGUST 23 APRIL 16 figure as too high. The British make Faisal Treaty of Rapallo king of Iraq, although normalizes relations the country remains between Germany French troops begin their under British control. and Russia. occupation of the Ruhr MARCH 18 SEPTEMBER 13 JANUARY 11 AUGUST 13 The Treaty of Riga Turkish nationalist French and Belgian Gustav Stresemann establishes the border forces defeat an troops occupy the Ruhr becomes German between Poland and invading Greek army at area of Germany in chancellor and Bolshevik Russia. the Battle of Sakariya. response to the begins efforts to end country\u2019s failure to ongoing economic meet reparations and political crisis. obligations. OCTOBER 29 Turkey is declared a republic. MAY 5 DECEMBER 6 JUNE 28 Greek refugees struggle to MAY 24 NOVEMBER 8\u20139 The Allies threaten to The Anglo-Irish Treaty Civil war breaks out flee the city of Smyrna Irish Civil War ends Nazi leader Adolf Hitler, occupy the Ruhr area ends the Irish War of between the Irish Free with surrender supported by Erich of Germany if the Independence and State government Poster celebrating the fascist of Republican Ludendorff, tries to Germans reject a establishes the Irish and Republicans March on Rome forces opposed to the seize power in the revised reparations Free State. who reject the Anglo-Irish Treaty. Munich Putsch. The demand. Germany Anglo-Irish Treaty. attempted coup fails. agrees to pay. AUGUST 30 JULY Turkish forces defeat The value of the the Greeks at the German mark collapses Battle of Dunlupinar. through hyperinflation. One U.S. dollar buys SEPTEMBER 13 353,000 marks. Occupied by Turkish troops, Smyrna (modern-day Izmir) is destroyed by fire. Cemetery and memorial at DECEMBER 29 OCTOBER 31 JULY 24 Adolf Hitler Notre Dame de Lorette, France The United States, France, Fascist leader Treaty of Lausanne Britain, Italy, and Japan Benito Mussolini between Turkey and NOVEMBER 15 sign the Washington Naval forms a government DECEMBER 30 the wartime Allies Issue of the new Treaty, limiting the size in Italy after the The Union of Soviet replaces the earlier Rentenmark ends of their navies. \u201cMarch on Rome.\u201d Socialist Republics peace treaty of S\u00e8vres. German hyperinflation. (USSR) is founded. One Rentenmark equals one trillion old marks. 331","A F T E R M AT H BEFORE Devastated World World War I had lasted more than four After the fighting stopped, the world faced a daunting transition to peace. Malnutrition years and caused the collapse of the and disease killed millions, while political disorder and continuing armed conflict blocked Russian, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, recovery in many places. Soldiers returning home were disoriented by the experience of war. and German empires. W orld War I cost the lives of general hardship, which increased Influenza pandemic AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN ANTIWAR POSTER almost 10 million military the incidence of disease, continued The \u201cSpanish flu\u201d that swept the world in personnel. These included beyond the war\u2019s end. 1918\u201319 mostly affected young adults, like NEW WORLD ORDER over 2 million Germans, 750,000 this American soldier. Around 550,000 A series of armistices ended the \ufb01ghting, British, 62,000 Australians, 65,000 Deadly virus Americans died in the pandemic. notably with Ottoman Turkey \u276e\u276e 316\u201317 on Canadians, 74,000 Indians, and 58,000 October 30, 1918, Austria-Hungary \u276e\u276e 318\u201319 Belgians. The French death toll was Whether the \ufb02u pandemic on the war and its aftermath. The on November 3, and Germany \u276e\u276e 322\u201323 on 1.4 million, about one in 10 of all raging at the time of the demobilization of Allied soldiers November 11. New states asserted their French males. Almost 117,000 armistice should be proceeded slowly and often independence as the old empires U.S. service personnel died. considered a consequence unfairly, leading to public protests collapsed, including Poland, Czechoslovakia, of the war is uncertain, and serious disturbances\u2014 and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Overall, losses were heavily although wartime including an incident in which Slovenes (later Yugoslavia). In the former concentrated in younger adult males. conditions certainly \ufb01ve mutinous Canadian soldiers Russian Empire, civil war was raging. In Germany, for example, one in three facilitated the spread of were shot at their army camp in men who had been aged 19 to 22 the deadly virus known Wales. Implementation of the when the war started was dead by misleadingly as \u201cSpanish terms of the Armistice with November 1918. Countless survivors \ufb02u.\u201d Many thousands Germany went ahead. Allied of soldiers who had soldiers occupied the Rhineland were to varying degrees disabled and survived the \ufb01ghting died and German warships and most were psychologically scarred. of in\ufb02uenza around the submarines were interned in It is impossible to establish how war\u2019s end. First recorded British ports. Allied prisoners of war many civilian deaths were in January 1918, the were released from their camps and attributable to the effects of virus killed between 50 left to \ufb01nd their own way to the war, although a \ufb01gure and 100 million people friendly territory. of 6 million has worldwide before subsiding been suggested. in late 1919. The population Extreme nationalism Malnutrition and of Germany, weakened by German soldiers marched home food shortages, suffered from France, Belgium, Russia, and heavily, but so did the Ukraine to \ufb01nd their country in the well-fed United States. grip of revolutionary turmoil. Seeking The world\u2019s attention was an explanation for a defeat they had distracted from probably the not expected and could not accept, most deadly pandemic in some of them, such as future dictator human history by focusing","DEVASTATED WORLD German hardship AFTER Women stoop to salvage food from a garbage dump in Berlin in the Leaders of the victorious powers aftermath of the war. Malnutrition gathered for a conference in Paris was rife and the death toll high. in January 1919, leading to the establishment of a series of treaties Adolf Hitler, were drawn to formally end the war. into nationalist extremist groups that blamed SEEDS OF FUTURE CONFLICT socialists and Jews for The crucial peace agreement with Germany, the debacle. Unable to the Versailles Treaty 338\u201339 \u276f\u276f, was reintegrate into civilian signed in June 1919. Accepted by the Germans life, many ex-soldiers under duress, it included provisions for joined paramilitary substantial reparations payments. organizations called The German Weimar Republic was formally Freikorps. The German created in August 1919, but Germany government, led by continued to be racked by civil conflict and moderate Social hyperinflation until 1924. In Italy, Democrats intent discontent with the outcome of the war was a on founding a major factor in the rise to power of Benito parliamentary Mussolini\u2019s Fascist Party in 1922. democracy, used the In places, warfare continued into the 1920s, Freikorps to crush an notably in the Russian Civil War and the attempted communist Greco-Turkish War 342\u201343 \u276f\u276f. uprising in Berlin in January 1919. A socialist standstill. In the former Austro- The victor countries were not immune villages, wrecked factories and mines, republic proclaimed in Hungarian and Russian Empires, the