101 RAGA-S FOR THE 21STCENTURY AND BEYOND A Music Lover’s Guide to Hindustani music BY HARESH BAKSHI 101 Popular Raga-s and 161 Technical Terms in North Indian classical music explained for perceptive listening The Audio CD of the raga-s separately available. Visit http://www.SoundOfIndia.com and click on “Products”. Or, visit http://www.SoundOfIndia.com and click on “Raagas” to listen to each raga—FREE.
© Copyright 2005 Haresh Bakshi. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the written prior permission of the author. Back cover shows the following popular Indian instruments [starting at the top right, clockwise]: The harmonium, the Tanpura, the Sitar, and the Tabla (drums). Note for Librarians: a cataloguing record for this book that includes Dewey Decimal Classification and US Library of Congress numbers is available from the Library and Archives of Canada. The complete cataloguing record can be obtained from their online database at: www.collectionscanada.ca/amicus/index-e.html ISBN 1-4120-4677-7 Offices in Canada, USA, Ireland, UK and Spain This book was published on-demand in cooperation with Trafford Publishing. On-demand publishing is a unique process and service of making a book available for retail sale to the public taking advantage of on- demand manufacturing and Internet marketing. On-demand publishing includes promotions, retail sales, manufacturing, order fulfilment, accounting and collecting royalties on behalf of the author. Book sales for North America and international: Trafford Publishing, 6E—2333 Government St., Victoria, BC V8T 4P4 CANADA phone 250 383 6864 (toll-free 1 888 232 4444) fax 250 383 6804; email to [email protected] Books sales in Europe: Trafford Publishing (UK) Ltd., Enterprise House, Wistaston Road Business Centre, Wistaston Road, Crewe, Cheshire CW2 7RP UNITED KINGDOM phone 01270 251 396 (local rate 0845 230 9601) facsimile 01270 254 983; [email protected]
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CONTENTS INTRODUCTION THE PLAN THE TEENTAAL TAAL: THE GENERAL CONCEPT THE NOTATION SYSTEM BASIC CONCEPTS IN INDIAN CLASSICAL MUSIC THE VOICE TRAINING ACCOMPANIMENT: THE TANPURA, THE SARANGI, AND THE HARMONIUM TECHNICAL TERMS EXPLAINED 101 POPULAR RAGA-S, WITH BASIC INFORMATION THE PRONUNCIATION/ TRANSLITERATION SCHEME
Dedicated to my Guru-s Pandit Ekanath Padgaonkar Ustad Gulam Kader Khan Pandit Gajananrao Joshi Pandit Narendra Shukla And to All my students “all over the world” [thanks to the Internet] Thanks- Meera [for the wonderful cover design] Rishabh Bodh Narine
I INTRODUCTION Indian music enjoys pride of place in the genre of music called World Music. The number of people who desire to learn more about Indian classical music is increasing day by day. This book is designed for all those who want to learn the basics of Indian classical music. Using this unique product, they can take the first step to learning Hindustani music. This book allows them to learn at their own pace. Whether you want to be a listener, student, performer, or teacher, the basic skill requirement is the same: Learning the listening skills. Music is to be imbibed in, not to be understood. Absorb, assimilate, energize, enjoy. Take only a few, small steps at a time. The Audio CD of the raga-s separately available. Visit http://www.SoundOfIndia.com and click on “Products”. Or, visit http://www.SoundOfIndia.com and click on “Raagas” to listen to each raga—FREE. So, here you are: You, your own copy of this book-cum-CD, anytime ofthe day or night, anywhere in the world, at your speed—briskly or leisurely. The aim here is to learn, as well as to enjoy while learning. The basic concept of enjoy-while-you-learn is reflected in the unusual design and content of each chapter. Each chapter is, in fact, like a musical session. Each chapter presents the basic concepts in simple, informal language. Each raga outlined creates an unforgettable aesthetical experience. Though we relish the bliss while listening to the basics of each raga, yet the learning itself remains serious and sincere.
If you are a newcomer to the field of Indian music, you may call yourself by various names like freshman, neophyte, beginner, entrant, tyro, novice,initiate, starter, trainee the name does not matter; what matters is thatyou will soon become a self-made achiever, capable of enjoying listening to North Indian classical music by yourself, or with your friends and family members, and even much larger audiences. Of course, please follow the rules of success. Like some vocal training? Try to train your voice using the set of patterns for DAILY practice. This set of patterns is demonstrated in the accompanying CD. You will realize that Indian classical music is a source of immense joy. You will find it delightful. It will soothe your nerves, gladden your heart, cheer up your mind, and nourish your soul. Now follows the best part of the offer: If you have a question, you can write to me [email protected] As a part of my answer to your question, if I strictly feel the need to further clarify, I will be happy to initiate a limited chat session with you on the Internet. You will find the details on my web site: http://www.SoundOfIndia.com Lastly, how is it that this book lists no references? The answer is simple: this book is a simple description of frequently used concepts; it is the simplified presentation of common terms we come across when listening to, talking or reading about, or learning Indian classical music. Now, please read on and embark upon the journey to the joy of learning North Indian classical music. All the best, Haresh Bakshi
II THE PLAN All the raga-s in the optional CD, as well as on http://www.SoundOfin- dia.com, have the key C, as their tonic, or ‘Sa’. On the harmonium/keyboard, this is the first white key in the set of the 12 keys that comprise the octave. This key is variously called the ‘Sa’, ‘white one’, ‘sufed ek’ etc. If you like, you can play on the keyboard the notes of the demonstrated raga and thus memorize the basics of any raga.
III THE TEENTAAL The Teentaal. It is the most common taal (rhythm) There are several other taal-s used in classical music Some other frequently used taal-s include Ektaal, Roopak, Jhaptaal, Dipchandi, Jhoomra, Tilwada, as also Keharva and Dadra. There are several well-known as well as rare taal-s. There are variations of Teentaal, variously called addha, punjabi, sitarkhani etc. These taal-s are played on the tabla. The tabla is a set of two drums. The right- hand drum, called daya (pronounced daa.yaa), is tuned in the treble (higher pitch), while the left-hand drum, called baya (pronounced baa.yaa), sounds in the bass (lower pitch). Teentaal is represented on paper as under: | 12 3 4 | 5 6 7 8 | 9 10 11 12 | 13 14 15 16 |
IV TAAL: THE GENERAL CONCEPT The terms used in connection with describing teentaal (or any other taal) MATRA (pronounced maa.traa): It is translated as the beat. It is a basic unit of duration in musical time. It is the basic rhythmic unit in a piece of music. It is the duration for which the sound (of the instrument playing the taal) lasts (and until the next beat begins). The matra-s above are represented by the numerals 1 to 16. SAMA (pronounced like ‘sum’): It is the first beat of the taal cycle. It is assigned the maximum importance, or ‘weightage’. The ‘sama’ is located on the first beat, represented by the numeral 1, the ‘sama’ is sounded by a light, thumping hit on the knee with the palm of your right hand. KHALI: (pronounced ‘khaa.lee’) Khali means ‘empty’, or negative ‘weightage’. It is almost as important as the ‘sama’, but is negative. It is indicated by the wave, in the air, of the palm, going away in opposite direction from the knee. Teentaal has one khali located on the 9th beat. The ‘khali’ is ‘located’ on the ninth beat, shown by the numeral 9 The location of a khali varies from one taal to another. A taal can have more than one khali. TAALI (pronounced ‘taa.lee’): This is the ‘clap’ on certain beats of the taal. The taali is indicated the same way as the ‘sama’. The number and the location of taali-s vary from one taal to another. KHAND: It is the Sanskrit word for ‘division’. Teentaal is divided in four khaND-s, each division separated by an upright line. You will find an upright line between 4 and 5, 8 and 9, and 12 and 13. Thus, each division is the size of 4 beats. Here, the divisions are equal (each 4 beats), but that need not be so in case of all the taal-s. AVARTANA: (pronounced ‘aa.var.ta.na’) Translated as the cycle, it indicates, in teentaal, that one cycle ends after 16 beats, and the next cycle
starts immediately, on the beat 1. This next cycle continues through the beat 16, and the cycle after that starts in continuation. And so on. BOL: The bol-s in a taal are the mnemonic devices. They are the sounds produced by the percussion instrument playing that taal. Typical sounds produced on the tabla are: na, ta, taa, naa, dhaa, tin, dhin, trik, tiTa, kata, ge, kut, etc. Each taal has its unique set of bol-s. The bol-s for Teentaal are: | 12 3 4 | 5 6 7 8 | 9 10 11 12 | 13 14 15 16 | dhaa dhin dhin dhaa | dhaa dhin dhin dhaa | dhaa tin tin taa | taa dhin dhin dhaa | The LAYA (TEMPO): The ‘laya’ or the tempo is the pace, or the speed at which the taal is played. The tempo of a taal is called ‘madhya laya’ (moderate tempo), when the taal is played in an easy, leisurely way, at moderate speed. If the tempo is faster than this, it is termed ‘drut laya’ (fast tempo). If much faster, it is called ‘ati drut laya’ (very fast tempo). Similarly, it the tempo of a taal is slower than ‘madhya laya’, it is named ‘vilambita laya’ (slow tempo). If much slower, it goes by the name of ‘ati vilambita laya’ (very slow tempo). Obviously, these terms are indicative of ranges of speed, rather than absolute numbers. The larger the number of beats you can count, per minute, the faster is the tempo of the taal being played.
