NatScienceTBM4codex

.-rh t]’a ’kow22kh sk^ pd;kj g7vjn ’.-wh 22kh -tofy vojn sk^ pgmkjq D f’ja ooA F dtclw22kh c]oj zkj og7vjn ’ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ .-hw22hk.sh7;k,Ihvoc8j]tvao9bj’gxaodtcl.spjD ltoAoF 9bj’8hv’.-hfh;p7;k,]t,af]t;a’ g-oaj G 8hv’\\oaj d;fdkg[y’j lkpw22hkF g8QklP[ c]t sq;lP[16gj ]NvpMD 4hkgsao;kj [+16.j oltrk[ fuc]h; 7;o8hv’2hk;xPj omaomu c]t g,vnj .-hc]h;8hv’4vfsq;lP[vvd9kdg8QklP[m5d7A’D [qfg/ydsafG !D 9’qj 0Polf6 dkor;q rao]ts;kj ’ cI’’ko0v’dtclw22kh zt]yfvvd d[a 7;k,g0,A dtclw22hkF 7;k,8hkow22hk c]t g;]kD @D dkomqf]v’0v’ 16o{c]ol wfhzqoco;.fL #D g7nvj ’.-hw22hkmu.j sh7;k,Ihvo mugj 7up.-h.o-u;yfxt9e;ao,uspa’cfLj $D g7vjn ’.s7h ;k,Ivh ovoa |’jb g-’yj ,u g]d-[U vd 1600W - 220V. g7vjn ’.s7h ;k,Ivh oo9U t gIaf.shgdufdtclw22hkmu,j u7;k,g0A,w22hkgmkqj .f.o;q’9voL &D g,njv,udtclw22hk 10A c]oj zkj olkpw22hkmu,j u7;k,8hkow22hk WF!&Ω glAo|b’j D 9’jq 7yfw]7j ;k,Ivh ogdfu 0oB 9kdlkpw22kh ooA D *D 9qj’vtmy[kpmju,k0v’l6f7yfw]jxt]y,ko7;k,Ihvomjugduf9kddtclw22hk8k, dfq gdo1o6 {c]olD (D g8qkxU’w22hkvao|bj’ g,njvdtclw22hk ) A c]jozkj oD .sh7;k,Ihvo $WW cal/s 9’jq -vdsk7;k,8kh ow22kh 0v’g8kq xY’voa oUL )D grvnj xvh ’doa voa 8t]kpmguj duf9kdg7nvj ’.-wh 22kh .s7h ;k,Ivh o7;ogIfa co;.fL 95

[qfmu !( ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ dko.-hw22hkmuj4nd8hv’ !D ;q’9vow22hkrkp.ogInvo dkolq’j w22hkg0QkgInvo8hv’.-hlkpw22hklv’lkp lkp|b’j ,u]tfa[w22hkgxaol6o g,nvj mP[da[rNofyogvUo;kj lkpdk’ s^n lkp N s^n lkpfyoS l;j ovudlkp|b’j ,u]tfa[w22hk[+gxao l6o XW? g,nvj mP[da[rNofyo gvUo;kj lkpw2 sn^ lkp L. lkplq’j w22hkoUF dvj og0QkgInvo8hv’zkj o \\=oh [a w2 sn^ d’q g8ucmdcI’’kow22kh gxoa kWh . 9kdooA ,oa 9t8+g0kQ d[a 0;q w22kh Xd36 8 s^n 7af vJk;? g-y’j gxaov5xtdvo7;[75,dkol’qj w22hkma’\\qfrkp.ogInvo c]h;9b’j 8+wx.ldj tfkow22hk mu8j yf8’A w;ch 8]j t9f5 rkp.ogInvoD !D! 0q;w22hk 0q;w22hk gxaov5xtdvow22hkmuj.-hle]a[ xyf{gxuf .shdtclw22hkc]jozjkowfhma’lv’ lkprvh ,doa Xlkp L c]t lkp N?D f’ja ooA F 0;q w22kh 9’jb gxoa vx5 tdvow22kh m-ju ;j p.s,h u7;k, ltf;d c]t xvfwr.odko8yf8’A sn^ lvh ,cx’vx5 tdvow22kh vojn M.o0v[g0fm,uj oa xyf{gxuf .sdh tclw22kh c]oj zkj oD 0;q w22kh c8]j tvoa zz6h t]fy wf0h Po8;q g]dded[a 7;k,g0,A dtclw22kh c]oj zkj owflh ’6 lf5 8kj ’doa D 8;q 1kj ’G 20A \\kp7;k,;kj 0;q w22kh ooA .-dh [a dtclw22kh m,uj 7u ;k, g0,A l’6 lf5 [g+ dou 20AD 0;q w22kh ,su k^ p0t|kf f’ja I[6 !(D!D f’ja ooA F dkog]vn d.-0h ;q w22kh c8]j tvoa .sh.-h0q;w22hkmju.shdtclw22hkc]jozjkowfhl6’l5fs^kpd;jkdtclw22hkc]jo.o;q’9vow22hk g]da |vh pD I6[ !(D! 0q;w22hk0t|kf8kj ’dao 96

dko.-h0q;w22hk 8hv’goAo7ko.shg0Qk.o vaf[+c9[ I6[ !(D @ vafc9[ c|[|[u 0v’,oa .sch |oh X4kh [c+ |oh 7ko9tIvh o c];h vkf9tg4’y 0oA gIfa .sgh dfu w20oB wf?h D g,vjn 8vh ’ dko8fa [+.sdh tclw22kh c]oj zkj o0;q w22kh 8vh ’ xqf7ko.shs^5fvvd9kdc|[|u[0v’,ao1jk’ 0kf8q;D !D@ 2y;w22hk oadIPo7yf;kj 2y;w22hk9tgIaffh;pspa’L c]t ,u]adltot7nco;.fL dyf9tde !G ]adltot0v’2y; !? .-hw,h|u[lv’lQo0v’];f2y;ohvp c]h;gvqkwxgzqkfh;pcx;w28tdP’gs^Qk _W ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ 1j6[jvomujIhvomujl5fX[jvocx;w2lu0P;? faj’I6[!(D#D 9a[g;]koa[c8jg]uj,gzqkg4y’ g;]k,oa gxvnj p0kfD @? gIafdkomqf]v’7nda[ !? c8.j -h];f2y;.spdj ;kj #? gvkq ];fgsda^ s^n ];fmv’m.ju spgj mkjq ];f 2y;,kgIafdkomqf]v’7n @? c]t .-h g;]kgzkq gmkjq d[a g;]k.odkomfq ]v’ @?D { ];f2y;0t|kf.spj8jk’dao g,njvgzqk fh;pw2muj,u7;k,Ihvogmqjkdao];f2y; 0t|kf.fgxnvj p0kfw;d;kj L I6[ !(D # { ];f2;y F ];fmv’ s^n ];fgsda^ ,0u t|kf.spgj mkjq doa g,vjn gzkq f;h pcx;w2Ivh ogmkjq doa zoq mguj duf0Bo8kj ’doa co;.fL { oadIPo9tg]nvd.-h];f2y;gIaf2y;w22hkco;.fL phvospa’L ];f2y;gIfa f;h p3]stxtl,q ]ts;kj ’ -noF l’a dtlu c]t [uflt,f5 g-y’j ,u9f5 Ivh ogxvnj p8OD .og;]k,du tclw22kh c]oj zkj oxdq dt8Fy rt]’a ’kow22kh mxuj Pj ogxoa rt]’a ’ko7;k,Ivh o|vh p gIfa .sh 2;y Ivh og]da ovh pS c8gj ,vjn ,du tclw22kh c]oj zkj o2;y gdou deofq sk^ p sn^ ,wu 22kh ]fa ;’q 9voF 97

dtclw22kh 9t.spmj luj f5 F rt]’a ’kow22kh 9txPj ogxoa rt]’a ’ko7;k,Ivh os^kp0Bo9oq ];f2y; Ihvogxnvj p c]t 0kf gIaf.sh;q’9vow22hk4nd8afmaomuD 2;y w22kh ,su ^kp0t|kfg-oja G 0,5A, 1A, 2A, 5A, 10A, 20A, 30A, 60A,DDD 8;q g]ddeofq .o2;y c8]j tvoa c,oj deofq dtclw22kh l’6 lf5 mcju ]oj zkj o2;y ooA D 4kh dtclw22kh sk^ pd;kj g]dde oqfw;hlkp];f2y;9t0kfD faj’oAoF dkog]nvd.-h2y;.lj;q’9vow22hk grnjv7;k,xvfwroAo 8vh ’g]vn d.-2h ;y m,ju 8u ;q g]ddeofq dtclw22kh c]oj zkj o gmkjq d[a dtclw22kh mcju ]oj zkj og7vjn ’.-wh 22kh Xd]= to[u ,+ 2u ;y mguj mkjq d[a dtclw22kh c]oj zkj og7vnj ’.-wh 22kh .sgh ]vn dl’6 d;kj g]da ovh p?D I6[ !(D$ 2u;w22hkc[[me,tfk I6[ !(D& 2u;w22hkvaf8t3o,af ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ .oxt95[aoz6hzt]yfwfhzt]yf2y;vaf8t3o,afvvd.-h gxaog7nvj ’8afdtclw22hkvaf8t3o,af 3fpoe.-dh kopnfsfq [+gmkjq doa 0v’czoj 3]stlv’-toyf pvh o7;k,Ivh omguj duf9kddtclw22kh sn^ oe.-]h da ltotc,gj sda^ 0v’dtclw22kh D dkogIaf;Pd0v’2y;vaf8t3o,af c,oj ,ao9t8af;q’9vow22hkmaomu g,nvj ,udtclw22hk ]af;q’9vo sn^ ,udtclw22hk.spgj duodeoqfc]oj zkj oD g,vnj wfhcdhw0dko]af;q’9vow22hk sn^ [+,u dtclw22hk.spgj duodeoqfc]oj .o;q’9voc]h;F gIqklk,kfgxuflt;yf Xdq’8ad? .shdtclw22hk c]oj zkj o2y;vaf8t3o,afoUwfh7ngdkqj 3fp[+8hv’xPj o];f2y;.\\j XI6[ !(D&?D 8q;1jk’G gInvos^a’|’bj .-hw22hkmu,j uzqo]q[]tfa[w22hk @@WV. 4hk.-hg7nvj ’.-hw22hk8kj ’M faj’8+wxoU7nG \\=hs5’g0Qkw22hk 600W, g8qk]ufw22hk 750W, 8h6g1ao 100W, 3m]tmaf 150W, fvdw22hk 60W 9eo;o @ fvd c]t s^vfw22hk 20W 9eo;o & s^vfD 4k,;kj 7;o.-h2y;];,0t|kfgmqkj .f9b’j 4nd8hv’L ;ymucdhG 9kdl6f P = UI ⇒ I = P U P = 600 + 750 + 100 + 150 + (60 V 2)+ (20 V 5)=1820 W 98