to con\ufb02ict and disorder. Italy was gas-poisoned soil, and dangerous litter Bavaria, southern Germany, in May condition of many people was pitiful. swept by riots and strikes. In the of unexploded munitions. Even neutral 1919 was also brutally suppressed. United States, the authorities made countries such as Norway and the New con\ufb02icts widespread arrests of anarchists and Netherlands were stalked by hunger. Pitiful living conditions socialists in the \u201cRed Scare\u201d from April There were outbreaks of \ufb01ghting as 1919. The British Empire was The establishment of the American Life remained a miserable struggle for new states sought to establish their challenged by revolts in Ireland, Egypt, Relief Administration in February most Germans, who faced poverty, borders\u2014for example, between Poland and India. Meanwhile, Belgium and 1919, to provide food aid to Europe, cold, and hunger, induced by political and Czechoslovakia. In Hungary, a France faced the daunting challenge of was an attempt at a civilized chaos and the effects of the Allied communist revolutionary, Bela Kun, reconstruction in the war-devastated international response to the naval blockade, which under the terms seized power in March 1919 and zone of the Western Front, with its catastrophe. But mostly individuals of the Armistice was maintained until a proclaimed a Soviet Republic. He was ruined or obliterated towns and and states had to seek their own way \ufb01nal peace agreement was signed. overthrown by an invasion of back to normality. Romanian and Czechoslovak forces, It was a similar picture in other which allowed Hungarian Admiral \u201c We have won the war. Now we countries shattered by the war. In the Miklos Horthy to take power. will have to win the peace. Turkish capital, Constantinople (Istanbul), That may prove harder.\u201d typhus was rampant, food scarce, fuel unobtainable, and transportation at a Clearing the ruins FRENCH PREMIER GEORGES CLEMENCEAU, NOVEMBER 11, 1918 German prisoners of war are put to work clearing debris in the ruined French town of B\u00e9thune in 1919. It took about seven years to return the devastated areas of northeastern France to normality. GERMAN DICTATOR (1889\u20131945) ADOLF HITLER The future German dictator Adolf Hitler was Austrian. He moved to Munich in Germany as a young man, joining the German army as a volunteer in August 1914. After the war, he drifted into nationalist politics, and in 1921 became leader of the small Nazi Party. In 1923, his attempt to seize power in the Munich Putsch failed. After a spell in prison, he built up mass support by arguing that all Germany\u2019s ills were due to the Treaty of Versailles. Taking power in 1933, he sought to reverse the result of World War I, eventually leading Germany to catastrophic defeat in World War II. 333","A F T E R M AT H The Paris Peace Conference In January 1919, world leaders met for a peace conference in Paris. Hopes were high for the independence. The peacemakers could creation of a new and better world that would justify the sacrifice of the war. The conference only intervene over the details of ended in disillusion, however, as the participants haggled over conflicting interests. borders, and sometimes, as in the case of Poland\u2019s eastern frontier, their BEFORE T he Paris Peace Conference was a Record of the talks decisions were later ignored. vast, unwieldy event. Thirty-two This writing case was used by David Lloyd George at Wartime agreements between Allied states were represented, each the Paris Peace Conference in 1919.The British prime Much time was spent discussing the countries and public statements by with its entourage of diplomats, minister found himself mediating between French fate of Fiume (Rijeka), which Italy and political leaders set the complex advisers, and secretaries. The most leader Clemenceau and U.S. president Wilson. Yugoslavia both claimed. In April, agenda for the peace conference. signi\ufb01cant absentees were the defeated Orlando walked out of the conference QUEST FOR NATIONHOOD powers, who were not invited, and In compensation, the Japanese were after his allies refused to back Italy. The President Woodrow Wilson had declared that Bolshevik Russia. The leaders of all the told they could keep control of frustration of its territorial ambitions the war would \u201cmake the world safe for major Allied states attended in person\u2014 Tsingtao in China, seized from the fueled discontent in the country in the democracy\u201d \u276e\u276e 212\u201313. Britain and France David Lloyd George for Britain, Germans during the war. This outraged postwar period. Overall, attempts to had agreed with the Americans to allow Georges Clemenceau for France, Italian the Chinese, who felt they had gained national groups such as the Poles to form premier Vittorio Orlando, and American nothing by supporting the Allied cause. NATIONAL SELF-DETERMINATION independent states \u276e\u276e 168\u201369. But Italy president Woodrow Wilson. The \ufb01rst Meanwhile, the Arabs who had fought The right of ethnic groups to form expected to gain territory in Dalmatia, which U.S. president to travel abroad on alongside British troops against Turkey independent nation-states instead had a mainly Slav population. The Arabs had of\ufb01cial business, Wilson was greeted found the British and French intent on of living under foreign rule. been promised independence \u276e\u276e 196\u201397, in Europe by adoring crowds. dividing Mesopotamia (Iraq), Palestine, contradicting an Anglo-French agreement to and Syria between themselves. match borders to ethnicity revealed share former Turkish land and British Initially, the most important issues how impossible it was to apply promises to Jewish Zionists. at the conference were discussed by Disputed borders self-determination to Europe\u2019s complex a Council of Ten, consisting of two web of people. ITALIAN POLITICIAN (1860\u20131952) representatives from each of the \ufb01ve The peacemakers are sometimes major powers\u2014the United States, said to have redrawn the borders A series of peace treaties were signed VITTORIO ORLANDO Britain, France, Italy, and Japan. By of Europe, but except for the crucial with the defeated powers: the Treaty March, this had been abandoned in favor of Versailles with Germany in June A law professor and politician from of a Council of Four\u2014Wilson, Lloyd case of Germany, most 1918, the Treaty of St. Germain with Sicily, Vittorio Orlando was Italy\u2019s George, Clemenceau, and Orlando. changes were decided Austria in September, the Treaty of minister of the interior before being elsewhere. Poland, Neuilly with Bulgaria in November, the appointed prime minister in the wake The League of Nations Czechoslovakia, and Treaty of S\u00e8vres with Turkey in April of the Caporetto disaster in 1917. His the Kingdom of Serbs, 1920, and the Treaty of Trianon with \ufb01rm leadership secured a degree of The European Allies had broadly Croats, and Slovenes Hungary the following June. The national unity in support of the war accepted the principle of a \u201cjust peace\u201d (Yugoslavia) had treaties were complex, detailed, and effort. At the peace conference, he based on democracy and national already declared partially ineffectual. The compromises staged a walkout in protest of the self-determination, as proposed by between justice and revenge, and treatment of Italy, but Italian nationalists President Wilson. Lloyd George and idealism and