V THE NOTATION SYSTEM The following notation system for writing Indian music, provides information on its three essential components: (1) The symbols for the notes; (2) The symbols for the octaves in which the notes are performed; (3) Information on the duration of each note. The diagram of the harmonium (or the electronic keyboard) may be used, only as an aid to visualize the details that follow. THE HARMONIUM DIAGRAM. SEE COVER PAGE 4. Please note: any key of the harmonium (or the electronic keyboard) can be called the tonic (or the ‘Sa’). But we have assumed the first white key to be the Sa, for convenience and convention, simplicity and uniformity. The seven notes with accidentals [flat (komal) and sharp (teevra)] are: Note Written as C is called “Sa” S Db is called “komal Re” r D is called shuddha “Re” R Eb is called “komal Ga” g E is called shuddha “Ga” G F is called shuddha “Ma” m F# is called “Teevra Ma” M G is called “Pa” P Ab is called “komal Dha” d A is called shuddha “Dha” D Bb is called “komal Ni” n B is called shuddha “Ni” N
Note: ‘Sa’ and ‘Pa’ are always shuddha (natural) only. THE MIDDLE OCTAVE No sign—just plain note symbols. Like: G, D. THE LOWER OCTAVE The note symbols for the notes in the lower octave are identical; but each of the symbols is PRECEDED by a quote sign (“). Thus, they are written as: “N “n “D “d “P “M “m “G “g “R “r “S THE HIGHER OCTAVE The note symbols for the notes in the higher octave are identical; but each of the symbols is FOLLOWED by an apostrophe sign (‘). Thus, they are written as: S’ r’ R’ g’ G’ m’ M’ P’ d’ D’ n’ N’ IOI RAGA-S FOR THE 21ST CENTURY AND BEYOND THE DURATION OF THE NOTES We should first have a composition for which the notation is to be written. We also should know the taal to which this composition is set. The notation system first creates a sheet, with the details of the taal (beats, divisions etc.) printed on it. It leaves blank spaces to be filled in with the notes of the composition. The spaces are filled so as to reflect the duration of the notes of the composition. The following example illustrates the point: Example: A composition in Teentaal |dhaa dhin dhin dhaa |dhaa dhin dhin dhaa |dhaa tin tin taa |taa dhin dhin dhaa | | 1 2 3 4 | 5 6 7 8 | 9 10 11 12 |13 14 15 16 | In the above diagram, the first row displays the bol-s of Teentaal. The second row shows the beat numerals, 1 to 16, of Teentaal. The upright lines indicate the divisions of Teentaal. This arrangement depicts the four equal divisions in which the 16 beats of Teentaal are distributed. To simplify the demonstration of the process of filling in the notes, let us show the filling of the first 4 beats only.
The first beat: Let us assume that the note ‘S’ is sung on the first beat. It will look like: |dhaa dhin dhin dhaa | |1 2 3 4 | |S | The second beat: Let us assume that the notes ‘R’ and ‘G’ occupy the second beat, and that they have equal duration. Obviously, “R’ will be half a beat, and so also ‘G’. Now, the diagram will look like this: |dhaa dhin dhin dhaa | |1 2 3 4 | |S RG | Similarly, if the third beat is occupied by the notes ‘S’ and ‘R’, both of equal duration, the illustration will now look like: | dhaa dhin dhin dhaa | |1 2 3 4 | |S RG SR | And lastly, if a single note ‘S’ occupies the fourth beat, the diagram willbe: |dhaa dhin dhin dhaa | |1 2 3 4 | |S RG SR S | Similarly for all the remaining beats of Teentaal. Similarly for any beat of any taal. We should be careful to use the quote mark (“) for the lower octave, and the apostrophe (‘) for the higher octave—the quote mark to the left of the note for the lower octave; and apostrophe to the right of the note for the higher octave. Also, the komal (flat) notes will show in the lower case. Thus, shuddha Dha will be ‘D’, but komal Dha will be ‘d’. Lastly, shuddha Ma will be ‘m’, and teevra Ma will be ‘M’.
VI BASIC CONCEPTS IN INDIAN CLASSICAL MUSIC [1] HISTORY The history of Indian classical music is divided into the following three broad periods: (i) The Ancient period: This period falls between the ancient times and the 12th century AD. Our musical tradition has its origin in the Samaveda, which is the musical version of the Rigveda. (ii) The Medieval period: This period covers the music history from the 13 th century AD to the 18 th century AD. (iii) The Modern period: This period tracks the music history from the end of the medieval period to the modern times. [2] MELODY Indian classical music is all melody. A melody is a succession of notes (swara-s), one note (swara) at a time. It forms a distinctive sequence. It is perceived as a pleasant arrangement of musical notes (swara-s). The arrangement of notes (swara-s) in a melody follows a well-structured format, called the RAGA (pronounced raaga). Within that structure of the raga, we can create an infinite variety of aesthetically delightful musical arrangements (or phrases). This creative process is called IMPROVISATION. [3] THE NOTES (SWARA-S) Please note: The harmonium (or the electronic) keyboard may be used, only as an aid to visualize the details that follow. There are 7 notes: shadja (Sa, symbol ‘S’), rishabh (Re, symbol ‘R’), gand-har (Ga, symbol ‘G’), madhyam (Ma, symbol ‘m’), pancham (Pa, symbol ‘P’), dhaivat (Dha, symbol ‘D’), and nishad (Ni, symbol ‘N’). These 7 notes form the Saptaka (septet), the gamut of 7 notes of Indian
music. These notes are named ‘shuddha’ notes. ‘Shuddha’ means natural, or in unaltered state. If we assume the key C to be the Sa, then the 7 notes on the keyboard would be: C, D, E, F, G, A, and B. As already mentioned above, all 7 notes have each the natural, unaltered state. Sa and Pa each has only natural state—no altered state: they are called unalterable notes (achal swara-s). The remaining five notes each has an altered state (chal swara-s), in addition to its natural state. The notes in the altered state are called accidentals (vikrita). The altered state of Ma is called sharp (teevra) Ma. When sung, it sounds higher than the natural Ma. Thus, we have natural (shuddha) Ma, and we have sharp (teevra) Ma. Natural (shud-dha) Ma has the notation symbol “m”. The sharp (teevra) has the notation symbol “M”. The remaining four notes each has an altered state, in addition to its natural state. The altered state is called flat (“komal”). So, we have Re natural (shuddha, symbol ‘R’), as well as Re flat (komal, symbol ‘r’). We have Ga natural (shuddha, symbol ‘G’), as well as Ga flat (komal, symbol ‘g’). And we have Dha natural (shuddha, symbol ‘D’), as well as Dha flat (komal, symbol ‘d’). Lastly, we have Ni natural (shuddha, symbol ‘N’), as well as Ni flat (komal, symbol ‘n’). When sung, the flat note sounds lower than the natural note; and the sharp note sounds higher than the natural note. To summarize, we have 7 natural and 5 altered states of the 7 notes [a total of 12]. They are represented as: S, r, R, g, G, m, M, P, d, D, n, N. [12 in all]. [4] RAGA CHARACTERISTICS Let us elucidate some of the characteristics of a raga. [a] A raga is a set of notes (swara-s). [b] The number of notes (swara-s) required of a raga is at least 5, with a maximum of 7 notes (swara-s). [c] A raga can never exclude Sa, because the remaining notes exist only in relation to Sa. The Sa is called the tonic, or the key. [d] A raga cannot omit both Ma (the fourth) and Pa (the fifth) at the same time. [e] A raga revolves around two principal notes (swara-s). The more important of these two is called the Sonant (vadi), the other, the Consonant
(samvadi). The remaining notes (swara-s) in a raga are called assonants (anu-vadi). The notes (swara-s) not included in the raga are called dissonant (viva-di). Though not included as such, a vivadi quite often becomes a part of a raga, because it beautifies the raga. Some assonants play more significant role in bringing out the aesthetic character of the raga, and so are more important than the rest of them. Such important assonants are called Prosonants (“praanuvadi-s”)—a term that had to be coined to distinguish the more noteworthy assonants from the less important ones. This has perhaps never been specifically mentioned anywhere. During elaboration of a raga, such a Prosonant (praanuvadi) is repeated and emphasized, somewhat like the Sonant and the Consonant, but to a smaller degree. [f] A saptaka (Septet) is a group of 7 notes (swara-s): Sa (C), Re (D), Ga (E), Ma (F), Pa (G), Dha (A), and Ni (B). Proceeding further upwards will bring us to the Sa of the next saptaka (septet). However, we add this upper Sa to the saptaka (Septet), and make it a set of 8 notes (swara-s); now it is called an octave: |SRGmPDNS’| Now we can divide this octave in to two equal halves: |SRGm;PDNS’| Each half is called a tetrachord (anga). The lower half (S R G m) is called the lower tetrachord (poorvanga); the upper half (P D N S’) is called the upper tetrachord (uttaranga). Sometimes, it is convenient to express the two tetrachords, respectively, as |SRGmP;mPDNS’| There are three divisions of a saptaka (septet): the lower septet (mandra saptaka), the middle septet (madhya saptaka), and the upper septet (taar saptaka). [g] Now we need to expand on the material covered in [e]. The Sonant (vadi) and the Consonant (samvadi) of a raga cannot be in the same tetra- chord (anga). As a generalization, if a raga is to be sung in the morning, its Sonant (vadi) is located in the upper tetrachord (uttaranga), while its Consonant (samvadi) is to be found in the lower tetrachord (poorvanga). For all the