U = 220 V ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ ⇒ I = 1820 =8,27A 220 fa’j oAoF 8hv’.-h2y;xt,ko 9A c80j kpmq;j wx,u 10A. fa’j oAoF 9b’j 8hv’.-h2y; 10A @D dko.-hw22hkmuj4nd8hv’ c]t xvfwr @D! lkgsfmujrk.shgdufvao8t]kp9kdw22hk !? gduf9kddko.-hv5xtdvow22hk[+wfh,kf4ko sn^ glnjv,75ootrk[D lkpw22hkmu1j k’sh5,gxnvj p{z5 c]h;F c8pj a’oe.-h9tgIaf.shw22hkIq;j F fqookowxvkfgduf w22hk]af;q’9vowfhS 0q;w22hkmucj |[|u[ c]t 7ko0v’,aog0Qk\\hP’ sn^ 9a[dao[+c|hogIaf.sh [vj omu8j yfdaooAo,u7;k,8hkow22hkgru,j 0BoF ,ao9tIhvo c]t vkfIhvo9qocf’ c]h;gduf w2w\\h 0BowfhS g8QklP[w22hkF sq;lP[w22hkFDDD 4hkg0Qk\\hP’ sn^ sq^, 9a[dao[+c|ho gIaf.sh[vj o8yfdaooAo Ivh o9oq gdfu w2w\\wh fgh -oja fP;doa D @? gduf9kddko.-hv5xtdvow22hkgduodeoqf .-hg7nvj ’w22hks^kpg7nvj ’mujlP[sq;lP[0v’r;d,ao.lgj 8QklP[vaofP;daoS 4hk.-hg7nvj ’ .-wh 22kh gskjq^ ooA rvh ,doa gIfa .s,h du tclw22kh c]oj zkj og8kQ lP[ooA gdou deofq s^n ;kj s;q lP[gskjq^ ooA lP[[+c|oh gIfa .sgh 8kQ lP[Ivh oc];h Ivh o9oq gdfu w2w\\0h oB wfDh #? gduf9kddko.-hg7njv’.-hw22hk[+4ndda[zqo]q[]tfa[w22hk0v’,ao g7nvj ’.-hw22hkmu.j -h[+4ndda[zqo]q[]tfa[w22hkmu0j Podeoqfw;hoeg7nvj ’ 9tgIaf.shg7nvj ’.-h w22hkoAow\\h g-aoj G ;ymtp50Pow;h 110V c8gj vqk;ymtp5oUwx .-hda[w22hk 220V d=9tw\\hmaomuS s;q mPow2lkp.-dh [a w22kh 3V X.-xh oy @ dvh o? c8.j -dh [a \\wh= 2 6V s;q mPoooA 9t0kfS 0;q w22kh 10A c8j.-h];f2y; 20A 8+.lj,ao c]h;.-hda[w22hk .spjd;jk 10A 0q;w22hkoAo9tIhvo vkfgdufw2w\\h 0Bowfh c]t vonj MDD grktltoAo dvj o.-hg7vnj ’w22hkc8]j tvao 8hv’vkj o7ecotoe ;ymu.-.h sgh 0kQ .9fulkdvj oD 99

$? 4ndw22hkf6f w22hkf6f ,adgduf0Bo.od=]toumu1j k’sh5,lkpw22hk.og7nvj ’.-hw22hk9ud0kf sn^ z5{gxnvj p 9qolkp];fmv’cf’ mu1j 6rj kp.olkpw22hk8yfg0Qkda[37’3]st0v’g7nvj ’.-hw22hk 9’bj gIaf.sh 37’3]st,u]tfa[w22hk.spdj ;kj g,vnj mP[da[rNofyoD g,nvj l;j o.fl;j o|’bj 0v’Ikj ’dkp7qogIqk wxlezaf.l3j 7’3]stoAo 9t,udtclw22hkzkj og0Qkl6Ij kj ’dkpc]h;8+l6rj NofyowfhD d=]touco;oU gvoU ;kj 4dn w22kh ff6 c];h gxoa voa 8t]kp80+ v’Ikj ’dkp8k,xt],y kow22kh zkj oIkj ’dkpooA D @D@ ;ymuxhv’dao ;ymuxhv’daow22hkf6f vkfgIafwfhfh;p;ymu gvqklQo|b’j 0v’lkpw22hk8+.l3j 7’3]st0v’ g7vjn ’.-wh 22kh F l;j ovdu loQ |’jb 0v’lkp8.+ lcj m’j 3]stm[ju g+ xoa \\Ph ’c];h gvkq wx/’a foy f’ja I[6 !(D*D lkpw22hkmuj8+]ts;jk’37’3]st0v’g7njv’ 37’3]st ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ .-hw22hkda[rNofyogvUo;jk lkpfyo sn^ lkp E lkpfyogIfa m0ju Po8fy g7vjn ’.-wh 22kh 9tgxoa I[6 D g,vjn Ikj ’ fh;pmv’ cf’sh5,lt dkplezafda[g7njv’.-hw22hkmu,j ulkpfyo c]t ,u o;o w22kh I;jq F dtclw22kh 9tzkj olkpfoy ]’q lr6j oN foy cmj’3]st 3fpmu,j ao9t[+zkj oIkj ’dkpD fa’j oAoF lkpfyo9b’j I6[ !(D* dko8+lkpfyo -;j pxvh ’doa .sIh kj ’dkp[+4ndw22kh ff6 wfDh .oxt95[ao,udkozt]yfv5xtdvoxhv’dao w22hkI;qj c]t w22hkf6f,us^kpI6[c[[D g,vnj gIqk oegvqkg7njv’oAo,k8yf8A’.ljgmy’dtfkow22hk 0v’gInvogIqk9t-;j p.sh,u7;k,xvfwrs^kp0Bo grkt;kj 4hkgduf,uw22hkIqj; sn^ w22hkf6flt;yf 0v’g7njv’xhv’daow22hkIqj; c]t w22hkf6foAo 9t8fa ;’q 9vow22kh moa muD ovd9kdgIkq 8vh ’Io6h e.-wh 22kh 1kj ’xvfwr c];h p’a 8vh ’Io6h e.-wh 22kh 1kj ’xt1fa vudf;h p grkt;jk dkozt]yfrt]a’’kow22hk8hv’.-h-a[rtpkdvome,t-kfs^kp c]t .-hmboIvo 9eo;o,tsklkog0kQ .odkoles^;f c]t d+lkh ’D f’ja ooA F dko-;j pdoa xt1fa rt]’a ’kow22kh F ovd9kdgxaodkoxt1afg’yo7kj w22hkc]h; pa’-;j pxt1af-a[rtpkdvo c]t xt1afg’yo8k8kj ’ xtgmfvudf;h pD 100

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rkdmu IV oEF vk-yfF [kg-u c]t gdnv [qfmu !) oE !D ]adltotmqj;wx0v’oE oEgxaomkfcs^;[+,uluF g|a’8u’wfh’kj pF [+,u]qf-kf c]t [+,udyoj F .o7;k,faovkdkf me,tfk X 1atm = 101F 3 dy3]xkldko XKpa? s^n (*W mmHg ) oE2qf.ov5ostr6, 100OCF dhk, 0 OC, ,;olko9egrkt.ov5ostr6, 4OC gmqkj da[ 1 g/cm3D @D lj;oxtdv[0v’oE @D!D ryl6flj;oxtdv[0v’oE ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ dyf9tde !G !? Ikj poeh.lsj ^vfcdh; x c]t y .shg8a,c]h;’;exkd]q’.l0j qh;w22hk16.j ovkj ’;yg7kt f’ja I[6 D @? 1vfvk-yf-6o26iyd (H2SO4) xt,ko xy & 1vf]q’.ljoE.ovjk’;yg7ktgrnjv.sh oE-adoew22hkwfhD #? xjvpdtclw22hkc]jozjkooE c]t la’gdf[=]y,kf0v’dkl.os^vf x c]t s^vf y. $? gvqks^vfcdh; x vvd9kdoEc8j.sh 0;Exkd]q’]5j, c]h;gvqkw,h0ufw2muj r;,w\\xh vj o.lxj kds^vfcd;h F l’a gdf xkdfq dkomgju dfu 0oB D &? gvkq s^vfcd;h y vvd9kdoEc];h v;j p I6[ !)D!G ryl6fl;j oxtdv[0v’oE xkd0Bogmy’s^a’9kdoahogvqkw,h0ufw2 r;,w\\hxvj o.lxj kds^vfcdh; la’gdf xkdfq dkogdfu 0oB D 102