self-interest, left grounds still condemned him for failing to secure Clemenceau both supported Wilson\u2019s for resentment, fueling hostility and territorial expansion. They forced his idea for an international organization, con\ufb02ict for decades to come. resignation in June 1919. the League of Nations, to preserve future peace. But each representative AFTER was there to promote his country\u2019s interests and ambitions. Victors In the 1920s and 30s, two of the peace expected to be rewarded for their war treaties were nulli\ufb01ed. Some of the effort and compensated for their losses. disputes were settled by force. Many were soon disappointed. BROKEN PROMISES Japan proposed that the League The Treaty of Versailles 338\u201339 \u276f\u276f with support racial equality between Germany included provision for reparations members, but this was rejected. that the Germans had dif\ufb01culty paying. The treaty was overturned by the Nazi regime in Arab representatives 1933. The Treaty of S\u00e8vres, signed with Prince Faisal and his delegation, Ottoman Turkey, was invalidated by the including British officer overthrow of the sultan and the success of T.E. Lawrence (to the right of Turkish Republican forces in a war with Faisal), at the conference. Having Greece. The Treaty of Lausanne, far more supported the Allies against favorable to Turkey, replaced it in July 1923. Turkey, the Arabs expected to be rewarded with independence. SHIFTING TERRITORIES In March 1921, after a war between Poland and Bolshevik Russia, the Peace of Riga pushed the Polish border farther east. Yugoslavia accepted Italian rule of disputed Fiume under the Treaty of Rome in 1924. 334","Peace conference delegates Irish artist William Orpen was commissioned to paint this group portrait of the conference. Entitled A Peace Conference at the Quai d\u2019Orsay, it shows Orlando, Wilson, Clemenceau, and Lloyd George seated around the table.","A F T E R M AT H FRENCH PRIME MINISTER Born 1841 Died 1929 Georges Clemenceau \u201c You ask what are my war aims. Gentlemen, they are very simple: Victory.\u201d GEORGES CLEMENCEAU, SPEECH, NOVEMBER 20, 1917 I n 1914, Georges Clemenceau was a In 1906, a time of political unrest in Ferocious reputation 72-year-old maverick politician and France, he accepted the post of French wartime prime minister journalist approaching the end of a minister of the interior. Socialists and Georges Clemenceau was known long and checkered career. As a young anarchists were added to his list of as \u201cthe Tiger\u201c because of his man, he had made his reputation as a enemies when he employed the army fierce temperament. He was 77 radical critic of government, whose and police to suppress strikes and years old at the time of the Paris speeches in the Chamber of Deputies disturbances. In a subsequent three- Peace Conference in 1919. denounced colonialism, militarism, year spell as prime minister, he earned and the power of the Catholic Church. respect for his tough handling of domestic issues and strengthened the When French life was torn apart in Entente Cordiale (informal alliance) the 1890s by the Dreyfus affair\u2014a between France and Britain. scandal involving the mistaken condemnation of a Jewish army of\ufb01cer Outspoken critic for treason\u2014Clemenceau was among those who upheld Dreyfus\u2019s innocence. In the years before World War I, He became a hate \ufb01gure for right-wing Clemenceau founded a newspaper, militarists, nationalists, anti-Semites, L\u2019Homme libre (The Free Man), to and Catholics. Around the same time, warn against the German threat to he was accused of taking bribes to France and campaign for military cover up the bankruptcy of the preparedness. He described France as Panama Canal Company. \u201cneither defended nor governed\u201d and fulminated against socialists who preached antimilitarism. When the war broke out in 1914, he turned down the offer of a government post as minister of justice. Instead, he stayed on the sidelines, using his newspaper to criticize the government and to demand a more competent execution of the war. After an issue of L\u2019Homme libre was suppressed by military censors in September 1914, Clemenceau renamed it L\u2019Homme enchain\u00e9 (The Shackled Man). Clemenceau was no champion of the freedom of others, however. He denounced The doctor of France This cartoon alludes to Clemenceau\u2019s qualifications as a doctor, depicting him as a crude surgeon who has operated on France\u2019s sick body. He was renowned for his ruthlessness toward his numerous enemies. 336","GEORGES CLEMENCEAU Interior Minister Louis-Jean Malvy as TIMELINE a defeatist and traitor for allowing the publication of the left-wing journal Le \u25a0 September 28, 1841 Born the son of a doctor Bonnet Rouge and for failing to arrest in the Vend\u00e9e region of western France. left-wing \u201csubversives and saboteurs.\u201d \u25a0 1858 Studies medicine in Paris and becomes In addition to running his newspaper, involved in radical politics. Clemenceau was a member of the Senate, the upper house of the French \u25a0 1865 Flees to the United States to escape arrest parliament. As head of its army and for opposing the regime of Napoleon III. foreign affairs committee from 1915, he met the military and political \u25a0 1869 Marries a U.S. leaders of the Allied war effort and citizen, Mary Elizabeth gained an insider\u2019s understanding Plummer. of the con\ufb02ict. \u25a0 1870 Returns to Becoming prime minister France and is present at the founding of the By autumn 1917, the government was Third Republic. in disarray and public morale was low. Appointed mayor of Political unity had disintegrated. The Montmartre in Paris. fall of Paul Painlev\u00e9\u2019s government, defeated in parliament, left President \u25a0 1876 Elected to the CLEMENCEAU, PAINTED Raymond Poincar\u00e9 with two credible Chamber of Deputies, BY \u00c9DOUARD MANET candidates for the job of prime becoming the leader minister: Joseph Caillaux, the leading of the radical left in the assembly. advocate of a negotiated peace, and Clemenceau, the best- More like a dictator than a prime Clemenceau visits the troops \u25a0 1880 Founds La Justice, the first of a series of known proponent of a minister, Clemenceau \ufb01lled his cabinet In 1918, the French prime minister made weekly visits radical newspapers he will edit. \ufb01ght to the death. He with nonentities and kept the key post to the front, both to talk with his generals and to meet chose Clemenceau. of minister of war for himself. In an ordinary soldiers in the trenches. His public \u25a0 1892 His reputation is severely damaged after impassioned speech, he declared appearances strengthened morale. he is accused of taking bribes in the Panama victory his sole aim and committed Canal scandal. France to war \u201cto the end.\u201d Alleged attempt by anarchist Emile Cottin\u2014 traitors and defeatists were arrested, which left a bullet lodged in his chest \u25a0 1893 Loses his seat in parliament and devotes including Caillaux and Malvy. for the rest of his life\u2014Clemenceau himself to journalism. Strikes in factories were resolved argued tirelessly against what he saw by addressing grievances while as the naive idealism of U.S. president \u25a0 1898 Becomes prominently involved in the cracking down on antiwar activists. Woodrow Wilson. Faced with the Dreyfus affair, publishing articles attacking refusal of Britain and the United French anti-Semites, Catholics, and militarists. Clemenceau\u2019s passionate commitment to the war States to support his aims, \u25a0 1902 Elected to a seat in the French Senate. tightened bonds with however, he was forced France\u2019s Allies during the to accept compromises. \u25a0 1906 Appointed minister of the interior and \ufb02uctuating battles of As a result, the Treaty of then prime minister. 