NCERT-Class-12-Political-Science-Part-1

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Conte nts iii v Foreword 1 Preface 17 31 Chapter 1 51 The Cold War Era 65 81 Chapter 2 99 The End of Bipolarity 117 135 Chapter 3 US Hegemony in World Politics Chapter 4 Alternative Centres of Power Chapter 5 Contemporary South Asia Chapter 6 International Organisations Chapter 7 Security in the Contemporary World Chapter 8 Environment and Natural Resources Chapter 9 Globalisation

C ha p te r 1 The C o ld Wa r Era O VERVIEW The e nd o f the Se c o nd Wo rld Wa r le d to the rise o f tw o m a jo r c e ntre s o f p o w e r. The tw o p ic ture s a b o ve sym b o lise the This chapter provides a backdrop vic to ry o f the US a nd the USSR in the Se c o nd Wo rld Wa r. to the entire book. The end of the 1. Am e ric a n so ld ie rs ra ising the US fla g d uring the Ba ttle o f Cold War is usually seen as the Iw o Jim a , Ja p a n, o n 23 Fe b rua ry 1945 beginning of the contemporary era C re d it: Ra ising the Fla g o n Iw o Jim a , in world politics which is the Pho to g ra p h b y Jo e Ro se ntha l/The Asso c ia te d Pre ss subject matter of this book. It is, 2. So vie t so ld ie rs ra ising the USSR fla g o n the Re ic hsta g therefore, appropriate that we b uild ing in Be rlin, G e rm a ny, in Ma y 1945 begin the story with a discussion C re d it: Re ic hsta g fla g , Pho to g ra p h b y Ye vg e ny Kha ld e i/TASS of the Cold War. The chapter shows how the dominance of two superpowers, the United States of America and the Soviet Union, was central to the Cold War. It tracks the various arenas of the Cold War in different parts of the world. The chapter views the Non- Aligned Movement (NAM) as a challenge to the dominance of the two superpowers and describes the attempts by the non-aligned countries to establish a New International Economic Order (NIEO) as a means of attaining economic development and political independence. It concludes with an assessment of India’s role in NAM and asks how successful the policy of non- alignment has been in protecting India’s interests.

2 C o nte m p o ra ry Wo rld Po litic s We a re o n a wo rld to ur! Will me e t yo u in d iffe re nt c o untrie s. Fe e ls g o o d C UBAN MISSILE C RISIS to b e a ro und whe re e ve nts ha ve ha p p e ne d . In April 1961, the leaders of the Ma p sho w ing the ra ng e o f the nuc le a r m issile s und e r c o nstruc tio n Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in C ub a , use d d uring the se c re t m e e ting s o n the C ub a n m issile c risis (USSR) were worried that the So urc e : Jo hn F. Ke nne d y Pre sid e ntia l Lib ra ry & Muse um United States of America (USA) would invade communist-ruled Cuba and overthrow Fidel Castro, the president of the small island nation off the coast of the United States. Cuba was an ally of the Soviet Union and received both diplomatic and financial aid from it. Nikita Khrushchev, the leader of the Soviet Union, decided to convert Cuba into a Russian base. In 1962, he placed nuclear missiles in Cuba. The installation of these weapons put the US, for the first time, under fire from close range and nearly doubled the number of bases or cities in the American mainland which could be threatened by the USSR. Three weeks after the Soviet Union had placed the nuclear weapons in Cuba, the Americans became aware of it. The US President, John F. Kennedy, and his advisers were reluctant to do anything that might lead to full-scale nuclear war between the two countries, but they were determined to get Khrushchev to remove the missiles and nuclear weapons from Cuba. Kennedy ordered American warships to intercept any Soviet ships heading to Cuba as a way of warning the USSR of his seriousness. A clash seemed imminent in what came to be known as the Cuban Missile Crisis. The prospects of this