9kdzqo0v’dkogIafdyf9tde gsao;kj dkl.os^vf x s^kpd;kj s^vf y lv’gmvnj D g,vnj gvqk w,h0ufw2mujr;,w\\hxvj o.lxj kds^vfcdh; x 9t,ulP’fa’ XxJvd? c]t ,ug,afoE8yf16fj hko.o0v’ s^vfcdh;D g,nvj gvqkw,h0uf w2r;,w\\hxvj o.lxj kds^vfcdh; y cx;w2w\\hcI’0BoD dkomqf]v’oU1A’1nowfh;jk.os^vf x c,jodklIu3fic-o lj;o.os^vf y c,jodkl vqd-uc-o fa’j oAo lts^5[wfh;kj l;j oxtdv[0v’oE,udklIu3fic-o c]t vqd-uc-ofh;pvaf8k l;j ofhko[=]y,kf @ G!D @D@D dkola’g7ktoE dyf9tde @G dkola’g7ktoE !? l’a gdfI[6 ;my mu fq ]v’dkol’a g7ktoED @? gvkq oE.lgj 8,a sv^ fmfq ]v’I[6 md+ ,q 9kdooA l’jq dklI3u fic-o c]t vdq -cu -o1kj ’]t @ [=]y,kf]q’.lsj ^vfmqf]v’fa’j dkj ; .sh]tfa[oE]q’160j ufmu $ 0v’s^vffa’j I6[ !D ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ #? 96fdklvqd-uc-o c]t dklIu3fic-ofh;pdtcl w22hkfaj’I6[ @F la’gdf c]t [oa mdb zoq D 9kdzoq 0v’dkogIfa dfy 9tde gsoa ;kj mkf xoq m’a lv’gdufxt8ydy]ypkc];h ,ulP’c8dF ]tf[a oE.os^vfcdh;gru,j 0BoIvf0uf ! XI6[ !)D@?D dklmgju svn^ g,vjn wxmfq lv[gIfa .s4h kj ow2Ivh ocf’I’j5 dklIu3fic-o 0Bod;j kgdqkj oAoc,oj dklvqd-uc-o g,nvj 96fdkl c]t vqd-uc-o xqo]ts;jk’dklvqd-uc-oc]t dklIu3fic-o oE 9eo;o $ [=]y,kf fh;pdtclw22hk9t,u|bj’ []= ,y kfgsvn^ ooA c,oj vdq -cu -oD l;j ovdu |’jb []= ,y kf vqd-uc-o 9txt8ydy]ypkda[lv’[=]y,kfIu3fi c-o grvnj dkpgxoa oEf’ja l,q zoq G X!? X@? 2H2 + O2 ⎯t⎯o → 2H2O I6[ !)D@G dkola’g7ktoE 9kdlq,zqogIqklk,kf7yfw]vj af8kl;j ofhko,;olko0v’dklIu3fic-o c]t dklvqd -uc-o .o3,g]d5ooEwfhco;.fL 103

groyj lk,kf7yfw]wj fh3fpvu’.l[j =]y,kfmxuj tdv[.o3,g]d5ooEF 4hk.-h 22,4 X 2 0v’ H2 Dສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ 9kdlq,zqog7,ugIqkgsao;jk H2 lv’3,]gdufxt8ydy]ypkda[ O2 |bj’3,]wfhoE ! 3,]D gIqkI6h;kj ! 3,] 0v’ H2 ,u,;olko @g ltcf’;kj 4hk @ 3,]9t,u,;olko $g c]t gIqkma’ I;h6 kj ! 3,]0v’ O2 ,,u ;olko #@g ltooA F vfa 8kl;j o0v’ H c]t O .ooEc,oj $G #@ = !G ) vaf8kl;j oIhvpfhko,;olko0v’ H c]t O c,oj G !G ) #D ]adltotg7,u0v’oE #D!D oExt8ydy]ypkda[vqd-yf[kg-u dyf9tde #G !? gvqk,ufxkfdhvo Na .shgmqkj 1/2 g,afg0qhklko 9kdoahogvqk.l[j ;j ’c]h;oewx96f.sh gxvnj pD l’a gdfxkdfq dkomgju duf0oB D @? gvqkmkfmujgzqkwfh.o[j;’]q’.ljoE9qod;jk9t]t]kp\\qf c]h;.-hs^vff6fgvqkmkf ]t]kp wx1vf.lgj 9hp]yf,aflucf’F la’gdfdkoxPj olu0v’g9hp c]t [aombdzqoD zqo0v’dyf9tde g,vnj 96fok8iuvv,9tgsaocx;w2I’j5 gs^Nv,F ok8iuvv,dkpgxaomkf c0’lu0k;\\ojq F g-’yj xt8ydy]ypkltcf’f;h pl,q zoq g7,uf’ja oUG 4Na + O2 → 2Na2O { gvqkmkfc0’.lj oEwfhmkf]t]kp[+,ulu g,nvj 1vf.lgj 9hp]yf,aflucf’dkpgxaolu2hk oaholtcf’;kj mkfmuwj fhIa[9tdkpgxaomkffa’j s^n [kg-uD lq,zqog7,uG Na2O + H2O → 2NaOH Xok8iuvv,Iufiqd-yf s^n -6fdaf|a’?D ovd9kdoUgIqklk,kf]t]kpvqd-yf0v’3]stf’aj s^n 3]stf’aj fyogrvnj dkpgxaomkff’aj 8;q 1kj ’G K2O + H2O → 2KOH CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2 104

lts^5[G oExt8ydy]ypkda[vqd-yf[kg-uwfhmkf]t]kp[kg-uD #D@ oEgdufxt8ydy]ypkda[3]stfja’ dyf9tde $G !?D gvkq ,fu xkfdvh o Na Xok8ivu v,? xt,ko 1/2 g,fa g0kqh lko]’q .l9j vdcd;h m[ju oa 95 oE c];h gvkq 9;p’;e X1kj .-,h 9n [a grkt,oa voa 8t]kp?F l’a gdfxkdfq dko c]t [oa mdb zoq D @?D .-hs^vff6fgvqkmkf]t]kp.o9vd 1vf.lgj 9hp]yf,aflucf’c]h;la’gdfxkdqf dkomguj duf0Bo c]t [aombdzqoD zqodyf9tde g,nvj gvqkdhvo Na ]q’.loj EF 9;pສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ ,ao9txyoj gmy’|hkoEc]h;d=\\qfwxD g,nvj gvqkmkf ]t]kp1vf.lgj 9hp]yf,aflucf’9tdkpgxaolu2hk Na gIqkgsaoxtdqfdkof’aj dkj ;phvo;kj ok8iuvv,xt 8ydy]ypkd[a oEwfoh k8iuvv,Iufidq -yfF dklIu3fi c-o c]t cz7j ;k,Ihvofa’j lq,zqoG 2Na + 2H2O → 2NaOH + H2 + Q H2O ok8iuvv,gxao3]stfaj’F gxaomkfc0’mujg[qk I6[ !)D#D ok8iuvv,xt8ydy]ypkda[oE d;kj oE g,nvj gIqkgvqk]q’.l9j vdoE,ao9t26gmy’|hk oE c]t rhv,fP;daooaho,ao9tp6hIu3fic-o vvd9kdoEfh;p7;k,w;l6’ ltoahoF 9tgIaf.shdhvo ok8iuvv,xyoj c]t ]t]kpwfhw;D \\kpgsfG 4kh gIkq gvkq dvh ook8ivu v,sk^ pF [k’7’ha 9tgsoa ,cu l’w2c8dvvdpvh o;kj gxoa xt8ydy]ypkcz7j ;k,Ihvol6’ 4hk,uIu3fic-oxqfxvj pvvds^kpd=9t]5dw\\hwfhD ltoahoF g;]kgIaf mfq ]v’8vh ’wf]h t;’a c]t 7;o,9u ;pxdq xkd9vdcd;h w;gh rvjn [+.soh k8ivu v,2’qh vvdovdF [+.sh ,vu oa 8t]kpgdfu 0oB D lts^5[G oExt8ydy]ypkda[3]stfa’j F 3]stfa’j fyo [k’-toyf9twfhmkf]t]kp[kg-u c]t xfq xvj pdklIu3fic-orvh ,f;h pcz7j ;k,Ivh oD 105

#D# oEgdufxt8ydy]ypkda[vqd-yfvk-yf[k’-toyf ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ 8;q 1kj ’G CO2 + H2O ←⎯→ H2CO3 SO3 + H2O → H2SO4 P2O5 + 3H2O → 2H3PO4 lts^5[G oExt8ydy]ypkda[vqd-yfvk-yfwfhmkf]t]kpvk-yfD #D$ oElk,kfgdufxt8ydy]ypkda[vuds^kpmkf 8q;1jk’ !G oEgdufxt8ydy]ypkda[/5jogs^admujIhvo 500OC wfhvqd-yfc,jgs^ad c]t dkl I3u fic-oD 3Fe + 4H2O ⎯5⎯00o⎯C→ Fe3O4 + 4H2 8q;1kj ’ @G .shvkpoEzkj o4kj omurj ;,w\\hcf’wfhdklIu3fic-o c]t dkd[vo3,3o vdq -fy D C + H2O → H2 + CO ovd9kdmuwj fhdkj ;,k0hk’gmy’c]h;oEpa’gxao8q;]t]kpmufj u grnvj gIaf.shwfhmkf]t]kp 8kj ’M g-oaj G !D vk-yfxtlq,oEwfhmkf]t]kpvk-yfD @D gdvn ]t]kp.ooEwfmh kf]t]kpgdvn D #D [kg-u]t]kp.ooEwfmh kf]t]kp[kg-uD mkf8kj ’Mg,vnj ]t]kp.o8q;]t]kp c]t mkfmuwj fhIa[gvuho;kj mkf]t]kp0v’mkfoahoD mkf]t]kp,u7;k,le7aos^kp8+l’yj m,uj u-u;yf c]t me,t-kfD mkf]t]kp.ome,t-kf ,ugdvn cI9j ko1kj ’s;^ ’sk^ pD rfn 8kj ’MwfIh [a gdvn cI9j kod]= ;h oc8Ij [a .oI[6 c[[0v’mkf]t]kp gmkjq ooha D grktltooha dkosfq oE8ohq w,8h kj ’Mdg= rvjn .s8h ohq w,lh k,kfff6 -,b gvkq gdvn cI9j ko9kdfoy ooha gv’D 106

