Knowledge Encyclopedia

["299 A CENTURY OF World War I World War II CONFLICT In 1914, the killing of Archduke In 1933, Adolf Hitler became leader The \ufb01rst half of the 20th century saw Franz Ferdinand of Austria in of Germany. His campaign to two of the bloodiest wars in human Sarajevo caused a war between the conquer neighboring countries set history. Each started with con\ufb02icts in German-led Central Powers and the off a new global conflict in 1939. Europe, then spread to countries all Allies (led by the French and British). German armies were victorious at across the world. World War I Much of the fighting happened on first, but were defeated in 1945 by (1914\u201318) saw millions of \ufb01ghting the Western Front in France and their Allied enemies. Japan joined men killed in bitter trench warfare. Belgium, where attempts to capture the war in 1941, but was forced to World War II (1939\u201345) brought heavily defended trench systems surrender after the US attacked battles between armies of tanks and caused massive casualties. Only in with atomic bombs in 1945. aircraft, and the development of the 1918 did the Allies break through atomic bomb. When the dust had and defeat Germany. 4 percent settled, the world\u2019s most powerful nations were the US and the World War I cemetery communist USSR. They fought a Cold Nearly 10 million soldiers died during War, backed by vast nuclear arsenals. World War I. Many of them were buried in graveyards near where they fell. The Cold War IN 1982, THE USSR AND US BETWEEN Although the US and USSR had THEM HAD MORE THAN 20,000 NUCLEAR WARHEADS been allies in World War II, they WITH A COMBINED EXPLOSIVE POWER ESTIMATED became enemies once it was over. AT MORE THANThey did not fight directly, but fought a \u201cCold War\u201d by other means, such as overthrowing 12,000 MEGATONS,governments friendly to the other side. The Cold War was especially OR 1 MILLION TIMES THE ENERGY dangerous since both sides had A terrible cost nuclear weapons that could have RELEASED BY THE BOMB THAT World War II caused between 60 and 80 million deaths, estimated killed many millions of people. DESTROYED HIROSHIMA. to be around 4 percent of the entire population of the world before the war. A TRANSFORMED WORLD Workers in US employed in agriculture The rise of industry 1800 While wars and revolutions brought political changes, The Industrial Revolution brought advances in science and technology transformed society. 80% great new advances, but also new Developments in medicine created cures for diseases problems. Goods and household that had killed millions. The Industrial Revolution 1900 items became cheaper as they brought new machines that could do the work of dozens were mass-produced in factories of workers. These new societies brought much greater 35% instead of being made by hand. equality, and the old order was overturned, as women However, many workers were and nonwhite people fought to win equal rights. badly paid and lived in terrible poverty, especially in cities. Equal rights 1893 1920 1948 1964 1965 1994 New Zealand 19th Amendment to South Africa begins The Civil Rights Act Voting Rights Act South Africa holds Before the 20th century, women, becomes first the United States passing legislation makes it illegal in (US) removes first elections in African-Americans, and nonwhites country to grant Constitution grants discriminating the USA to deny obstacles to African- which adults of all in European colonies were often women the right to women the vote. against nonwhites. black people equal Americans voting. racial groups can denied basic freedoms. It took the vote in national This policy is called access to education vote, ending determination of many brave elections. apartheid. and housing. apartheid. campaigners to ensure that basic rights such as voting and education were available to all. Science and medicines Environmental challenges 100LEVEL OF OZONE 150 The 20th century saw scientific advances beyond anything in The 19th and 20th centuries saw a 200 human history. Antibiotics cured untreatable diseases, and cars rapid rise in the world\u2019s population, 250 and airplanes reduced journeys that would have taken days or and a huge increase in the resources 300 weeks to a few hours. Human beings discovered ever more human beings use. Supplies such as 350 about the universe, their history, and themselves. coal, oil, and even fresh water may 400 become scarce. Many natural habitats 450 \u201cANYONE WHO HAS NEVER MADE have been damaged by pollution or 500 human exploitation. Rising global A MISTAKE HAS NEVER TRIED temperatures threaten to disrupt Ozone hole vast areas of farmland and human In the 1990s, air pollution led to a breakdown in the ANYTHING NEW.\u201d living space across the world. ozone layer, a part of the atmosphere that protects the ALBERT EINSTEIN Earth from harmful radiation. At its biggest, the hole, situated above Antarctica, was twice the area of Europe.","300 history THE MODERN WORLD 115\u00a0The number of gallons of rum that could be exchanged for a male slave in 1756. North America NORTH Around 650,000 African slaves AMERICA were taken to plantations in what is now the southern US. In the north, which was more industrial, merchants sometimes took the place of Europe in the triangular slave trade, selling manufactured goods directly to Africa in exchange for slaves. The international slave trade was banned by the US in 1808. ATOLCAENATNIC IRON TO BRAND SLAVES SOUTH AMERICA Slave plantations Most slaves transported to the Americas were brought to work on cotton, sugar, and tobacco plantations in the Caribbean, southern US, and Brazil. Conditions were harsh\u2014the slaves were often branded or shackled, and overseers, those who organized the work on the plantations, were cruel. The slave trade European settlers in America needed laborers to work on plantations. Between 1500 and 1900, this led to 12 million African slaves being taken to the Americas. The slave trade is often called the \u201cTriangular Trade\u201d because it had three stages. Goods from Europe were traded in Africa for slaves, who crossed the Atlantic in a journey known as the Middle Passage. These slaves were then exchanged for crops to be sold in Europe. Many slaves died on the journey to the Americas, and those who survived faced appalling working conditions on the plantations. An international campaign banned the Atlantic slave trade in the 19th century.","39\u00a0The percentage of slaves carried on 4\u00a0million\u2014the estimated number of slaves in 301 the Middle Passage who went to Brazil. the US at the time of abolition in 1865. EUROPE Terrible conditions European traders On the voyage across the Atlantic, which Until around 1640, Portugal was the could last from six weeks to six months, only European country trading slaves slaves were crammed together below deck in the Americas, but Britain, France, in the ship\u2019s hold, with little fresh food or the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, and water. Male slaves were chained together Denmark later joined in. European to prevent them from attacking the crew. merchants took manufactured goods such as textiles, beads, guns, and Slave ship ammunition to their colonies in Africa, To make the most profit and sold them to local traders in possible, the traders exchange for slaves at colonial forts packed slaves into very along the African coast. small spaces, sometimes less than 12 in (30 cm) AFRICA high. One infamous slave ship, the Brooke, SLAVE SHIP SHACKLES African slaves carried as many as The vast majority of slaves were 600 slaves, shackled taken from the coastal regions of together in pairs. western Africa between modern Senegal and Angola. They were \u201cTHE NUMBER captured in war or taken by kidnappers and exchanged for IN THE SHIP, trade goods from Europe. WHICH WAS SO CROWDED THAT EACH HAD SCARCELY ROOM TO TURN HIMSELF, ALMOST SUFFOCATED US.\u201d OLAUDAH EQUIANO (FORMER SLAVE) A deadly voyage Cramped conditions and lack of food and water meant that 1.8 million slaves died of disease or starvation while voyaging to the Americas on the Middle Passage. Their bodies were thrown overboard. Death toll The death rate for slaves reached as high as one in four on the worst Atlantic voyages. Calling for an end Calls to put an end to the inhumanity of the slave trade led to its abolition in Britain in 1807. Other countries soon followed, until the final country to end the trade, Brazil, did so in 1831. \u201cNEVER, NEVER WILL WE DESIST TILL WE HAVE WIPED AWAY THIS SCANDAL FROM THE CHRISTIAN NAME, RELEASED OURSELVES FROM THE LOAD OF GUILT, UNDER WHICH WE AT PRESENT LABOR, AND EXTINGUISHED EVERY TRACE OF THIS BLOODY TRAFFIC.\u201d WILLIAM WILBERFORCE (ANTISLAVERY CAMPAIGNER)","302 history THE MODERN WORLD 72,000\u00a0The approximate number of articles in Diderot\u2019s Encyclop\u00e9die. The Enlightenment Isaac Newton of light and heat, and was one of the first to formulate The 18th century was a time of revolution. The power One of the founding figures a mathematical process called of governments, religious beliefs, and scienti\ufb01c of the Enlightenment was the calculus. His curiosity about the principles were all challenged by a wave of new English scientist Isaac Newton world sometimes led him to do thinkers determined to replace outdated traditions. (1642\u20131727). He is most famous strange things. For example, he for working out the laws of pushed a blunt needle into his The Renaissance had brought new ways of thinking about science gravity and motion, which eye socket to see how changing and philosophy, but they were still based on old traditions: the showed how the movements of the shape of his eyeball affected teachings of the Church and writings of the Ancient Greeks and the Moon and stars follow the his vision, as part of his studies Romans. The thinkers of the Enlightenment wanted to replace same laws as the movements of into how light moves. these sources of wisdom with individual observation, experiment, objects on Earth. He also made and logic\u2014the rule of reason. Their radical ideas would bring wars, vital discoveries about the nature revolutions, and the beginnings of modern science. Revolution of ideas Jupiter In the 18th century, people who wanted to know about the world Sun studied natural philosophy, which included all the sciences and maths. At the time, a flood of new information was spreading across Europe, Celestial sphere helped by new discoveries of explorers in Asia, Africa, and the From the early 17th Americas, and by the printing press. A group of natural philosophers century, astronomers in Paris, led by Denis Diderot and Jean d\u2019Alembert, compiled an had known that the Encyclop\u00e9die, a giant, 28-volume work summing up everything they Earth and other knew about art, science, and crafts. Their message was that reason planets orbit the Sun. and science could be applied to almost any subject, and their ideas Isaac Newton\u2019s spread across Europe and America. German philosopher Immanuel theory of gravity Kant summed up the new way of thinking as: \u201cDare to know. Have explained why. courage to use your own understanding.\u201d Earth Moon The Encyclop\u00e9die 1748 1762 1759 Diderot\u2019s great work covered not only art and science but everyday A French thinker named Charles-Louis Swiss philosopher Candide, a satirical novel professions, such as music, cooking, de Secondat, known as Montesquieu, Jean-Jacques by French philosopher and even farming. published Spirit of the Laws, which Rousseau proposed Voltaire, highlighted the that governments hardships and injustices Rights of Man\u2014and Woman called for political should only suffered by many people power to be divided rule with the around the world. Voltaire As well as scientific advances, the Enlightenment between the consent of the people. wrote that, for people to was marked by new ideas about society. From around monarchy, In The Social Contract, be truly free, they had to 1750, a group of radical philosophers in France began parliament, and he wrote, \\\"Man be able to use the power to spread ideas that questioned traditional thinking. the courts of law\u2014 is born free, and of reason, and they had They argued that kings, nobles, and clergymen did a system known everywhere he to know and defend not deserve special rights and privileges over as the \\\"separation is in chains.\\\" the basic rights of all other people. Other thinkers such as Jean-Jacques of powers.\\\" human beings. Rousseau and Mary Wollstonecraft produced powerful arguments calling for all human beings to be treated equally, while writers such as Voltaire and Montesquieu wrote satires (mocking imitations) of corrupt institutions and outdated opinions.","87\u00a0percent\u2014the drop in value of South Sea Company 9\u00a0The number of symphonies written by Romantic 303 stocks when the venture collapsed in 1720. composer Ludwig van Beethoven. Revolution of wealth Among the new concepts to develop at this time was the science of economics, or the study of wealth and money. Great empires grew rich by trading goods across the world. Banks offered a safe place for the wealthy to deposit their money, and gave loans to people who needed funds to start new businesses. Ordinary people were also encouraged to invest in money-making projects. Financial projects sometimes went disastrously wrong: for example, in 1720, when the British South Sea Company collapsed, taking with it millions of pounds (dollars) of investors\u2019 money. Financial centers With the rise of capitalism, cities such as London and Amsterdam became banking centers, home to great wealth. BY 1800, THE NUMBER OF BANKS IN LONDON $ Romantic rebellion Burning of the Houses HAD GROWN TO 70 of Lords and Commons $ The ideals of the Enlightenment spread Romantic artists such BY 1770, THERE WERE 50 BANKS IN LONDON quickly, but by the late 18th century they as Englishman Joseph $ had already inspired a backlash, especially Turner painted images among artists, musicians, and poets. A new depicting the power of movement, Romanticism, arose, arguing natural forces. This that total reliance on reason ignored the painting shows a \ufb01re values of emotion and natural beauty. that swept through the Famous Romantics include the composer British Houses of Beethoven, writers such as John Keats Parliament in 1834. and Edgar Allan Poe, and painters such as Eug\u00e8ne Delacroix. Supernatural The spiritual Nature Gothic world was seen as Nature was seen The Romantics an answer to the were inspired by dull, scienti\ufb01c as intense and medieval fairy world of the genuine, where tales, especially Enlightenment. logic and reason fantasies and were arti\ufb01cial and gruesome tales. Romantic hero could deceive. The passionate, IN 1750, THERE WERE JUST 20 BANKS IN LONDON solitary genius Emotion ROMANTIC VALUES was seen as a \u201cLABOR WAS THE FIRST PRICE, Instinct and hero, rising above emotion were THE ORIGINAL PURCHASE-MONEY seen as the the ideas of THAT WAS PAID FOR ALL THINGS. sources of truth, ordinary people. IT WAS NOT BY GOLD OR BY SILVER, which could be distorted by logic. Symbols and BUT BY LABOR, THAT ALL THE WEALTH OF THE myths WORLD WAS ORIGINALLY PURCHASED.\u201d Mysterious meanings could ADAM SMITH, SCOTTISH ECONOMIST, 1776 be found in 1776 1792 Individuality Imagination symbols from The Romantics The creative English-American Thomas Englishwoman Mary thought being nature and Paine published a Wollstonecraft called alone put you power of ancient languages. pamphlet, Common for women to receive more closely in imagination could Sense, which the same education touch with nature supported and opportunities as and your true self. build wonders America's men in A Vindication that logic found independence of the Rights of from Britain. His Women. She impossible. later work, Rights of imagined a Man, argued that people society based should overthrow the on the rule of government if it abuses reason, which their rights. respects all human beings.","304 history THE MODERN WORLD Patriot soldiers had to buy their own weapons and gear. The American The Continental Army Disciplined volley Revolutionary War One of the key skills From 1775, the American forces began to an army needed was In the 18th century, Britain ruled 13 colonies along the organize their volunteer troops into a regular the ability to \ufb01re their east coast of North America. From 1770, these colonies army. George Washington was determined to muskets all together in began to rebel against British control and, 13 years train a force to rival the well-trained British a volley. This required later, they won their independence. soldiers, and formed the Continental Army. training and discipline, For much of the war the men were poorly so that the soldiers did Britain\u2019s colonies in North America were governed from London. paid and equipped, but they nevertheless not \ufb01re too early as the Their inhabitants were British citizens, but were not given full achieved a number of stunning victories. enemy advanced. rights: they could not vote and had no one representing their views in parliament. The colonists were angry about this unfair treatment, but the British ignored their concerns, passing unpopular laws and putting high taxes on everyday goods such as sugar, tea, and paper. In 1775, tensions erupted into war. A large, well-trained British army invaded from Canada in 1777, to support British troops stationed in the colonies, but they were outmaneuvered by skillful American commanders led by George Washington. The war ended with the British defeated, and the creation of a new independent country: the United States of America. Lead-up to the war NEW NEW HAMPSHIRE YORK MASSACHUSETTS Britain had run up huge debts during the Seven PENNSYLVANIA RHODE ISLAND Years War (1756\u201363), and urgently needed money to pay them off. The government planned VIRGINIA CONNECTICUT to raise the money by taxing its American NEW JERSEY colonies. The colonists protested against this DELAWARE taxation without representation, and the MARYLAND revolutionary idea of becoming free of British rule spread. In 1773, the British imposed a harsh WESTERN new tax on tea, and colonists in Boston took TERRITORY action. They boarded a ship in the harbor and threw chests of British tea into the sea. NORTH This event, famous as the Boston Tea Party, CAROLINA lit the fuse for the war. The British responded by imposing restrictive new laws on the colonies, SOUTH and especially on Boston. The Continental CAROLINA Congress\u2014a group of representatives of the 13 colonies\u2014called these laws intolerable acts GEORGIA Key and sent messages of protest to the king. Western territory AT THE BOSTON TEA PARTY, 13 states COLONISTS DESTROYED 342 CHESTS OF TEA WITH A VALUE OF ABOUT $15,000. The new nation At the end of the war, the 13 colonies that had fought for independence became the \ufb01rst states of the US. They signed a peace treaty with Britain in 1783, which also granted them ownership of substantial territory to the west.","2.5\u00a0million\u2014the population of the colonies, Boys as young as 10 fought in the American army, 305 less than one-third of Britain\u2019s. and women served as nurses, cooks, and even spies. The Declaration of Independence to formalize their position. The argument The march to independence of the Declaration was based on four The 13 rebel colonies formed their own key points, listed below. On July 4, 1776, Nearly all of the early battles of the government, the Continental Congress, which representatives of the 13 colonies signed American Revolutionary War ended in a soon decided to seek complete independence the Declaration to form a new nation: the draw. The British forces were too powerful from Britain. A lawyer from Virginia named United States of America. for the Americans to defeat outright, while Thomas Jefferson was given the task of the colonial forces used local support and drafting a Declaration of Independence knowledge of the land to escape attacks by the British. As the war went on, 1 Right to rebel \u201cWE HOLD THESE TRUTHS 1773 however, stronger leadership and That colonies must be allowed to sever assistance from foreign allies tipped the their connection with their rulers as long as TO BE SELF-EVIDENT, balance in favor of the Americans, and the they have good reasons and can explain them. British suffered crushing defeat. THAT ALL MEN ARE CREATED 2 Legitimate government The road to rebellion That the only acceptable form of government EQUAL, THAT THEY ARE After the colonists destroyed shiploads of British tea is one that tries to do the best for its people and in Boston harbor, the British tightened their control respects their rights. ENDOWED BY on the colonies by passing laws to limit their freedoms. It was the \ufb01nal straw, and two years later, 3 Crimes of the king THEIR CREATOR the \ufb01rst shots of the Revolutionary War were \ufb01red. That the British king had ruled the colonies WITH CERTAIN without respecting the rights and interests BELT OF A LOYALIST SOLDIER, of the people who lived there. UNALIENABLE RIGHTS, WITH ROYAL INSIGNIA 4 Declaration of independence THAT AMONG THESE ARE The \ufb01rst battle That, therefore, the colonies had a right British troops marched to Concord, Massachusetts, to throw off the government of the British LIFE, LIBERTY AND THE to raid the colonists\u2019 store of weapons. The colonists and rule themselves, and were no longer sent a force to resist them. Although they were part of the British Empire. PURSUIT OF forced to withdraw, the Americans succeeded in blocking the British and protecting their supplies. HAPPINESS.