“non-morning” raga-s (sung at noon, afternoon, evening, night, etc.), the opposite holds: the Sonant (vadi) is located in the lower tetrachord (poorvanga), while the Consonant is to be found in the upper tetrachord (uttaranga). Expect exceptions (like raga Sohani)! Further, a raga with its sonant (vadi) in the lower tetrachord (poorvanga), is expanded more elaborately in the lower tetrachord (poorvanga). On the other hand, a raga with its sonant (vadi) in the upper tetrachord (uttaranga), is expanded more elaborately in the upper tetrachord (poorvanga). Lastly, the Sonant-Consonant (vadi-samvadi) pair bears a fourth or a fifth relationship between them. Thus, the Consonant (samvadi) is the fourth or the fifth note from the Sonant (vadi). To illustrate: |SRGmPDNS’| For example, if the Sonant is Ga (G), its Consonant will be either the fourth Dha (D), or the fifth Ni (N). This is the principle of consonance (samvadita). According to this, the relationship of the fourth is called “shadja-madhyam bhaava”. And the relationship of the fifth is called “shadja-pan-cham bhaava”. (5) IMPROVISATION Performance of a raga means its improvisation, elaboration, expansion, extemporization, amplification, development, interpretation, unfolding, evolution. The improvisation of a raga is done without any prior plan, though according to certain regulations. It is ad-lib, extemporaneous. It is done without any rehearsal. It takes place at the scene of action—on the stage. It is an on-site, real-time, and spontaneous exposition of the aesthetics of the raga. It is the nascent unfolding of the raga: the interpretation of the raga comes into existence while the raga is being performed. But a really good performance is the result of great talent, a great guru, consistent, hard work, and a lot of experience. It requires assiduous work, courage, and thorough learning. It demands great training; exceptional creative ability and natural talent; thorough, intuitive grasp of the aesthetics of the raga; and natural flair for effective presentation. The technique of improvisation has two main components, namely expansion (baDhat), and creative growth (upaj). Thus, improvisation is
twofold. On the one hand, it keeps on increasing its area of development, one small step at a time. On the other hand, it reaches the maximum creative depth at every step of development. How are these two abstract canons translated into actuality? How does the improvisation of a raga happen in reality? We select a raga—raga Yaman—to demonstrate how the development actually takes place. The characteristics of raga Yaman:- Ascending movement (aaroha): “N R G M D N S’ Descending movement: S’NDPMGRS Sonant (vadi): G; Consonant (samvadi): N; Pranuvadi: P Pakad: “N R G M P, R G R, “N R S. BaDhat is a ‘slab’, a set, of notes, and upaj is elaboration (of the slab of notes.). Development of Yaman: [shown below as points only] Weave patterns around vadi, samvadi and pranuvadi. taking into account the following: Octave: Lower, middle, higher Notes: only very few, a few, more, many Complexity: very simple, simple, increasing complexity, very complex Speed: Quite slow, moderate, fast, very fast Overlapping: almost absent, some, much Taans: very few and very small in very small area, more profuse and longer and in wider area, many and quite long and complex and sweeping all areas. Use of various aesthetic tools (alankar-s, gamaka etc). [6] TIME THEORY IN INDIAN MUSIC According to the time theory, raga-s are associated with particular time of the day or the season of the year. One may sing a particular raga only at a particular time of the day, or only in a particulate season, as recommended by the time theory.
For this purpose, the 24-hour period has been split into 8 divisions. Each division is called a ‘watch’ (prahara). A ‘watch’ (prahara) is three hours, starting, say, at the sunrise, or 6AM (sometimes, 7AM). Further, there are 4 seasons. For example the raga Malhar can be sung in the Monsoon. [In addition, it can be sung any day of the year, at night]. Similarly, we have morning raga-s like Bhairava; evening raga-s like Puriya, night raga-s like Bihag. As mentioned earlier, a morning raga has its Sonant (vadi) in the upper tetrachord (uttaranga), Consonant (samvadi) in the lower tetrachord (poor- vanga), it is more thoroughly elaborated in the upper octave (taara saptaka), and is better developed in the descending movements. On the other hand, a ‘non-morning’ raga (sung at noon, afternoon, evening, night etc.) has its Sonant (vadi) in the lower tetrachord (poorvanga), Consonant (samvadi) in the upper tetrachord (uttaranga), it is more thoroughly elaborated in the lower octave (mandra saptaka), and is better developed in the ascending movements. [7] A TYPICAL PERFORMANCE: ALAPA A performance of Indian classical music by an expert singer or instrumentalist can be a very fulfilling and exhilarating experience. It is somewhat like encapsulation of the very essence of the cultural history of Indian classical music. A stage presentation is like exhibiting the macrocosm in a microcosm. It is like re-living the best part of the history of Indian classical music culture. A very general idea of the sequence and proceedings in a recital will now follow. The essential ingredients of an engaging recital are: The performing artist in a great, creative mood, the audience in a great, receptive mood, the right atmosphere, and a tastefully decorated stage. Now, the tanpura-s start streaming. The tabla is being tuned. The artist is sitting patiently, praying to Goddess Saraswati, or his religious Guru, to bless him, and his performance, which he is about to begin. The performer looks at the tabla player and the harmonium player who is accompanying him, seeking their blessings and consent to commence They nod their heads in approval and the performing artist fires the first raga from his repertoire
—he does so with great confidence, because he possesses a well-trained voice, has learnt the raga-s thoroughly, has developed his musical intuition fully, has developed the art of presenting his craft masterfully. The artist singles out one raga for his performance, for no specific reason. He simply feels like singing that particular raga, or because the listeners are in the mood to listen to that raga, or because of the raga-s already rendered on the stage, by those before him. The tonic, ‘Sa’, is the artist’s opening note for that raga. The artist starts his alap, which is improvisation of the raga. The improvisation of a raga is done without any prior plan, though according to certain regulations. It is ad-lib, extemporaneous. The artist performs without any rehearsal. He develops the raga at the scene of action—on the stage. It is an on-site, real-time, and spontaneous exposition of the aesthetics of the raga. It is the nascent unfolding of the raga: the interpretation of the raga comes into existence while the raga is being performed. The performer intuitionally observes the two mandatory aspects of improvisation: baDhat (expansion) and upaj.(development). The following is the summary of the processes involved: The artist weaves patterns around vadi, samvadi and pranuvadi. taking into account the following: Octave: He starts his performance in the lower octave, goes to the middle octave, and then develops the raga in the higher octave. He commences his recital with phrases involving only very few notes, then a few, more, and then, many notes. Complexity: During the raga development, the complexity of rendering increases in the following order: very simple, simple, increasing complexity, very complex The speed of his presentation accelerates from: Quite slow, to moderate, to fast, to very fast Overlapping of phrases, almost absent initially, increases with time. The artist commences his recital with taans that are very few and very small, but become more profuse and longer and in wider area, culminating
in many taan-s quite long and complex and sweeping all areas. He usually starts with an introductory alap, and invites the tabla player to join him in his composition in slow tempo. The tempo increases with time. He soon reaches the stage when the tempo is fast. He elaborates the raga a little more, and then decides to complete his recital. He usually signals the completion of his item with a ‘tihai’, where he repeats a phrase three times and arrives on the first beat with a telling culminating effect. [8] CLASSIFICATION OF RAGA-S: THE SCALES [THAAT-S] According to the classification system of Pandit V N Bhatkhande, raga-s can be classified into one of these ten scales, called thaaT-s: (1) Kalyan, (2) Bilawal, (3) Khamaj, (4) Bhairava, (5) Bhairavi, (6) Asavari, (7) Todi, (8) Poorvi, (9) Marwa, (10) Kafi. Some more concepts including shruti, meeND, kaNa swara, rasa (sheer delight, spell-binding joy; the taste and character, the feelings and sentiment prevailing in a raga and springing from the performance) etc.have been treated individually under “Technical terms” discussed later in Chapter IX.