.odkodtlyde groyj oe.-hmkf]t]kpx5Jp c]t 1kxk[laf86rnf9eo;o|’bj D 0t[;odko Ia[vksko0v’7qo c]t lafd=wfhfegouowx3fpdkoxPj ovkskogxaomkf]t]kp8q;.ooEfh;p vtw;pt;tpvj pvksko 9kdoaho 9y’j xPj ogxaomkf]t]kpg-y’j ,uoEgxao8q;]t]kpD .odkoIPo ;y-kg7,u groyj ,da .-oh E gxoa 8;q ]t]kpF dko]t]kp0v’mkf8kj ’M.ooE9tgIfa .smh kfgsk^jq ooha gdufxt8ydy]ypkoedaowfhw;0BoD grktltoaho .ov5flkstdeg7,u c]t v5flkstdevnoj M9y’j oe.-h oE1kj ’s^;’s^kpD [qfg/ydsafG !D g,nvj 96fdklIu3fic-o !W ml c]t dklvqd-uc-o!W ml 4k,;kj g,nvj xt8ydy]ypk loY lf5 9t,mu kf.fgs^vn c]t gs^vn 9da 3,]L ,;olkooEmgju dfu 0oB 9t,9u da gL X dklmd5 -toyf;afcmd.og’vnj ow0,kf8t4ko?D @D 9’qj 8,nj l6fg7,u0v’mkf8kj ’M.l[j vj om,uj u\\kp4k,.sh4nd8hv’L dD Ca +.....?... Ca(OH)2 + ....?... 0D BaO +.....?.... Ba(OH)2 7D SO2 +.....?.... ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ ’D N O + H O H2SO3 25 2 ....?... #D 9q’j pqd8q;1kj ’mkf]t]kp3fp,u H2O gxao8q;]t]kp9ad # 8q;1kj ’D $D mkf]t]kpmu,j u H2O gxao8q;]t]kp,u[qf[kfle7aoco;.f8=j-u;yfdkogxao16j0v’ 7oq gIkq L &D 9’qj 0Po c]t -’aj -klq,zqog7,u8w=j xouhG K + H2O DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD + DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD Na + H O DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD + DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD + DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD 2 DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD + DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD + DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD Ca + H2O DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD + DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD Cs + H O 2 Mg + H2O P2O5+ H2O NO+ HO DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD + DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD 25 2 DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD + DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD MgO+ H2O DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD + DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD CaO+ H2O DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD + DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD K2O + H2O 107

*D 9’qj -’aj -klq,zqog7,u8+wxouhG H2O + Fe ⎯5⎯00 O⎯C→ Fe3O4 + H2 (D 9’qj 0uf]6dlvo9kdshv’A.lsj hv’ B .shgxaoxt3spdm4uj nd8hv’ A B !D 3,g]do5 oExtdv[f;h p dD [+,udyjoF [+,u]qf-kf @D oEgxoa mkfcs;^ m[ju ,+ lu u 0D @ vk38,Iu3fic-o c]t ! vk38,vqd-uc-o #D mkf]t]kp[kg-u 7D gIfa .sgh 9ph ]yf,fa lu2kh xPj ogxoa lucf’ $D mkf]t]kpvk-uf ’D gIfa .sgh 9ph ]yf,fa lucf’xPj ogxoa lu2kh ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ 108

[qfmu !_ vk-yf !D lj;oxtdv[0v’vk-yf oadIPo9q’j la’gdf8k8t]k’]5,j oU c]h;[vd;kj l;j oxtdv[0v’vk-yf,uspa’cfLj 3fp v’u .llj f6 g7,Fu g7kQ vk-fy c]t 7kj g7,.u o8k8t]k’D -nj lf6 g7,u g7kQ vk-fy 7kj g7,u g7kQ vk-fy vk-yf d^=Iyfiyd HCl Cl - I vk-yf oy8iyd I vk-yf -6o26iyd HNO3 NO - II vk-yf 2qflt2=iyd H2SO4 3 III H PO ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ SO 2- 34 4 PO43- 9kddkola’gdf.o8k8t]k’9tgsao;kj l6fg7,u0v’vk-yfc8]j t-toyf ]h;oc8xj tdv[ fh;pvk38, H c]t g7Qkvk-yf XIkdvk-yf? g-y’j g7Qkvk-yfvkf9t,u s^n [+,u vqd-uc-o16oj eD f’aj ooA vk-yf c,oj mkfxtl,q |’jb g-’yj .o3,g]do5 0v’,oa xtdv[f;h p|’jb s^n s^kpvk38, Iu3fic-o XH? c]t g7Qkvk-yf XIkdvk-yf?D { g7kQ vk-fy 9[a d[a vk38,I3u fic-o8k,7kj g7,Fu g7kQ vk-fy 9t,7u kj g7,gu mkjq .fooA 0oB d[a 9eo;ovk38,Iu3fic-omxju tdv[1.j6 ovk-yfooA D @D dko0Pol6fg7,u0v’vk-yf { lf6 3,g]do5 0v’vk-yfxtdv[,ulv’rkdl;j o7nG l;j omu,j k9kdvuvq’[;d XT? 0v’Iu3fic-o c]t l;j omu,j k9kdvuvq’]q[ X{? 0v’g7Qk vk-yfD I3u fic-o XH? ,7u kj g7,gu mkjq !F ltooA 4kh I7h6 kj g7,0u v’g7kQ vk-fy c];h lk,kf0Polf6 g7,u 0v’vk-yfwfh3fp.sh0PoIu3fic-o0Bodvj o c]h;8k,fh;pg7Qkvk-yfrhv,ma’0Po7kj g7,u0v’ g7kQ vk-fy svh p.lIj 3u fic-oD 109

I3u fic-o g7kQ vk-fy 7kj g7,0u v’g7kQ vk-fy lf6 g7,u I H+ Cl - I HCl H+ NO3- II H+ SO42- III HNO H+ PO43- 3 vk-yf H2SO4 H3PO4 #D dko9afc[j’vk-yf [oa 9v5 dq -cu -o [+[oa 9v5 dq -cu -o ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ vk-fy 0oA I: HCl, HBr, HF, HI vk-fy 0oA I: HNO3 vk-fy 0oA II: H2S vk-fy 0oA II: H SO 24 vk-fy 0oA III: H PO 34 I6[ !_D! czo;kfdko9afc[’j vk-yf vk-yf[k’-toyfmuj7;oI6h9adG dD vk-yf-6o26iyd XH2SO4? vk-yf-6o26iydgxaomkfcs^;mu[j +,uluF ph;p7nda[oEgzY’F [+,udyoj c]t |add;kj oE vk-yf -o6 2i6 dy ff6 don 7;k,-,j5 9kdvkdkf c]t 9kddkl-tofy vojn wffh Du ltooA grojy 9’jb oe.-7h o5 ]da ltot f’ja dkj ; grvjn gIfa .sdh kl9eo;o|’jb cs’h fDu g,vjn gvkq vk-fy -o6 2i6 dy xoq d[a oE,oa 9tcz7j ;k,Ivh ovvdsk^ pF 4kh 4vdoE.lvj k-fy -o6 2i6 dy 110

,oa 9txoq d[a vk-fy [+moa g-’jy gxoa gsf.sgh dfu dko2fq dtmoa soa c]t g,fa vk-fy 9t2’Q .l|j kh s^n ,n zgh6 Ifa mfq ]v’D grvjn s^du g;oA [oa skf’ja dkj ;.odko]t]kpvk-fy -o6 2i6 dy .ooE9t8vh ’7vj pMgspoA vk-fy .loj E c]t 7oq wxrvh , c8sj kh ,gspoA oE.lvj k-fy gffa 0kfD 0D vk-yfd^=Iufiyd XHCl? vk-fy dI=^ fy idy c,oj mkf]t]kpdi^= ;q I3u fic-o.ooE vk-fy f’ja dkj ;,du ojy g-’jy c,oj dojy 0v’ dkld^i= ;q I3u fic-o grkt;kj 3,g]do5 0v’dklf’ja dkj ;wf]h tgspu vvd g,vjn dkld^i= ;q I3u fic-o x;y .ovkdkf,oa 9tff6 gvkq oE c];h dkpgxoa \\vdvk-fy dI=^ fu idy X,du ojy vk-fy dI=^ fu idy ?D $D dkogvUo-njvk-yf $D! vk-yfmu[j +,uvqd-uc-o Xvk-yfIu3fic-o?D 0Bo8Qofh;p7e;kj G vk-yf c]h;vkj o-n0j v’ 3]st c]t ]q’mhkpfh;pIufiydD ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ HF vk-yf2^6v=Iufiyd HBr vk-yf3[i,Iufiyd HCl vk-yfd^=Iufiyd HI vk-yfvuvqfIufiyd H2S vk-yf-6o26Iufiyd $D@ vk-yfm,uj uvdq -uc-oD vk-yfmuj,u-nj]q’mhkpfh;p gxu HClO vk-yfIu3xd^=giu HClO vk-yfd^=giu HNO2 vk-yfoug8iu 2 vk-yfmuj,u-nj]q’mhkpfh;p xyd H2SO3 vk-yf-o6 2g6 iu HNO vk-yfou8iyd H CrO vk-yf3di,,yd 3 24 H2CO3 vk-yfdkd3[oyd H3BO3 vk-yf[=iyd H2SO4 vk-yf-6o26iyd H2SiO3 vk-yf-u]yd-yd H PO vk-yf2qflt2=iyd 34 le]a[vk-yfmuj,uvqd-uc-os^kpd;jkxqddt8y HClO4 vk-yfcxadd^=iyd HIO4 vk-yfcxadvuvqffiyd HMnO4 vk-yfcxad,a’dkoyd H2Cr2O7 vk-yffu3di,,yd 111