\u201d DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE Battle of Saratoga More than 6,000 British soldiers were surrounded Commander-in-chief April 1775 and forced to surrender by the Continental Army. This resounding American victory encouraged George Washington was a tobacco farmer and Autumn 1777 the French to join the war on the American side, trained surveyor from Virginia who gained military followed by the Spanish and the Dutch. experience fighting against the French in North America during the Seven Years War. His opposition Valley Forge to Britain\u2019s treatment of its American colonies led With foreign support on the way, the American army to his appointment as commander-in-chief of the sought shelter in a defensive camp at Valley Forge, rebel American army. Washington turned his men near Philadelphia. Although safe from British attack, into a professional fighting force. He held them they suffered from harsh conditions and lack of together during tough times and lost battles, and supplies throughout the winter months. An estimated led them to victory. In 1789, he was elected as the 2,000 men died of disease and starvation. first President of the United States of America. Victory for the colonists Statue of Washington Winter 1777 After several further defeats, the British were forced Washington is often referred to as to retreat to the east coast. As the American army the father of the nation because of October 1781 and the French navy closed in, the British were his leadership and influence in the trapped at Yorktown, Virginia, and surrendered. founding of the United States. The war was over and the Americans had won. The two sides (colonists who wanted to remain part of 1783 Peace treaty the British Empire), German mercenaries, After long negotiations, a peace treaty was \ufb01nally The American forces relied heavily on militia\u2014 and Native Americans, who wanted to protect agreed in Paris in September 1783. Britain handed local groups who organized themselves into trading and territory agreements with the over large areas of territory to the fighting units. The Continental Army was also British. The British navy controlled the coast, US, and also signed separate supported by French and Spanish troops, and but could not affect the war inland. treaties with the Americans\u2019 some Native Americans. The \u201credcoats\u201d of the European allies, France, British army were assisted by Loyalists Spain, and the Netherlands. 38% British 9% Native army Americans PROPOSED MODEL FOR THE FIRST UNITED STATES 38% 20% German Continental mercenaries SILVER DOLLAR, 1777 Army 49% militia 13% French 33% Loyalist army and others colonists AMERICANS AND ALLIES BRITISH AND ALLIES","306 history THE MODERN WORLD Rioting men in France sometimes dressed as women, because female rioters were punished less severely. French Revolution An unequal society In 1789, the French monarchy was overthrown in a French society was split into three classes, called Estates. The First bloody revolution. The rebels created a government Estate, the clergy, and the Second Estate, the nobility, were extremely run by the citizens rather than the nobility, but rivalry wealthy. Although they made up only 3 percent of the population, they between its members brought chaos and bloodshed. owned 40 percent of the land and paid almost no taxes. The remaining 97 percent of the population made up the Third Estate, common people At the end of the 18th century, France was nearly bankrupt after ranging from merchants and craftsmen to poor country farmers. Their a series of costly wars. To make matters worse, a bad harvest in taxes paid for the wealthy lifestyle of the rich. All three Estates had 1788 left much of the population short of food. While the country representatives in the government assembly, the Estates General. faced starvation, King Louis XVI and the nobility lived in luxury, On June 17, 1789, the representatives of the Third Estate decided and rumors spread that they were hoarding grain that the poor to set up their own government, the National Assembly. desperately needed. The French people had heard how the Americans overthrew the rule of the British king in 1776, and as Key the poor grew more dissatis\ufb01ed, they demanded change. In 1789, a sharp rise in the price of bread caused riots on the streets of First Estate, clergy Paris, and when the king demanded a rise in taxes that same year, Second Estate, nobles the people took action and the French Revolution began. Third Estate, commoners POPULATION LAND OWNERSHIP The end of the monarchy the revolution, and the king himself was imprisoned in the Tuileries Palace in Paris. He tried to regain favor with the people by agreeing The new National Assembly promised to give power to the people, to their demands for reform, but remained a hated \ufb01gure. On August leaving the king as only a \ufb01gurehead. When rumors spread that the king 10, 1792, his palace was stormed by the mob and the king was sent had ordered the army to close down the new government, the citizens to prison. In 1793, he was found guilty of plotting against the French formed a National Guard to \ufb01ght back. Their \ufb01rst target was the Bastille, people and sentenced to death by beheading. a prison where enemies of the old government were held, which they stormed on July 14, 1789. Many of the king\u2019s supporters \ufb02ed or joined The Taking of the Tuileries Palace, 1792 On August 10, 1792, a mob stormed the Palace of Tuileries, where the king and queen were living, and arrested them, ending the French monarchy. This painting depicts the overwhelming numbers of the revolutionaries, who far outnumbered the Swiss Guards protecting the palace. The Bastille was nearly empty when it was stormed. Only seven prisoners were rescued, but 98 revolutionaries died in the attack. Timeline June 14, 1789 July 14, 1789 October 5, 1789 The French Revolution saw France The King of France, Louis XVI, asked the Rumors spread that the king had called for A crowd of about 7,000 women marched change from a monarchy, ruled by government to approve an increase in the army to shut down the new National on the royal palace at Versailles, outside the king, to a Republic, in which taxes. Already angered by a national food Assembly. Angry mobs began to riot Paris, to protest over the shortage of power was held by the people, shortage and unfair taxes, representatives throughout Paris, bringing chaos to the bread. According to later rumor, when although suspicion and brutality of the Third Estate (the working people) city. A crowd stormed the Bastille prison, she heard the people lacked bread, the left many living in fear. The end broke away from the other two Estates. liberating seven inmates. This date came French queen, Marie Antoinette, said of the Revolution saw the rise They announced their intention to govern to be known as the beginning of the \u201cLet them eat cake.\u201d This was taken as of a new emperor. the country themselves, and formed Revolution, and July 14 is celebrated as a symbol of how little the monarchy a National Assembly. a national holiday in France to this day. understood the sufferings of the people.","10\u00a0The number of days in a week in the 1.6\u00a0million\u2014the number of soldiers 307 new revolutionary French calendar. in Napoleon\u2019s army at its height. The Terror The Napoleonic Wars After the death of the king in 1793, the National Assembly After the Revolution, France was left without a strong was headed by a group called the Jacobins, a political club leader and surrounded by enemies. In 1800, Napoleon led by Maximilien de Robespierre. They believed that France Bonaparte (1769\u20131821), a young general, became a hero was full of spies sent by foreign powers who wanted to bring to the people after a series of stunning military victories. back the monarchy. The Jacobins began to execute anyone In 1804, he made himself Emperor of France, and began they suspected of working against them. Around 40,000 a campaign of conquest across Europe. From 1805\u20131807, people were killed in Paris alone during this bloody period, his armies defeated Austria, Russia, and Prussia until known as The Terror, which only ended when Robespierre his empire covered most of Europe. He was \ufb01nally himself was sent to the guillotine in 1794. defeated in 1815 at the Battle of Waterloo by an alliance of the nations of Europe. The guillotine This gruesome machine was used during UNIFORM the French Revolution to execute people as quickly and ef\ufb01ciently as possible. MUSKET THE GUILLOTINE WAS NICKNAMED THE \u201cNATIONAL RAZOR\u201d AND WAS USED TO EXECUTE UP TO 20 PEOPLE A DAY. The ideals of the Revolution The new Republic of France was in\ufb02uenced by the United States, which had won independence from Britain in 1776. Like the Americans, the French Revolutionaries wrote out a document, the \u201cDeclaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen,\u201d which would underpin the new government. It proclaimed that all men and women are born equal, so kings and nobles have no right to rule over those of common birth, and that people should be allowed to govern themselves by democratic vote. These ideas remain important to theories of democracy and human rights to this day. Maximilien de Robespierre French infantryman\u2019s uniform French lawyer Maximilien Napoleon\u2019s soldiers were the most feared de Robespierre was at the in Europe. They were superbly trained and forefront of the Revolution. operated in tight formations. Their uniform He believed passionately consisted of white breeches, dark blue jacket, in equal rights and and a hat, or shako, decorated with a government by the people. red plume. Each man was armed with However, he betrayed his a large, heavy gun called a musket. own beliefs by deciding the only way for the Revolution to succeed was by the deaths of those who opposed it. Tens of thousands of so-called \u201cenemies of the Revolution\u201d were executed on the orders of Robespierre and his allies. June 25, 1791 1792\u20131801 Spring 1793 December 2, 1804 The king and queen attempted to \ufb02ee the France\u2019s neighbors were outraged by the A Committee of Public Safety was Napoleon Bonaparte proclaimed himself country in disguise. They were spotted overthrow and death of King Louis. They founded by Maximilien de Robespierre Emperor of France and was crowned in and taken back to Paris, where they were also hoped to gain control of French lands to \ufb01ght back against agents of the old Paris. A military genius, he had become held under guard in the Tuileries Palace. in the confusion of the Revolution. Wars government, thought to be secretly enormously popular among the French They were moved to prison in 1792 and, broke out between France and other undermining the Revolution. The people after winning a stunning series of in 1793, they were executed by guillotine European countries such as Austria, Italy, Committee ran out of control, accusing victories during the wars of 1792\u20131801. after being accused of helping Austria, and Britain, and in French overseas many innocent people of betraying the After his coronation, Napoleon\u2019s armies the queen\u2019s homeland, which was at war territories such as Haiti. The French Republic. As many as 40,000 people were begin a war of conquest across Europe, with Revolutionary France. armies emerged victorious. executed during this Reign of Terror. winning great success at \ufb01rst.","308 history THE MODERN WORLD 7\u00a0The average age at which children were sent to work in the 1800s. The Industrial Faster travel Revolution Industrial factories depended on being able Between 1760 and 1860, an age-old way of life based on farming to bring in large quantities of raw materials and crafting by hand was transformed, as people moved to (such as coal and cotton \ufb01ber) and send out towns and goods were produced by machines in factories. large quantities of \ufb01nished products. The old methods of transportation\u2014such as wagon trains and This transformation began in Britain, where ingenious inventors and sailing ships\u2014could not move materials quickly enough engineers applied new scienti\ufb01c ideas to the old methods of farming, or in large enough amounts. Industrial countries built mining, and manufacturing. Britain also had a ready supply of raw huge networks of canals, where barges carrying up to materials, such as coal and iron ore, to power the new inventions, and a 33 tons were pulled along by horses. Rail networks and rapidly growing population eager to work in the factories and buy the new steam engines allowed people and goods to travel goods they produced. The Industrial Revolution transformed our way of life, quickly over long distances. Steam ships made ocean bringing incredible wealth to some, but crushing poverty to many others. journeys far quicker and more reliable. Steam locomotives The railway became one of the greatest symbols of the Industrial Revolution. From around 1840, the US led the world in producing fast, reliable steam locomotives, such as this one built in 1863 by the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. New machines Reeling and winding Water-powered cotton mill These machines wind the Cotton is made by combing out \ufb02uffy \ufb01bers and The backbone of the Industrial Revolution came from new cotton on to tapered rods spinning them into thread. Before the Industrial machines. Cotton making, for example, had been a lengthy called bobbins. Revolution, this was done by workers in their process involving hours of hard work. Inventions such as the own homes. Cotton mills could process much Spinning Jenny (1764), and the Spinning Mule (1779) could do larger amounts of cotton far more quickly. the work automatically in a fraction of the time. At \ufb01rst, these bulky machines were powered by water wheels, and so were Carding machines built-in factories next to rivers. The \ufb01rst water-powered cotton These machines comb and mill was built by entrepreneur Richard Arkwright in 1771 untangle the raw cotton to in Derbyshire, England. Over time, water wheels separate out the \ufb01bers. were replaced by steam engines, and factories moved into towns. Water wheel River Water frame Flowing water turns the Water-driven spinning huge wheel\u2019s paddles to frames are used to spin the cotton into thread. power the machines.","55\u00a0million tons\u2014the amount of The new spinning machines produced cotton 4,000\u00a0miles (6,400 km)\u2014the length of new 309 coal mined in 1850 in Britain. 1,000 times more quickly than a human worker. canal built in Britain from 1760\u20131840. An island of ideas The many inventions of the 18th century were made possible by scientists and engineers, funded by rich entrepreneurs. Together they developed new machines, such as the steam engine, new ways of working, such as factory mass production, and new industrial processes, such as the Bessemer process for producing steel. 