The C o ld Wa r Era WHAT IS THE C O LD WAR? 3 clash made the whole world The end of the Second World War So ne a r ye t so fa r! nervous, for it would have been is a landmark in contemporary I c a n't b e lie ve tha t no ordinary war. Eventually, to world politics. In 1945, the Allied C ub a survive d a s a the world’s great relief, both Forces, led by the US, Soviet c o mmunist c o untry sides decided to avoid war. The Union, Britain and France fo r so lo ng d e sp ite Soviet ships slowed down and defeated the Axis Powers led by b e ing lo c a te d so turned back. Germany, Italy and Japan, ending c lo se to the US. Just the Second World War (1939- lo o k a t the ma p . The Cuban Missile Crisis was 1945). The war had involved a high point of what came to be almost all the major powers of the known as the Cold War. The Cold world and spread out to regions War referred to the competition, outside Europe including the tensions and a series of Southeast Asia, China, Burma confrontations between the (now Myanmar) and parts of United States and Soviet Union, India’s northeast. The war backed by their respective allies. devastated the world in terms of Fortunately, however, it never loss of human lives and civilian escalated into a ‘hot war’, that is, property. The First World War had a full-scale war between these two earlier shaken the world between powers. There were wars in 1914 and 1918. various regions, with the two powers and their allies involved The end of the Second World in warfare and in supporting War was also the beginning of the regional allies, but at least the Cold War. The world war ended world avoided another global war. when the United States dropped two atomic bombs on the The Cold War was not Japanese cities of Hiroshima and simply a matter of power Nagasaki in August 1945, causing rivalries, of military alliances, Japan to surrender. Critics of the and of the balance of power. US decision to drop the bombs These were accompanied by a have argued that the US knew that real ideological conflict as well, Japan was about to surrender and a difference over the best and that it was unnecessary to drop the most appropriate way of the bombs. They suggest that the organising political, economic, US action was intended to stop the and social life all over the world. Soviet Union from making military The western alliance, headed by and political gains in Asia and the US, represented the elsewhere and to show Moscow ideology of liberal democracy that the United States was and capitalism while the supreme. US supporters have eastern alliance, headed by the argued that the dropping of the Soviet Union, was committed to atomic bombs was necessary to the ideology of socialism and end the war quickly and to stop communism. You have already studied these ideologies in Class XI.

4 C o nte m p o ra ry Wo rld Po litic s further loss of American and Allied weapons capable of inflicting death lives. Whatever the motives, the and destruction unacceptable to consequence of the end of the each other, a full-fledged war is Second World War was the rise of unlikely. In spite of provocations, two new powers on the global stage. neither side would want to risk war With the defeat of Germany and since no political gains would Japan, the devastation of Europe justify the destruction of their and in many other parts of the societies. world, the United States and the Soviet Union became the greatest In the event of a nuclear war, powers in the world with the ability both sides will be so badly harmed to influence events anywhere on that it will be impossible to declare earth. one side or the other as the winner. Even if one of them tries to attack While the Cold War was an and disable the nuclear weapons outcome of the emergence of the of its rival, the other would still be US and the USSR as two left with enough nuclear weapons superpowers rival to each other, to inflict unacceptable destruction. it was also rooted in the This is called the logic of understanding that the destruction ‘deterrence’: both sides have the caused by the use of atom bombs capacity to retaliate against an is too costly for any country to attack and to cause so much bear. The logic is simple yet destruction that neither can afford powerful. When two rival powers to initiate war. Thus, the Cold War are in possession of nuclear — in spite of being an intense form of rivalry between great powers — The se p ic ture s d e p ic t the d e struc tio n remained a ‘cold’ and not hot or c a use d b y the b o m b s d ro p p e d b y the shooting war. The deterrence US o n Hiro shim a (the b o m b w a s c o d e - relationship prevents war but not na m e d ‘ Little Bo y’ ) a nd Na g a sa ki the rivalry between powers. (c o d e -na m e d ‘ Fa t Ma n’ ). Ye t, the se b o m b s we re ve ry sm a ll in the ir Note the main military d e struc tive c a p a c ity (m e a sure d in features of the Cold War. The two te rm s o f kilo to n yie ld ) a s c o m p a re d to superpowers and the countries in the nuc le a r b o m b s tha t w e re to b e the rival blocs led by the a va ila b le in the sto c kp ile s a sse m b le d b y superpowers were expected to the sup e rp o w e rs. The yie ld o f Little Bo y behave as rational and a nd Fa t Ma n w e re 15 a nd 21 kilo to ns responsible actors. They were to re sp e c tive ly. By the e a rly 1950s the US be rational and responsible in the a nd the USSR we re a lre a d y m a king sense that they understood the the rm o nuc le a r w e a p o ns tha t ha d a risks in fighting wars that might yie ld b e tw e e n 10 a nd 15 tho usa nd involve the two superpowers. kilo to ns. In o the r w o rd s, the se b o m b s When two superpowers and the w e re a tho usa nd tim e s m o re d e struc tive blocs led by them are in a tha n the b o m b s use d in Hiro shim a a nd deterrence relationship, fighting Na g a sa ki. During m uc h o f the C o ld Wa r, wars will be massively destructive. b o th the sup e rp o w e rs p o sse sse d tho usa nd s o f suc h w e a p o ns. Just im a g ine the e xte nt o f d e struc tio n tha t the se c o uld c a use a ll o ve r the g lo b e .