&D 75o]adltot0v’vk-yf &D! ]da ltotmk’g7,u dyf9tde !G vk-yfxt8ydy]ypkda[3]st !? 4vdvk-yfd^=Iufiyd XHCl? .lcj 8]j ts^vfmqf]v’xt,ko @& cm3 @? gvqkg,afla’dtlu XZn? !{@ g,afF czoj ,kgp-uvv, (Mg)F czoj gs^ad (Fe)F g,afdko -uvv, (Ca) dD czoj la’dtlu (Zn) 0D czoj ,kgp-uvv, (Mg) 7D czoj gs^ad (Fe) ’D g,afdko-uvv, (Ca) I6[ !_D@ vk-yfxt8ydy]ypkda[3]st ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ oda IPol’a gdfxkdfq dko c];h [oa mdb zoq .l8j k8t]k’D zoq dkol’a gdf 3]st vk-fy l,q zoq xt8dy ]y py k dklmgju dfu 0oB Zn Mg Fe Ca 9kddfy 9tde 3]stsk^ p-tofy lk,kfxt8dy ]y py kd[a vk-fy wfgh dvn 0v’3]st c]t dklI3u fi c-o f’ja l,q zoq D 3]st T vk-yf gdnv0v’3]st T dklIu3fic-o 3]st[k’-toyf g-ajoG XAg? [+gdufxt8ydy]ypkda[ XHCl? lj;o Zn, Fe, Mg, Ca gdufxt8y]ypkda[vk-yf XHCl? wfhfu c84j hkgxao3]st Na, K 9tgdufxt8ydy]ypkw; c]t Io5 cI’D 112

dyf9tde @G vk-yfxt8ydy]ypkda[suox6o ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ !? gvkq gxvn dsvpm[ju fq ,o5j sn^ sou xo6 xt,ko @ [;j ’dkg2.l.j osv^ fmfq ]v’m,ju /u kxfy c]t ,um+l’qj dkl lP[1D6j @? 9vd[ao95oEx6o.l Ca(OH)2. #? 4vdmkf]t]kp HCl ]’q .lj c];h 2kh ;vfa /ksv^ fmfq ]v’m,ju mu l+ ’jq dkllP[1fj6 kh o|’jb 9,j5 ]’q .l9j vdm[uj oa 9o5 Exo6 .lD $? 9’qj l’a gdfxkdfq dkomguj duf0Bo c]t [oa mdb zoq D { mkfvkpm4uj ndxqfxvj pvvdc,oj mkfvkp.fL { 0Pol,q zoq xt8ydy]ypk]ts;kj ’suoxo6 d[a mkf]t]kp HCl 9kddyf9tde lk,kflts^5[wfh;kj vk-yfxt8ydy]ypkda[suox6oc]h;wfhdkl CO . g-’yj gxao 2 dklmguj Ifa .soh Exo6 .l0oj5 D dD vk-yfxt8ydy]ypkda[[kg-uwfhgdnv c]t oEXxt8ydy]ypk9k;? gvkq vk-fy c]t [kg-.u oxt],y kogmkjq doa c]t ,7u ;k,g0,A gmkjq doa ,kxt8dy ]y py koedoa F mkfxtl,q mwju f[h +gIfa .sgh 9ph ]fy ,fa xPj olu ltcf’;kj mkfxtl,q oU ,]u da ltot9k; Xgxoa dk’? 7un pH=7. 8q;1kj ’ !G NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2O 8q;1kj ’ @G H2SO4 + Ca(OH)2 → CaSO4 + 2H2O 0D vk-yfxt8ydy]ypkda[vqd-yf[kg-u xtdv[gxaogdnv c]t oE H2SO4 + BaO → BaSO4 + H2O 2HCl + CaO → CaCl2 + H2O 7D vk-yf9eo;o|bj’xt8ydy]ypkda[3]stmuj168+|hk H .oc4;g7njvows;g7,u0v’ 3]stxtdv[gxaogdnv c]t Iu3fic-og-ajoG K, Na, Ca, Mg, Zn, Fe, Ni, Sn (H) Cu,Hg, Ag, Pt, Au pI6h 3u fic-o [+pI6h 3u fic-o 113

8;q 1kj ’G Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2 ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ Ag + HCl → ≠ X[+gdufxt8ydy]ypk? ’D vk-yfxt8ydy]ypkda[gdnvxtdv[gxaogdnv.\\j c]t vk-yf.\\j 8;q 1kj ’G ZnCl2 + H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + 2HCl *D dkooe.-hvk-yf[k’-toyf mkf]t]kpmguj xoa vk-yf .o-u;yfxt9e;oa mruj ;dgIkq g7up.-,h us^kp-toyfm,uj u7o5 ]da ltot c]t dkooe.-hc8d8kj ’daoD { mkf]t]kpvk-yfmuj.-hx5’c8j’vkskogxaovk-yfmujwfh9kdrnfg-ajoG vk-yfoElQ,F vk-fy mwju f9h kd\\kdok;F \\kd0k, g4’y ;kj vk-fy mwju f9h kdrfn 9t.-xh ’5 c8’j vksko wfh c8j4hk[=]y3rds^kpd=gxaovao8t]kpwfhD ltoAoF 9bj’7;o.-h.oxt]y,kor=fuD ovd9kdoU pa’,uoElQ,leg]afI6[G vkf9t,uoElQ,lkp-6xv, dvj o9t[=]y3rd7;o mqflv[.shco.j 9;kj c,oj oElQ,cmh c]h;9’bj oe,k[=]y3rdD { vk-yf[k’-toyf gxaovk-yfcI’F gdufxt8ydy]ypkda[l’yj 8kj ’Mwfhw; c]t daf 9’bj gxao voa 8t]kp 4kh 4dn glvN zkh F z;y |’a sn^ govN gspvjn 0v’Ikj ’dkpD mkf]t]kpvk-fy m,ju zu oq glp8+ly’j c;f]hv,g-aoj G /qodqf gIaf.shly’j x5dlhk’8kj ’Mgdufdkod5fshPo g,nvj ,koe .-]h kh ’roN sn^ g7vjn ’l05 troa c];h 9tme]kproN gIvn o sn^ g7vjn ’l05 troa 8kj ’Msp5^ sPh owfDh f’ja ooA F dko.-mh kf]t]kpvk-fy 9’jb 8vh ’.-.h s4h dn ;my u c]t vkj o7ecotoe.sgh 0kQ .9dvj o 9t.-hF dkogda[IadlkF dkome]kp c]t vnoj MD lf6 g7,u -mjn k’g7,u xt3spf HCl vk-fy dI=^ fu idy oE1k]kh ’svh ’oEFDDD vk-fy -o5 2i6 dy .-.h ovf5 lkstdezt]fy lpu vh ,D H2SO4 vk-fy o8u idy .-xh tl,q .og7vjn ’f,jn FDDD HNO3 vk-fy 2fq lt2i= dy .-zh t]fy xpJ5 FDDD H3PO4 vk-fy vkg-8dy .-xh ’5 c8’j vkskoFDDD CH3CHOOH 114

lyj’7;ogvqk.9.lj { .oxt8ydy]ypkg7,u]ts;kj ’vk-yfou8iydda[3]st9twfhgdnv c8[j +xqfxvj p H2D { vk-yfmu[j +]t]kp.ooE9t[+gdufxt8ydy]ypkda[3]st c]t mkf1k,lu c8gj dufxt8y dy]ypk da[3]stf’aj D { vu’8k,7;k,lk,kf]tgsupcI’ c]t 7;k,lk,kf]t]kp8q;.ooEc]h; grojy 9af ]efa[dkop6hg-’yj dao c]t dao0v’vk-yfda[mkf]t]kpgdnv8k,c4;],j5 oUD H2SO4 , HCl , HNO3, H3PO4 , H2CO3, H2SiO3 { vk-yf-o6 2i6 ydm,uj u7;k,\\oA 7’q l’6 9tgdufxt8ydy]ypkd[a gdnv0v’vk-yfwfFh g-aoj G HCl, HNO3, H3PO4. [qfg/ydsafG !D 9tgIafco;.f9b’j 9tI6h;kj dhvosuo.f|b’j c,oj suox6o s^n [+L @D g,vjn .-oh E1k]kh ’svh ’oEm,ju lu ;j oxtl,q 0v’vk-fy dI=^ fu idy xoq 1Fj6 ]kh ’roN svh ’oEmgju Ifa fh;psuox6o9tgxaoco;.fL vtmy[kp rhv,ma’0Polq,zqoxt8ydy]ypkg7,umguj duf0BoD #D 9’qj 0Po8,nj .l[j vj os;kj ’0v’8k8t]k’.s4h nd8vh ’ ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ -vjn k-fy lf6 g7,u g7kQ vk-fy -gjn 7kQ vk-fy vk-fy -o6 2g6 iu DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD vk-fy 3[i,Ifu idy HNO2 DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD HClO4 $D vqd-yf-toyf.f8+wxoUmu]j t]kp.ooEc]h;wfhvk-yfL CaO, Na2O, SO2, Al2O3, P2O5, SiO2, N2O5 { 0Pol,q zoq xt8dy ]y py kmgju dfu 0oB rvh , &D grnvj x5’c8’j Iu3fic-o WF@ 3,] 4k,;kj 9t8hv’.-hla’dtlu9ad g gIafxt8ydy]ypkda[ mkf]t]kpvk-yfd^=Iufiyd9k’L 115