1701\u20131831 Farming with machines A growing population called for more food and more ef\ufb01cient ways to grow it. In 1701, English SEED inventor Jethro Tull created a seed drill that DRILL automatically sowed crops. NO. 117 THATCHER PERKINS LOCOMOTIVE Steam-powered plows appeared in the 1820s, and the American engineer Cyrus McCormick designed a mechanical harvester in 1831. Poverty in towns 50% women 1771 The \ufb01rst factories Richard Arkwright built the \ufb01rst water-powered Industrial progress brought great wealth to 24% girls mill in Derbyshire, England. Fast-\ufb02owing water factory owners and entrepreneurs, and made created enough power to run his spinning basic goods such as food and clothing cheaper 7% boys 1776 machines. This allowed cotton to be mass- than ever before. However, it also created a produced, since more thread could be new kind of poverty. Large numbers of people 19% men made much faster. Arkwright became WATT\u2019S moved to the cities in search of work, where a pioneer of modern factories. ENGINE they were packed into crowded, dirty housing. Workers in a cotton mill, 1859 Many were unemployed and ended up in A third of workers in the mills ARKWRIGHT SPINNING FRAME prison for debt, or forced to move into harsh were children, aged as young as \ufb01ve. lodgings called workhouses, where they Some worked for 12 hours a day, and Watt\u2019s steam engine performed hard labor for no pay. Those who dangerous accidents were common. Inventors across the world had did have jobs worked in unsafe conditions. experimented with using steam to They were often paid poorly, and many power machinery for hundreds of families struggled to afford basic essentials. years, with little success. In 1776, Scottish inventor James Watt built a much more ef\ufb01cient engine, which could provide an up-down movement for pumping and a circular movement for operating machines. Rise of the machines factories. With so many people looking 1779 Bridges of iron for work, factory owners offered low The era of modern bridge-building started in 1779 with the The changes brought by industry quickly wages, which meant laborers looked construction of the Ironbridge in Shropshire, England, the \ufb01rst bridge gathered momentum across Europe and for even cheaper goods. Scientists and to be made entirely of solid cast iron. With stronger bridges and North America. New factories created entrepreneurs used their pro\ufb01ts to built better-quality iron and steel, bridges could be built over longer cheap goods and jobs for poor laborers. new machines and factories, bringing distances, opening up new routes for roads and railways. At the same time, mechanized farming prices down and creating more jobs. left many rural workers unemployed, and 1790 Gas lighting forced them to move to cities to work in Gas from coal mines was burned in lamps to provide lighting in streets and homes. It was Science Invention Mechanization pumped through a network of pipes across GAS New discoveries give Engineers and Business owners major cities. The large-scale introduction of gas STREET scientists ideas about inventors experiment invest money in the lighting in the 1790s was the work of William LIGHT better ways to do with new scienti\ufb01c new inventions. Farms Murdoch, a Scottish engineer who also built things. They develop ideas, using them to and workshops use steam engines. Gas lighting was brighter and new technologies such develop machines that machines instead of more reliable than candles and oil lamps, as steam power and make farming and human workers, and allowing factories to remain open all night. cheap steel. manufacturing easier. factories are built. 1833 Brunel and the railways Isambard Kingdom Brunel was a bridge and railway engineer who oversaw the creation of much of Britain\u2019s rail network. At age 27 he became engineer to the Great Western Railway, where he constructed over 1,000 miiles (1,600 km) of track. He was famous for his innovative designs for bridges, viaducts, and tunnels. Demand for low prices Lower wages Migration to cities 1855 The steel revolution Poor workers need In crowded cities, Machines replace In 1855, an Englishman named Henry Bessemer discovered food and goods to be many people compete many jobs on farms. a new, cheap way of making steel, using a machine called a cheap. This encourages for jobs. Business At the same time, new \u201cBessemer converter\u201d to burn impurities out of iron. Steel was business owners to owners pay low factories create jobs in essential for building railways, machinery, factories, and vehicles. build more factories wages, since it is hard cities. Laborers move By making it cheap and widely available, Bessemer\u2019s new process and \ufb01nd cheaper for their employees to from the country into opened the way for a huge increase in the rate of industrialization. ways of working. \ufb01nd work elsewhere. cities to \ufb01nd work.","310 history THE MODERN WORLD 1781\u00a0The date the \ufb01rst steam engine was patented, by Scotsman James Watt. How a steam engine works The Age of Steam The engine is powered by heat from coal burning in the For thousands of years, humans had relied on animal and \ufb01rebox. Hot air from the \ufb01re passes along copper pipes people power to move heavy loads and drive machinery. through a water tank or boiler. This heats the water to This all changed in the late 18th century with the arrival boiling point, producing steam. The steam expands as of a bold new invention: the steam engine. it is heated, creating pressure inside the boiler. Steam engines operate by burning fuel to heat water until it boils. Piston Boiler Hot steam from the boiling water is trapped to create pressure, which pushed down is used to drive machinery. This simple principle opened the way to powerful new engines. Steam engines were more \ufb02exible than Valve windmills or waterwheels, which had to be built in speci\ufb01c places, and more powerful than humans or animals. They could drive factory Cylinder and farm equipment, and pull plows across \ufb01elds or trains along tracks. Larger models pumped vast amounts of water to drain mines Firebox and supply canal systems, and hauled blocks of stone and ore from quarries and mines. They were the driving force behind many Valve control rod of the innovations of the Industrial Revolution. Water barrel Water from this barrel kept the boiler topped off. The driver controlled the \ufb02ow of water through pipes from the barrel to the boiler. Wheel control rod Wheel 1 Piston moves down An opening at the top of the boiler allows steam into sealed tubes called cylinders, one for each wheel. The pressure from the steam pushes down a piston inside the cylinder, which moves a control rod to turn the wheel. The turning of the wheel moves a valve inside the cylinder that controls the \ufb02ow of steam. Piston Boiler Tender (supply cart) pushed up The engine Valve required a constant supply of coal and water, kept on a cart pulled behind. Cylinder Firebox Valve control rod Wheel control rod Wheel 2 Piston moves up Stephenson\u2019s Rocket Train tracks When the piston reaches the bottom, the valve inside the cylinder switches the \ufb02ow of steam from the top to the The \ufb01rst steam locomotives were unreliable bottom of the cylinder. The steam now pushes the piston and very heavy. In 1829, a competition was up, pulling on the wheel control rod to turn the wheel back held to design an engine to run on the newly to where it started. Steam and smoke from the \ufb01rebox built Liverpool to Manchester Railway. The escape through the chimney. winner was the Rocket, built by Robert Stephenson and his father, George.","27\u00a0mph (47 kph)\u2014the 75\u00a0miles (120 km)\u2014the distance the Rocket 4.7\u00a0 311tons\u2014the weight of the Rocket Rocket\u2019s top speed. traveled on its \ufb01rst day of trials. steam locomotive. Smoke and steam Cylinder Piston Boiler Control rod Firebox Inside the engine Smokestack (chimney) Early steam engines used a single A blast pipe sucked air up large cylinder to power all the wheels through the chimney. The air at once. The Rocket had two angled was drawn in through the cylinders, each connected directly \ufb01rebox, fanning the \ufb02ames. to a single wheel with a control rod. This and other innovations, such Cylinder as the blast pipe and a boiler with This sealed tube captured multiple tubes for hot air, made the steam from the boiler and Rocket faster and more efficient than used it to push a piston, any steam engine built before. driving the wheels. George Stephenson Control valves Safety valve Steam dome Stephenson himself These levers allowed the This valve would allow Steam from the boiler controlled the Rocket on driver to control the \ufb02ow steam to escape if the collected under this dome its \ufb01rst demonstration. of water and steam pressure rose too high, and was funneled into pipes through the engine. preventing explosions. leading to the cylinders. Stoker Coal Boiler Water in this tank was heated by pipes, which ran through it carrying hot air from the furnace. Control rod This rod transferred the in-out movement of the piston to the circular movement of the wheels. Wooden wheels with steel rims","312 history THE MODERN WORLD The course of the war The Confederacy Eleven Southern states broke away The war pitted 23 Union states from the Union to form the of the North and West against Confederacy: North Carolina, 11 Confederate states of the South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, South. The North had superior Mississippi, Louisiana, Florida, numbers, wealth, and weaponry, Texas, Tennessee, Arkansas, and and despite some brilliant Virginia. They fought for states\u2019 military successes, the South was rights and the right to own slaves. eventually forced to surrender. The Confederates had their own capital in Richmond, Virginia, and 1 April 12, 1861 their own currency, \ufb02ag (see left), Tensions between the North and and president\u2014Jefferson Davis. South were running high. The war began when the Confederate army INDIANA shot at Union soldiers stationed at Fort Sumter, South Carolina, and ILLINOIS forced them to lower the American \ufb02ag in surrender. 2 July 21, 1861 MISSOURI KENTUCKY The Confederates won their \ufb01rst battle near a small stream in Virginia called Bull Run. The Union answered by blockading the ports and borders of southern states, trying to wreck their economy. 3 September 16\u201318, 1862 TENNESSEE The Battle of Antietam, one of the bloodiest of the war, left 23,000 ARKANSAS soldiers dead, wounded, or missing. The Confederates were beaten back in a turning point of the war. 4 May 18\u2013July 4, 1863 Mississippi River The city of Vicksburg beside the Mississippi River, held by MISSISSIPPI the Confederates, was taken by Union troops. Control of the Mississippi was vital, since the South was using it to transport food and soldiers. 5 July 1\u20133, 1863 4 In Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, the Union won the largest battle of the war after ALABAMA three days of \ufb01ghting. Confederate leader General Lee lost 20,000 men, who were killed or wounded. 6 April 9, 1865 With his troops surrounded, General Lee surrendered to General Ulysses S. Grant in a house in the village of Appomattox, Virginia. SPRINGFIELD RIFLE MUSKET 1861 Abraham Lincoln LOUISIANA FLORIDA The 16th president of the United States, A nation divided Abraham Lincoln was a brilliant orator. He was determined to keep the states of Battles were fought across America, but most America together at all costs. After the war, of the \ufb01ghting occurred in the states of Virginia he hoped to heal the divide between North and Tennessee, and along the border states\u2014 and South, but was killed by a supporter slave states that did not declare independence. of the South while at the theater in 1865. Much of the con\ufb02ict was near the Confederacy\u2019s capital, Richmond, Virginia, and the Union capital \u201cGOVERNMENT OF THE PEOPLE, in Washington, DC. BY THE PEOPLE, FOR THE PEOPLE SHALL NOT PERISH FROM THE EARTH.\u201d ABRAHAM LINCOLN, SPEECH TO UNION FORCES AT GETTYSBURG, 1863","2\u00a0The number of Union soldiers for The number of Americans killed in the Civil War is nearly equal to the 313 every one Confederate soldier. number who died in every other foreign war fought by the US since. OHIO 3 5 Washington, DC, 2 Union capital Union blockade The Union set up a naval blockade in the 6 Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico to stop trade VIRGINIA Richmond, to Southern ports. Confederate capital NORTH The Union CAROLINA The Union of the northern states, SOUTH led by President Abraham Lincoln, CAROLINA had a larger army, including 200,000 freed slaves who joined 1 the \ufb01ght. They also had greater resources. Victory over the South meant more than the ending of slavery: the United States stayed together as one nation with one government. However, the process of rebuilding the war-torn country would be long and hard. GEORGIA The Civil War Artillery The election of Abraham Lincoln as president in 1860 tore the US Both sides in the war used in half, and the Civil War broke out between the North and South artillery \ufb01re to cause huge over the rights of individual states and the issue of slavery. numbers of casualties among enemy troops. The US had been one country made up of many states, but in the mid-19th century it became a divided nation. The northern states, made strong by industry and immigrants from Europe, had little sympathy for the old- fashioned farm culture of the South, which depended on slavery. The people of the South suspected that the North was seeking to destroy their way of life. When Abraham Lincoln became president, 11 Southern states feared he would abolish slavery and left the Union. The war that followed divided families and friends. More than 620,000 soldiers died, and even though the country was \ufb01nally reunited, bitterness remained for decades.","314 history THE MODERN WORLD 80\u00a0The number of enemy planes shot down by the German Red Baron \ufb01ghter pilot. World War I The fronts Half a century of power struggles, in which The areas, or fronts, in which the war was fought War at sea Germany and Austria-Hungary were set went right across Europe. The two main zones, or German U-boats (submarines) against France and Russia, ended with four theaters, of war were the Western Front and the years of bloody con\ufb02ict that involved nearly Eastern Front. The Western Front stretched from attacked British ships. In every country in the world. the North Sea to the Swiss border and was return, Britain blockaded made up of a continuous line of trenches. The The war that followed was fought mainly in Europe, but Eastern Front, on the other side of Europe, German ports. \ufb01ghting also spread to the Middle East, Africa, and Asia. saw the great armies of Germany and Nations took part in bombing raids and chemical Austria-Hungary battle against Russia. BRITAIN warfare, as well as experimenting with tanks, military aircraft, and submarines. However, most of the war was London NETHERLANDS fought using ordinary artillery, machine guns, ri\ufb02es, and horses. What was different about this war was the vast Brussels numbers of those involved: soldiers fought and died in the millions, and entire populations were expected to LUXEMBOURG BELGIUM help make weapons and support the war. Somme Causes of the war Western Front Paris Long lines of trenches On June 28, 1914, the Archduke of Austria-Hungary was shot Key stretched from Switzerland Marne by a nationalist from Serbia in the Balkans. Austria-Hungary Verdun blamed Serbia for the killing and declared war. Russia offered Major battle sites to the Belgian coast. to support Serbia. Germany declared war on Russia, then on France. Country after country rushed to defend their allies Central Powers SWITZERLAND or declare war on their rivals until armies were on the move Allies FRANCE across the world. Most people believed the war would be over very quickly, but they were tragically mistaken. PORTUGAL SPAIN Europe at war World War I was fought largely in Europe between the Central Powers\u2014Germany, Austria- Hungary, and Turkey\u2014and the Allies\u2014Britain, France, Italy, Russia, Japan, and later the United States. RIVALRY ARMS RACE Course of the war 1914 1914 Tensions rose as giant European powers raced European empires with to build the largest For four long years bloody Tannenberg Marne colonies all across the armies and most battles were fought. The The Germans won an early Germany\u2019s invasion of world competed for powerful warships, Western Front, running across great victory against Russia France was halted at the power by trying to setting the scene for eastern France, saw some of at the Battle of Tannenberg River Marne, just east of control trade and war on a scale never the heaviest \ufb01ghting. Until in August 1914, capturing the French capital city, gain more land. seen before. 1917, Germany and the 125,000 men. Meanwhile, Paris. This left Germany Central Powers seemed to be Germany invaded neutral and Austria-Hungary facing winning, but that changed Belgium to attack France, attacks from both east and when the US came to \ufb01ght which they hoped to defeat west. Both sides suffered for the Allies. quickly. British forces huge losses in open battle, arrived to support and began to build trench Belgium and France. systems for defense. WAR TWO SIDES TENSIONS The war at home Neighboring countries Southeast Europe (the sought alliances for Balkans) fought for World War I was the \ufb01rst \u201ctotal\u201d war, protection against independence from meaning not just soldiers but the whole their rivals, so that the Ottoman Empire. civilian population were involved. The entire when war started all Violence in this region nation was expected to help keep the war the major powers were heightened tensions effort going, by helping on the \u201cHome Front.\u201d soon dragged in. across Europe. Civilians only received \ufb01xed rations of food to make sure enough could be sent out to the troops, and women took over many of the jobs of men sent to \ufb01ght. Bombing raids on German, French, and some British cities brought the war into ordinary homes. Road to war Everyone must play their part RUSSIAN POSTER In the early 1900s, powerful European nations competed This Russian poster reads: \u201cAll for the war.\u201d In for trade and land, and built up large armies. Nations made wartime, women took men\u2019s places on farms, agreements to support one another (alliances), but these in factories, and in of\ufb01ces. Every man was were often fragile. Two groups of countries on opposite sides expected to \ufb01ght: military leader Lord Kitchener emerged: the Central Powers and the Triple Entente (Allies). (far right) calls on British men to join the army.","On Christmas Day 1914, British and German soldiers on the Western Front 600\u00a0The number of rounds that a World War I 315 stopped \ufb01ghting to exchange gifts, sing carols, and even play soccer. machine gun could fire in one minute. SWEDEN A new kind of warfare EAST Russian revolution At the start of the war, armies on both sides PRUSSIA A communist revolution were still using outdated tactics, such as swept across Russia in 1917, cavalry and bayonet charges. However, with Tannenberg RUSSIAN overthrowing the Tzar (emperor). deadly weapons like machine guns widely EMPIRE Russian soldiers continued to available, these old tactics failed, resulting in \ufb01ght until March 1918. huge numbers of deaths. By the end of the Moscow war, both sides had developed new strategies, as well as new Berlin POLAND weaponry, such as aircraft. GERMANY Both sides used poison gas to kill off enemy soldiers. Italian Front Eastern Front Horses, shown to be Fierce \ufb01ghting took Russia fought against unsuited to the modern place in the mountains Germany and Austria- battlefield, were replaced between Italy and Hungary all across by the first tanks. Austria-Hungary. Eastern Europe. GERMAN GAS AUSTRIA- MASK AND HUNGARY CONTAINER SERBIA ROMANIA Balkan front Mustard gas MONTENEGRO BULGARIA Serbia fought against symbol Germany, Austria- ALBANIA Hungary, and Bulgaria. GERMAN GAS SHELL ITALY Poison gas Constantinople At first there was no protection against poison gas, but by the middle of the war both sides carried Gallipoli OTTOMAN Arab revolt gas masks. Around 30 types of gas were used, EMPIRE The Arabs of North Africa causing more than 1.2 million casualties. and the Middle East rose GREECE up against the Ottoman 230The number of soldiers Turks who ruled the region. that perished each hour throughout the 1915\u201316 1916 1916 1918 four-and-a-quarter years of the war. Gallipoli Verdun Somme Hundred Days British Empire forces, Continuous \ufb01ghting across The British and French, Offensive including many troops the trenches produced a after little progress for two Provoked by German from Australia and New stalemate on the Western years, began the Big Push submarine attacks on Zealand, launched an Front. Trying to break the \u2014a large-scale attack to American ships, the US attack on the Ottoman deadlock, Germany launched break through German lines entered the war in 1917. In Empire at Gallipoli, on an attack on the French at the Somme in France. 