VII THE VOICE TRAINING You can possess a good voice by talent, or by training, or both. There are some qualities that a voice should possess. The voice should be Sweet and mellow and rich Voluminous (good ‘throw’) Tuneful—keeps the correct pitch Steady Pliable Possesses good range (about two octaves: the upper half of the lower octave, the middle octave, and the lower half of the upper octave)
VIII ACCOMPANIMENT: THE TANPURA, THE SARANGI, AND THE HARMONIUM THE TANPURA. It is the Indian four-string drone. The middle two strings are tuned in the tonic (Sa); the first string is tuned in the lower octave, either Ma, or Pa, or Ni. This depends on the raga that it is tuned to accompany. The last string is tuned in lower-octave (mandra) Sa (symbol “S). For the purpose of tuning the tanpura, the Ragas can be divided into four categories: [1] THOSE WHICH OMIT MADHYAMA. Examples: Bhupali, Shankara, Desakar Tanpura tuning: 1st string: “P 2nd string: S 3rd string: S 4th string: “S [2] THOSE THAT INCLUDE BOTH PA AND MA. Here we have two types: (a) Those dominated by pa. The strings are tuned as in [1]. Examples: Bhairava, Yaman. Tanpura tuning: 1st string: “P 2nd string: S 3rd string: S 4th string: “S (b) Those dominated by ma. Here the first string is tuned in mandra Ma (“m), that is, shuddha ma in mandra saptaka. The remaining three strings remain the same. Examples: Bageshri, Lalit pancham.
Tanpura tuning: 1st string: “m 2nd string: S 3rd string: S 4th string: “S [3] THOSE THAT OMIT PANCHAMA. The strings are tuned as in [2b]. Examples: Malkauns, Lalit. Tanpura tuning: 1st string: “m 2nd string: S 3rd string: S 4th string: “S [4] MANY EVENING RAGAS LIKE MARVA, PURIYA, POORVI; ALSO, SOHANI. Here the first string is tuned in “N, that is, ni in mandra saptaka. The remaining three strings remain the same. Tanpura tuning: 1st string: “N 2nd string: S 3rd string: S 4th string: “S THE SARANGI. This is a fretless, bowed instrument more commonly used for accompaniment, though it is a solo instrument in its own right. It is made of a two-foot wooden block. Its lower portion is covered with parchment. The fingerboard in the middle has four main gut strings. It has several sympathetic metal strings. The bow is made from horse-hair. Sarangi is held upright, placed in the lap, on the left. It is played using the left hand, stopped with the back of the fingernails. The bowing is done using the right hand. There are very few Sarangi players left, and Sarangi is being slowly replaced by harmonium for accompaniment on the stage. THE HARMONIUM. This is essentially a reed organ. The reeds are individually fixed in a wooden frame inside a wooden box. The number of octaves decides the number of reeds used. The various sizes start from three-and-a-half octaves (forty one keys), The number of timbres included also decide the number of reeds used. Thus we can have three reed types, following the octaves in which they produce sound: bass (kharaj), male (nar), and female (mada—pronounced maa.daa). The reeds vibrate and produce sound, on pressing the keys, when the bellows force air through the wooden chamber of the harmonium.
IX TECHNICAL TERMS EXPLAINED In this chapter we will explain one hundred and sixty one technical terms commonly used in Indian music, in books and in conversation. This is all you need to know to generally appreciate and greatly enjoy Indian classical music. 1. 32-MELA SYSTEM Bhatkhande’s 10-thaaT (mela) system is most commonly used for classification of raga-s of North Indian classical music. But there are raga-s like Chandrakauns and Patadeep that cannot be properly classified under any of the ten thaaT-s. In an attempt to solve such problems of classification, the number of thaaT-s (mela-s) was increased to 32. This system of 32 mela-s is based on the twelve notes used in North Indian classical music. This mela system is shown as under: The first sixteen mela-s, use shuddha Ma (symbol m); the remaining sixteen use teevra Ma (symbol M): Mela No. Notes 1 S R G m P D N S’ 2 S R G m P D n S’ 3 S R G m P d N S’ 4 S R G m P d n S’ 5 S r G m P D N S’ 6 S r G m P D n S’ 7 S r G m P d N S’ 8 S r G m P d n S’ 9 S R g m P D N S’ 10 S R g m P D n S’ 11 S R g m P d N S’
12 S R g m P d n S’ 13 S r g m P D N S’ 14 S r g m P D n S’ 15 S r g m P d N S’ 16 S r g m P d n S’ 17 S R G M P D N S’ 18 S R G M P D n S’ 19 S R G M P d N S’ 20 S R G M P d n S’ 21 S r G M P D N S’ 22 S r G M P D n S’ 23 S r G M P d N S’ 24 S r G M P d n S’ 25 S R g M P D N S’ 26 S R g M P D n S’ 27 S R g M P d N S’ 28 S R g M P d n S’ 29 S r g M P D N S’ 30 S r g M P D n S’ 31 S r g M P d N S’ 32 S r g M P d n S’ This scheme of classification accommodates many more raga-s than the ten-thaaT system. It is more scientific, too. 2. AAKAAR [Sanskrit “aa”, meaning the vowel ‘aa’; “kaar”, meaning ‘doing’] Doing alap using the vowel represented by “aa…”. 3. ABHOG [pronounced aa.bho.ga] [Sanskrit, meaning ‘extension, expanse’] The third of the four structural parts of drupad. It is the stage of round- ing-off.
4. ACHAL [Sanskrit, meaning ‘unchangeable’] Applied to a note, it means a note that does not alter from its natural (shuddha) state—it does not change to flat (komal) or sharp (teevra). There are only two such notes: Sa and Pa. 5. ADA [pronounced aa.Da] [From Prakrit aDDa.a, meaning ‘not straight’] This is one of the types of tempo (laya). It shows lack of correspondence between the tempo in which a musical phrase is being performed, and the tempo of the accompanying rhythm. In this case, the tempo of the musical phrase is one-and-a-half times faster than the tempo of the accompanying rhythm. Like this: Accompanying rhythm: 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | Music tempo: 1 .2|_3.|4_5|.6_| [aDa laya] 6. ALANKARA [pronounced a.lan.kaa.ra] [Sanskrit meaning ornament, embellishment] It is an aesthetically pleasing melodic pattern. The term alankara can apply to the sequence of notes (varna-alankara), and also to the quality of intonation (shabda-alankara). There are four types of note sequences: sthayi, arohi, avarohi, and sanchari There are fifteen chief types of intonation-related ornaments, collectively called ga.ma.ka-s. A gamaka is defined as the kampa (shaking) of a note that delights the listener’s mind. The gamaka has 15 types: ti.ri.pa, sphu.ri.ta, kam.pi.ta, lee.na, aan.do.li.ta, va.li, tri.bhin.na, ku.ru.la, aa.ha.ta, ul.laa.si.ta, plaa.vi.ta, huM.phi.ta, mu.dri.ta, naa.mi.ta, and mish.ri.ta. For details, please refer to the Sanskrit work sangita-ratnakaram 3.10.87 to 3.10.97 7. ALAP [pronounced aa.laa.pa] Also aa.laa.pa.na and aa.laa.pti [Sanskrit, meaning singing, conversation] Alap means elaboration of musical ideas of a raga. It is improvisation in vocal or instrumental music. It may be accompanied with taal, or it may be a rendering without taal.