*D 9’qj 8+g7’yj lq,zqoshv’A.lgj 7’yj lq,zqoshv’ B .sh4nd8hv’ A B dD Mg + 2HCl 1. KCl + H O 2 0D KOH + HCl @D CaSO4 + 2H2O 7D Ca(OH)2 + H2SO4 ’D P O + 3H O 3. 2H3PO4 25 2 4. MgCl + H 22 (D 9q’j 0Polq,zqo c]t -’aj -k.sh4nd8hv’L ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ dD MgSO + HCl .................. + ................... 4 0D LiOH + HCl .....................+ ................... 7D Ba(OH)2 + H2SO4 .............. + ................... ’D N2O5 + H2O ............................................ 9D ZnCl2 + H2SO4 .................+ ................... )D 9q’j 8n,j .l[j vj o9Eg,af c]t -a’j -klq,zqo.sh4nd8hv’L dD ............... + H3PO4 Mg3 (PO4)2 + HCl 0D FeSO4 + HCl H2SO4 +..................... 7D P2O5 + H2O ..................................... ’D KCl + ............... HCl + K2SO4 9D ................ + H PO H CO + Mg (PO ) 34 23 3 42 lD .................+..................... FeSO + HNO 43 116

[qfmu @W [kg-u !D lj;oxtdv[0v’[kg-u dyf9tde !G oadIPo9’jq la’gdf8k8t]k’],5j oUG groyj .-7h kj g7,uF laopt]da g7,u0v’3]stc];h lkh ’gxao l6fg7,u0v’[kg-uwfhco;.fL 7kj g7,u loa pt]da 0v’3]st l6f3,g]d5o0v’[kg-u I Na, K NaOH, KOH II Ca,Mg,Fe III Ca(OH)2, Mg(OH)2,Fe(OH)2 Al, Fe Al(OH)3, Fe(OH)3 ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ .o3,g]do5 0v’[kg-xu tdv[,|u ’jb vk38,3]st sn^ d,j5 mkf,o6 mP[gmkjq 3]st c]t |’jb s^n s^kp9I5 fu idq -fy XOH), g-’jy 9I5 fu idq -fy g;]k.fd,= 7u kj g7,gu mkjq !D @D dko9afc[j’[kg-u [kg-uwfhc[’j vvdgxao @ -toyfD [kg-umuj]t]kp8q;.ooE [kg-ymuj[+]t]kp8q;.ooE AgOH gxoa rdb 0oj5 NaOH Cu(OH) 2 gxoa rdb l2u kh KOH Fe (OH) 2 gxoa rdb l0u P; CsOH Fe(OH) 3 gxoa rdb lcu f’-E Ba(OH)2 Al(OH) 3 gxoa rdb |P;.l #D dkovjko-nj0v’[kg-u dkovkj o-0jn v’[kg-u .svh kj o-3jn ]st sn^ 9m5 P[gmkjq 3]stdvj o Xd]= to3u ]st.f,su k^ p7kj g7,u .shvkj o-3nj ]stdvj o c]h;8k,fh;p7kj g7,u? c]h;9’bj ]q’mhkpfh;pIufiqd-yfD 117

8;q 1kj ’G NaOH ok8ivu v,Ifu idq -fy ve3,oIu fu idq -fy NH4OH dko-vu v,Ifu idq -fy Ca(OH)2 gsd^a II Ifu idq -fy Fe(OH) 2 gs^da III Iufidq -yf Fe(OH) 3 $D ]adltotg7,u0v’[kg-u $D!D xt8ydy]ypkda[mkfxjPolu ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ dyf9tde @G !? 1vf NaOH ]q’.lgj 9hp]yf,aflucf’F la’gdfdkoxPj olumugj dyf0Bo c]t [aombdzqoD @? gvqkoEx6o.l Ca(OH) !{@ ml .lsj ^vfmqf]v’F 9kdoAo1vfg23oo2t8kg]vyo 2 m[ju +,lu ]u ’q .lj !{@ 1vfF l’a gdf dkoxPj olmu guj dfu 0oB c]t [oa mdb zoq D 8k8t]k’[aombdzqoG mkfg7,u g9hp]yf,af}g23oo2t8kg]vyo zqodkoxjPolu g9ph ]fy ,fa lcu f’ NaOH Ca(OH)2 g23oo2t8kg]voy lts^5[zqodkomqf]v’gsao;jkG !D g,nvj 1vf NaOH ]q’.lgj 9hp]yf,aflucf’xPj ogxaolu2hkD @ g,vnj 1vfg23oo2t8kg]vyomu[j +,ulu]q’.loj Ex6o.l Ca(OH)2 oEx6o.lxPj ogxaolu[q;D $D@ [kg-uxt8ydy]ypkda[vqd-yfvk-yfwfhgdnv c]t oE 2NaOH + SiO2 → Na2SiO3 + H2O 3Ca(OH)2 + P2O5 → Ca3 (PO4 )2 + 3H2O 118

$D#D [kg-uxt8ydy]ypkda[vk-yfwfhgdnv c]t oEXxt8ydy]ypk9k;? KOH + HCl → KCl + H2O Mg(OH) + H SO → MgSO + 2H O 2 24 4 2 $D$D [kg-uxt8ydy]ypkda[gdnvwfh[kg-u.\\j c]t gdnv.\\j dyf9tde #G 1vf NaOH !{@ ml ]q’.lj s^vfmqf]v’ !F @F #F $F 8k,]efa[ Xfa’j I6[c8h,? c]h;la’ gdfxkdqfdkomguj duf0Bo.oc8]j ts^vf c]t [aombdzqoD zoq dkomfq ]v’0v’c8]j ts^vf,xu kdfq dkogdfu 0oB f’ja oGU s^vfmuj ! ,urbdlu2hkgduf0Bo ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ CuCl2 FeCl2 AgCl FeCl 3 2NaOH + CuCl2 → 2NaCl + Cu(OH)2 rbdlu2hk ↓ 119

{ s^vfmu @ ,urbdlu0P;gduf0Bo 2NaOH + FeCl2 → 2NaCl +Fe(OH)2 ↓ rbdlu0P; { s^vfmu # ,urndlucf’-E X0U\\hP’? gduf0BoD 3NaOH + FeCl3 → 3NaCl + Fe(OH)3r↓bdlucf’-E { s^vfmu $ ,urbd05jogduf0BoD NaOH + AgCl → NaCl + AgOH r↓bd05oj $D&D [kg-u[+]t]kp.ooEg,njv4nd;yg7ktfh;p7;k,Ihvo9twfhvqd-yf[kg-u c]t oE 2Fe(OH)3 ⎯t⎯O → Fe2O3 + 3H2O ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ Cu(OH)2 ⎯t⎯O → CuO + H2O &D [kg-umujle7ao &D!D ok8iuIufiqd-yf s^n gvUo;jk 3-fkw2F ,ul6f3,g]d5oG NaOH dD ]adltotmk’2u-yd dyf9tde $G !? gvqk NaOH ! g,af .lgj 9hp0k;;k’gmy’|hk38tD xtw;hw]pt|b’j la’gdfxkdqfdkoD @? .soh da IPo.-,h ln erfa d[a oElt[6 s^n c2[a 9kdooA 4o6 ;Y ,.n ldj oa c];h [vd7;k,Ilh6 dn m,ju Du 9kddkomfq lv[9tgsoa wf;h kj G NaOH mgju xoa mkfc0’[,+ lu u 7vj pMg-vjn ,gxoa mkfcs;^ F g9ph [vj om,ju gu ,fa NaOH ;k’17j6 vj p gs^nv’g0kQ c];h zv5 vdD g,njvgvqk,nlezafda[lt[6 s^n c2a[9tI6hlbd,njo faj’oAo gIqklk,kflts^5[wfh;jkG NaOH gxoa mkfc0’[,+ lu Fu ff6 oE.ovkdkfwffh Fu ]t]kp.ooEwffh u rvh ,m’a cz7j ;k,Ivh oF ,]u da ltot,ojn D 120

dafg9hp c]t zy;|a’D ltoAog,nvj .-h NaOH 7;o]t;a’D 0D ]adltotmk’g7,u { NaOH xt8ydy]ypkda[ g23oo2t8kg]vyom[uj +,uludkpgxaolu[q;D { NaOH xt8ydy]ypkda[vqd-yfvk-yf wfhgdnv c]t oED { NaOH xt8ydy]ypkda[vk-yfwfhgdnv c]toE Xxt8ydy]ypk9k;?D { NaOH xt8ydy]ypkda[gdnv wfhgdnv.\\j c]t [kg-u.\\Dj 7D dkooe.-h NaOH ’D dkox5’c8j’ NaOH ;yg7ktmkf]t]kp NaCl vu,j 8q;fh;pdtclw22hkD .ovkj ’ ;yg7ktgryoj .-h8kokj ’0Ao @ 0Q;gvg]ad38if[;d c]t ]q[S gryoj 9tgda[wfhdklIu3fi c-o16jlQo]q[D dkld^=16jlQo[;d c]t mkf]t]kp NaOH 16lj Qo]q[.ovkj ’;yg7ktD 2NaCl + 2H2O → 2NaOH + HCl ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ zt]yf Al XgIaf.sh zt]yfg9hp zt]fy lt[6 c]t cIvj k]6,uou,uvv,ltvkfdvj o ;fa 4-5 da ]kh ’ NaOH oewxzt]yfvk]6,uouvv,? vf5 lkstde vf5 lkstde g7,8u kj ’M oE,oa f[y czo;kf @WD!D dPj ;d[a dkooe.-h NaOH &D@ dko-uvv,Iufiqd-yf XoEx6o.l?D ,ul6f3,g]d5oG Ca(OH) 2 dD ]adltotmk’2u-yd { Ca(OH)2 gxoa /oj5 gvoU ;kj xo6 z’q F []+ t]kpgvoU ;kj xo6 0k; sn^ xo6 0oj5 D .ork;t]t]kpgxoa mkfcs^;[+,ulugvUo;kj oEx6o.lD - Ca(OH)2 ]t]kp.ooEwf|h vh pD 121