1918, American, British, and the west coast of Turkey. forti\ufb01cations at Verdun. Thousands were mown French soldiers mounted a They landed in April 1915, After months of brutal down by German machine series of successful attacks, but suffered heavy \ufb01ghting, the exhausted guns. More than 600,000 known as the Hundred Days casualties and were French army forced the Allied troops were killed or Offensive, forcing the forced to withdraw. Germans to retreat. wounded, for little gain. Central Powers to surrender. The cost of the war RUSSIA GERMANY There had never before been a human conflict on this scale, and with it came FRANCE huge cost to human life. More than half BRITISH EMPIRE of the 65 million men who fought across AUSTRIA-HUNGARY the world were killed or wounded, and many died of disease. More than ITALY six million ordinary citizens died, from illness or starvation. Europe was left in ruins, and its systems of government, and the way people worked and lived, changed forever. Military deaths SERBIA It is estimated that 15 million people died in World War I. Key USA Most of them were soldiers, BRITISH POSTER especially in the armies of = 100,000 1 MILLION 2 MILLION Russia and Germany. soldiers killed","316 history THE MODERN WORLD 6,000\u00a0miles (10,000 km)\u2014the estimated length of the trenches across France and Belgium. Trench warfare Shell explosion Soldiers on both sides in World War I faced a lethal Artillery shells could be loaded bombardment of bullets, shells, and poison gas. with explosives, poison gas, or They lived and fought in deep trenches stretching pieces of metal called shrapnel. great distances across the battle\ufb01elds. Gas warfare Both sides suffered horri\ufb01c losses in the \ufb01rst few months Both sides used poison of the war, as armies of massed infantry charged toward gas as a weapon, and gas deadly machine guns. It became clear that masks were essential. neither side could break through the other\u2019s defenses. Instead they dug down into long lines of forti\ufb01ed trenches, which stretched all across Europe. The war became a stalemate that lasted for years, with soldiers camped in lines of trenches, facing each other across a strip of no man\u2019s land. New weapons World War I saw some of the highest rates of death and injury to frontline soldiers of any war in history. This was partly due to the development of powerful new weapons such as machine guns and high-explosive artillery shells, which could cause mass casualties in a very short space of time. Artillery Life in the trenches Tunnel support The largest guns could bombard trench positions from miles away. A direct hit from The trenches were a harsh place to Underground war an artillery shell would create a large crater, live. In winter they \ufb01lled with mud and As well as attacking above ground, and could kill a dozen men in an instant. ice, and they were infested with huge rats both sides tried to tunnel into all year round. The soldiers were often enemy trenches, to place explosives. Deadly enemies cold and wet, hungry and exhausted, Fierce battles were fought when and to make matters worse, they knew enemy diggers met underground. Life in the trenches was extremely an attack could come any moment. dangerous. Around 9.7 million soldiers were killed in combat, and many more were No man\u2019s land horribly wounded under a nearly constant The land between the trenches was a barrage of bullets, shells, and poison gas. sea of mud blasted by artillery shells. The bodies of dead soldiers often lay 20% machine-gun \ufb01re here for days because it was too 10% ri\ufb02e \ufb01re dangerous to retrieve them. 60% artillery 6% other weapons \u201cWhat a bloodbath, what horrid 4% poison gas images, what slaughter\u2026 CAUSES OF DEATH OF SOLDIERS Hell cannot be IN WORLD WAR I this dreadful.\u201d Albert Joubaire, a French soldier at Verdun in 1916","4,000\u00a0calories\u2014daily ration of a 317 British soldier in the trenches. Periscope Shell hole Firing bay Craters left by shell The bottom of the trench was dug to Sandbags for explosions \ufb01lled with protection rainwater and mud, and be deep enough that soldiers could could drown the unwary. walk along it without being exposed Field to enemy \ufb01re. Steps enabled soldiers telephone to see out over no man\u2019s land, and Sniper snipers to \ufb01re on the enemy. Pillbox Concrete boxes were built Barbed wire to shelter machine guns and lookout posts. Reconnaissance During quiet times, Latrines small groups might be Under constant threat sent into no man\u2019s from enemy \ufb01re, even land to spy on enemy toilets and washrooms movement. had to be built in trenches. Soldiers\u2019 shelter Of\ufb01cers\u2019 dugout Special rooms Firing bay for of\ufb01cers Soldiers standing here could look were dug and \ufb01re out over no man\u2019s land. below ground. They had to beware of gun\ufb01re from enemy snipers.","318 history THE MODERN WORLD 1.5\u00a0million children died 57\u00a0The number of consecutive nights during the Holocaust. London was bombed during the Blitz. World War II Rise of Fascism Nazi symbol This German army In September 1939, Germany, led by brutal Fascism, a new form of badge shows an eagle dictator Adolf Hitler, stormed into Poland. This nationalism, rose out of the on top of a swastika\u2014 was the beginning of World War II. Lasting six ashes of World War I. As the symbol of the long years, it was the deadliest con\ufb02ict in history. people struggled with mass National Socialist unemployment and poverty, German Workers World War I was supposed to be \u201cthe war to end all wars,\u201d they were drawn to strong Party (Nazis), led but defeated countries believed they had been treated badly leaders such as Benito Mussolini by Adolf Hitler. by harsh peace terms. In the 1930s, a catastrophic global (Italy) and Francisco Franco (Spain) who recession broke out, which left many people poor and promised national unity and prosperity. destitute. Disillusioned, they began to turn to new, In Germany, Adolf Hitler declared himself forceful leaders for solutions. F\u00fchrer (leader) and led the country to war. In Germany, the Nazi Party rose to power under Adolf Theaters of war Battle of the Atlantic Hitler. He launched mass invasions west into Europe and The Allies needed to keep shipping east into the USSR in search of more \u201cliving space\u201d for the Battles raged on land, sea, and in German people. At the same time, the Japanese fought to the air across Western Europe, the lanes open, so essential supplies take control of Asia and the Paci\ufb01c Ocean. The battle to Eastern Front, the Mediterranean, from the US could reach Britain defeat Germany, Japan, and their allies would spread North Africa, and the Paci\ufb01c and and the USSR. German U-boats across the globe, and cost the lives of millions. Atlantic oceans. Few nations (submarines) sank many convoys, remained neutral, supporting but the Allies eventually defeated Codes, spies, and propaganda either the Allies (Britain, France, the US, and Russia) or the Axis the German navy. World War II was one of the \ufb01rst wars fought with modern (Germany, Italy, and Japan). technology and electronics. Both sides became very good at spying, and they used codes to pass on secret information. Spies and double agents did their best to outwit the enemy. In their own countries, they used posters, movies, and radio broadcasts to spread propaganda\u2014powerful messages designed to stir national pride, loyalty, and hatred of the enemy. United States of America NORTH Neutral at the start of AMERICA the war, the US helped Enigma ATLANTIC The Enigma machine was the Allies with loans of OCEAN a German device used to money and materials. send coded messages. A surprise attack by It could only be read by Japan brought the US another Enigma machine. into the war in 1941. The British cracked the codes in 1941 using an PACIFIC SOUTH early form of computer. OCEAN AMERICA Rotator cylinder Key Letters are coded by a set Allied nations of rotating wheels. They Axis nations can only be decoded using Countries conquered by the Axis the same settings. North Africa Keyboard The Axis and the Allies fought in When a letter is pressed, it North Africa from 1940 to 1943. British General Bernard Montgomery defeated sends an electrical signal German Field Marshal Erwin Rommel in to the rotator for coding. tank battles across the desert. Plugboard The plugboard hugely increases the number of coding combinations.","16\u00a0million American soldiers 27\u00a0million Soviet soldiers and civilians 35,000\u00a0Allied prisoners of war escaped German 319 served in World War II. died on the Eastern Front. and Italian prisons during World War II. The Holocaust The course of the war Adolf Hitler was convinced that the German people were Hitler\u2019s forces quickly conquered large the \u201cmaster race\u201d and that other people, such as Jews, areas of Europe. He then attacked his were inferior. Under German occupation, Jews were former allies, the USSR, but was halted herded into ghettos where many starved to death. by fierce resistance. When the US joined In 1942, Hitler instigated the Final Solution\u2014the murder the Allies in 1941, the tide began to turn. of all Jews. He set up concentration camps where German forces were pushed back, and the \u201cinferior\u201d people such as Jews, homosexuals, gypsies, Japanese were defeated in brutal fighting and Soviet prisoners of war were gassed to death in one across Asia and the Pacific. of the most horrific campaigns in human history. German invasion of Europe \u201cI STILL BELIEVE, IN SPITE OF The yellow star 1940 Sept 1, 1939 Hitler\u2019s lightning invasion swiftly conquered Poland. Jews were forced to wear this The following year, German troops took Denmark, EVERYTHING, yellow badge to identify them Norway, Belgium, the Netherlands, and most of as Jewish. It became a symbol France. The British were forced to evacuate 340,000 THAT PEOPLE ARE TRULY of Nazi persecution. Allied troops at Dunkirk, France, in May 1940. GOOD AT HEART.\u201d Battle of Britain ANNE FRANK, JEWISH VICTIM OF THE HOLOCAUST During the Battle of Britain, German and Europe British aircraft fought At the start of the war, most of for control of the skies. mainland Europe fell to the Germans, Germany\u2019s defeat whose Blitzkrieg (lightning war) prevented a land tactics proved hugely successful. From invasion of Britain, but 1942\u201343, the Allies began to fight back. bombers began deadly air raids on British cities. June 1941 GAS MASK ISSUED ASIA TO CHILDREN IN BRITISH CITIES EUROPE Dec 7, 1941 AFRICA Operation Barbarossa The USSR Oct 1942 The Germans turned on their former allies, the USSR, In 1941, the war widened when reaching Moscow and Leningrad. But they were driven back by Soviet counterattacks and the harsh Hitler invaded the USSR. Early winter. Both sides suffered huge losses, and the German successes were overturned Germans suffered their \ufb01rst defeat of the war. by tenacious military and civilian Pearl Harbor resistance in one of the bloodiest Japan, Germany\u2019s allies, mounted a surprise attack on American ships at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, bringing campaigns of the war. the USA into the war. In June 1942, the US \ufb02eet defeated the Japanese Navy at the Battle of Midway PACIFIC in the Paci\ufb01c Ocean, halting the Japanese advance. OCEAN El Alamein INDIAN Winter 1942 The Allies won a major OCEAN victory when the British drove the Germans AUSTRALIA out of Egypt at the Battle of El Alamein. The Paci\ufb01c Aug 6, 1945 June 6, 1944 The Pacific theater of war included DESERT RAT BANNER Japan, China, and Korea, and many OF BRITISH FORCES IN small islands in Southeast Asia. The NORTH AFRICA Japanese won early victories, but their advance was halted by the US Stalingrad Navy at the Battle of Midway in 1942. The focus of the war on the Eastern Front, the brutal Battle of Stalingrad, USSR, involved unimaginable hardship as two armies fought for control of the city. The Soviet Red Army destroyed superior German forces, and soon began to march on Germany. D-Day After two years of planning, the Allies invaded Europe in Operation Overlord. To liberate France, 4,000 landing craft, 600 warships, and thousands of Allied aircraft hit \ufb01ve beaches in Normandy. Germany was forced to surrender just 11 months later. Hiroshima In the last act of the war, the Americans used a new weapon, the atomic bomb, to force the Japanese to surrender. They dropped bombs on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The two explosions killed more than 300,000 people.","320 history THE MODERN WORLD 30\u00a0mph (48 kph)\u2014the top speed 200\u00a0miles (320 km)\u2014the of the Soviet T34 tank. range of a V-2 rocket. Modern warfare World War II was the most destructive con\ufb02ict in Bomber plane Engines history, since modern technology created new and During World War II, both sides Four powerful engines deadly weapons. The war saw the introduction of used bombers to attack enemy allowed the B-17 to reach guided missiles, mass tank battles, jet engines, cities: to destroy factories and a top speed of 290 mph atomic weapons, and powerful bomber planes. damage enemy morale. German planes pounded British cities in (460 kph). Hitler\u2019s armies planned to shock the Allies into surrender using 1940\u201341 in a series of attacks surprise bomb attacks and rapid tank invasions\u2014a strategy he called the Blitz, while Allied called Blitzkrieg (lightning warfare). As the war went on, both aircraft leveled German cities sides built tanks, planes, and ships in huge numbers, and these such as Dresden in 1945. weapons caused mass casualties and pulverized vast areas of land. Toward the end of the war, fleets of bombers numbering Bomb bay more than 1,000 pummeled cities for days and nights on end. The B-17 could carry up to 8,000 lb (3,600 kg) of bombs. Oxygen tanks Radio desk These supplied A radio operator sat here breathable air to the to communicate with the crew at high altitudes. bomber\u2019s home base. Nose guns Navigator The navigator plotted the plane\u2019s course at this desk. Bombardier Cockpit This of\ufb01cer controlled the The pilot and release of bombs as close as copilot controlled the plane from here. possible to the target. 2.9\u00a0million tons\u2014the total Propeller weight of bombs dropped by the Allies on Europe.","90\u00a0The number of airplanes carried by 1\u00a0million\u2014the number of houses in London 321 a Yorktown class aircraft carrier. destroyed by German air raids during the Blitz. Waist turret Wings Mechanized warfare Thirteen machine guns The B-17 has a wingspan of 104 ft In World War II, mechanized warfare came of protected all sides (32 m)\u2014longer than age. Hitler\u2019s Blitzkrieg proved that speed and of the B-17 from a basketball court. mobility were crucial. Armies of tanks were \ufb01ghter attack. supported by airpower and artillery. Vehicles Tail guns transported troops and weapons quickly Aluminum frame to the front line. Submarines disrupted The skeleton of the Camou\ufb02age paint supplies, and aircraft carriers became bomber was made of The top of the bomber a prime offensive weapon. Engineers aluminum, which is is painted drab green, worked furiously to design machines light but strong. to make it hard to see that were faster, lighter, and deadlier. when \ufb02ying over land. Soviet T34 tank Insignia of the This speedy, United States versatile tank Air Force was key to the Soviet defeat of the German invasion. British Spit\ufb01re \ufb01ghter plane British Spitfires defeated the German airforce, preventing an invasion. USS Yorktown class aircraft carrier These great ships allowed planes to operate across the Pacific Ocean. German U-boat U-boats sank hundreds of ships carrying supplies from the US to its allies. German V-2 rocket This long-range rocket flew on its own power to explode in enemy cities. DURING WORLD WAR II, 33,000 PEOPLE WERE KILLED OR INJURED IN GERMAN MISSILE ATTACKS ON LONDON. Bombs B-17 bomber These contained explosives or materials The American Boeing B-17 was the first for starting \ufb01res. mass-produced, four-engine heavy bomber. Designed for long-range, high-altitude flight, it flew 294,875 missions to targets all over Europe, and dropped 716,800 tons of bombs, mostly on German factories.","322 history THE MODERN WORLD 18\u00a0of the 22 major cities in North Korea were \ufb02attened by air raids in the Korean War. A world divided United States of America The US was the most powerful NATO United Kingdom The Cold War saw two superpowers country. Its leaders worked to destabilize Allied with the US, the UK had face off, backed by global alliances. an extensive spy network and its The communist nations (marked in communist states across the world, own arsenal of nuclear weapons. red), led by the USSR, were opposed but were not always successful. by NATO (marked in blue), an alliance led by the US, and other allied countries around the world. The Cuban Missile Crisis The Space Race The island of Cuba was a Both sides raced to send people communist state and an ally of into space. The Soviets took the the USSR. In 1962, the Soviets first victory when Russian pilot began to build missile launch Yuri Gagarin orbited the Earth sites in Cuba, within striking in 1961. But the Americans won distance of major US cities. the race when, in 1969, the The Americans demanded the crew of spacecraft Apollo 11 missiles be removed. Military became the first human beings conflict seemed inevitable, to walk on the Moon. but at the last minute, the Soviets withdrew. Communism in Africa Communist parties Nicaragua Communist parties had formed in several African the support of the people countries as they gained their in countries across Central independence from European and South America. The empires. Backed by the USSR, US tried to undermine they often battled with forces them; for example, by allied with NATO. supporting a guerrilla rebellion in Nicaragua. Global conflict 1945 1948 1950 1956 1979 1987 As World War II The German capital, The US government Hungary, a Soviet Soviet allies in The USSR was The battle between NATO and the came to an end, Berlin, in Soviet- feared that Soviet ally in Eastern Afghanistan were faced with USSR spread across the world. the Allied leaders controlled East spies had found Europe, elected attacked by Islamic economic collapse. An \u201cIron Curtain\u201d divided Europe arranged to divide Germany, was their way into key a new leader, resistance fighters. A new leader, between communist east and Europe between partly controlled institutions such Imre Nagy, who The US supplied Mikhail Gorbachev, democratic west. Violent struggles them. The USSR by the US, Britain, as the army and promised to reform weapons and announced a policy broke out in Africa, Latin America, forced Eastern and France. The intelligence the communist training to the of openness, and Asia. In the end it was European countries Soviets tried to services. A Senator government. The rebels, while the reforming the economic more than military force such as Poland and squeeze the Allies named Joe USSR, determined USSR sent in an communist that brought the war to an end. Hungary to turn out by blocking McCarthy began to keep control of army to back up government and to communism. roads and railways. a campaign to hunt the country, sent the communists. seeking peace with \u201cFROM EACH ACCORDING TO By 1948, Europe The Americans and down enemy tanks to restore The war lasted for NATO. In 1989, was divided, with British got around agents. His search Soviet control and almost a decade, Gorbachev and HIS ABILITY, democracy in the blockade by became a witch remove Nagy from and millions of US President the west and airlifting in more hunt where power. Many Afghan civilians George HW Bush TO EACH ACCORDING TO communist rule than a million tons innocent people civilians were were forced to announced the end in the east. of supplies. were persecuted. injured or killed. flee their homes. of the Cold War. HIS NEEDS.