1918. He could claim a Versailles was denounced large part of the credit for \u25a0 1907\u201308 Encourages the formation of the installing Ferdinand Foch by French nationalists as Entente Cordiale, an informal alliance between as Supreme Commander of too lenient on Germany. France and Britain. the Allied Armies in spring Exploiting Clemenceau\u2019s 1918 and for the aggressive prestige, a \u201cbloc national\u201d \u25a0 1909 Forced to resign as prime minister by a pursuit of the war on the of right-wing politicians vote of no confidence. Retires from politics. Western Front from July campaigned under his 1918. His eloquent speeches banner at elections in \u25a0 1913 Founds the newspaper L\u2019Homme libre raised French morale on the November 1919 but then (The Free Man) and campaigns for greater home front and in the army. deserted him. Failing in a military preparedness. bid for the presidency, Tough stance Clemenceau retired in 1920. \u25a0 1914 Refuses the offer of a government He died nine years later at post on the outbreak of war. Renames his Celebrated at the Armistice as the age of 89. newspaper L\u2019Homme enchain\u00e9 (The Shackled the architect of victory, he Man) in protest at censorship. entered the Paris Peace Prime ministerial seal Conference determined to ensure Used by Georges Clemenceau during \u25a0 1916 Denounces the Interior Minister Louis the security of France against his tenure as prime minister of France, Malvy for \u201cdefeatism.\u201d a future resurgence of this seal was fashioned out of red German militarism. gold and silver. It had a carved \u25a0 November 1917 Invited, at the age of 76, Surviving an assassination monogram\u2014\u201cGC.\u201d to form a government by President Raymond Poincar\u00e9. Declares a policy of \u201ctotal war.\u201d \u25a0 January 1918 Has prominent pro-peace politician Joseph Caillaux arrested for treason. \u25a0 March 1918 Presses for the unification of Allied military command under General Foch. \u25a0 January\u2013June 1919 Argues for imposing tough terms on Germany at the Paris Peace Conference. \u201cWith snarls and growls, the \u25a0 February 19, 1919 Survives an assassination ferocious, aged, dauntless beast attempt by anarchist Emile Cottin. of prey went into action.\u201d \u25a0 November 1919 His \u201cbloc national\u201d wins 437 out of 613 seats in French elections. \u25a0 1920 Retires to private life. \u25a0 November 24, 1929 Dies at the age of 89. WINSTON CHURCHILL, DESCRIBING CLEMENCEAU AS WAR LEADER 337","A F T E R M AT H The Versailles Treaty Signed, sealed, but not delivered This page of the treaty was signed by all the main delegates at the conference. At the top is the signature of Woodrow Wilson, who later failed to get the treaty ratified by the U.S. Congress. The peace treaty signed by the Allies and Germany has remained controversial. The product permanently incapacitated. Lloyd of acrimonious debate between the leaders of the victorious powers, the terms it imposed George, for his part, won an election in on Germany were regarded by almost all Germans as excessively harsh and unjust. December 1918 with promises to \u201chang the Kaiser\u201d and make Germany pay for BEFORE D iscussion of the peace terms was of aggression. Clemenceau, steeped the war. But Britain was satis\ufb01ed with primarily in the hands of three in European history, did not believe in seizing the German \ufb02eet and German The Armistice, signed on November 11, men: U.S. president Woodrow a future ruled by principle rather than colonies. Lloyd George had no interest 1918, paved the way for a permanent Wilson, French prime minister Georges force. He told Wilson, \u201cDo not believe in backing French aims in Europe. peace settlement. Clemenceau, and British prime the Germans will ever forgive us. They minister David Lloyd George. Wilson will seek only the chance of revenge.\u201d Key points VICTORY AND DEFEAT and Clemenceau were very different For Clemenceau, Germany had to be In Germany, a revolution \u276e\u276e 320\u2013321 characters. Wilson rejected the The easiest ground for Allied overthrew the Kaiser and established a cynicism and self-interest of the agreement was the founding of a republic. The country was in political turmoil European states; Clemenceau believed League of Nations. Interpreted by and its people suffered severe hardship, the American president was naive in Wilson as initiating a new era in worsened by the continuation of the Allied his dealings with Germany. international relations and by blockade. In ful\ufb01llment of the Armistice terms, Clemenceau as a permanent military German troops withdrew from Wilson believed in a settlement based alliance against Germany, it was foreign soil and Allied forces occupied on just principles. Future peace would enshrined in Part I of the treaty. German territory west of the Rhine. Allied be guaranteed through a League of leaders assembled for the Paris Peace Nations committed to opposing any act There was also agreement on limiting Conference \u276e\u276e 334\u201335 in January 1919. Germany\u2019s armed forces. The German Germany faces the guillotine army was to be restricted to 100,000 Commenting on the Paris Peace Conference, the men without tanks or aircraft, and the German satirical magazine Simplicissimus shows a navy to a few small surface warships. captive Germany facing execution at the hands of President Wilson, Lloyd George, and Clemenceau. Territorial arrangements posed intractable problems. The Allies were committed in principle to \u201cnational self-determination,\u201d but they also 338","THE VERSAILLES TREATY Anti-Versailles demonstration AFTER Crowds on the streets of Berlin in 1919 protest against the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. Most Germans Some saw the Treaty of Versailles as rejected responsibility for the war and did not accept too harsh on Germany while others that they had to pay the price for defeat. saw it as too lenient. Its terms left plenty of potential for future con\ufb02ict. wanted to make newly founded Poland and Czechoslovakia viable states and SATISFYING NO ONE had to address French security The most influential critic of the treaty was concerns. The result was a series of British economist J.M. Keynes, whose book compromises. Clemenceau believed The Economic Consequences of the Peace that French security could only be denounced reparations payments. In the United guaranteed if the French border was states, Congress refused to approve the pushed forward to the Rhine. The treaty, fearing membership in the League of Americans and British were happy for Nations could draw the country into further France to regain Alsace-Lorraine, lost foreign wars. In France, many denounced to Germany in 1871, but would not the treaty as too lenient. Marshal Ferdinand accept French annexation of territory Foch declared prophetically: \u201cThis is not peace. mainly populated by Germans. Instead, It is an armistice for 20 years.