8. ALPATVA [Sanskrit, meaning ‘smallness in number’; ‘infrequency’] During improvisation of a raga, some notes are taken less frequently than some others. An example is occurrence of Dha in the raga Shankara. Dha is taken only once in a while. This illustrates alpatva of Dha. Similarly, komal Ni is a case of alpatva in the raga Kedar 9. ANAHATA [pronounced anaa.ha.ta] [Sanskrit, meaning ‘unstruck’] Spoken of a sound, produced without striking (or, any other usual methods of sound production). This refers to the Sound (naa.da) in the spiritual realm. 10. ANDOLAN [pronounced aan.do.la.na] [Sanskrit, meaning oscillation, vibration] It means slow oscillation, and is the melodic embellishment in which a note is so vibrated as to cover a broad range almost encompassing the previous and the subsequent notes. 11. ANGA PRADHANATA [pronounced an.ga-pra.dhaa.na.taa] (Sanskrit “anga”, sometimes called “sthaa.na”, meaning ‘location’). In general, the term “anga” means a sub-division, a part of the whole. In Indian music, there are two parts (tetrachords) of the octave. First, to the saptaka (S, R, G, m, P, D, N), add the taara Sa (S’). This is the octave (S, R, G, m, P, D, N, S’). Now the octave is divided into two parts: (1) Sa to Ma: S, R, G, m; (2) P to S’: P, D, N, S’. These constitute the two ang-s. The first part is called poorvanga, the lower tetrachord. The second part is called uttaranga, the upper tetrachord. Each part has four members, and the two parts are similarly constructed. The predominance of one of the parts, called anga-pradhanata or anga- pradhanya (pronounced praa.dhaa.nya), has great significance in theory and practice of music. If poorvanga is dominant in a raga, that raga will have its vadi (sonant) note in poorvanga (one of the four notes: S, R, G, m). Also, such a raga will be a non-morning raga, being performed at a time other than in the morning. On the other hand, if uttaranga is dominant in a raga, that raga will have its vadi (sonant) note in uttaranga (one of the four notes:
P, D, N, S’). Also, such a raga will be a morning raga, being performed in the morning. Now, vadi (sonant) and samvadi (consonant) always lie in different angas, so, in raga-s with sonant in poorvanga, the consonant will lie in the utta- ranga. Conversely, in raga-s with sonant in uttaranga, the consonant will lie in the poorvanga. This means that the morning raga-s, with dominance of uttaranga, will be more elaborated in the uttaranga. On the other hand, the non-morning raga-s, with dominance of poorvanga, will be more elaborated in the poorvanga. Sometimes, the two parts are divided as: (1) S to P: S, R, G, m, P; (2) m to S’: m, P, D, N, S’. 12. ANTARA [pronounced an.ta.raa] [Sanskrit ‘an.ta.ra.ka’] It is the second part of a composition. It follows the first part that is called sthayi 13. ANUVADI [pronounced anu.vaa.dee] [Sanskrit, meaning ‘the one following the vadi’] The anuvadi is any note, other than vadi and samvadi, included in a raga. For example, the following seven notes comprise the raga Yaman: S, R, G, M, P, D and N. Out of these, G is vadi, N is samvadi; D is an anuva- di.So is R. P in Yaman is another anuvadi. But P is aesthetically more important than all other anuvadi-s in Yaman, so the note P. is called “pranuvadi”. [See #98]. 14. AROHA [pronounced aa.ro.ha] also aa.ro.ha.Na [pronounced aa.ro.ha.Na] [Sanskrit, meaning ‘climbing up’] It means ‘the ascending’. It applies to a musical phrase as well as to the set of notation showing how a raga moves up. Examples: Phrases: P D N; R G m; the ascending: S R G m P D N S’. 15. ATIKOMAL [Sanskrit, meaning ‘very (ati) flat (komala)’]
There are seven notes to a saptaka (septet). Out of these, the two notes, Sa and Pa, exist only as natural. The remaining five notes can be natural as well as accidental (vikrita). A note, when accidental, can be either sharp (teevra), or flat (komal). Out of those five notes, Ma can be natural as well as sharp. The remaining four notes, Re, Ga, Dha, and Ni, can be natural as well as flat. When a note sounds very low, flatter even than flat, it is called ati (very) komala (flat). An example: C—1/1 Db low—256/243 (though 135/128 is 2 cents away) Db high—16/15 D low—10/9 D high—9/8 In the example above, we can see the various degrees of ‘flat-ness’ of Re (D). For example, Db with ratio 256/243 is ‘ati komala’. 16. ATIMANDRA [pronounced ati-man.dra] [Sanskrit, meaning ‘very (ati) low (mandra)] A sound with a smaller frequency is said to be low; one with a greater frequency is said to be high. Depending upon the frequency range, we have three octave ranges, namely middle (Madhya) octave, higher (taar) octave, and lower (mandra) octave. To illustrate: “S “R “G “m “P “D “N S R G m P D N S’ R’ G’ m’ P’ D’ N’ S’’ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 The note numbers 1 to 7 above belong to the lower octave; those from 8 through 14, to the middle octave; those from 15 through 22, to the higher (upper) octave. Any note lower than the note number 1, is said to be in ati mandra range. 17. ATITAAR [pronounced ati-taa.ra] [Sanskrit, meaning ‘very (ati) high (taara)’] A sound with a smaller frequency is said to be low; one with a greater frequency is said to be high. Depending upon the frequency range, we have three octave ranges, namely middle (Madhya) octave, higher (taar) octave, and lower (mandra) octave. To illustrate:
“S “R “G “m “P “D “N S R G m P D N S’ R’ G’ m’ P’ D’ N’ S’’ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 The note numbers 1 to 7 above belong to the lower octave; those from 8 through 14, to the middle octave; those from 15 through 21, to the higher (upper) octave. The note number 22, and any note higher than that,, is said to be in ati taara range. 18. AUDAVA [pronounced au.Da.va] [Sanskrit, meaning ‘consisting of five’] A raga must have at least five notes in the ascending mode (aaroha), and at least five notes in the descending mode (avaroha). The number of notes that comprise a raga in ascending and descending modes decides the type of the raga. Thus we have the following types: auDava-auDava. Five notes in the ascending and five notes in the descending mode. auDava-shaDava. Five notes in the ascending and six notes in the descending mode. ShaDava-shaDava. Six notes in the ascending and six notes in the descending mode. auDava-sampoorNa. Five notes in the ascending and seven notes in the descending mode. shaDava-sampoorNa. Six notes in the ascending and seven notes in the descending mode. 19. AVAROHA [pronounced a.va.ro.ha] also a.va.ro.ha.Na [pronounced ava.ro.ha.Na] [Sanskrit, meaning ‘climbing down’] It means ‘the descending’. It applies to a musical phrase as well as to the set of notation showing how a raga moves down. Examples: Phrases: N D P; m G R; the descending: S’ N D P m G R S. 20. AVARTANA [pronounced aa.var.ta.na] [Sanskrit, meaning ‘turning round’] The going back of the taal (or a composition) to beat one, after completing the cycle of the number of beats that the taal is made up of.
Example: Taal Keharva (8 beats): 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 | 1 ………. 21. BADA KHAYAL [pronounced ba.Daa kha.yaa.l] [Sanskrit ‘vriddhaka’ meaning ‘great’, ‘big’, ‘grand’; Farsi ‘khiyal’ meaning ‘imagination’, ‘idea’] Khayal is a Hindustani vocal form. It includes both a composition and improvisation. The composition is set to a raga and a taal. The improvisation takes place in the raga, set to the taal, chosen for the composition. A khayal composition is made up of two parts: (1) sthayi, (2) antara. There two types of a khayal: (i) BaDa khayal (ii) ChhoTa khayal (pronounced chho.Taa) BaDa khayal initiates improvisation of the selected raga, in a taal like Ektaal, Teentaal, Jhoomra, and Tilwada, in slow tempo. It uses elements like ‘alap’ and ‘taan’. Alap is executed in ‘aakaar’ and ‘bol’ (words of the composition). Similarly, taan-s also use aakaar and bol. A baDa khayal is followed by a shorter composition, called chhoTa khayal in the same raga, but may well be set to a different taal. The tempo is moderate, or, sometimes, fast. 22. BADHAT [pronounced ba.Dha.ta] [Sanskrit vriddhi, meaning ‘growth’, ‘increase’, ‘elucidation’.] Improvisation of a raga is done gradually, systematically and in details. It aims at creating a grand melodic edifice of the raga. It incorporates the following features: (1) Tempo: The improvisation begins in slow tempo. The tempo is increased gradually. (2) Octaves: Traditionally, it starts in the lower octave, passes through the middle octave, and soars into the higher octave. (3) Notes: Initially, the phrases are made up of very few notes; but their number increases with elaboration. (4) Taan-s: In the beginning, the taan-s are few and far between. With time, the taan-s become longer and more involved.