\u201d COMMUNIST MOTTO","6\u00a0million\u2014the estimated number of Afghan civilians forced 10\u00a0million Polish people joined the Solidarity protest 323 to \ufb02ee their homes in the Soviet-Afghan War, 1979\u201388. movement in 1980, undermining communist rule. The Iron Curtain USSR The Vietnam War At the end of World War II, the USSR The revolution of 1917 saw In 1954, Vietnam split took control of much of Eastern Europe, the Russian Empire become into communist North and by force where necessary. The dividing the USSR, the world\u2019s \ufb01rst US-allied South. As tensions line between the two sides became communist state. rose, the US sent troops known as the Iron Curtain. to support South Vietnam. They were drawn into a China brutal guerrilla war, and were A brutal civil war saw forced to withdraw in 1973. China become a communist South Vietnam was conquered nation in 1949. Millions by the North in 1975. died in the decades of turbulence that followed. Korea Communist North Korea, aided by China and the USSR, battled the US and its allies for control of US- allied South Korea from 1950\u201353. The great reformer Sputnik Mikhail Gorbachev reformed the USSR The USSR took a and sought peace with NATO. But he lead in the Space was ousted from power in 1991 and Race by launching the USSR split apart. the \ufb01rst man-made satellite, Sputnik 1, in 1957. The Berlin Wall Germany and its capital, Berlin, were split between the USSR, and the US, France, and Britain. The Soviets built a wall across Berlin to keep people from fleeing to the West. The wall was demolished in 1989 as the Cold War ended. The Cold War After World War II, the world was divided between two immensely powerful rivals: the communist USSR and the democratic US. Bitter enemies, these two superpowers faced off, backed by massive arsenals of nuclear weapons. The people of the USSR (the Soviets) believed in communism, a system that shares all wealth equally. However, their government was often corrupt and oppressive. The US was a capitalist democracy, and its people enjoyed much greater freedom than those in communist countries. Both sides had vast stores of nuclear weaponry, enough to wipe each other out if they ever went to war. This threat of \u201cmutually assured destruction\u201d forced them to fight by other means, using spies and economic warfare to weaken the other\u2019s position. Most of their battles were fought in smaller countries such as Vietnam and Nicaragua, with the USSR trying to spread communism and the US fighting to prevent them from succeeding.","324 history THE MODERN WORLD 1968\u00a0The year students and workers all over Europe marched in protest against their governments. The 1960s Peace and love Filled with political revolutions, struggles for Many people were shocked by the violence they saw on their new independence, and teenage rebellion, the 1960s television screens, especially in news reports from the Vietnam War. was a decade of change, in which old values and Influenced by Eastern philosophies such as Hinduism and Buddhism, traditions were challenged by a new generation. they formed protest movements calling for violence to be rejected in favor of peace and universal love. The Campaign In Europe and the USA, the 1960s were a time of social change. for Nuclear Disarmament (CND) A new generation, growing up after the horrors of World War II, called for both sides in the looked forward with optimism and the belief they could change Cold War to abandon the world. They rejected their parents\u2019 values and challenged all nuclear weapons. forms of authority, embracing outrageous new styles of fashion, The hippie movement, psychedelic art, and politically motivated music. At the same born in San Francisco, time, protest movements called for peace across the world, for CA, called for a the end to racial discrimination, and for equal rights for women. laid-back lifestyle promoting peace, The 1960s also saw wars in Vietnam, Nigeria, and Cyprus, love, and and between Arabs and Israelis in the Middle East. Mao\u2019s understanding. Cultural Revolution turned Chinese society upside down. African countries achieved independence from their old colonial rulers, some becoming bright new democracies, while others slipped into civil war. Despite the turmoil, the decade ended with an astounding triumph for human science, technology, and bravery, when the first people set foot on the Moon. War and peace Campaign for civil rights Death of a president At the beginning of the decade, many President John F. Kennedy was shot Despite numerous protests Southern states encouraged separation for peace, the 1960s became between white and black people (or and killed as he drove through the increasingly violent. Tensions segregation). In February 1960, four black streets of Dallas, Texas. His murder grew between the US and the students in South Carolina protested by sitting USSR, in a Cold War between down at a \u201cwhites-only\u201d lunch counter and shocked not just America, East and West, and both sides refusing to leave. Their example sparked but the entire world, coming built up massive arsenals of similar protests across segregated states. at a time of uncertainty and nuclear weapons. However, tension between Russia and the 1960s also saw huge strides in the quest for equal the United States. rights. Discrimination against black people was outlawed in The \ufb01rst man in space A NEWSPAPER REPORTS the US, and women gained On April 12 1961, the Russian Yuri KENNEDY\u2019S DEATH greater control over their Gagarin became the \ufb01rst person to lives and choices. journey to outer space. His spaceship, the Vostok I, just large enough for one person, made a single orbit of the Earth. His \ufb02ight lasted a total of 108 minutes from launch to landing. 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 Independence across Africa Martin Luther King The British invasion Up to World War II, much of Africa was ruled by The campaign for civil rights in the US was led Pop music became a European empires. These empires were greatly by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. In August 1963, weakened by the war, and in 1960, 17 African powerful cultural force. countries gained independence, including he gave a powerful speech to a crowd of British bands such as The Nigeria, Chad, Somalia, and Madagascar. The campaigners in Washington, DC, calling for an process of decolonization (giving power back Beatles and The Rolling to local people) would continue for many years. end to racism. He was murdered \ufb01ve years Stones became world later, but new laws in 1964 and 1965 famous, storming the banned racial discrimination. American charts in 1964. MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR., ADDRESSING CROWDS IN WASHINGTON, D.C. KENYAN BANK NOTE SHOWING JOMO KENYATTA, \u201cI HAVE A DREAM THAT MY FOUR THE BEATLES THE COUNTRY\u2019S FIRST PRESIDENT. ARRIVE IN THE USA LITTLE CHILDREN WILL ONE DAY LIVE IN A NATION WHERE THEY WILL NOT BE JUDGED BY THE COLOR OF THEIR SKIN BUT BY THE CONTENT OF THEIR CHARACTER.\u201d","500,000\u00a0The number of troops that entered 400,000\u00a0The number of people who 325 Czechoslovakia during the Prague Spring. attended the Woodstock Festival. Volkswagen camper van New art and fashion An icon of 1960s counterculture, these vans were perfect for people who wanted Many parts of Europe and the US became very to drop out of mainstream society, travel wealthy in the 1960s. Teenagers suddenly had buying the world, and try new things. power, and their shopping habits created new cultural trends. Artists such as Andy Warhol created Pop Art, using images from advertising, comic books, and movies. Young people didn\u2019t have to dress like their parents anymore, and fashion was transformed by designers such as Mary Quant. Carnaby Street in London became the center of this creative energy. In France, a New Wave of directors experimented with \ufb01lms focusing on realistic situations and the important social issues of the day. \u201cTHE YOUNG TODAY ARE LESS MATERIALISTIC AND MORE INTELLIGENT THAN THEY\u2019VE EVER BEEN.\u201d MARY QUANT, DESIGNER OF THE MINISKIRT, 1967 Fashion revolution The miniskirt, by Mary Quant, is an icon of 1960s fashion. The older generation thought it was vulgar and indecent. The younger generation adored it. The new designs made models such as Twiggy (Lesley Hornby) overnight celebrities. Vietnam War China\u2019s Cultural Revolution ABORIGINAL FLAG Woodstock In the bloodiest con\ufb02ict of the Cold War, the Communist China was led by Mao The Woodstock Music and Art US army supported South Vietnam against Zedong. He was loved by farmers Equality in Australia Fair was held In August 1969 communist North Vietnam, who were allied and workers, but he suspected the The indigenous people of Australia on farmland near Bethel, NY. with the USSR and China. The war was a educated middle class of trying to \u2014the Aborigines\u2014campaigned for disaster for the US, who were forced to undermine him. In 1966, to equality throughout the 1960s. It summed up the youthful withdraw after years of brutal \ufb01ghting. strengthen his hold on power, he Their lands had been taken by optimism of the decade called for a Cultural Revolution white settlers, they were denied DOGTAGS USED TO IDENTIFY to rebuild Chinese society. Schools access to education and healthcare, as hundreds of thousands came US SOLDIERS IN VIETNAM and colleges were closed down. and many were not permitted to to watch their heroes perform Millions of young people were vote. In 1967, Australia \ufb01nally live. The festival featured taken out of education and sent to granted citizenship to Aborigines, performances by the decade\u2019s work on farms. Scientists, but the struggle for equality greatest musicians, such as teachers, scholars, writers, and continued for many years. Joan Baez, Janis Joplin, business managers were beaten and Jimi Hendrix. and humiliated by mobs in the streets. The turbulence continued until Mao\u2019s death in 1976. 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 Golan The Six Day War Prague Spring Moon landings Heights Israel had long been in Czechoslovakia had lived under The decade ended communist rule since 1948, with with an extraordinary LEBANON dispute with its Arab the Czech government strongly achievement. In July neighbors. In 1967, in\ufb02uenced by the Soviet Union. 1969, an American Mediterranean SYRIA In 1968, Czech leader Alexander spacecraft carrying Sea fearing an attack led Dub\u010dek tried to give the people Neil Armstrong and West by Egypt, Israel struck Edwin \u201cBuzz\u201d Aldrin Gaza Bank new freedoms. The Soviets landed on the surface Strip Jerusalem \ufb01rst, capturing large would not allow this and sent Dead areas of land in Egypt of the Moon. Suez ISRAEL Sea and Palestine in a war tanks into Prague, the Czech Around 600 million Canal capital. Despite protests by the JORDAN lasting just six days. awestruck people people of Prague, Dub\u010dek was watched the Moon EGYPT removed from power and landing live on their communist rule continued. television screens. Gulf of Suez SAUDI Key SATURN V ARABIA Israeli territory before Red Sea the war Land captured by Israel during the war","326 history THE MODERN WORLD 5\u00a0billion mobile phones were 6.1\u00a0billion\u2014population of the world in use globally by 2011. at the start of the 21st century. The 21st century The War on Terror Sept 2001 At the end of the 20th century, the world got ready In 2001, a group of Islamist terrorists 9\/11 to party. Huge celebrations took place across the globe named al-Qaeda launched a series of On September 11, 2001, the US to greet the year 2000, the start of the new millennium. attacks on targets in the US. A decade suffered devastating terrorist The new century brought grave new challenges, but of conflict followed. The US and its attacks. Members of al-Qaeda, also amazing opportunities. allies launched a \u201cWar on Terror,\u201d a global terrorist network of invading Afghanistan to capture the radical Muslims, hijacked four With the world\u2019s population expanding, humanity\u2019s demands terrorists and prevent further attacks. aircraft. They \ufb02ew two into the on the planet are growing rapidly. As the 21st century goes on, Meanwhile, al-Qaeda and their allies World Trade Center in New York scientists have become increasingly concerned that we may plotted to cause more deaths and (pictured) and one into the run out of some natural resources, and that human activity is destruction in other countries across Pentagon. The fourth crashed in causing dangerous changes to our environment. Many countries the world. Pennsylvania. Almost 3,000 have also had to contend with devastating natural disasters. people were killed in the attacks, Terrorist attacks brought fear and conflict to many cities, and which shocked the world. a global financial collapse increased the hardship for millions. The War in Iraq At the same time, the 21st century has seen astonishing new advances in technology. Smartphones and tablets have In 1991, Saddam Hussein, leader of Iraq, ordered transformed the way we communicate, and the Internet has an invasion of neighboring Kuwait. His armies were expanded hugely to give voices to users across the globe. driven out by an international force led by the US, but tensions remained high. In 2001, the international Digital revolution community suspected that Saddam Hussein possessed weapons of mass destruction capable of causing huge The digital revolution began in the 1980s, when computers became civilian casualties. As the War on Terror heightened cheap enough for people to buy and use at home. At first computers tensions across the Middle East, the US and UK led an were big metal boxes, but today they are hidden in everyday objects, invasion of Iraq in 2003, toppling Saddam Hussein from such as smartphones, tablets, MP3 players, and cameras. The Internet power. Although the invasion lasted only a few weeks, is rapidly evolving to play a central role in society, transforming violence would continue in Iraq for many years. cultural, economic, and political landscapes. There are thought to be more than 2 billion Internet users worldwide, all of whom can Saddam Hussein\u2019s statue is toppled exchange information in an instant. US tanks rolled into the Iraqi capital, Baghdad, in April 2003, signaling the end of the dictatorship of Saddam Hussein. Jubilant Iraqis toppled a massive statue of the former leader in a symbolic gesture of contempt. WEB 1.0 WEB 2.0 250,000 SITES 620 MILLION+ SITES PUBLISHED USER- PUBLISHED USER- Natural disasters CONTENT GENERATED CONTENT GENERATED The first years of the 21st century were beset by natural CONTENT CONTENT disasters and extreme weather. In 2003, more than 40,000 people died in heat waves across Europe. In 2004, a huge 1996: 45 MILLION USERS 2013: MORE THAN 2 BILLION tsunami caused devastation around the Indian Ocean, WORLDWIDE USERS WORLDWIDE killing almost 230,000 people in 14 countries. The following year, a powerful storm, Hurricane Katrina, laid Web use waste to the city of New Orleans, with wind speeds of During the 1990s, most people only used the Internet to look up 125 mph (200 kph). A massive earthquake devastated the information. In the 21st century, the amount of user-generated island of Haiti in the Caribbean in 2010, killing more than content has hugely increased, with blogs and social networking 300,000 people and leaving millions homeless. In 2011, sites allowing people to share their ideas and experiences. another earthquake triggered a tsunami in Japan, destroying homes and causing radioactive material to IN 2001, GOOGLE INDEXED leak from the Fukushima nuclear power plant. 