\u201d it was agreed that the Rhineland would be under Allied military occupation for THE RISE OF HITLER 15 years. The Saarland, an area of Germany resisted reparations, provoking a Franco-Belgian occupation of the Ruhr in Area lost Area lost Area lost The issue that caused the most dispute limitations as humiliating. Above all, 1923. In the end, Germany largely evaded to Poland to Denmark to France was reparations. It seemed to the Allies they rejected the \u201cwar guilt\u201d clause payment. French troops withdrew from the that Germany had been responsible for as an insult to Germany\u2019s honor. Rhineland in 1930 and the Saarland was 1,500 the war and should therefore pay for it. returned to Germany after a referendum Germany itself had set the example by German chancellor Philipp in 1935. Leading Germany from 1933, 6,000 imposing heavy reparations on France Scheidemann resigned rather than Adolf Hitler in 1871 after the Franco-Prussian War. sign the treaty, but German president overturned 22,000 sq miles To justify demanding compensation in Friedrich Ebert was informed by the the Versailles money and in kind, Article 231 of the army that they were in no position Treaty. Polish German loss of territory treaty stated that \u201cthe aggression of to resume hostilities. Also, signing refusal to give After World War I, Germany lost 13 percent of its Germany and her allies\u201d had been the the treaty was the only way to end Germany control territory. Most went to the new state of Poland, while sole cause of the war. the Allied economic blockade. On of Danzig was the France regained Alsace-Lorraine. June 28, \ufb01ve years to the day after pretext for the German outrage the assassination of Archduke Franz German invasion of Germany rich in coal, was put under Ferdinand in Sarajevo, the treaty Poland in 1939. League of Nations control, also for When the terms were presented to was signed in the Hall of Mirrors 15 years, during which time the French German envoys in May 1919, Germany at the Palace of Versailles. POSTAGE STAMP would exploit its mines. Some erupted in shock. The Germans did not FROM DANZIG territorial changes were subject to accept that they had been responsible referendums, including the transfer for the war. Most of them did not even Final act of defiance of part of the region of Schleswig accept that they had been defeated. A German warship lies half submerged in the British to Denmark. Poland\u2019s borders with They believed they had been tricked harbor at Scapa Flow off Scotland. Interned by the Germany were especially contentious. into accepting an armistice on the basis British after the Armistice, the German fleet was To provide the Poles with access to the of a promise of fair treatment, which scuttled by its crews in protest of the peace treaty. sea, a corridor of territory linked the was now being denied them. main body of Poland to the port of They bitterly resented the loss Danzig, separating East Prussia from of territory and saw the military the rest of Germany. Danzig itself, of 132 BILLION GOLD MARKS The sum set for German reparations payments by an Allied commission in 1921. In total, 20 billion marks was collected, mostly financed by loans from abroad that Germany never repaid. predominantly German population, was declared an independent Free City. Poland and Czechoslovakia were left with large German minorities, while German Austria was refused permission to merge with Germany.","","EYEWITNESS 28 June 1919 Signing the Versailles Treaty The Treaty of Versailles was met by outrage and hostility when it was first presented to the Germans on May 7, 1919. They rejected blame for starting the war and refused to accept its terms. It was only when the Allies threatened to restart hostilities that the treaty was ratified. On June 28, the German delegates signed the agreement in the Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles. \u201cThe long hall was crowded with delegates, visitors, and newspaper representatives. The guests bobbed up and down in their chairs, trying to observe the great men of the conference. A score of Gardes Municipaux circulated among the crowd for a very good reason: they were instructed to keep a watch on the pens and inkwells in the hall, to prevent these articles being pilfered by souvenir hunters. The German delegation entered\u2026 and slipped almost unnoticed into its seats\u2026 It was led by Herr M\u00fcller, a tall man with a scrubby little moustache, wearing black. At 3:15 o\u2019clock, M. Clemenceau rose and announced briefly that the session was opened\u2026 M. Dustata then led the way for five Germans\u2026 and they passed to the table, where two of them signed their names. M\u00fcller came first, and then Bell, virtually unknown men, performing the final act of abasement and submission for the German people\u2014an act to which they had been condemned by the arrogance and pride of Prussian Junkers, German militarists, imperialists, and industrial barons, not one of whom was present when this great scene was enacted. At 3:50 o\u2019clock, all signatures had been complete\u2026 Immediately afterward the great guns began to boom\u2026 The delegates rose and congratulated one another. The notables streamed out of the palace to join the crowd, which had begun shouting in wild enthusiasm\u2026 The Germans were the first to leave the Hall of Mirrors, passing \u201dout alone, and immediately took their automobiles for the hotel. AMERICAN JOURNALIST HARRY HANSEN ON THE VERSAILLES SIGNING CEREMONY, JUNE 28, 1919 Ratifying the treaty Dignitaries gather in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles on June 28, 1919, to sign the Treaty of Versailles. The terms of the treaty helped destabilize Germany\u2019s new democratic government. 341","A F T E R M AT H Postwar Con\ufb02icts The armistice signed with Germany in November 1918 is generally taken to mark the end of World War I. In many parts of the globe, however, fighting continued or new wars flared up. A semblance of peacetime normality did not return until the mid-1920s. War in Ireland A lthough victorious, Britain and the Arab Kingdom proclaimed by the Caucasus, and General Nikolai British paramilitary troops arrest an IRA gunman during France found their authority as Prince Faisal in Damascus and establish Yudenich in Estonia. The situation the Irish War of Independence (1919\u201321). The war was imperial powers challenged in French control of Syria. The British was further complicated by various on a small scale, costing around 2,000 lives, but fought the aftermath of the war. In Ireland, Empire also faced rebellions in its nationalist movements and by the with vicious determination on both sides. the Republican Sinn Fein movement territories, with nationalist revolts in existence of a mass peasant army and its military arm, the Irish India, Egypt, and Iraq. in Ukraine led by the anarchist BEFORE Republican Army (IRA), fought a war Nestor Makhno. of independence against the British Events in Russia from 1919 to 1921. British World War I The wartime Allies, desiring the veterans played a signi\ufb01cant part in The Russian Civil War, which had overthrow of the Bolshevik regime, the con\ufb02ict, enrolling as paramilitariy begun before World War I ended, intervened tentatively in support of \ufb01ghters (Black and Tans) to \ufb01ght continued through to late 1920. the White armies. In April 1919, a against the Republicans in Ireland. It The Red Army of the Bolshevik mutiny by French sailors sent to ended in the establishment of the Irish government, organized by Leon occupy the Black Sea port of Odessa Free State in 