(5) Complexity: The raga improvisation commences with simplicity, and builds up in complexity. (6) All embellishments, ornaments, tools, tricks, and, sometimes, even gimmicks are put to best use, to bring out the highest in the aesthetics and grammar of the raga. [If you are interested in reading the original Sanskrit references, please see “sangeeta-ratnakaram”, 03.10.87 to 03.10.97] 23. BAHUTVA [pronounced ba.hu.tva] [Sanskrit ‘bahu’ meaning ‘much, abundant’;-tva, meaning ‘-ness’] During improvisation of a raga, some notes are taken more frequently than some others. An example is occurrence of Ga, Ni and Pa in the raga Yaman. This illustrates bahutva of those notes. The sonant (vadi), consonant (samvadi) and prosonant (pranuvadi) notes in a raga make good examples of bahutva. Bahutva is effected by (i) many repetitions of a note, (ii) by longer stay on the note, (iii) by making the note the center around which to weave many phrases in the raga. 24. BAITHAK [pronounced baiTha.ka] [Sanskrit (upa)vishTaka, meaning ‘firmly settled’] A baiThak is a concert of music. The term baithak may imply that it is organized informally, and by invitation. Further, traditionally, the audience attending the baithak squats on the mattresses laid on the floor. The performers sit on a rostrum. Baithak can also mean the basement or the living room where the music concert is being held. In a different context, it may refer to the sitting posture of the performing artist. 25. BANDISH [Sanskrit ‘bandin’, meaning ‘bound (to a structured form)] A bandish is a musical composition in a raga, set to a taal. To rightfully claim the status of a bandish, the composition should present the grammar and format of a raga in its purity. Failing that, the composition is relegated to the second-rate position of a ‘cheez’. 26. BARABAR [pronounced ba.raa.bar]
[Persian, meaning ‘equivalent’, ‘identical’, ‘having correspondence’] This is one of the types of tempo (laya). It shows exact correspondence between the tempo in which a musical phrase is being performed, and the tempo of the accompanying rhythm. In this case, the tempo of the musical phrase is the same as the tempo of the accompanying rhythm. Like this: Accompanying rhythm: 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | Music tempo: 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | [barabar laya] 27. BAYA[pronounced baa.yaa] [From Sanskrit ‘vama’ (pronounced (vaa.ma), meaning ‘left’] The tabla is the Indian percussion instrument, comprising a pair of drums. The two drums are called the baya [pronounced baa.yaa] and daya [pronounced daa.yaa] respectively. The baya is played with left hand. It has bass sound. It is about 10” in diameter. The top membrane is goatskin; the body is brass or copper. 28. BHAJAN [pronounced bha.jan] [Sanskrit, meaning ‘a devotional composition’] Bhajan is a form of music. It is a song, a poem characterized by words of worship and piety. This genre of Indian music was created by saint-poet- composers. The bhajan is a poem set to a simple tune, or to a popular raga. Bhajan-s have been written in many regional languages and have mass appeal and enjoy mass participation. Bhajan-s employ some preferred raga- s, taal-s and instruments of accompaniment. Such raga-s include Kalingda, Desh, Sarang and Mand. The taal-s commonly used are Bhajan, Keharva, Dadra, Roopak and Jhaptal. The instruments used include the drone-cum- rhythm type Ektaara, percussion instruments like daph, jhanj, manjira, dholak, etc. 29. BOL [Prakrit ‘bolla’, meaning ‘word’, ‘sound’] In the context of ‘taal’, a syllable serving as a spoken representation of the sound produced when a percussion instrument is played. There are about fifteen bol-s to represent the tabla sounds. Some tabla bol-s are: taa, naa, dhaa, dhin, tin, trik, ge and kut. 30. BOLTAAN [pronounced bol.taan]
[“bol” from Prakrit ‘bolla’, meaning ‘word’; “taan” from Sanskrit “tan”, meaning ‘to stretch, to weave.] A taan is a musical phrase, performed at a rather fast tempo. If such a taan incorporates words of the bandish, it is called a bol-taan. Here, the notes of the taan “ride” on the words of the bandish. 31. CHAITI [Sanskrit “chaitree”, meaning ‘of/related to the first month (Chaitra) of the Hindu calendar’] It is a form of music, the folk songs of Uttar pradesh (U.P), sung in the month of Chaitra. The word ‘rama (pronounced raa.ma)’ marks the beginning of a line of chaiti, and the words ‘ho rama’ mark the end. Now enjoying the status of a light-classical form chaiti follows the Thumri format. Like Thumri, chaiti develops themes of separation. 32. CHAL [Sanskrit, meaning ‘moveable’, ‘alterable’] The seven notes of the Indian gamut have each the natural, unaltered state. Sa and Pa each has only natural state—no altered state: they are called unalterable notes (achala swara-s). The remaining five notes each has an altered state (chala swara-s), in addition to its natural state. The notes in the altered state are called accidentals (vikrita). The altered state of Ma is called sharp (teevra) Ma. When sung, it sounds higher than the natural Ma. Thus, we have natural (shuddha) Ma, and we have sharp (teevra) Ma. Natural (shud-dha) Ma has the notation symbol “m”. The sharp (teevra) has the notation symbol “M”. The remaining four notes each has an altered state, in addition to its natural state. The altered state is called flat (“komala”). So, we have Re natural (shuddha, symbol ‘R’), as well as Re flat (komala, symbol ‘r’). We have Ga natural (shuddha, symbol ‘G’), as well as Ga flat (komala, symbol ‘g’). And we have Dha natural (shuddha, symbol ‘D’), as well as Dha flat (komala, symbol ‘d’). Lastly, we have Ni natural (shuddha, symbol ‘N’), as well as Ni flat (komala, symbol ‘n’). When sung, the flat note sounds lower than the natural note; and the sharp note sounds higher than the natural note. 33. CHALAN [pronounced cha.la.n] [Sanskrit, meaning ‘movement’]
It means movements of phrases and notes in a raga, which highlight its typical melodic combinations, and bring out its characteristic format and grammar. In other words, chalan demonstrates the essence of the raga aesthetics. Chalan is the raga improvisation encapsulated. 34. CHAUGAN [pronounced chau.gun] [Sanskrit “chatur-guNa”, meaning ‘four-fold’] This is one of the types of tempo (laya). In this case, the tempo of the musical phrase is four times faster than the tempo of the accompanying rhythm. Like this: Accompanying rhythm: 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | Music tempo: 1234 | 1234 | 1234 | 1234 | [Chaugan] 35. CHAUTAAL ALSO CALLED CHAR-TAAL [Sanskrit “chatus-taal”] The taal in which drupad-s are composed and sung. It is a twelve beat taal, with six divisions, four taali-s, on beat numbers 1, 5, 9 and 11, and two khaali-s, on beat numbers 3 and 7. The taal is shown as under: 1 2 | 3 4 | 5 6 | 7 8 | 9 10 | 11 12 | dhaa dhaa | din taa | kiT dhaa | din taa | tiT kata | gadi gana | Chautaal is played on pakhawaj. There is no tabla accompaniment in drupad singing. 36. CHEEZ If a musical composition in a raga, and set to a taal, does not quite demonstrate the grammar and format of the raga in its purity, such a composition is relegated to the second-rate position of a ‘cheez’. 37. CHHOTA KHAYAL [pronounced chho.Taa khayaal] [Prakrit “chhuTTa.a”, meaning ‘small’; Farsi ‘khiyal’ meaning ‘imagination’, ‘idea’] A baDa khayal is followed by a short composition, called Chhota khayal, in the same raga as the baDa khayal, and may well be set to a different taal. The tempo is moderate, or, sometimes, fast. 38. DADRA [pronounced daa.draa] It is the name of a taal with six beats, as shown: 12 3 | 4 5 6 |
| Dha dhi naa | dha ti naa | xo Dadra is also a form of music, set in the taal dadra. This genre enjoys the status of light classical music. In many ways, the dadra form is akin to Thumri singing. 39. DAGGA [pronounced dug.gaa] This is another name for the baya, the left-hand tabla. 40. DAYA [pronounced daa.yaa] [From Sanskrit ‘dakshiNa’ (pronounced (dak.shi.Na), meaning ‘right’] The tabla is the Indian percussion instrument, comprising a pair of drums. The two drums are called the baya [pronounced baayaa’] and daya [pronounced daayaa] respectively. The daya is played with right hand. It has treble sound. The top membrane is goatskin; the body is teak wood. The smaller the diameter of the top membrane, the higher is the pitch of the sound of the daya. 41. DHAMAR [pronounced dha.maar] [Vraja] It is the name of a taal with (seven or) fourteen beats, as shown: 1 2 3 4 5 | 6 7 | 8 9 10 | 11 12 13 14 | ka dhi Ta dhi Ta| dha . | ka ti Ta | ti Ta taa . Dhamar is also a form of drupada (a form of music), set in the dhamartaal. Dhamar is presented after the performance of Drupad, in a faster tempo. 42. DHUN [From Sanskrit “dhvan”, to sound, to reverberate] It is a form of solo instrumental music. It is an attractive melodic phrase in one of the lighter raga-s (like Piloo, Pahadi, Bhairavi, Khamaj, Mand, kafi), and a taal conventionally associated with this type of music. The raga and the taal may be optional. This phrase works as the pivot, the axis, around which pleasing patterns are woven. Dhun does have a mukhaDa, but may or may not have an antara. 43. DIPCHANDI [pronounced deep.chun.dee]
[Sanskrit “dipa” (a lamp); suffix “chandi” from Sanskrit “chandra” (the moon)] It is the name of a taal with fourteen beats, as shown: 1 2 3 | 4 5 6 7 | 8 9 10 | 11 12 13 14 | dhaa dhin . | dhaa ge tin . | taa tin . | dhaa ge dhin . This taal is used in Thumri accompaniment, among other taal-s. 44. DRUPAD [From Sanskrit “dhru.va.pa.da; “dhruva” means ‘firm’, “pada” means ‘a stanza’] It is a venerated, rigorous form of music, sung in praise of God Almighty. This genre has been largely replaced by Khayal singing. Drupad composition consists of four components: sthayi, antara, abhog, and sanchari. It is mostly sung in one of the following taal-s: chautaal, soor- fakta, and aditaal. It is sung in any of the traditional raga-s. 45. DRUT [Sanskrit, meaning ‘quick, speedy’] The laya means a tempo. It is the pace, or the speed at which the taal or a musical piece is played. The tempo has three types: slow (vilambita), moderate (Madhya), and fast (druta). The tempo of a taal is called ‘madhya laya’ (moderate tempo), when the taal is played in an easy, leisurely way, at moderate speed. If the tempo is faster than this, it is termed ‘drut laya’ (fast tempo). Similarly, it the tempo of a taal is slower than ‘madhya laya’, it is named ‘vilambita laya’ (slow tempo). These tempi are each a merely indicative range of speeds. However, in theory, the moderate tempo may be considered to be twice as fast as the slow tempo. The fast tempo may be considered to be twice as fast as the moderate tempo. 46. DUGAN [From Sanskrit “dvi.guNa”, meaning ‘twice in value’] This is one of the types of tempo (laya). In this case, the tempo of the musical phrase is two times faster than the tempo of the accompanying rhythm. Like this: Accompanying rhythm: 1 | 2 | 3 | 4