250 MILLION IMAGES. Global dangers IN 2010, IT INDEXED Countries all across the world experienced MORE THAN 10 BILLION. devastating natural disasters in the early years of the 21st century. Some were freak chance events, while others have been linked to changes in the world\u2019s climate.","900\u00a0million people used 1,836\u00a0people were killed by 6,909\u00a0living languages were 327 Facebook in 2012. Hurricane Katrina. recorded in 2009. Oct 2001 March 2004 July 2005 May 2011 Invasion of Afghanistan Madrid bombings London bombings Death of Bin Laden The US and its NATO allies On the eve of Spanish political Britain experienced attacks on US President Barack Obama launched Operation Enduring elections, members of al-Qaeda July 7, 2005, when terrorists received intelligence that Osama Freedom after the 9\/11 attacks, exploded bombs on four trains carried out a series of suicide bin Laden, the head of al-Qaeda, in an effort to track down in Madrid, killing 191 people bombings on London\u2019s transport was hiding out in a compound in Osama bin Laden. The terrorist and wounding 1,841. The system. Three bombs exploded Abbottabad, Pakistan. In a daring leader was thought to be in Spanish government had on underground trains, and one night raid named Operation Afghanistan, where the Taliban supported the 2003 US-led on a double-decker bus. An Neptune Spear, a US Navy Seal government was allied with invasion of Iraq. The Spanish al-Qaeda website claimed that team shot dead bin Laden and al-Qaeda. The invasion public promptly voted that they had launched these attacks four others. It was an important succeeded in overthrowing the political party out of of\ufb01ce and in retaliation for Britain\u2019s milestone in the War on Terror, Taliban, but violence continued installed a party that withdrew involvement in the wars in but not an end to Islamist in Afghanistan for years. Spanish troops from Iraq. Iraq and Afghanistan. extremist terrorist attacks. The Arab Spring spread to Egypt, where President Hosni Mubarak resigned after massive popular In 2010, a Tunisian man set fire to protests. In 2011, there were uprisings himself in protest to poor treatment in Yemen, Bahrain, Libya, and Syria. by the Tunisian police. His rebellion Libya\u2019s leader, Colonel Muammar sparked a wave of unrest that spread Gaddafi, was overthrown by rebel across the Arab world, in countries fighters. Free elections took place in ruled by dictators or corrupt and some Arab countries, but others such oppressive governments. First, the as Syria were thrown into civil war. Tunisian leader, Zine al-Abidine Ben Ali, was forced from power. Then dissent MOROCCO TUNISIA SYRIA IRAQ LEBANON KUWAIT Western ALGERIA Sahara JORDAN BAHRAIN LIBYA EGYPT OMAN MAURITANIA SAUDI ARABIA SUDAN YEMEN Wave of protest Demonstrations in Tunisia spread to countries across the Middle East and North Africa. EUROPEAN HEAT Global financial crisis Losses and bailouts WAVE, 2003 The crisis wiped 33 percent off the In 2007, US banks realized that they had value of the world\u2019s companies. HURRICANE KATRINA, 2005 JAPAN lent money for home mortgages to Governments were forced to pay out HAITI EARTHQUAKE, TSUNAMI, hundreds of thousands of customers who huge sums of money to keep their 2010 2011 could not afford to pay them back. To make economies afloat. matters worse, the banks had bundled up FLOODING IN INDIAN OCEAN the mortgages with other investments, $14.5 BRAZIL, 2009 TSUNAMI, 2004 worth billions of dollars. These suddenly TRILLION lost value, threatening financial systems across the world. The value of investments $13.8 TRILLION plummeted, and huge banks collapsed in the US and Europe. The crisis brought poverty $1.4 and unemployment to many countries TRILLION across the globe. 2009 \ufb01nancial statistics Value of world\u2019s companies wiped out GDP (annual production) of US Money spent by European governments to prop up banks in debt","","REFERENCE Find out all about stars, wars, \ufb02ags, empires, inventions, wonders of the world, record-breaking animals, and history\u2019s looniest leaders in the reference section. A useful glossary explains many of the terms used in this book.","330 reference Sky maps The constellations Canes Venatici Canis Major These six maps \ufb01t together to form a map of the whole night Andromeda Canis Minor sky. Together, the shape they create is known as the celestial Antlia Capricornus sphere, and includes every star that can be seen from Earth. Apus Carina The stars can also be linked together into shapes called Aquarius Cassiopeia constellations\u2014there are 88 constellations in total. Some have Aquila Centaurus smaller shapes within them, which are called asterisms. The red Ara Cepheus lines on these maps divide the celestial sphere into different Aries Cetus regions, each with a single constellation as its focus. The dots show Auriga Chamaeleon stars\u2014the bigger the dot, the brighter the star it represents. Bo\u00f6tes Circinus Caelum Columba Camelopardalis Cancer THE NORTH POLAR SKY 18h 17h The main feature of the north polar sky is Polaris, also 19h DRACO known as the North Star or Pole Star. Although not a 20h particularly bright star, it is important, because it 16h CYGNUS lets navigators on land or sea \ufb01nd which way north is, and set their direction of travel accordingly. As the Earth\u2019s axis points to a spot very close to Polaris, the star 15h 21h appears to stay in virtually the same place, while the sky rotates around it. BO\u00d6TES 14h 22h CEPHEUS 13h URSA MINOR LACERTA CANES 90\u02da 23h VENATICI ANDROMEDA 12h 80\u02da 70\u02da 60\u02da \u02da50 0h URSA MAJOR CASSIOPEIA 11h 1h PERSEUS 10h 2h 9h CELESTIAL SPHERE CAMELOPARDALIS CONSTELLATIONS LYNX 3h 4h 8h 7h AURIGA 5h 6h","331 Coma Berenices Fornax Libra Pavo Scorpius Ursa Minor Corona Australis Gemini Lupus Pegasus Sculptor Vela Corona Borealis Grus Lynx Perseus Scutum Virgo Corvus Hercules Lyra Phoenix Serpens (Caput) Volans Crater Horologium Mensa Pictor Serpens (Cauda) Vulpecula Crux Hydra Microscopium Pisces Sextans Cygnus Hydrus Monoceros Piscis Austrinus Taurus Delphinus Indus Musca Puppis Telescopium Dorado Lacerta Norma Pyxis Triangulum Draco Leo Octans Reticulum Triangulum Australe Equuleus Leo Minor Ophiuchus Sagitta Tucana Eridanus Lepus Orion Sagittarius Ursa Major THE SOUTH POLAR SKY 18h While the northern hemisphere has Polaris 19h ARA 17h 20h 16h to guide travelers, there is no equivalent TELESCOPIUM NORMA south star. Here, observers must use a PAVO fairly complicated method to \ufb01nd the south celestial pole, since it lies in a faint and barren part of the night sky. However, the constellations nearby 21h 15h contain some wonderful stars, and LUPUS there is a good view of our galaxy, the Milky Way. 22h INDUS TRIANGULUM 14h AUSTRALE GRUS APUS CIRCINUS CENTAURUS 13h MUSCA 23h \u02da \u02da\u201390 \u201380 OCTANS CRUX 0h \u02da \u02da \u02da\u201370 \u201360 \u201350 12h PHOENIX TUCANA 1h CHAMAELEON 11h MENSA HYDRUS ERIDANUS 10h 2h RETICULUM VOLANS VELA HOROLOGIUM DORADO CELESTIAL SPHERE 3h 9h CONSTELLATIONS CARINA 4h PICTOR 8h 7h 5h 6h","332 reference EQUATORIAL SKY CHART 1 3h 2h 22h 21h 50\u02da 50\u02da This section of the night sky is best observed in the evenings of September, October, and November. It mainly consists of empty areas 1h 0h 23h of space and faint stars, but there are some objects worth looking out for. In the Andromeda constellation you can see the Andromeda PERSEUS CASSIOPEIA Galaxy, which is our largest neighboring galaxy. Just north of the 40\u02da celestial equator (shown as a yellow line here) is the Great Square 40\u02da of Pegasus, an asterism (part of a larger constellation). In Piscis Austrinus is Fomalhaut, the brightest star in this region. CYGNUS ANDROMEDA LACERTA 30\u02da TRIANGULUM 30\u02da 20\u02da ARIES PEGASUS VULPECULA 10\u02da ECLIPTIC 20\u02da DELPHINUS PISCES 10\u02da 0\u02da EQUULEUS 0\u02da ERIDANUS 10\u02da CETUS \u201310\u02da AQUARIUS CELESTIAL SPHERE CONSTELLATIONS \u201320\u02da \u201320\u02da CAPRICORNUS \u201330\u02da SCULPTOR PISCIS AUSTRINUS \u201330\u02da FORNAX 20h 16h PHOENIX GRUS 50\u02da MICROSCOPIUM \u201340\u02da 40\u02da 19h 50\u02da \u201340\u02da DRACO 18h 17h BO\u00d6TES ERIDANUS 1h 0h 23h INDUS 40\u02da \u201350\u02da 2h 22h 21h\u201350\u02da LYRA 3h CYGNUS CORONA 30\u02da 30\u02da BOREALIS VULPECULA HERCULES 20\u02da EQUATORIAL SKY CHART 2 20\u02da OPHIUCHUS This part of the night sky is \ufb01lled with interesting star patterns SAGITTA SERPENS and is best observed in the evenings of June, July, August, and CAPUT September. The northern area is dominated by the Summer Triangle asterism, made up of three stars: Deneb, in the Cygnus constellation; 10\u02da DELPHINUS 10\u02da Vega, in Lyra; and Altair, in Aquila. To the south is a curving arrangement of stars that forms the constellation Scorpius, AQUILA and the constellation Sagittarius is also nearby. 0\u02da VIRGO AQUARIUS 0\u02da 10 SCUTUM SERPENS LIBRA \u201310\u02da \u02da CAUDA \u201320\u02da CAPRICORNUS ECLIPTIC \u201320\u02da \u201330\u02da SAGITTARIUS SCORPIUS LUPUS \u201330\u02da MICROSCOPIUM CORONA AUSTRALIS \u201340\u02da \u201340\u02da 15h \u201350\u02da TELESCOPIUM ARA NORMA 16h INDUS 19h 18h 17h \u201350\u02da 20h 21h CELESTIAL SPHERE CONSTELLATIONS","333 EQUATORIAL SKY CHART 3 15h 14h 10h 9h 50\u02da 13h 11h 50\u02da This part of the night sky is best observed in evenings in March, April, URSA MAJOR and May. It contains two of the brightest stars of the whole celestial 40\u02da URSA MAJOR 12h sphere: reddish Arcturus, in Bo\u00f6tes, and bluish Spica, in Virgo. Virgo LEO MINOR is the second-biggest constellation, and just to its south is the largest, 30\u02da 40\u02da Hydra, which weaves its way across\u2014and beyond\u2014the entire region. Just above the center and to the right are the stars that make up CANES VENATICI Leo, the Lion. One of the few constellations with an easily recognizable pattern, its head forms a distinctive backward LYNX question mark of six stars. 30\u02da 20\u02da COMA CANCER 20\u02da BERENICES 0\u02da BO\u00d6TES LEO ECLIPTIC 10\u02da VIRGO 0\u02da 0\u02da CORVUS CRATER \u201310\u02da SEXTANS 10\u02da LIBRA CELESTIAL SPHERE CONSTELLATIONS \u201320\u02da HYDRA \u201320\u02da \u201330\u02da ANTLIA PYXIS CENTAURUS \u201330\u02da 9h 8h 3h \u201340\u02da 50\u02da 4h 50\u02da 7h 6h 5h VELA \u201340\u02da AURIGA 40\u02da 40\u02da LUPUS 13h 12h 11h 30\u02da ECLIPTIC ORION \u201350\u02da 14h 10h \u201350\u02da 15h 9h LYNX PERSEUS 30\u02da GEMINI ARIES 20\u02da 20\u02da 10 EQUATORIAL SKY CHART 4 CANCER CETUS 0 10\u02da This section of the night sky is best observed in the evenings \u20131 of December, January, and February. It is one of the most CANIS MINOR TAURUS stunning areas of the night sky as it contains more bright MONOCEROS stars than any other. A good constellation to try to identify 0\u02da is Orion, which has an easily recognizable line of three bright HYDRA stars across its center, known as Orion\u2019s Belt. Adjacent to Orion is Taurus, containing the star Aldebaran, as well as \u201310\u02da one of the celestial sphere\u2019s \ufb01nest star clusters\u2014the Pleiades or the Seven Sisters. ERIDANUS \u201320\u02da LEPUS \u201320 PYXIS COLUMBA CANIS \u201330\u02da MAJOR PUPPIS \u201330\u02da FORNAX \u201340\u02da VELA CAELUM \u201340\u02da PICTOR 7h 6h 5h HOROLOGIUM \u201350\u02da 8h 4h \u201350\u02da 9h 3h CELESTIAL SPHERE CONSTELLATIONS","334 reference The world Continental populations Europe Australasia and Oceania 740 million 37 million The Earth\u2019s surface is divided into There are now more than 7 billion people in seven large land masses called the world. Asia is the most densely populated South America Asia continents: Antarctica, North America, continent, with around 60 percent of the 596 million 4.2 billion South America, Europe, Asia, Africa, world\u2019s population, including the world\u2019s two and Australasia and Oceania. Most of most populous nations: China (1.3 billion North America this land is further divided into people) and India (1.2 billion people). By 346 million contrast, there are never more than a few thousand people living the harsh climate of Africa Antarctica at any one time\u2014and these are 1 billion mostly scientists doing research. countries\u2014194 in total. The only major exception is Antarctica, where there are no countries, although many 150\u00b0W 120\u00b0W 90\u00b0W 60\u00b0W nations claim ownership of parts of the land there. ARCTIC OCEAN Baf\ufb01n Green Bay (to Den Arctic Circle Alaska Great Bear Lake Great Slave Lake (to US) 60\u00b0N Hudson Bay A Aleutian Islands (to US) CANAD St Pierre & Miquelon Lake (to France) Winnipeg ATLANTIC NORTH Great OCEAN Lakes AMERICA Dividing the world PACIFIC UNITED STATES Bermuda OCEAN OF AMERICA (to UK) This political map of the world, shows the continents and countries. 30\u00b0N Guadalupe MEXICO Gulf of BAHAMAS An imaginary line known as the (to Mexico) Mexico equator runs horizontally around Midway Islands Turks & Caicos Islands (to UK) the center of the Earth. The region Revillagigedo either side of the equator\u2014within (to US) Islands Cayman British Virgin Islands (to UK) the Tropic of Cancer to the north and the Tropic of Capricorn to the Tropic of Cancer (to Mexico) Islands south\u2014is known as the Tropics. (to UK) This is the world\u2019s hottest region, Clipperton Island Virgin Islands (to US) where the Sun\u2019s rays strike the (to France) Earth directly. Hawaii DOMINICAN Anguilla (to UK) REPUBLIC (to US) CUBA ST KITTS & NEVIS JAMAICA HAITI ANTIGUA & BARBUDA Montserrat (to UK) BELIZE C a r i b b e a n Puerto Guadeloupe (to France) Rico Johnston Atoll (to US) Sea (to US) DOMINICA C Aruba Neth. Ant. VE GUATEMALA HONDURAS Martinique (to France) ST LUCIA BARBADOS EL SALVADOR (to Neth.) (to Neth.) ST VINCENT & THE GRENADINES NICARAGUA GRENADA TRINIDAD & TOBAGO COSTA RICA Kingman PANAMA VENEZUELA Reef (to US) GUYANA Palmyra Atoll (to US) French Guiana Baker & COLOMBIA (to France) Howland Islands Galapagos Islands SURINAM (to US) Equator (to Ecuador) Jarvis Island ECUADOR (to US) Fernan KIRIBATI (to Braz Time zones Tokelau Cook PACIFIC PERU BRAZIL (to NZ) Islands OCEAN The Earth is also divided by SOUTH imaginary vertical lines known as Wallis & (to NZ) AMERICA lines of longitude. For every 15\u00b0 Futuna you head east or west, you either (to France) BOLIVIA gain an hour or lose an hour. The world is divided into 24 of these SAMOA American time zones. Samoa (to US) TONGA T ( Niue (to NZ) French Polynesia (to France) Tropic of Capricorn PARAGUAY URUGUAY Pitcairn Sala y Gomez (to Chile) San Felix Island CHILE ARGENTINA Islands (to Chile) (to UK) Easter Island San Ambrosio 165\u00b0 W 180\u00b0 E 165\u00b0 E (to Chile) Island 150\u00b0 W 150\u00b0 E (to Chile) 30\u00b0S 135\u00b0 W 135\u00b0 E 12 Midnight 1 AM Kermadec Islands Juan Fernandez Islands 2 AM (to NZ) (to Chile) 11 PM 3 120\u00b0 W 8 PM 10 PM AM 120\u00b0 E 105\u00b0 W 7 PM PM 4 AM 9 5 AM 105\u00b0 E Chatham Islands (to NZ) 090\u00b0 W 6 PM 6 AM 090\u00b0 E Falkland Islands 075\u00b0 W 5 PM 7 AM 075\u00b0 E (to UK) S S 4 PM 8 AM 60\u00b0S South Shetland Islands ( (To UK) South Orkn (To UK) 060\u00b0 W 3 PM 9 AM 060\u00b0 E 2 PM 10 AM Antarctic Circle 1 PM 11 AM 045\u00b0 W 12 Noon 045\u00b0 E 030\u00b0 W 000\u00b0 030\u00b0 E 150\u00b0W 120\u00b0W 90\u00b0W 60\u00b0W 015\u00b0 W 015\u00b0 E","335 Continent size Europe Australasia and Oceania 3,998,000 miles\u00b2 2,967,000 miles\u00b2 The largest continent in the world is (10,355,000 km\u00b2) (7,687,000 km\u00b2) Asia. Australia and Oceania is the smallest continent, at only about a sixth of the size of Antarctica Asia Asia. The biggest country in the world is 5,500,000 miles\u00b2 17,140,000 miles\u00b2 Russia, which crosses the border between (14,245,000 km\u00b2) (44,391,000 km\u00b2) Europe and Asia, at 6,601,668 miles\u00b2 (17,098,242 km\u00b2). The second and third South America With an area of 0.2 miles\u00b2 (0.5 largest countries are Canada and the US, 6,880,000 miles\u00b2 km\u00b2), Vatican City is the world's both in North America. Canada has a total (17,821,000 km\u00b2) area of 3,855,102 miles\u00b2 (9,984,670 km\u00b2) and smallest country. the US is 3,794,100 miles\u00b2 (9,826,675 km\u00b2). North America 9,362,000 miles\u00b2 Africa (24,247,000 km\u00b2) 11,677,000 miles\u00b2 (30,244,000 km\u00b2) 30\u00b0W 0\u00b0 30\u00b0E 60\u00b0E 90\u00b0E 120\u00b0E 150\u00b0E nland Jan Mayen Svalbard ARCTIC OCEAN nmark) (to Norway) (to Norway) Arctic Circle Faeroe Islands SWEDEN ICELAND (to Denmark) FINLAND RUSSIAN FEDERATION ESTONIA NORWAY 60\u00b0N Isle Of Man UNITED DENMARK RUSS. LATVIA Sea of Okhotsk KINGDOM FED. LITHUANIA (to UK) NETHERLANDS POLAND BELARUS Lake E U R O P E A C S H II ANK A Z A K H S T A NL I B Y A I R A NA(tozo(PtCoroaeMrPnstouaargrdtauyelg)GiaIrslia)lbCaPrnhaOdalsntRaInRrTeE(lUt(IoLtsGolAUaAUnNKLdK)DsR)AOSNCPDCOAORIFRNMBRAOEALNLMNGUAIXCUSCVe.WOEMACTdGIITTILCEZYICiAE.RIZSTtCNAELTMUHeOCUC.NAHASVSrMRATIENARSOrLRNANBELIYAIaLI.APBAYM&ATT.AnHIHA.SAN.ULeGMIONASRaEOVKGRAERNOAnBKMRSO.EIIA.YBAACMSCUEAUEMeLDNGOKaOBILANATRCDlRaYIOAAIPcIUSAVkRRIAUARSNSEeLEKaGLSJEAEYOEBORRRAMRIYNDAEGONAIINRIANAA (to Spain) Aral Baikal Kurile Islands (to Russ. Fed.) MONGOLIA Lake ACSZa ERBASTIeUJaARUKNZMBEENKIISSTBTAaANlNkhashTAKJYIKRIGSYTZASNTAN spieaan NORTH Sea of KOREA Japan ALGERIA A JAPAN PACIFIC SOUTH OCEAN KOREA Q AFGHANISTAN KUWAIT PAKIST RITANIA MO OMAN NEPAL 30\u00b0N AN EGYPT The Gulf BHUTAN Ryukyu Islands Red Sea (to Japan) Western BAHRAIN Sahara QATAR U.A.E. BANGLADESH TAIWAN Tropic of Cancer (occupied by Morocco) AFR ICA SAUDI I N D I A MYANMAR ARABIA (BURMA) LAOS Wake Island MAU VI Northern (to US) Arabian Mariana MALI NIGER Sea Bay of Paracel Islands Bengal Islands APE C H A D S U D A N ERITREAYEMEN ETNAM (to US) RDE THAILAND SENEGAL Socotra (disputed) GAMBIA (to Yemen) BURKINA Andaman CAMBODIA PHILIPPINES Islands Guam (to US) GUINEA- GUINEA FASO DJIBOUTI Laccadive (to India) South MARSHALL BISSAU NIGERIA Islands China ISLANDS BENIN SRI LANKA Spratly S e a TOGO C O N G O CAMEROON (to India) Islands SIERRA LEONE IVORY GHANA CENTRAL SOUTH ETHIOPIA COAST AFRICAN SUDAN SOMALIA Nicobar (disputed) MICRONESIA LIBERIA MEQE. GUINEA REPUBLIC MALDIVES Islands BRUNEI PALAU Gulf UGANDA (to India) MALAYSIA of Guinea SINGAPORE SAO TO Equator & PRINCIPE Lake KENYA NAURU GABON Victoria INDIAN OCEAN KIRIBATI DEMOCRATIC RWANDA ndo de Noronha SEYCHELLES INDONESIA PAPUA il) REPUBLIC BURUNDI NEW Java Sea GUINEA ANGOLA OF THE CONGO TANZA British Indian (Cabinda) Lake Ocean Territory TUVALU (to UK) SOLOMON Ascension Island Tanganyika NIA COMOROS Agalega Islands Christmas Island EAST TIMOR (to UK) (to Mauritius) Cocos (Keeling) Islands (to Australia) ISLANDS Lake (to Australia) Nyasa Ashmore & ANGOLA MALAWI St Helena ZAMBIA Mayotte Cartier Islands (to UK) (to Australia) E (to France) MOZAMBIQU Coral Sea Islands FIJI MADAGASCAR (to Australia) VANUATU Trinidade NAMIBIA ZIMBABWE MAURITIUS AUSTRALASIA to Brazil) BOTSWANA New R\u00e9union (to France) & O C E A N I A Caledonia ATLANTIC (to France) AUSTRALIA Tropic of Capricorn OCEAN SWAZILAND Norfolk Island LESOTHO (to Australia) SOUTH 30\u00b0S AFRICA Lord Howe Island (to Australia) Prince Edward Islands Tristan da Cunha (to South Africa) NEW (To UK) ZEALAND Gough Island (To UK) French Southern Auckland Islands Bounty Islands & Antarctic Territories (to NZ) (to NZ) South Georgia & Bouvet Island (to France) Macquarie Island Campbell Island South Sandwich