1922. Trotsky, faced White armies led by highlighted the dif\ufb01culty and former tsarist military commanders\u2014 unpopularity of military intervention, Meanwhile, in the Rif region of General Anton Denikin in southern however, and most Allied troops were northern Morocco, Spain fought a Ukraine, Admiral Alexander Kolchak soon withdrawn. By the end of 1920, colonial war against the local Berber in Siberia, General Pyotr Wrangel in the Red Army had defeated the major forces of Abd el-Krim from 1921. The rebellion was only defeated with the help of France, after el-Krim invaded French Morocco in 1925. French troops were also in action in the Middle East, \ufb01ghting a war in 1920 to overthrow World War I destabilized much of Europe and Asia, causing the collapse of established states and raising expectations of change. CIVIL WARS AND UPRISINGS In Russia, the overthrow of the tsar and the installation of a Bolshevik government \u276e\u276e 252\u201353 in 1917 were followed by a humiliating peace agreement with Germany at Brest-Litovsk \u276e\u276e 276\u201377 and the outbreak of civil war in 1918. The disintegration of Austria-Hungary destabilized Central Europe. In Germany, the shock of defeat and the overthrow of the Kaiser led to political and economic dislocation. 550,000 The area of land in square miles (1.4 million sq. km) that was to be ceded by Ottoman Turkey under the Treaty of S\u00e8vres. The defeat of the Ottoman Turkish Empire \u276e\u276e 316\u201317 ended Turkish rule in the Arab Middle East. The Treaty of S\u00e8vres in 1920 imposed further harsh terms on Turkey. These were accepted by the Turkish government but rejected by nationalists. In Ireland, the Easter Uprising \u276e\u276e 164\u201365 against British rule in 1916 was followed by a surge of support for Irish republicans demanding independence. 342","POSTWAR CONFLICTS White forces and could claim victory to agree to a peace that left the Fascist propaganda postcard in the Civil War, but the Bolsheviks Poles in control of large areas A fanciful postcard celebrates the \u201cmarch on Rome\u201d by reigned over depopulated cities and of Belarus and Ukraine. Italian fascist blackshirts in October 1922. A carefully a devastated countryside that was stage-managed demonstration, the march led to Benito ravaged by famine. Greece versus Turkey Mussolini becoming head of the Italian government. Meanwhile, Bolshevik Russia was In 1919, Greece exploited AFTER defeated in a crucial con\ufb02ict with the weakness of defeated Poland. War broke out when the newly Ottoman Turkey to launch By the mid-1920s, some of the established Polish Republic, eager to a military occupation of parts consequences of the chaotic advance its borders as far eastward as of western Anatolia that aftermath of World War I were being had a substantial ethnic addressed, although the return to 5 MILLION The number of Greek population. Turkish normality proved shortlived. people estimated to have nationalists led by General died in the Volga famine in Mustafa Kemal defeated to renegotiate the peace treaty that had RIGHTING WRONGS Russia in 1921\u201322, a direct the Greek army in large- been imposed in 1920. The Treaty of In 1924, a U.S.-brokered agreement, the result of the Russian Civil War. scale \ufb01ghting through 1921 Lausanne, signed in 1923, set Turkey\u2019s Dawes Plan, created a basis for German and 1922. Mustafa Kemal, new borders, which it still holds today. payment of reparations and led to the possible, sent troops into Belarus and later known as Ataturk, The ethnic Greek population was withdrawal of French and Belgian Ukraine. A counteroffensive by the proclaimed Turkey a expelled, leaving many towns and troops from the Ruhr. In 1925, the Locarno Red Army launched in June 1920 republic and deposed the villages emptied of their inhabitants. Treaty settled outstanding issues with drove the Poles back and by August Ottoman sultan. Germany, which was admitted to the League the advancing Bolsheviks were The rise of fascism of Nations the following year. In the Middle threatening Warsaw. Rejecting the option of East, Egyptian independence was granted in reopening war with the Turks, the In Western Europe, the economic and 1922 and Prince Faisal was made king of Iraq. As Soviet forces pushed on toward Allied powers accepted the need social disruption caused by World War I ECONOMIC CRASH Germany and Hungary, Polish leader led to chronic political instability. In Normalization was ended by worldwide Marshal Josef Pilsudski regained the Fleeing the flames Italy, nationalist extremist Benito economic depression from 1929. Mass initiative, executing a series of bold Greeks leave Smyrna (now Izmir, Turkey), as its Mussolini, who had served as a soldier unemployment undermined democracy in maneuvers that in\ufb02icted a crushing Greek quarter burns to the ground at the in the war, led black-shirted Fascist Germany and brought Adolf Hitler\u2019s Nazi defeat on the Red Army. Bolshevik end of the Greco-Turkish War. Around paramilitaries in a violent campaign Party to power in 1933. Hitler tore up the leader Vladimir Ilyich Lenin was forced 1.5 million Greeks left Turkey. against socialists and trade unionists. Versailles Treaty and Germany rearmed. In 1922, when Mussolini threatened to lead his followers in a \u201cmarch on The occupation of the Ruhr Rome,\u201d King Victor Emmanuel III An illustration from a French newspaper shows French allowed him to form a government, soldiers confronting German workers in the Ruhr in setting Italy on the road toward an 1923. The French and Belgians occupied the Ruhr in an eventual fascist dictatorship. effort to force Germany to make reparation payments. In Germany, postwar chaos peaked in 1923. In response to the German failure to make reparation payments, France and Belgium sent troops to occupy the Ruhr region. The German government responded with a campaign of passive resistance. Hyperin\ufb02ation led to the collapse of the German currency, wiping out savings. When Nazi Party leader Adolf Hitler attempted a coup modeled on Mussolini\u2019s \u201cmarch on Rome,\u201d however, his \u201cMunich putsch\u201d was suppressed by the army. The postwar world was still seeking stability. \u201c I don\u2019t know if war is an interlude in peace, or peace an interlude in war.\u201d FRENCH PRIME MINISTER GEORGES CLEMENCEAU 343","Bringing home the Unknown Warrior In 1920, the body of a British soldier, selected at random, was brought back from France to be buried in the Tomb of the Unknown Warrior in Westminster Abbey. B E F O R E Never Again During the war, Allied political leaders The experience of World War I cast a long shadow over the postwar period. Nations sought promised that a better, more peaceful appropriate forms of public mourning and commemoration to grieve and honor the dead. world would result from victory over There was an overwhelming desire that such a war should never be repeated. German militarism. These promises proved hard to keep. T he emotional impact of World factories turned off machinery, and distinction of rank. This democratic War I and its place in the pedestrians stood still in the street. spirit infused all commemoration of the THE WAR TO END ALL WARS collective memory varied Memorials to the war dead were war. Tens of thousands of plaques and Declaring war on Germany in April 1917, between countries. In Russia, for erected in most towns and villages. monuments were erected in cities, U.S. president Woodrow Wilson said his object example, the war was almost forgotten, towns, and villages, typically listing the was to \u201cbring peace and safety to all quickly eclipsed by the shattering Unknown warriors fallen in alphabetical order, the of\ufb01cers nations.