Music tempo: 1 2 | 3 4 | 5 6| 7 8 | [Dugan] 47. EKTAAL [PRONOUNCED EKA.TAAL] It is the name of a taal with twelve beats, as shown below. The bol-s of ekataal played in slow tempo (vilambita), are slightly different from those for the moderate tempo (Madhya), and the fast tempo (druta). Ekataal in slow tempo: 1 2 | 3 4 | 5 6 | 7 8 | 9 10 | 11 12 | dhin dhin | dhaa.ge tirakiTa | tu naa | kat taa | dhaa.ge tirakiTa | dhi naa | Ekataal in moderate/fast tempo: 1 2 | 3 4 | 5 6 | 7 8 | 9 10 | 11 12 | dhin dhin | dhaa.ge trika | tu naa | kat taa | dhaa.ge trika | dhi naa | 48. GAMAKA [Sanskrit, meaning ‘shaking of a tone’] In music, gamaka is a set of melodic ornaments/embellishments generally expressed as ‘shaking’ of a tone. [If you are interested in reading the original Sanskrit references, please see “sangita-ratnakaram”, 03.10.87 to 03.10.97] 49. GAT [From Sanskrit “gati”, meaning (manner of) motion or going] In the context of playing string and wind instruments, gat is a melodic phrase in a raga and a taal. This phrase works as the pivot, the axis, around which the raga is elaborated, using pleasing patterns. A good gat is characterized by an attractive and short mukhaDa as a part of sthayi. It has an antara, too. Referring to string instruments like Sitar, the gat designed for slow tempo is called Masitkhani gat. The gat designed for moderate/fast tempo is called Razakhani gat. The latter makes extensive use of tihai-s, toda-s and jhala work. 50. GENRES IN INDIAN MUSIC A genre, according to its definition, is a class or category of art of music, in accordance with characteristic form, technique and content. All throughout, the term “Indian music” is used here to mean Hindustani music. However, we have two types of music in India: the North Indian,
which is the same as Hindustani; and the South Indian, which is synonymous with Karnatic music. Indian music is based on human voice. Thus vocal music dominates the scene. Therefore, inherently, it has a limited range of two to three octaves. It can sound very beautiful even when unaccompanied; it does not have elaborate accompaniment. There is an accompanying sound for reference, also called tonic, key, drone, or “Shadja (Sa)” which comes via the Tanpura. When performed to a tempo, it has an accompaniment of a percussion instrument (the tabla, the mridangam, the pakhavaj, dholak,—several of the membra-nophones and idiophones used in light and folk music). If the singer is fortunate, he has the support of Sarangi, harmonium, or, more uncommonly, taar shehnai. The popular Indian solo instruments include tabla, sitar, flute, sarod, san- toor, guitar, violin, shehanai, sarangi etc. The genres prevalent today are:(i) dhrupad [and hori-dhamar] (ii) khayal (iii) tarana (iv) chatarang (v) thumri (vi) bhajan (vii) ghazal (viii) tappa (ix) tirvat (x) dadra (xi) qawwali (xii) sadra (xiii) khamsa (xiv) lavni (xv) kajri (xvi) kirtan (xvii) chaiti (xviii) sugam sangeet (xix) folk music, etc. etc. The above list does NOT include the most popular genre of music in India: Film (movie) music. 51. GHARANA [pronounced gha.raa.naa] [Sanskrit “griha”, meaning ‘house, family’] Music as a performing art has lived, survived and thrived through family traditions, till recently. A gharana represents generations of performers in the family tradition. The tradition of gharana exists in vocal music as well as in instrumental music. The basis for existence of several different gharana-s, in true essence, is different ideologies related to aesthetics. However, new trends obliterating the strong points of gharana-based aesthetic interpretations have started taking place, in the name of fusion, progress, creative innovativeness and aesthetic re-alignment. In the field of khayal singing, the better-known gharana-s are: Gwali-or, Agra, Kirana, Patiala, Indore, Mewati, Jaipur, Vishnupur, Sahaswan, Bhendibazar etc.
Some of the well-known gharana-s in tabla playing are: Banaras, Delhi, Ajrada, Farokabad, Punjab etc. In drupad singing, the stylistic distinctions are made in terms of four ‘bani-s’ (styles of expressions): Gobarhaar, Khandhaar, Daagur and Nohaar. 52. GHASIT [Sanskrit “ghrishTa”, meaning ‘rubbed’] It is an instrumental embellishment. It is the technique of producing a note by rubbing a string of the instrument. 53. GHAZAL [Persian, Arabic, meaning a ‘love song (of separation and of coming together)’] In the loftier sense, a ghazal means a poem of deep devotion to the Almighty God. As a more mundane affair, it means poem of love, of pangs of separation, and of ecstasy of coming together, of two lovers. The ghazal adheres to the strict metrical conventions. Of late, however, the ghazal has come to be sung like a song: it has a tune, a taal and elaborate instrumental accompaniment. The taal-s commonly used in ghazal singing are Keharva, Dadra, Roopak, and Jhaptaal. 54. GURU [Sanskrit, a title of reverence for a recognized guide] A guru is not just a teacher. He is revered for his knowledge, originality and experience. He is highly respected and has few peers. 55. HINDUSTANI [Or, Hindusthani] [pronounced hin.du.staa.ni] [Of Indian origin] In the context of Indian classical music, Hindustani music stands for the music of North India. The other branch of Indian classical music is karnatic music, which stands for the music of South India. 56. HORI [also Holi] [Sanskrit “holikaa”, the name of a colorful Spring festival] Hori is a song depicting the lighter side of Radha-Krishna’s ostentatious display of amorous mischiefs. A hori is set mostly to dhamaar taal. Less commonly, Jhoomra or Dip- chandi is used. Hori is sung in all principal raga-s. Hori is also known as
Dhamaar. 57. IMPROVISATION When an artist goes on the stage to perform, he may not have even decided which raga he is about to perform. He takes his decision based on the time of the day, and upon his ‘mood’, though he does take into consideration the setting, time allowed for his recital, how the audience feels, etc. When he starts performing, he starts improvising the raga of his choice. This is the usual case of improvisation. Improvisation means an unplanned recital. It is a creation composed and performed extemporaneously. The artist performs without any music sheets, without any rehearsals. The very nature of Indian classical music is improvisatory. Indian classical music is all melody. A melody is a succession of notes (swara-s), one note (swara) at a time. Melody forms a distinctive sequence. It is perceived as a pleasant arrangement of musical notes (swara-s). The arrangement of notes (swara-s) in a melody follows a well-structured format, called the raga. Within that structure of the raga, we can create an infinite variety of aesthetically delightful musical arrangements (or phrases). This creative process is called improvisation. Performance of a raga means its improvisation. This phenomenon is variously expressed as elaboration, expansion, extemporization, amplification, development, interpretation, unfolding, and evolution. The improvisation of a raga is done without any prior plan, though according to certain regulations. It is ad-lib, extemporaneous. It is done without any rehearsal. It takes place at the scene of action—on the stage. It is an on-site, real-time, and spontaneous exposition of the aesthetics of the raga. It is the nascent unfolding of the raga: the interpretation of the raga comes into existence while the raga is being performed. But a really good performance is the result of great talent, a great guru, consistent, hard work, and a lot of experience. It requires assiduous work, courage, and thorough learning. It demands great training; exceptional creative ability and natural talent; thorough, intuitive grasp of the aesthetics of the raga; and natural flair for effective presentation.
The technique of improvisation has two main components, namely expansion (baDhat), and creative growth (upaj). Thus, improvisation is twofold. On the one hand, it keeps on increasing its area of development, one small step at a time. On the other hand, it reaches the maximum creative depth at every step of development. Khayal is a Hindustani vocal form. It includes both a composition and improvisation. The composition is set to a raga and a tala. The improvisation takes place in the raga, set to the taal, chosen for the composition. Improvisation of a raga is done gradually, systematically and in detail. It aims at creating a grand melodic edifice of the raga. It incorporates the following features:(1) Tempo: The improvisation begins in slow tempo. The tempo is increased gradually. (2) Octaves: Traditionally, it starts in the lower octave, passes through the middle octave, and soars into the higher octave. (3) Notes: Initially, the phrases are made up of very few notes; but their number increases with elaboration.(4) Taan-s: In the beginning, the taan-s are few and far between. With time, the taan-s become longer and more involved. (5) Complexity: The raga improvisation commences with simplicity, and builds up in complexity. (6) All embellishments, ornaments, tools, tricks, and, sometimes, even gimmicks are put to best use, to bring out the highest in the aesthetics, syntax and grammar of the raga. Chalan means movements of phrases and notes in a raga, so as to highlight its typical melodic combinations, and to bring out its characteristic format and grammar. In other words, chalan demonstrates the essence of the raga aesthetics. Chalan is the raga improvisation encapsulated. The raga is the basis, along with taal, for Indian classical music. During the improvisation, a recital, completely unplanned, explores a raga, without taal, or with taal. The improvisatory nature of Indian classical music requires the artist to take into consideration the setting, time allowed for his recital, his mood and the feeling he discerns in the audience before playing. Since Indian music is religious in origin, one finds the spiritual quality in most musicians’ performances.