Islands (to Norway) (to Australia) (to NZ) to UK) Heard & Mcdonald Islands (to Australia) ey Islands 60\u00b0S Antarctic Circle ANTARCTICA 30\u00b0W 0\u00b0 30\u00b0E 60\u00b0E 90\u00b0E 120\u00b0E 150\u00b0E","336 reference World \ufb02ags AFRICA Every country has a national \ufb02ag with a ALGERIA EGYPT LIBYA MOROCCO TUNISIA unique design that identi\ufb01es it to other countries. There are no international rules for BENIN BURKINA FASO CAPE VERDE GAMBIA GHANA \ufb02ag design\u2014each country can choose any pattern, though they are usually based on the GUINEA GUINEA\u2013BISSAU IVORY COAST LIBERIA MALI country\u2019s history or culture. Most \ufb02ags are rectangular in shape, but the proportions of MAURITANIA NIGER NIGERIA SENEGAL SIERRA LEONE the rectangle are not always the same. This is not always the case, however\u2014Nepal, for TOGO CAMEROON CENTRAL AFRICAN CHAD CONGO example, has a distinctive, nonrectangular \ufb02ag, REPUBLIC which looks like two triangles on top of each other. National \ufb02ags \ufb01rst became widespread in the 19th century, but Denmark has the oldest national \ufb02ag still in use, dating back as far as the 13th century. NORTH AMERICA CANADA UNITED STATES MEXICO BELIZE DEM. REP. EQUATORIAL GABON SAO TOME & BURUNDI OF AMERICA CONGO GUINEA PRINCIPE COSTA RICA EL SALVADOR GUATEMALA HONDURAS DJIBOUTI ERITREA ETHIOPIA KENYA RWANDA NICARAGUA PANAMA ANTIGUA & BAHAMAS SOMALIA SUDAN SOUTH SUDAN TANZANIA UGANDA BARBUDA BARBADOS CUBA DOMINICA DOMINICAN ANGOLA BOTSWANA LESOTHO MALAWI MOZAMBIQUE REPUBLIC GRENADA ST. VINCENT & TRINIDAD & ST. KITTS & NAMIBIA SOUTH AFRICA SWAZILAND ZAMBIA ZIMBABWE THE GRENADINES TOBAGO NEVIS ST. LUCIA HAITI JAMAICA COMOROS MADAGASCAR MAURITIUS SEYCHELLES SOUTH AMERICA COLOMBIA GUYANA SURINAM VENEZUELA BOLIVIA ECUADOR PERU BRAZIL ARGENTINA URUGUAY CHILE PARAGUAY","337 EUROPE ASIA DENMARK FINLAND ICELAND NORWAY ARMENIA AZERBAIJAN GEORGIA TURKEY SWEDEN IRELAND UNITED KINGDOM BELGIUM IRAQ ISRAEL JORDAN LEBANON LUXEMBOURG NETHERLANDS GERMANY FRANCE SYRIA BAHRAIN KUWAIT OMAN SPAIN QATAR MONACO ANDORRA PORTUGAL AUSTRIA IRAN SAUDI ARABIA UNITED ARAB YEMEN EMIRATES TAJIKISTAN ITALY SAN MARINO VATICAN CITY KAZAKHSTAN KYRGYZSTAN LIECHTENSTEIN SLOVENIA SWITZERLAND CZECH TURKMENISTAN UZBEKISTAN AFGHANISTAN PAKISTAN SLOVAKIA REPUBLIC INDIA NEPAL HUNGARY POLAND ALBANIA BANGLADESH BHUTAN BOSNIA & CROATIA KOSOVO MACEDONIA SRI LANKA CHINA MONGOLIA NORTH KOREA HERZEGOVINA SERBIA (DISPUTED) TAIWAN GREECE SOUTH KOREA JAPAN BURMA MONTENEGRO BULGARIA MOLDOVA ROMANIA UKRAINE BELARUS CAMBODIA LAOS PHILIPPINES THAILAND ESTONIA LATVIA LITHUANIA CYPRUS VIETNAM BRUNEI INDONESIA EAST TIMOR MALTA RUSSIAN FEDERATION MALAYSIA SINGAPORE MALDIVES AUSTRALASIA AND OCEANIA AUSTRALIA NEW ZEALAND PAPUA NEW FIJI SOLOMON VANUATU MARSHALL MICRONESIA NAURU GUINEA TONGA ISLANDS ISLANDS PALAU KIRIBATI TUVALU SAMOA","338 reference Woodpeckers King\ufb01shers Tree of life Lichens Mushrooms, Yeasts and Birds rusts, and sac fungi of prey Life has evolved into an amazing variety of forms, smuts Albatrosses but they are all related to the \ufb01rst living things that appeared on Earth more than 3.8 billion years ago. Chytrids Penguins This tree of life shows how the simplest single-celled Pelicans organisms\u2014prokaryotes such as bacteria\u2014developed into the more complex single-celled eukaryotes and the Fungi multicelled plants, fungi, and animals. The main groups of the diversity of life are shown in this diagram, including all the vertebrates or animals with backbones. Humans are part of the primate group of mammals, so we are also linked through billions of years of evolution to the simplest living organisms on the planet. LIFE Storks BEGINS Archaea Prokaryotes Eukaryotes Animals Protists Bacteria Sponges Cyndarians Plants Giardia Foraminiferans Bryozoans Brown Diatoms Water Dino\ufb02agellates Apicomplexans algae molds (red tides) (plasmodium malariae) Vascular plants Nonvascular plants Liverworts Hornworts Mosses Flowering Ginkgos Horsetails Ferns plants Club Spiders and mosses scorpions Cycads Conifers","339 Songbirds Cuckoos Parrots Owls Flightless birds Turtles and (ostrich and kiwi) tortoises Birds Crocodilians Gamebirds Waterfowl Snakes Reptiles Frogs and toads Newts and salamanders Lizards Tuataras Caecilians Amphibians Chordates VERTEBRATES Echinoderms Jawless \ufb01sh Bony \ufb01sh Mammals (star\ufb01sh and (lamprey) sea urchins) Invertebrate Egg-laying chordates (hag\ufb01sh mammals and tunicates) Cartilaginous \ufb01sh (sharks and rays) Pouched mammals Lobe-\ufb01nned Ray-\ufb01nned Anteaters Placental (coelacanth) (perch) and sloths mammals Segmented Flatworms Aardvark worms Mollusks Sengis Armadillos Bivalves (clams Tenrecs and and scallops) golden moles Gastropods Roundworms Primates Elephants Hyraxes (snails and Tree shrews Cephalopods Sirenians slugs) (octopuses and squids) Colugos Arthropods Centipedes and Insects Crustaceans Rabbits millipedes (crabs and and pikas lobsters) Rodents Scaly anteaters Hedgehogs Carnivores Bats Odd-toed Whales ungulates Even-toed ungulates","340 reference Nature\u2019s record GETTING AROUND breakers Some predators achieve astonishing speeds as they attack their Some animals are capable of the most amazing feats, prey. By contrast, the sloth seems to live its life in slow motion. moving at extraordinary speeds or producing incredibly loud noises. Others are remarkable for their size\u2014either Fastest weighty giants or so small that it is dif\ufb01cult to imagine how their bodies function. Some live to advanced ages, PEREGRINE FALCON while others survive for just a few days. 220 MPH (350 KPH) CHEETAH 70 MPH (114 KPH) WEIGHTY WILDLIFE ATLANTIC SAILFISH 62 MPH (100\u00a0KPH) Most of the heaviest animals, such as whales and giant sharks, live in the sea, where the ocean water supports their bodies. PRONGHORN 60 MPH 66 66 (98\u00a0KPH) 0.5 TON 0.55 TON (0.45 TONNES) (0.495 TONNES) OSTRICH 44 MPH (70\u00a0KPH) 31 62 93 124 155 186 217 0 198 0 198 0 MILES PER HOUR (MPH) SALTWATER CROCODILE COLOSSAL SQUID THREE-TOED SLOTH Slowest 66 0.002 MPH 66 13.5 TONS (0.004 KPH) (12.25 TONNES) 23.5 TONS (21.5 TONNES) GARDEN SNAIL 0.02 MPH 0 198 0 198 (0.04 KPH) AFRICAN SAVANNA 66 WHALE SHARK STARFISH ELEPHANT 0.05 MPH 198 TONS (0.09 KPH) (180 TONNES) GIANT TORTOISE 0 198 0.18 MPH 0.03 0.06 0.09 0.12 0.15 0.18 BLUE WHALE (0.3 KPH) 0 MILES PER HOUR (MPH) NOISIEST ANIMALS JUMPING CREATURES The snapping shrimp stuns its prey with the loudest noise Craggy mountain terrain allows the snow leopard to leap huge made by any animal, but luckily it only lasts for a split-second. distances to attack prey. Other animals jump to escape danger. SNAPPING SHRIMP 100 200 0 AMERICAN BULLFROG BLUE WHALE DECIBELS FEET (FT) 6\u00bd FT (2 M) WATER BOATMAN KANGAROO RAT HOWLER MONKEY 6\u00bd FT (2 M) OILBIRD JUMPING SPIDER 0 2\u00bd FT (0.8 M) 15","341 ANIMAL LIFESPANS TALL AND SMALL Big animals tend to live longer than small ones, and some insects, The smallest animals are microscopic, such as the rotifers that such as may\ufb02ies, survive for just a few hours as \ufb02ying adults. live mainly in ponds and streams. Other creatures are giants that tower over all the other animals living alongside them. Longest Lives (YEARS) Tallest OCEAN QUAHOG 20 BOWHEAD WHALE MOLLUSC 400 Giraffe 20 ft (6 m) 211 ALDABRA GIANT TORTOISE 0 255 ROUGHEYE ROCKFISH 500 140 16\u00bd 1,000 1,500 African elephant 13 ft (4 m) 2,000 13 GIANT BARREL 2,500 FEET (FT) Ostrich SPONGE 30 9\u00bc ft (2.8 m) 2,300 Moose Shortest Lives (DAYS) 7\u00bd ft (2.3 m) DRONE ANT 10 14 MAYFLY 1 6\u00bd 0 GASTROTRICH BEE 3 31 60 90 120 3 150 Man 5\u00be ft (1.7 m) DRAGONFLY 121 0 Smallest 1.6 Paper clip Bumblebee bat 1\u00bc in (3.2 cm) 1\u00bd in (4 cm) SNOW LEOPARD 1.2 50 FT (15 M) INCHES (IN) Moss rotifer Dwarf sphaero 0.001 in gecko \u2154 in (0.005 cm) (1.6 cm) .8 Paedocypris\u00a0 Amau frog \ufb01sh \u00bd in \u00bc in (1 cm) .4 (0.8 cm) 50 75 0","342 reference Conversion Tables MAKING CONVERSIONS Measurements are important because they help people agree on things. Without accurate measurements, there would be no world records, You can convert imperial cooking would be guesswork, and it would be hard to \ufb01nd clothes that \ufb01t. measurements to metric ones Ancient measurements were often based on body parts, which is why we or vice versa, by multiplying still measure in units such as feet to this day. However, everyone\u2019s body or dividing by a \ufb01xed number is a different size, so now we use more standard measures. called a conversion factor. The only thing that cannot be converted in this way is temperature, which has its own unique method. UNITS OF MEASUREMENT TEMPERATURE There are two common systems for measuring most things. The traditional way is To convert from called imperial and it is still popular in the United States. The metric system is more Fahrenheit (\u02daF) to Celsius (\u02daC) suited to scienti\ufb01c work and is widely used in Europe. In metric, each measurement C = (F \u2212 32) \u00d7 5 \u00f7 9 is linked to others by powers of 10. To convert from Celsius (\u02daC) to Fahrenheit (\u02daF) AREA LENGTH F = (C \u00d7 9 \u00f7 5) + 32 METRIC METRIC 10 millimeters (mm) 100 square millimeters (mm2) 1 square centimeter (cm2) 100 centimeters (cm) 1 centimeter (cm) Fahrenheit \u02daF Celsius \u02daC 1,000 millimeters (mm) 1 meter (m) -4 -20 10,000 square centimeters (cm2) 1 square meter (m2) 1,000 meters (m) 1 meter (m) IMPERIAL 1 kilometer (km) 10,000 square meters (m2) 1 hectare (ha) 12 inches (in) 3 feet (ft) 1 foot (ft) 100 hectares (ha) 1 square kilometer (km2) 1,760 yards (yd) 1 yard (yd) 5,280 feet (ft) 1 mile 1 square kilometer (km2) 1,000,000 square meters (m2) 8 furlongs 1 mile 14 -10 IMPERIAL 1 mile 144 square inches (sq in) 1 square foot (sq ft) 9 square feet (sq ft) 1 square yard (sq yd) 32 0 1,296 square inches (sq in) 1 square yard (sq yd) 43,560 square feet (sq ft) 1 acre 50 10 640 acres 1 square mile (sq mile) LIQUID VOLUME MASS 68 20 METRIC 1 liter (l) METRIC 1 gram (g) 86 30 1,000 milliliters (ml) 1 hectoliter (hl) 1,000 milligrams (mg) 1 kilogram (kg) 100 liters (l) 1 kiloliter (kl) 1,000 grams (g) 1 tonne (t) 104 40 10 hectoliters (hl) 1 kiloliter (kl) 1,000 kilograms (kg) 1,000 liters (l) IMPERIAL 1 pound (lb) 122 50 IMPERIAL 1 cup 16 ounces (oz) 1 stone 8 \ufb02uid ounces (\ufb02 oz) 1 pint (pt) 14 pounds (lb) 1 hundredweight 140 60 16 \ufb02uid ounces (\ufb02 oz) 1 pint (pt) 112 pounds (lb) 1 ton 4 gills (gi) 1 quart (qt) 2,000 pounds (lb) 2 pints (pt) 1 gallon (gal) 4 quarts (qt) 1 gallon (gal) 158 70 8 pints (pt) TEMPERATURE FAHRENHEIT CELSIUS TIME 1 minute 176 80 212\u02da 100\u02da 1 hour 194 90 Boiling point of water 32\u02da 0\u02da METRIC AND IMPERIAL 1 day 212 100 Freezing point of water \u2212459\u02da \u2212273\u02da 60 seconds 1 week Absolute zero 60 minutes 1 year 24 hours 12 months 7 days 52 weeks 1 year","343 HOW TO CONVERT METRIC AND IMPERIAL MEASURES TO CHANGE TO MULTIPLY BY TO CHANGE TO DIVIDE BY hectares acres 0.40 acres hectares 0.40 feet centimeters 0.03 inches centimeters 0.39 centimeters feet 0.03 cubic inches cubic centimeters 0.06 cubic meters cubic feet 0.03 centimeters inches 0.39 cubic centimeters cubic inches 16.39 cubic feet cubic meters 35.32 cubic centimeters cubic inches 0.06 centimeters feet 30.48 meters feet 0.30 cubic feet cubic meters 0.03 liters gallons 3.79 ounces grams 0.04 cubic inches cubic centimeters 16.39 acres hectares 2.47 centimeters inches 2.54 cubic meters cubic feet 35.32 pounds kilograms 2.20 miles kilometers 0.62 feet centimeters 30.48 miles per hour kilometers per hour 0.62 gallons liters 0.26 feet meters 0.30 pints liters 2.11 feet meters 3.28 gallons liters 3.79 yards meters 1.09 centimeters per second meters per minute 1.67 grams ounces 0.04 feet per second meters per minute 0.05 kilometers miles 1.61 hectares acres 2.47 kilometers per hour miles per hour 1.61 meters per second miles per hour 0.45 inches centimeters 2.54 inches millimeters 0.04 grams ounces 28.35 kilograms pounds 2.20 liters pints 0.47 kilograms pounds 0.45 kilometers miles 0.62 square inches square centimeters 0.16 square centimeters square inches 6.45 kilometers per hour miles per hour 0.62 square meters square feet 0.09 square miles square kilometers 0.39 liters gallons 0.26 square feet square meters 10.76 square yards square meters 1.20 liters pints 2.11 square kilometers square miles 2.59 square meters square yards 0.84 meters feet 3.28 tons (imperial) tonnes (metric) 0.89 tonnes (metric) tons (imperial) 1.10 meters yards 1.09 meters yards 0.91 meters per minute centimeters per second 1.67 meters per minute feet per second 0.05 miles kilometers 1.61 miles per hour kilometers per hour 1.61 miles per hour meters per second 0.45 millimeters inches 0.04 ounces grams 28.35 pints liters 0.47 pounds kilograms 0.45 square centimeters square inches 0.16 square inches square centimeters 6.45 square feet square meters 0.09 square kilometers square miles 0.39 square meters square feet 10.76 square meters square yards 1.20 square miles square kilometers 2.59 square yards square meters 0.84 tonnes (metric) tons (imperial) 1.10 tons (imperial) tonnes (metric) 0.89 yards meters 0.91","344 reference INCREDIBLE LONGEST WARS HISTORY Con\ufb02icts have been fought throughout history, all around the world. Throughout the ages, in every corner of the While some wars are resolved quickly, others continue for decades, globe, history has been happening. From crazy or even a century, until the last battle is fought and won. rulers and child prodigies to huge empires and life-changing inventions, history is \ufb01lled with 116 Years The Hundred Years\u2019 War, people and events that often seem too incredible to be true. Here are some of the amazing events, 1337\u20141453 inventions, and people that have gone The longest in recorded history, down in history. this war was fought between the English and French. Despite the BIGGEST EMPIRES name, it lasted 116 years. The greatest empires in history ruled over large areas of land, often 43 Years The Punic Wars, 264\u2014146 bce spanning many continents. Empires are ruled by a single monarch This was a series of three wars between Carthage or an oligarchy (a small group of people, such as a powerful family). (the major maritime power) and Rome (which They rule over vast territories, and must maintain control of their controlled the Italian peninsula). Rome defeated lands as well as conquering new places if they want to expand. Carthage, and destroyed the city in 146 bce. Here are the \ufb01ve biggest empires the world has ever seen. 30 Years The Thirty Years\u2019 War, 1618\u20141648 Although there were many reasons for this war, it was mainly a religious con\ufb02ict between Catholics and Protestants. Mostly fought in Germany, it became a political war and changed Europe forever. 30 Years The Wars of the Roses, 1455\u20141485 The \ufb01ght for the crown of England lasted 30 years and was fought between the Houses of York and Lancaster. The Tudor king, Henry VII, led the House of Lancaster to victory over Richard III\u2019s House of York. British Empire 27 Years The Peloponnesian War, 431\u2014404 bce At its peak in the late 19th This war was fought between rival alliances of Greek century, the British empire city-states led by Athens and Sparta. Athens was covered about a quarter of strongest at sea, but Sparta was more powerful on Earth\u2019s land area. It was land and eventually crushed the Athenian forces. said that the \u201cSun never British Empire sets\u201d on its lands. 23 Years Napoleonic Wars, 1796\u20131815 Napoleon Bonaparte was a skilled general who 20.9 Mongol Empire declared himself Emperor of France in 1804. He led Under the Genghis Khan, France in a series of wars against other European Million miles the empire of the Mongols powers, until his defeat at the Battle of Waterloo. (a group of eastern nomadic 33.7 tribes) grew rapidly in the SHORTEST WARS 38 6 13th and 14th centuries. Million km It expanded across Asia, Not all con\ufb02icts are long and MINUTES DAYS including China and Russia. drawn out\u2014some are over in Mongol Empire just a few days. The shortest Anglo-Zanzibar, Six Day War, 1967 Russian Empire war ever began when the Between Israel and 20.5 The Russian Empire existed Zanzibar sultan\u2019s successor 1896 neighboring states from 1721 until the Russian took control without gaining Between Britain Egypt, Jordan, Million miles Revolution in 1917. At its the permission of the British and the Zanzibar and Syria. peak in the middle of the consul \ufb01rst. He \ufb02ed from the Sultanate. 33 19th century, it stretched palace almost immediately. across Eastern Europe, Asia, Million km Spanish Empire and North America. 13 14 24 Russian 12.4 20 Spanish Empire DAYS DAYS DAYS Empire Under the rule of the Million miles Million km Habsburg dynasty, the 14.7 Spanish Empire became Qing Empire the major global power in Million miles the 16th and 17th centuries. 9.1 14.7 Territories included North 23.7 and South America and Million miles Million km parts of Europe. Million km Qing Empire Ruling for 267 years from Indo-Pakistan War, Serbo-Bulgarian War, Georgian-Armenian the mid-17th century to 1971 1885 War, 1918 the beginning of the 20th Between India Between Serbia Between Georgia century, the Qing (Manchu) and Pakistan. and Bulgaria. and Armenia. dynasty was the last imperial dynasty of China.","345 AMAZING INVENTIONS Our everyday lives would be very different if these inventions had never happened. From simple household objects to complex modern technology, these incredible discoveries have transformed the way we live and think, and changed the course of history. 