\u201d Celebrating the Armistice on upheaval of the Bolshevik Revolution. intermingled with ordinary soldiers, November 11, 1918, British prime minister On Remembrance Day 1920, the British regardless of rank. David Lloyd George said, \u201cI hope we may all In Britain and France, the war was held a state funeral in Westminster say that thus, this fateful morning, came to commemorated intensively, with an Abbey for an Unknown Warrior, burying Britain decided against repatriating an end all wars.\u201d annual Remembrance Day on a soldier chosen at random from among the dead. Instead, the Imperial November 11 established from 1919. the wartime dead. The French held a (now Commonwealth) War Graves The aspiration for a permanent peace By common accord, they honored similar ceremony at the Arc de Commission created vast war was embodied in the founding of the the sacri\ufb01ce of the dead rather than Triomphe in Paris, and the United cemeteries in France. Unidenti\ufb01able League of Nations at the Paris Peace celebrating a victory. A two-minute States followed suit in 1921, burying an remains were marked \u201cA Soldier of the Conference \u276e\u276e 334\u201335 in 1919. Member silence was observed throughout Unknown Warrior at Arlington Great War Known unto God.\u201d states of the League committed themselves to Britain and its empire at 11am, a National Cemetery in Virginia. The The French placed the bones of their progressive disarmament and the peaceful practice so rigorously followed in the Unknown Warrior represented all those unidenti\ufb01ed dead in ossuaries, such as resolution of disputes. early years that all traf\ufb01c stopped, who had lost their lives, without the one at Douaumont near Verdun. 344","NEVER AGAIN Flying the Nazi flag AFTER The first version of the Nazi swastika flag is displayed outside Munich in 1920. Many who joined the Nazi World War I shows no signs of movement had been too young to fight in World War I. being forgotten a century after it The ex-servicemen who joined included Adolf Hitler. was fought. GONE BUT NOT FORGOTTEN University famously voted that \u201cthis Despite the deaths of the last surviving House will in no circumstances \ufb01ght soldiers from World War I, including Harry for its King and Country.\u201d Patch in Britain in 2009 and Frank Buckles in the United States in 2011, the war continues to \u201c Anything rather than war! Public promises stir powerful emotions in the nations that were Anything!\u2026 No trial, no involved. Annual commemorative servitude can be compared Governments were also inspired by the ceremonies\u2014for example, Remembrance to war.\u201d desire to ful\ufb01ll the promise that World War I would be \u201da war to end war.\u201d In 36,000 The number FRENCH NOVELIST AND PACIFIST ROGER MARTIN DU GARD, PRIVATE LETTER, the 1920s, there were international of communes in SEPTEMBER 1936 arms limitation agreements, while the France that erected monuments League of Nations sought to substitute to those who died in World War I. For Germany, remembrance was ended up unemployed, although \u201ccollective security\u201d and negotiation for Day in Britain, Veterans Day in the United complicated by deeply divided attitudes veterans\u2019 organizations provided a armed confrontation. In 1928\u201329, all States, and Anzac Day in Australia and New toward the war. Local memorials were source of support and companionship. major countries signed the Kellogg- Zealand\u2014continue to be well attended, with erected to the dead, but the Weimar The peace treaties were seen as Briand Pact\u2014named for U.S. secretary the fallen in subsequent wars also remembered. Republic failed to agree on a national unworthy of the soldiers\u2019 sacri\ufb01ce. of state Frank Kellogg and French remembrance day, and commemorative foreign minister Aristide Briand\u2014 THREE OF THE WAR\u2019S LAST VETERANS IN 2008 events were often the occasion for A \ufb02ood of memoirs and novels publicly renouncing the use of war as political protests. Germany did not published during the late an \u201cinstrument of national policy.\u201d 345 bury an Unknown Warrior until 1931. 1920s and 1930s\u2014Erich Remarque\u2019s All Quiet on the Nationalists and militarists in Ireland was another place in which Western Front the most countries defeated in the war or the memory of the war was politically prominent among them\u2014fed disappointed by the peace drew a contentious. For Irish Catholics, war the popular imagination with different lesson from the con\ufb02ict. In service in the British Army became an images of the horrors of the the 1920s, the German Stahlhelm embarrassment and commemorative war. Americans in particular veterans\u2019 organization and the Italian ceremonies drew hostility from many viewed the war as a mistake Fascist movement harked back to the republicans. For Protestants in into which they had been wartime experience of national unity. Northern Ireland, war service was a lured by British propaganda. Fascist leader Benito Mussolini stated badge of loyalty to the British Crown that war \u201cput the stamp of nobility on and Remembrance Day became a American isolationism those nations that had the courage to demonstration of Protestant superiority face it.\u201d Another ex-soldier who longed to the allegedly disloyal Catholics. Throughout the 1920s and to reverse the defeat of 1914\u201318 was 1930s, in reaction against the German Nazi Party leader Adolf Hitler. When the French erected a war, an isolationist mentality His accession to power in Germany in monument to mark the site of the predominated in the United 1933 set the world on course for an signing of the Armistice, they inscribed States. In Britain, paci\ufb01sm even more destructive war. it with the words \u201cHere on the grew into a mass movement, eleventh of November 1918 succumbed led by organizations such as the criminal pride of the German the Peace Pledge Union. In Reich\u2026 vanquished by the free peoples 1933, students debating at the which it tried to enslave.\u201d Such ringing Oxford Union at Oxford endorsement of the purpose of the war was not often heard during the Pacifist protest postwar decades. Disillusion was partly The youth section of the British Peace fueled by the fate of ex-servicemen, Movement at a demonstration in 1924. who received far less attention from The movement was part of War Resisters governments than the dead. Many International, founded in 1921.","","In memory of the fallen The Notre Dame de Lorette military cemetery near Arras in northern France is the burial place of 40,000 French soldiers. Each grave is marked with a simple white cross bearing the soldier\u2019s name.","DIRECTORY In Memoriam the village gives directions to the craters, and there are more than The first global conflict in history, World War I has never been forgotten. Memorials, 1,000 burials in the Wytschaete monuments, and museums are found in all the combatant countries, the most Military Cemetery, a short walk from moving of all being the vast war cemeteries built on or near the major battlefields. the main square. A smaller cemetery, the Lone Tree Cemetery, near AUSTRALIA AUSTRIA collections can be viewed only Spanbroekmolen, contains 88 