The traditional recital begins with the alap. Alap is the majestic, placid exploration of the chosen raga, marked by utter calm and unruffled repose or quietude. After this slow, introspective beginning, the musician moves on to greater speed, greater complexity, longer passages, covering all octaves. In addition, rhythm enters at a stage of the performer’s choice, and the raga is now developed in relation to the taal and tempo. Innumerable variations on the raga’s basic theme are elaborated. And all the development is extemporaneous (without prior preparation). Improvisation is an essential feature of Indian music that depends on the imagination and the creativity of an artist; a great artist can communicate, through the language of music, the mood and majesty of the raga. 58. JAATI [pronounced jaa.ti] [Sanskrit, meaning ‘ type, mode’] Jaati-s are one class of scalar modes. The “grama-raga-s” belong to the other class. These two scalar modes have provided musical material from which the present-day raga-s have evolved. Seven generic jaati-s have been recognized. Their names have been derived from the names of the seven notes. Jati-s have a different implication, too: They are five rhythmic classes. They have been named tryashra, chaturashra, khaND, mishra and sankeerNa. In one more meaning, the jaati of a raga is decided by the number of notes that comprise its aroha (ascending) and avaroha (descending). Thus we have the following types: Five notes in the ascending and five notes in the descending mode: auDava-auDava. Five notes in the ascending and six notes in the descending mode auDava-shaDava. Five notes in the ascending and seven notes in the descending mode: auDava-sampoorNa. Six notes in the ascending and six notes in the descending mode: ShaDava-shaDava.
Six notes in the ascending and seven notes in the descending mode: ShaDava-sampoorNa. Seven notes in the ascending and seven notes in the descending mode: SampoorNa-sampoorNa. 59. JHALA [pronounced jhaa.laa] [From Sanskrit “jhallaka”, “jhallaree”, meaning ‘cymbal’?] The term refers to a playing technique used in playing a string instrument like Sitar, Sarod etc. It mainly involves working with chikari. The Razakhani gat makes extensive use of tihai-s, toda-s and jhala work. Musical climax is the target of increasing tempo. Parallel with jhala work, the melodic patterns continue to be formed on the playing string. 60. JHAPTAAL [Sanskrit “jham.paa.taal”] It is the name of a taal with ten beats, as shown below: IOI RAGA-S FOR THE 2IST CENTURY AND BEYOND [Divisions: four; taali: on beats 1, 3 and 8; khaali: on beat 6.] 1 2 | 3 4 5 | 6 7 | 8 9 10 | dhi naa | dhi dhi naa | ti naa | dhi dhi naa | 61. JUGALBANDHI [pronounced ju.ga.la-ban.dhi] [From Sanskrit “yugala” meaning ‘a pair, a couple’; Sanskrit “bandh” meaning ‘to join, unite, fasten, put together, so arrange’] Jugalbandhi means (a performance by a) duet. It is said to have taken place when two performers perform an item together, during a (musical) performance. The announcement of a jugalbandhi in a programme is a promise, seldom fulfilled by the quality of the duet performance: it hardly goes beyond the gimmick of attracting larger crowds by inclusion of two big names in a single recital. Neither artist forming the duet can do justice to the mystical awareness that Indian classical music is capable of producing. Jugalbandhi is typically a musical attempt thrown out of orderly function, disjointed, lacking coherence, marked by lack of orderly sequence and utterly incomplete and unsatisfactory. A notable exception to this broad
generalization is a typical jugalbandhi in dhrupad singing. But there is a reason for it to be an exception. How many kinds of jugalbandhi exist? The following types have been noted: (1) Dhrupad singing (Dagar brothers) (2) Instrumental of identical class (Sitar/Surbahar) (3) Instrumental of a similar class (Sitar/Sarod) (4) Instrumental of dissimilar classes (Santoor/Flute; Shehnai/Sitar) (5) Instrumental of experimental type (Piano/Harmonium) (6) Khayal singing (Rajan and Sajan Mishra) (7) vocal innovative (Hindustani/Karnatic) (8) Percussions (Tabla/Pakhavaj, taal kachahari) etc., etc. 62. KAKU [pronounced kaa.ku] [Sanskrit, meaning ‘peculiarity, change, or emphasis of tone’] It means characteristic tonal inflection: ‘swara kaku’, which conveys the underlying musical expression. Such kaku can be of six types: low, high, slow, fast, in low pitch, and excited. In a different classification, again, the kaku is divided into six classes: swarakaku, ragakaku, anyaragakaku, deshakaku, kshetrakaku, and yan- trakaku. The last class is related to instrumental music. 63. KALAKAR [pronounced ka.laa.kaa.ra] [Sanskrit “kalaa”, ‘art’; “kaara”, ‘doer, performer’] It means ‘an artist’. 64. KAMPAN [Sanskrit, meaning ‘shaking, vibrating’] It is a phenomenon known as vibration. 65. KANA (swara) [Sanskrit, meaning ‘a particle, a grain, implying smallness’] kaNa swara means a note of a very short duration. It is an embellishment. It is the note that is touched, hardly for an instant, before going on to the next note. To put it differently, two notes are involved here. The first note is
the kaNa swara. It has a very short duration. It immediately leads to the second note, which is the target note. The kaNa swara is responsible for much of the beauty of a raga. Examples: (1) Raga Multani: The phrase M g M g (r)S. Here, komal Re (r) has a very short duration, and it immediately leads to Sa (S). This clearly demonstrates that komal Re is the kaNa swara. (2) Raga Bihag: The phrase N (D)P, shows that Dha (D) is the short-lived kaNa swara, while P is the target note. 66. KARNATIC (MUSIC) [pronounced kar.Naa.tic] [Sanskrit “karNaaTaka”, the name of the people and the country they inhabit, known as the present “Karnatic”] Karnatic music is the South Indian classical music. 67. KARYAKRAMA [pronounced kaa.rya-kra.ma] [Sanskrit, “kaarya” meaning ‘to be done’; “krama” meaning ‘course, arrangement’] Simply put, it means ‘programme’. It may also imply the order in which the various items are to be presented. 68. KHAALI [Arabic, meaning ‘empty, without any contents’] Khali means ‘empty’, having a negative ‘weightage’. It is almost as important as the ‘sama’, but is negative. It is indicated by the wave, in the air, of the palm, going away in opposite direction from the knee. Teentaal has one khaali located on the 9th beat. A taal can have more than one khaali. The khaali may be ‘located’ on different beats in different taal-s. 69. KHAND [Sanskrit “khaNDa”, meaning ‘division’] It is the Sanskrit word for ‘division’. Teentaal is divided into four khaND- s (divisions), each division separated by an upright line. You will find upright lines between 4 and 5, 8 and 9, and between 12 and 13. Thus, each division is the size of 4 beats. The divisions here are equal (each 4 beats), but that need not be so in case of all the taal-s. 70. KHANDMERU (or Merukhand)
This is a musician’s tool for performing vistar (upaj), using a mathematical tool of permutation of (a set of) notes. It is a table which solves questions like: In how many—and what—ways can the three notes Sa, Re and Ga combine? Using the table, you get the answer: The three notes can combine in six different ways, thus giving a set of six series. No note, of course, is repeated. The series is reported in a particular order only. KhaNDmeru also reports the number of order in which a particular combination of notes occurs. For example, take the three-note example of Sa, Re and Ga. KhaNDmeru tells us that SIX such 3-note combinations are possible. It also tells us, for example, that Re-Ga-Sa combination will be the third in order. The aesthetics of a raga always takes precedence over its theory. So, if a combination is possible mathematically, but not aesthetically, then such a combination is dropped out. For example, in the 3-note Ga-Re-Sa series, Sa-Re-Ga exists mathematically, but in the raga Yaman, the Sa-Re-Ga combination is not aesthetically correct, so is rejected. 71. KHARAJ [Sanskrit “shadja”, meaning ‘Sa’, the tonic] Kharaj stands for the bass octave (mandra saptaka) In case of reed instrument like Harmonium, kharaj reeds mean the reeds sounding in the bass. It means ‘Sa’, the tonic, as often used by singers. 72. KHATKA [pronounced khaT.kaa] [Sanskrit “khaTaka”, meaning ‘a slap’, a blow’?] It is a melodic embellishment in which a group of two notes is sung with speed and force. The khaTka has a very short duration and ends on the target note. The second note here is accented. 73. KHAYAL [pronounced kha.yaal] [Arabic, meaning ‘imagination, idea’] Khayal is a genre in Hindustani classical music. It refers to a composition as well as to the style of singing. From the compositional aspect, a khayal comprises two parts: sthayi and antara. Sthayi remains within the range
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