1440: Printing 1776: Steam 1876: Telephone 1879: Light bulb 1886: Car 1903: Airplane 1928: Penicillin 1941: Modern 1969: Internet press engine Alexander This bright idea German engineer The Wright The accidental computer The \ufb01rst network Johannes James Watt Graham Bell is for electric light Karl Benz took to brothers invented discovery of The \ufb01rst was set up by the Gutenberg\u2019s press added a separate famous for this in the home was the road in a a \ufb02ying machine, mold growing on electronic, Pentagon. Twenty let people make condensing invention, but the invention of three-wheeled which would bacteria led programmable years later, Tim copies of writings chamber to the many others Thomas Edison car, powered by revolutionize Alexander computer was Berners-Lee quickly and early steam claimed to have and Joseph Swan. an internal travel across Fleming to invented by invented the cheaply. engine, making it beaten him to it. combustion the world. discover the \ufb01rst Konrad Zuse. It World Wide Web. more ef\ufb01cient. engine. antibiotic. was called the Z3. LOONY LEADERS ANCIENT WONDERS Throughout history there have been many eccentric leaders. Some were Admired and marveled by Ancient Greek just victims of bad publicity, while others were cruel oractually insane. Here travelers, the Seven Wonders of the is a selection of just a few of history\u2019s loony leaders. Ancient World were amazing landmarks around the eastern Mediterranean rim. Hatshepsut (1470s bce) Nero (37\u201368) 15,000 Bulgarian prisoners Only one, the Great Pyramids of Giza, This Egyptian ruler knew her This Roman emperor had his by scooping out their eyes. still remains today. people did not like the idea mother and adoptive brother A single man was allowed of a female pharaoh, so she killed. It is said that he to keep one eye so that he Lighthouse of Alexandria put on a fake beard and called captured Christians and had could lead the others home. Built by the Nile River in the herself king instead of queen. them burned in his garden third century bce, this was the at night, to provide light. Timur the Lame world\u2019s \ufb01rst lighthouse. Ashurnasirpal II (1336\u20131404) It used mirrors to re\ufb02ect (ruled 884\u2013859 bce) Caligula (12\u201341) A nomadic warlord from sunlight out to sea. This Assyrian general enjoyed The Roman emperor Caligula modern-day Uzbekistan, boasting about his conquests. was known for his cruelty and this leader killed anyone Great Pyramids of Giza An inscription at the entrance extravagance. He proclaimed who got in his way. On These three pyramids near to his palace described the himself a god, and expected one occasion this meant all Cairo are called Khufu, Khafra, tortures in\ufb02icted on those people to worship him. He 30,000 inhabitants of a city. and Menkaura. They were who rebelled against him. replaced the heads on many built as royal tombs for statues of gods so that they Vlad III (1431\u201376) Egyptian pharaohs. Nebuchadnezzar II looked like him. Nicknamed Vlad the Impaler, (ruled 605\u2013562 bce) this Transylvanian ruler Statue of Zeus at Olympia A Babylonian king who Irene of Athens (752\u2013803) marched into neighboring This statue of Zeus, the Greek believed that he was a cow, Mother of Emperor Bulgaria, where he captured god of thunder, was 40 ft Nebuchadnezzar II spent Constantine VI, Irene of 20,000 people and impaled (12 m) high. It was placed seven years in a \ufb01eld, Athens had her son\u2019s eyes them on stakes. at Olympia, the site of the chewing his cud. gouged out so that she could Ancient Olympic games. rule the Byzantine Empire Farouk of Egypt Peisistratus (560s bce) on her own. (1920\u201365) Temple of Artemis at Ephesus This Athenian citizen claimed This Egyptian leader was a This large temple was built in he had been attacked, so Basil II (958\u20131025) thief who enjoyed picking honor of Artemis, the Greek the city let him have After victory in battle with pockets while on state visits. goddess of the hunt and bodyguards. He then used the Bulgarians in 1014, He once stole an expensive childbirth. It was made of his bodyguards to take over Emperor Basil of Byzantium pocket watch from marble, and had 127 columns. the city, becoming its ruler. ordered his troops to punish Winston Churchill. Colossus of Rhodes CHILD PRODIGIES Made of bronze, this statue of Greek sun god Helios Some people are born brilliant, and achieve great things from a very young age. was 110 ft (33.5 m) tall. From musicians to mathematicians, these clever children made their mark on It stood for 60 years before the world with their amazing achievements and impressive talents. falling during an earthquake. Avicenna (980\u20131037) Maria Gaetana Agnesi Jean F. Champollion Mausoleum at Halicarnassus At 10, this Persian polymath (1718\u201399) (1790\u20131832) This enormous marble tomb (expert in many subjects) By 13, Agnesi could speak at This French linguist knew was for Mausolus, the King of had memorized the Qur\u2019an. least seven languages. She 12 languages by the age of 16. Carnia. It was built by his He was a quali\ufb01ed physician became a mathematician, linguist, As an adult, he deciphered the grieving wife Artemisia. at 18. and philosopher. Egyptian hieroglyphics. Hanging Gardens of Babylon Blaise Pascal (1623\u201362) W. Amadeus Mozart (1756\u201391) Pablo Picasso (1881\u20131973) Built on a huge brick terrace, This talented mathematician Mozart was playing keyboard Trained by his father, Picasso these gardens were said to be wrote a signi\ufb01cant treatise and violin at the age of four, was painting incredible works 75 ft (22 m) in the air. Many on geometry at 16. and composing music at \ufb01ve. of art from a very early age. experts believe they may not have existed at all.","346 reference Glossary ACCELERATION ARTHROPOD BRONZE AGE CHLOROPLASTS In physics, a term meaning the rate An invertebrate (animal lacking a A period of ancient history, between Special structures in plant of change in velocity. backbone) that has a jointed, outer about 2500\u20131200 BCE, when people cells containing the green body case. Arthropods include insects, mostly used bronze for making tools pigment chlorophyll. ADAPTATION spiders, crustaceans such as crabs and and weapons. lobsters, and scorpions. CHROMOSOME The way in which a living species, CAMOUFLAGE such as an animal or a plant, has ASTEROID A threadlike structure, found in the developed in appearance or behavior The way animals blend in with their nucleus of body cells, that is made to \ufb01t in with its environment. A small object in space, made from background or use disguises to escape up of coiled strands of DNA (an a mixture of rock and metals, that notice by predators; this includes organism\u2019s genetic code). AGRICULTURE orbits the Sun. seasonal changes of coat color and mimicry of a more dangerous animal. CHRYSALIS Using the land to grow food crops ATMOSPHERE or raise domestic animals. CANOPY The hard, protective case, also called The layer of breathable gases, a pupa, which encloses the larva of ALGAE mainly oxygen and nitrogen, that The topmost branches of the trees in an insect such as a moth or butter\ufb02y surrounds Earth. a forest; canopy also means the part as it develops its adult form. Simple, often single-celled, organisms, of a plant showing above ground. some of which look like plants; algae ATOM CITIZEN are found in a variety of habitats but CAPITALISM occur most commonly in water. The smallest particle of an element A person who belongs to a city or that has the same chemical makeup A system for organizing society that a bigger community such as a state AMPHIBIAN as the element. is in favor of capitalists: people or or country. private organizations that make a A cold-blooded animal, such as a frog AURORA pro\ufb01t and accumulate wealth (capital) CITY-STATE or newt, that can live both in water by producing goods and services. and on land. Bands of light in the sky caused by A city, together its surrounding high-energy particles from space CARNIVORE territory, that has its own independent ANARCHY meeting atoms in the atmosphere. system of government. Athens, Sparta, A meat-eating animal with teeth and Corinth in ancient Greece were Disorder in society, especially BACTERIA especially shaped for tearing \ufb02esh. very powerful city-states. when there is no leader or government in control. Microscopic, single-celled organisms, CAVALRY CIVIL WAR some of which are helpful\u2014for ANTENNA example, by helping us to digest Historically, military troops mounted War between different political groups our food or keeping the soil healthy\u2014 on horseback. The term now also or regions within the same country. A sensitive feeler on the head of an while others are responsible for means army units that move around insect or a crustacean (for example, serious diseases. in vehicles such as cars and tanks. CNIDARIA a lobster, crab, or house\ufb02y). BCE CE A large group of marine animals, APARTHEID including jelly\ufb01sh and many types Before Common Era: the years before Common Era: the years from 1 ce of coral, which carry stinging cells An of\ufb01cial policy of keeping people 1 ce (start of the Common Era). This to the present day. This abbreviation in their tentacles. apart because of their racial origins. abbreviation has largely replaced has largely replaced ad (Anno Domini, It was used to separate black Africans bc (Before Christ). Latin for \u201cIn the year of our Lord\u201d). COELACANTH from white in South Africa. BIOME CELLULOSE A deep-sea \ufb01sh with a distinctive ARCHAEA shape, long thought to be extinct. A large-scale biological community A substance found in plant cell walls It has features very similar to those A biological group of microscopic, with a particular climate and that gives plants their structure. seen in fossil \ufb01sh from the age of single-celled organisms that look like certain types of plants\u2014for example, dinosaurs. bacteria but have different genes. a rainforest. CHLOROPHYLL COLD-BLOODED ARCHAEOLOGY BLACK HOLE The green coloring in plants that enables them to absorb sunlight, Describing an animal whose body Study of the ancient past through A body of matter in space of such which they use for photosynthesis heat depends on the temperature of looking at the remains of buildings intense gravity that even light cannot (the process of converting water and its surroundings; reptiles, for example, and objects that people once used. escape from it. carbon dioxide into their own food). are cold-blooded.","347 COLONY DETRITIVORE ERUPTION FUSION A group of people who leave their An animal that feeds on dead plant A violent discharge of lava, hot ashes, A joining together; nuclear fusion is native country to settle elsewhere but or animal matter. and gases from a volcano. Eruptions the joining of two atomic nuclei. keep links with their homeland. Also: are the result of molten rock, or a group of animals, usually of one DNA magma, working its way from the GALAXY species, that live and work together. inside of Earth to the surface. Abbreviation for deoxyribonucleic A gigantic group of stars, dust, and COMBUSTION acid, the material packed inside EXOPLANET gas. Our own galaxy is the Milky Way. chromosomes that holds all the A chemical reaction in which a instructions for making and A planet that is outside our GENE substance, for example, a fuel oil, maintaining a living body. Solar System. mixes and burns with oxygen. One of the tiny units found inside EXOSKELETON cells that determine what a living COMET DYNASTY thing looks like and how its body A hard outer skeleton, such as that works. Genes are passed on from Small astronomical body of ice and A family or group that rules over of insects and crustaceans, which one generation to the next. dust that orbits the Sun. a country for several generations. supports and protects the body. COMMUNISM ECHINODERM EXTINCTION GESTATION A political system based on the belief A spiny-skinned marine animal with The disappearance from Earth of the The period during which young that property should not be owned by a radially symmetrical body: if it is last living representative of a species. develop in the womb. individual people but shared by all. divided through the middle in any direction the halves look exactly alike. FAULT GLACIER COMPOUND This group includes star\ufb01sh and sea urchins. A crack in Earth\u2019s surface where the A moving mass of ice, formed from A chemical substance in which two or rocks on either side have shifted in accumulated snow. Some glaciers \ufb02ow more elements have bonded together. ECOSYSTEM relation to each other, either upward like rivers, while others are vast ice downward, or sideways. The sheets such as those covering COMPOUND EYE A community of animals and plants continuing movement of the rocks Antarctica and much of Greenland. that share, and interact with, the can cause earthquakes. The eyes of adult insects and some same habitat. GRAVITY crustaceans consist of many sections. Each section has its own lens, and ELECTRON FETUS The force that attracts one object to together they create a mosaic image. another and prevents things from One of the tiny particles inside an The unborn young of an animal; in \ufb02oating off into space. CONSTELLATION atom; electrons have a negative humans, what a baby is called from electric charge. the ninth week of pregnancy onward. GUERRILLA A group of stars that form a pattern in the sky; many constellations ELEMENT FEUDALISM A member of a small, independent are named after animals or \ufb01ghting force that operates by making mythical characters. In chemistry, a simple substance made A social system that developed in surprise attacks on an enemy. of atoms that are all of the same kind. medieval times, when people of the CORE serving classes (such as laborers and HABITAT EMBRYO peasants) pledged support to their The innermost and hottest part of overlord in return for his protection. The area where an animal naturally Earth, consisting of a liquid outer The earliest stage in the development makes its home. layer around a solid center, both of an animal or plant. A human FISSION thought to be made of iron and nickel. embryo forms when sex cells join. HERBIVORE A splitting apart; nuclear \ufb01ssion is the CRUST EMPIRE splitting of the nucleus of an atom. An animal that feeds on plants. Earth\u2019s hard, rocky, outermost layer. A group of countries or states united FOSSIL HOMINID under one ruling power. CULTURE The preserved remains of life from A word meaning humanlike, which ENZYME an earlier geological time. refers to humans and all our extinct The customs, beliefs, and behavior ancestors. It can also include the shared by a society. A substance in animals and plants that FRICTION great apes (chimpanzee, bonobo, speeds up a chemical reaction. gorilla, and orangutan). DEMOCRACY The dragging force that occurs when EROSION one object moves over another. HORMONES A political system in which people have power to control their The process by which Earth\u2019s surface FULCRUM Natural chemicals that are produced government, usually by electing rocks and soil are worn away by the by glands and circulate in the politicians to represent their views. action of winds, water, and glaciers The \ufb01xed point on which a lever bloodstream to have an effect (moving ice). moves. on particular parts of the body.","348 reference HURRICANE KARST MELANIN NEPHRON A violent tropical storm with A type of landscape formed from Dark pigment that gives skin its One of millions of minute \ufb01ltering torrential rain and high winds that limestone rocks. Karst country color; it is also found in hair and units found in the kidneys. reach more than 74 miles (119 includes steep cliffs and, below the the colored part of the eye (iris). kilometers) per hour. surface, caves and tunnels where underground streams have slowly METAMORPHIC ROCK NEUTRON IGNEOUS ROCK dissolved the soft limestone. Rock that has been changed from one One of the tiny particles inside an Rock formed from magma\u2014hot, KERATIN type to another through immense heat atom; neutrons have no electric liquid material inside Earth\u2014that or pressure underground. charge. has come to the surface then cooled A tough protein found in the top layer and hardened. of skin and also in hair, nails, horns, METAMORPHOSIS NOMADIC and hooves. INDIGENOUS A change from one form to another, Describing people who move from LAVA sometimes very different, form; place to place, usually according Occurring naturally in a particular metamorphosis is seen in animals to the seasons, but never establish environment or country. Hot, liquid rock forced out of a such as insects and amphibians as a permanent settlement. volcano during an eruption. they develop into adults. INERTIA NUCLEUS LIGHT YEAR METEORITE The tendency of an object to either The control center of a body cell, stay still or to move in a straight line A measurement used by astronomers, A small body of rock or debris that where information about a living at an unchanging speed until a force based on the distance that light falls to Earth from space. organism is held in the form of genes. acts upon it. travels in one year. Also: the central core of an atom. INFANTRY MAGMA MIGRATION NUTRIENTS The part of an army made up Hot, liquid rock that is found beneath Seasonal mass movement of animals Food substances that are necessary of soldiers who \ufb01ght on foot. Earth\u2019s surface. from one place to another in search for life and growth. of food and places to breed. INVERTEBRATE MAMMAL MINERAL ORBIT An animal without a backbone: A warm-blooded animal that has a A solid, inorganic (nonliving) material The path taken by an object\u2014for for example, an insect, a worm, backbone, feeds its young on milk, occurring naturally in Earth; different example, a planet\u2014that is circling or a crustacean. and usually has a covering of fur. minerals are classi\ufb01ed according to around another. their elements and crystal structure. ION MANTLE ORGANISM MITOCHONDRIA An atom that has lost or gained one The rocks that lie beneath Earth\u2019s Any living thing, including an animal, or more electrons and as a result has crust (surface), extending almost to Tiny organs inside a body cell that a plant, or a microscopic lifeform such either a positive or negative the innermost core, and making up create energy to keep the cell alive. as a bacterium. electrical charge. most of our planet\u2019s weight. MOLECULE PERMAFROST IONOSPHERE MARSUPIAL A group of atoms bonded together. Ground that remains permanently The area of Earth\u2019s atmosphere A mammal that carries its developing frozen beneath the topsoil. through which radio waves can young in a pouch, usually on MONARCHY be transmitted. its stomach. PHARAOH A type of government in which a king IRON AGE MASS or queen is recognized as the head of Title given to a king in ancient Egypt. a country, even though he or she may People believed that the pharaohs The historical period characterized by The amount of matter in an object. have no real power. had sacred powers. the use of iron for making weapons and tools. The earliest known iron MAUSOLEUM MORAINE PHOTOSYNTHESIS implements were found in the Middle East and southern Europe, and date A large tomb or, often, a splendidly Rocks and soil carried downhill by A chemical process by which plants to about 1200 bce. impressive building for housing a glacier and deposited as heaps use the energy from sunlight to make several tombs. of debris. their own food. ISOTOPE MEDIEVAL PERIOD NEBULA PHYLUM One of two or more atoms of a Also known as the Middle Ages, A cloud of gas and dust in outer space; One of the major scienti\ufb01c divisions chemical element that have different the period in European history that some nebulas are the debris from that group together living things numbers of neutrons (particles with lasted from about the 5th to the dead stars, others are where new according to what their ancestors no electric charge) compared to other 16th century. stars form. were like and the way their bodies atoms of the element. are made."]