0D ]adltotg7,u ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ dko-uIufiqd-yf,u]adltotg7,u7n NaOH c8]j tfa[g7vnj ows;g7,uvvj od;j kNaOH. 8q;1jk’G Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O * D ]tfa[ pH ovd9kd.-mh kfxPj olu grvnj [’jq [vdg4y’]da ltotmguj xoa vk-yfF [kg-u s^n 9k;F c];h groyj p’a .-h]tfa[ pH grnvj ltcf’g4y’mkf]t]kpmu,j u]adltotvk-yfF [kg-u s^n 9k;vudD { 4hk pH = 7 mkf]t]kp,u]adltot9k;D { 4hk pH>7 mkf]t]kp,u]adltot[kg-uF 4hk pH l6’d;j k ( gmkqj .fp’yj gxao[kg-ucI’ gmkjq ooA { 4hk pH<7 mkf]t]kp,u]adltotvk-yfF 4hk pH ohvpd;j k ( gmqkj .fd=py’j gxaovk -fy cI’gmkjq ooA vk-yf 9k; [kg-u 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 ]tf[a vk-fy cI’8k,]e][a ]tf[a [kg-cu I’8k,]e][a [qfg/ydsafG !? 9q’j 8+7;k, s^n l6fg7,u.oshv’A.ldj a[shv’ B .shgxaoxt3spd s^n lq,zqomu4j nd8hv’ A B dD Na2O ,u[kg-umP,76cj ,oj !D MgCl2+2H2O 0D CaO ,u[kg-umP,76cj ,oj @D NaOH #D Fe2O3+3H2O 7D 2Fe(OH)3 ⎯t⎯o→ 4. Ca(OH)2 ’D Mg(OH)2 + 2HCl ⎯⎯→ 122

@? 9q’j 8+g7y’j lq,zqoshv’ A.lgj 7y’j lq,zqoshv’ B .sh4nd8hv’ A B d. Mg(OH)2 ⎯t⎯→ !D NaCl + H O 0. NaOH + HCl → 2 7. Cu(OH)2 + H2SO4 → '. 6NaOH + P2O5 → @D CuSO4 + 2H2O #D 2Na3PO4 + 3H2O 4. MgO + H2O #? 9’qj \\kpvhv,;q’gvqkvadlvo X4? 4hkgsao;kj 4nd8hv’F \\kpvhv,;q’gvqk8q;vadlvo Xz? 4kh gsoa ;kj zyfD.o8k8t]k’],j5 oUG dD Ca(OH)2 ]t]kp8;q .ooEwffh u 4zສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ 0D NaOH gxoa mkfc0’[+,lu u 4z 7D NaOH ]t]kp8;q .ooEwffh u 4z ’D 7kj pH .spdj ;kj ( mkf]t]kp,]u da ltot[kg-u 4z $? .o[aofk0=h],5j oUc,oj 0=h.fzyfL dD [kg-u[+]t]kp.ooE,u NaOH , Fe(OH)3F Ca(OH)2D 0D [kg-u]t]kp.ooE,uG NaOH F KOHD 7D Ca(OH)2 , Mg(OH)2 c,oj [kg-uD ’D [kg-gu Ifa .sgh 23oo2t8kg]voy dkpgxoa l[u ;q D &? vqd-yf-toyf.f8+wxoU g,nvj ]t]kp.ooEc]h;wfh[kg-uL Na2O, P2O5, N2O5, CaO, K2O, MgO, Li2O, Rb2O, Cs2O, BaO, BeO. { 0Pol,q zoq xt8dy ]y py kmgju dfu 0oB rvh ,D 123

*? 9q’j 8n,j .l[j vj os;kj ’.o8k8t]k’.sh4nd8hv’L -njmkf[kg-u l6fg7,u0v’[kg-u ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ .............................................. Mg(OH)2 .............................................. l’a dtlIu fu idq -fy ]8u vu v,Ifu idq -fy ............................................. KOH ......................................... ............................................. CsOH vk],6 ou vu v,Ifu idq -fy LiOH ......................................... ............................................ ........................................ [k]vu v,Ifu idq -fy ........................................ RbOH (? 9q’j 0Polq,zqo c]t -’aj -k.sh4nd8hv’L dD MgO + H2O ................................................ 0D Na + H2O ..................... +....................... 7D K + H2O ....................... +....................... ’D K2O + H2O ................................................ 9D Zn + H2O ....................... +....................... lD Mg(OH)2 + H3PO4 ........... +....................... -D Ca(OH)2 + HCl ............ +........................ 124

[qfmu @! gdnv !D lj;oxtdv[0v’gdnv gdnv,ul;j oxtdv[spa’cfLj gdnv c,oj mkfmuxj tdv[fh;p3]st s^n mkfmumj P[ gmkqj 3]st c]t g7Qkvk-yfD 3fpxqddt8y gdnv gduf0Bof;h p3]st s^n \\mj6 kfmumj P[gmkjq 3]st g0kQ wxcmo[vj oIu3fic-o-toyfmucj 8d8;q wfh g-y’j ,uxkdqfdko16.j o ! 3,g]d5o0v’vk-yfD dkocmo[vj ooU9tgxaodkocmo[vj oIu3fic-o ma’\\qfm,uj u16j s^n vkf4ndcmo[vj orP’[k’l;j ogmkqj oAoD NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2O gdnv c,jomkfxtlq, g-yj’.ooAo vk38,3]st wfh9a[da[g7Qkvk-yfD @D dko0Pol6fg7,u0v’gdnv ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ 9t0Pol6f0v’gdnvwfhco;.fL { lf6 3,g]do5 0v’gdvn xtdv[,lu v’l;j o7Gn l;j omuj,k9kdvuvq’[;d? X+? 0v’3]st s^n \\6mj kfmujmP[da[3]st c]t l;j omuj,k 9kdvuvq’]q[ X{? 0v’g7Qkvk-yf XIkdvk-yf?D { dko0Pol6fg7,u0v’gdnv .sh0Povuvq’[;dw;hmk’|hk c]t 0Povuvq’]q[w;hmk’s^a’D { 4hkI6h7kj g7,u0v’vk38,3]st c]t 7kj g7,u0v’g7Qkvk-yf c]h; gryoj d=lk,kf0Po lf6 g7,0u v’gdvn wfgh -oja G vuvq’[;d vuvq’]q[ l6fg7,u Na+ Cl - NaCl K+ Ca2+ NO3- KNO3 Mg 2+ CaSO4 SO 2- MgCO3 Al 3+ 4 AlPO4 CO32- PO34- K+ CH3 COO - CH3COOK Na+ HSO4- NaHSO4 125

#D dko9afc[j’gdnv gdvn gdvn 9k; gdvn vk-fy gdvn [kg-u gdvn -vh o7j6 dD gdnv9k; ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ { c,oj gdnv mugj duf0Bopvh ovk38,3]stwfgh 0kQ cmo[vj ovk38,Iy3fic-o m’a \\fq .o3,g]d5ovk-yf g-aoj : NaCl, K2SO4 , Ca(NO3)2 . 0D gdnvvk-yf c,jogdnvmjuxtdv[0Bophvo;jkvk38,3]st wfhg0Qkcmo[jvovk38, Iu3fic-o[+\\qf.o3,g]d5ovk-yf g-aoj G NaHSO4 , Ca(HCO3)2 , NaH2PO4 7D gdnv[kg-u { c,oj gdvn g-’jy 3,g]do5 0v’,oa ovd9kd9t,gu 7kQ vk-fy c];h p’a ,9u I5 fu idq -fy X-OH) vudD g-aoj G Mg(OH)Cl , Pb(OH)Cl , Bi(OH)2NO3 , Fe(OH)2Cl. ’D gdnv-hvo76j c,oj gdnvmujxtdv[0Bofh;p vk38,0v’3]st @ -toyfg0Qkcmo[jvoIu3fic-o.o 3,g]d5ovk-yf g-aoj G KNaSO4 ; CaKPO4 gdnvmju7;oI6h,ufaj’oUG -nj l6fg7,u ok8ivu v,di=^ ;q vk3,ovu v,di=^ ;q NaCl ok8ivu v,dkd3[ofa NH Cl ok8ivu v,I3u fidkd3[ofa dk]vu v,o8u fa X0gU 9ph ? 4 dko-vu v,di=^ ;q Na2CO3 NaHCO3 KNO3 CaCl2 126

$D dkovjko-njgdnv gryjo9tvjko-nj3]st0Bodjvo X4hk3]st.f,u7jkg7,uxjPocx’.sh[vd7jkg7,urhv,? c]h; 8k,f;h p-0nj v’g7kQ vk-yf { dvj ovonj 8vh ’I9h6 da -0nj v’g7kQ vk-yfD lf6 0v’vk-fy g7khq vk-fy -gjn 7khq vk-fy HF F- ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ 2v6^ i= ;q di=^ ;q HCl Cl - 3[i,,;q vvu fq f;q HBr Br - -o6 2;q I- o8u ify HI S2- o8y ifa NO2- -o6 2fa H2S NO3- dkd3[ofa HNO2 SO42- 2fq lt2fa HNO3 CO32- H2SO4 PO34- H CO 23 H3PO4 dD gdnvmju]q’mhkpfh;p XVq;? vq; gdnvmuj]q’mhkpfh;p Vq; c,oj gdnvmujwfh,k9kdvk-yfmuj,u-n]j q’mhkpfh;pIufiyd g-oaj G KI dk]vu vu fq f;q FeCl2 gs^da II d=^i;q K2S dk]uvv,-o6 2;q FeCl3 gsda^ III di^= ;q NaF ok8ivu v,2v^6 i= ;q Al2S3 vk],6 ou vu v,-o6 2;q NH Cl vk3,ovu v,d^=i;q ZnBr l’a dtl3u [i,,;q 4 2 Mg(OH)Cl ,kgp-uvv,Iufidq -uyfd^=i;q 127