burials, by appointment. mainly of soldiers from the Royal ANZAC Memorial Museum of Military History Lakenhallen Grote Markt 34, Ieper Irish Ri\ufb02es. www.in\ufb02anders\ufb01elds.be\/en Set in Sydney\u2019s Hyde Park, this is Located in Vienna\u2019s Arsenal, built from Memorials of the battle include one New South Wales\u2019s principal war 1850\u201356 to house the city\u2019s garrison, Langemark German War to the London Scottish Regiment on monument. Designed in an art deco this museum covers Austrian military Cemetery the N365 between Wytschaete and style by C. Bruce Dellit, it is made of history from the 16th century to 1945. Mesen (Messines), marking the spot granite, with statuary and bas-reliefs Two halls are dedicated to World War I, An of\ufb01cial German War Graves where they \ufb01rst went into action. In created by the artist Raynor Hoff. including an exhibit housing the Commission site, the Langemark Mesen itself, which was completely The buttresses are each topped by a vehicle and blood-soaked jacket of Cemetery contains more than 40,000 destroyed in the battle, there are the mournful \ufb01gure, while the bas-reliefs Franz Ferdinand, preserved from the burials of soldiers recovered between New Zealand Memorial Park and depict scenes from Australian day of his assassination in Sarajevo. 1915 and the 1930s. The cemetery was the Messines Ridge Military Cemetery. campaigns at Gallipoli and the Arsenal Objekt 1, Vienna designated German Military Cemetery It was in Mesen\u2019s church (rebuilt) that Western Front. Ceremonies are held www.hgm.or.at 123 in 1930, and was inaugurated two Adolf Hitler reputedly received at the memorial on Remembrance years later. Of the soldiers buried in the treatment for combat injuries in 1914. Sunday (November 11) and Anzac BELGIUM cemetery, 24,917 lie in mass graves. To the south of Mesen is the modern Day (April 25). The German Students\u2019 Memorial annex Island of Ireland Peace Park, opened in Hyde Park, Sydney Flanders Field American Cemetery lists the names of 3,000 students killed 1998 to commemorate Irish soldiers www.anzacmemorial.nsw.gov.au and Memorial in the Battle of Langemarck (part of killed during World War I. the First Battle of Ypres) in 1914. Around Mesen (Messines) Australian War Memorial The only American Battle Monuments Known in Germany as Kindermord Commission cemetery in Belgium, this (Massacre of the Children), First Passchendaele Battle\ufb01eld The national monument to Australia\u2019s commemorates the American Ypres included many young German war dead was built in the aftermath contribution to the war on the Western volunteers. In the cemetery stands Few battle\ufb01eld areas evoke the tragedy of World War I, though it serves to Front. Smaller than most of the war a sculpture of mourning soldiers of the Ypres salient more than commemorate Australian service cemeteries in Belgium, it consists of by Emil Krieger. Also of note is a Passchendaele, around the modern personnel killed in all con\ufb02icts. The 368 burials, with the headstones basalt-lava cross on a small mound, village of Passendale. The area is main parts of the memorial are arranged around a central chapel. marking one of the three original littered with memorials to individual the Commemorative Area (which Many of those interred here came from battle\ufb01eld bunkers. battles and regiments, including the includes the Hall of Memory), Anzac the US 91st Division, killed in October North of Langemark village, Canadian Memorial at Crest Farm, the Parade, and the Sculpture Garden. and November 1918. The chapel 4 miles (6 km) northeast of Ieper 85th (Nova Scotia Highlanders) includes 43 names on the Walls of the www.volksbund.de Battalion Memorial, and memorials to On the ground \ufb02oor of the main Missing\u2014rosettes mark the names of French soldiers and the British Seventh building, the Anzac Hall, a recently soldiers whose remains have been Menin Gate Division, both at Broodseinde. added high-tech exhibition space, subsequently recovered and identi\ufb01ed. includes \u201cOver the front, the Great Southeast of Waregem, along the One of the most visited sights on the Cemeteries in the area include the War in the air,\u201d a permanent display Lille-Gent autoroute E-17 Western Front, the Menin Gate Passchendaele New British Cemetery, telling the story of aerial combat in www.abmc.gov\/cemeteries\/cemeteries\/ Memorial in Ypres was designed by containing 2,101 British and World War I. It includes \ufb01ve original ff.php Reginald Blom\ufb01eld and unveiled in Commonwealth burials, and the vast aircraft from the war, memorabilia, 1927. It marks the point where most Tyne Cot Cemetery to the southwest personal testaments from pilots, and In Flanders Field Museum British soldiers marched out to the of Passendale. In Zonnebeke, the a sound and light show. battle\ufb01elds of the Ypres salient. The Passchendaele Memorial 1917 Remembrance Park, Canberra The Cloth Hall on the Market Square walls of the Hall of Memory are Museum contains a large display www.awm.gov.au\/visit in the center of Ieper (Ypres), site of inscribed with the names of 54,896 of military artifacts. three of the war\u2019s most signi\ufb01cant British and Commonwealth soldiers Various locations in and around Shrine of Remembrance battles, has been turned into a museum killed at Ypres before August 16, 1917. Zonnebeke and Passendale housing major collections of World Each night at 8pm, the traf\ufb01c stops Built to commemorate Victoria\u2019s war War I artifacts and documents. The and the Last Post is played under the Royal Museum of the Armed dead of 1914\u201318, this is one of exhibitions and audio-visual displays arches of the memorial. Forces and of Military History Australia\u2019s great memorials. Inspired by cover the invasion of Belgium in 1914 Meensestraat, Ieper the mausoleum to Mausolus, King of and the \ufb01rst few months of the war, www.cwgc.org This museum houses collections Caria, at Halicarnassus in Turkey, the with particular emphasis on the war relating to the whole of Belgian shrine was inaugurated in November around Ieper. A documentation center Messines Battle\ufb01eld and military history, not just World 1934. The sanctuary contains the Stone includes trench maps, a photographic Memorials War I, but it includes a large collection of Remembrance, inscribed with the library and postcard collection, and of World War I artifacts, documents, words \u201cGreater Love Hath No Man,\u201d contemporary newspaper reports. Around the village of Wystchaete, and memorabilia in a permanent which has been designed so that a the St. Eloi, Peckham Farm, St. Yvon, 1914\u201318 exhibition. Exhibits include shaft of sunlight (or arti\ufb01cial light) Visitors can climb up to the belfry for Kruisstraat, and Spanbroekmolen \ufb01rearms, artillery pieces, uniforms, falls on the word \u201cLove\u201d at a special views over the town and the sites craters bear testimony to the armored vehicles, and even a ceremony held at 11am on of the surrounding battle\ufb01elds. Access 19 enormous mines detonated Fokker triplane. November 11 each year. to the center is free, although some beneath the German trenches at Jubelpark 3, 1000 Brussels St. Kilda Road, Melbourne Messines. An information board in www.klm-mra.be www.shrine.org.au\/Home St. Julien Memorial This granite memorial, designed by the Anglo-Canadian architect Frederick Chapman Clemesha, stands 36 ft (11 m) tall. Known as the Brooding Soldier, it 348"]