0D gdnvmju,u-nj]q’mhkpfh;p Vyf gdnvmuj,u-n]j q’mhkpfh;p Vyf c,oj gdnvmuj,k9kdvk-yfmuj,u-n]j q’mhkpfh;p gVu g-aoj G NaNO2 ok8ivu v,o8u ify KNO2 dk]vu v,o8u ify MgSO ,kgp-vu v,-o6 2fy dko-vu v,-o6 2fy 3 ok8ivu v,I3u xd]=^ fy dko-vu v,d]=^ fy CaSO3 NaClO Ca(ClO2) 2 7D gdnvmju,u-nj]q’mhkpfh;p Vaf gdnvmuj,u-n]j q’mhkpfh;p Vaf c,oj gdnvmuj,k9kdvk-yf muj,u-n]j q’mhkpfh;p Vyd gdnv9k; ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ Na2SO4 ok8ivu v,-o6 2fa Pb(NO3) 2 CaCO3 -on o8u ifa (NH4)2SO4 K3PO4 dko-vu v,dkd3[ofa CrSO vk3,ovu v,-o6 2fa dk]vu v,2fq lt2fa 4 3di, II -o6 2fa Cr (SO ) 2 43 3di, III -o6 2fa CH3COOK dk]vu v,vkg-8fa { le]a[gdnv9k;muj,u7kj vqd-yffk-q’l6’l5f 9t8hv’8n,j 7e;kj <cxd< .lj s^n .lj <fu< g-oja G KMnO4 dk]vu v,cxda ,’a dkofa ok8ivu v,cxda d]=^ fa NaClO dk]vu v,f3u di,,fa 4 K2CrO7 128

le]a[gdnvvk-yf ok8ivu v,I3u fi-o6 2fa ,kgp-vu v,I3u fidkd3[ofa NaHSO dk]vu v,I3u fi2fq lt2fa 4 ok8ivu v,I3u fidkd3[ofa Mg(HCO ) 32 KH2PO4 NaHCO3 le]a[gdnv-hvo KNaCO3 dk]vu v,ok8ivu v,dkd3[ofa KMgPO4 dk]vu v,,kgp-vu v,2fq lt2fa le]a[gdnvvq,oE Xg,af,tou? CuSO4.5H2O mv’-o6 2fa & Ifu ifa ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ dko-vu v,-o6 2fa @ Ifu ifa CaSO4.2H2O ok8ivu v,dkd3[ofa !W Ifu ifa ,kgp-uvv,d^=i;q * Iufifa Na2CO3.10H2O dk]vu v,vk],6 ou vu v,-o6 2fa @$ Ifu ifa dk]vu v,,kgp-vu v,d^i= ;q * Ifu ifa MgCl2.6H2O K2 SO4 .Al2(SO4)3 .24 H2O KCl .MgCl2.6H2O &D 75o]adltot0v’gdnv { gdnvl;j os^kp]t]kp.ooEwfhfu Xgxaomkf;yg7ktw22hkcI’? { mqflv[fh;pg9hp ]yf,af 9t[+xPj oluD { l;j os^kp,u]qfg7a,F 0q,F /kfF lQ, c]t vnoj M c]h;c8-j toyf0v’gdnvD g-aoj G NaCl c,oj gdnvcd’,u]qfg7a,D K2 SO4 .Al2(SO4)3 .24 H2O Xsou l,Q ? ,]u fq /kf c]t l,Q D Mg SO4 .7 H2O ,]u fq 0,q g]da ovh p Xgdvn 9fn ?D { [k’-toyf,ulu8kj ’dao g-oaj G 129

K2Cr2O7 lul,Q F KMnO4 Xdk]vu v,cx’a ,’a dkoofa ? l,u ;j ’feF CuSO4 . 5 H2O l2u kh mtg]F FeSO4 lu0P;D xt8ydy]ypk]ts;jk’vk-yfda[[kg-u 4hkgIqkgvqkvk-yf c]t mkf]t]kp[kg-u xtlq,g0Qkdao 9t,uspa’gduf0BoL dyf9tde !G xt8ydy]ypk]ts;jk’vk-yfda[[kg-u !? .--h cu ]’a ff6 gvkq vk-fy dI=^ fu idy (HCl ) 9k’ !& cm3 lfu ]’q .l4j ;h pg7vn [mguj Ifa f;h p 3]st c];h ]kh ’-cu ]’a D @? .--h cu ]’a ff6 gvkq mkf]t]kpok8ivu v,Ifu idq -fy (NaOH) !& cm3 1vf]’q .lmj kf]t ]kp.o0=h X!? 7qo.shg0QkdaoD #? oegvqk4h;pmu[j ao95mkfxtlq,]ts;kj ’ HCl c]t NaOH wx8Q,fh;pcx;w28tdP’ gs^Qk9qooE]tgsupvvd\\qf c]h;la’gdf c]t [aombdzqoD g,vnj oE]tgsupvvd\\qf oadIPola’gdfgsaospa’ 1.j6 odQo4h;pL ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ { zqodkogIafdyf9tde !G g,njv.shvk-yfd^=Iufiyd9k’ xtlq,da[ok8iuvv,Iufiqd -yf 9twfhgdnvok8iuvv,d^=iq; s^n gdnvdyogduf0Bog-yj’gIqkla’gdfgsaog,aflu0k; 8yf1d6j Qo4;h pD g,vjn oE]tgspu vvd\\fq D xt8dy ]y py kmguj dfu 0oB ltcf’f;h pl,q zoq f’ja oGU HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O 3fpm;qj wxc]h; g,vnj vk-yfdtmq[da[[kg-u 9tgdufxt8ydy]ypkf’aj oUG vk-yf + [kg-u gdnv + oE *D dkooe.-hgdnv gdnv ,uxt3spfs^kp g-y’j wfh4ndoe,k.-h .o-u;yfxt9e;aoF v5flkstdeF dtlydeDDDg-aoj G { gdnvok8iuvv,d^=iq; ( NaCl ? x5’c8’j vkskoF .-hgvnv[vkskoF -;j p.shgdufoE pvj p.odtgrkt vksko c]t .ov5flkstde.-h2vd|a’F zt]yfx5Jp c]t lt[6D { gdnvok8iuvv,dkd3[oaf (Na2CO3? .-hzt]yflt[6F.-h-adglNvzhkmuj,uw0,ao8yf s^n ]hk’rk-totm,uj wu 0,oa 8fy D .ovf5 lkstde c,oj .-.h odkozt]fy cd;h c]t .-ch dwh 0 oEdtfkh ’D { gdvn ok8ivu v,I3u fidkd3[ofa (NaHCO3? .-gh xoa 1k]fq dfq .odtgrktvksko c]t gxoa 1k]kh ’mvh ’D 130

{ gdnvdk]uvv,ou8iaf (KNO3? .-hgIaf\\NxnoF \\kddt3rdF zt]yfx5JpF.-h.ljgoNvlaf.sh gxvnj pw;.og;]kc8’j dyoD X[+7;o.-h.ovkskom5d-toyf?D { gdnvok8iuvv,ou8af (NaNO3?F gdnvdk]uvv,d^=iq; ( KCl ? c]t gdnvdko-uvv, 2qflt2af (Ca3(PO4?@? gxao/5oj ;ymtpklkfle]a[rnfD { gdnvok8iuvv,-6o2af (Na SO ?F gdnv,kgp-uvv,-6o2af (MgSO ?F gdnv,kgp-u 24 4 vv,dkd3[oaf (MgCO3? .-hgxao1k0a[4kj p c]t gdnvdk]uvv,vuvqffq; (KI? .-gh xoa 1kIda lk3]d7|= P’D 7e4k, c]t [qfg/ydsafG !D 9’jq [vd-rjn vh ,m’a 0Polf6 0v’gdvn D @D 75o]adltot0v’gdnv g,nvj xt8ydy]ypkda[vk-yfF [kg-u 9tgxaoco;.fL #D 9’jq 0Polf6 g7,u.lsj vh ’;kj ’.s4h nd8vh ’ OH- Cl - S2- NO3- SO42- ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດCO32-PO34- Na+ K+ Ag+ Ca2+ Mg2+ Zn2+ Cu2+ Fe2+ Fe3+ Al 3+ H+ 131

$D 9’qj 0Polq,zqoxt8ydy]ypkdkorq;rao]ts;kj ’vk-yfF gdnv c]t [kg-u dD 3]st T vt3]st DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD Al T S DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD 0D 3]st Xpqdg;Ao Al, Pt) T vqd-uc-o DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD Ca + O2 DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD 7D vt3]st T vqd-uc-o DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD S T O2 DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD ’D 3]st X 16mj k’|hk H2? T vk-yf DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD Mg T HCl DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD 9D vqd-yfvk-yf T oE DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD SO3T H2O DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ lD vqd-yf[kg-u T oE DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD CaO T H O DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD 2 DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD -D vk-yf T [kg-u DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD H2SO4 T NaOH DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD pD gdnvT gdnv AgNO3 T ZnCl2 DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD fD vk-yfT gdnv DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD HCl T CaCO3 DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD 8D [kg-uT gdnv DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD NaOH T AlCl3 DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD 4D 3]stT gdnv DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD Fe T CuSO4 DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD 132

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