The C o ld Wa r Era The smaller states in the 5 alliances used the link to the Responsibility, therefore, meant superpowers for their own 1. Id e ntify thre e being restrained and avoiding the purposes. They got the promise of c o untrie s fro m e a c h risk of another world war. In this protection, weapons, and o f the riva l b lo c s. sense the Cold War managed to economic aid against their local ensure human survival. rivals, mostly regional neighbours 2. Lo o k a t the m a p with whom they had rivalries. The o f the Euro p e a n THE EMERG ENC E O F alliance systems led by the Unio n in C ha p te r 4 TWO PO WER BLO C S two superpowers, therefore, a nd id e ntify fo ur threatened to divide the entire c o untrie s tha t w e re The two superpowers were keen world into two camps. This p a rt o f the Wa rsa w on expanding their spheres of division happened first in Europe. Pa c t a nd no w influence in different parts of the Most countries of western Europe b e lo ng to the EU. world. In a world sharply divided sided with the US and those of between the two alliance systems, eastern Europe joined the Soviet 3. By c o m p a ring this a state was supposed to remain camp. That is why these were also m a p w ith tha t o f tied to its protective superpower called the ‘western’ and the the Euro p e a n Unio n to limit the influence of the other ‘eastern’ alliances. m a p , id e ntify thre e superpower and its allies. ne w c o untrie s tha t c a m e up in the p o st-C o ld Wa r p e rio d . NATO Me m b e rs NO RWA Y FINLA ND Wa rsa w Pa c t Me m b e rs He lsinki O the r C o m m unist Na tio ns O the rs O slo Sto c kho lm SWEDEN IRELA ND No rth Dub lin Se a DENMA RK C o pe nha g e n Mo sc o w USSR BRITA IN NETH. A TLA NTIC Lo ndo n Be rlin O C EA N The Ha g ue Wa rsa w Brusse ls EA ST BELG . Bo nn G ERMA NY LUX. PO LAND Pa ris Pra g ue FRANCE WEST C ZEC HO Be rn G SLO VA KIA ERMA NY Vie nna SWITZ. A USTRIA Bud a p e st HUNG ARY RO MANIA PO RTUG A L Buc ha re st Ya lta Blac k Se a SPA IN Be lg ra de Lisb o n A nka ra ITA LY YUG O SLAVIA TURKEY Ma d rid Ro m e BULG ARIA A LBA NIA So fia Tira na G REEC E Ma p sho w ing the w a y Euro p e w a s d ivid e d into riva l a llia nc e s d uring the C o ld Wa r

6 C o nte m p o ra ry Wo rld Po litic s FIRST WO RLD SEC O ND WO RLD THIRD WO RLD In the fo llo w ing The western alliance was respective alliances. Soviet c o lum n, w rite formalised into an organisation, intervention in east Europe the na m e s o f the North Atlantic Treaty provides an example. The Soviet thre e c o untrie s, Organisation (NATO), which came Union used its influence in w hic h b e lo ng to : into existence in April 1949. It was eastern Europe, backed by the an association of twelve states very large presence of its armies C a pita list Blo c which declared that armed attack in the countries of the region, to ________________ on any one of them in Europe or ensure that the eastern half of ________________ North America would be regarded Europe remained within its ________________ as an attack on all of them. Each sphere of influence. In East and of these states would be obliged Southeast Asia and in West Asia C o m m unist Blo c to help the other. The eastern (Middle East), the United States ________________ alliance, known as the Warsaw built an alliance system called — ________________ Pact, was led by the Soviet Union. the Southeast Asian Treaty ________________ It was created in 1955 and its Organisation (SEATO) and the principal function was to counter Central Treaty Organisation No n- Alig ne d NATO’s forces in Europe. (CENTO). The Soviet Union and Mo ve m e nt communist China responded by ________________ International alliances during having close relations with ________________ the Cold War era were determined regional countries such as North ________________ by the requirements of the Vietnam, North Korea and Iraq. superpowers and the calculations of the smaller states. As noted The Cold War threatened to above, Europe became the main divide the world into two alliances. arena of conflict between the Under these circumstances, many superpowers. In some cases, the of the newly independent superpowers used their military countries, after gaining their power to bring countries into their independence from the colonial

The C o ld Wa r Era 7 powers such as Britain and democracy and capitalism were France, were worried that they better than socialism and would lose their freedom as soon communism, or vice versa. as they gained formal independence. Cracks and splits A RENAS O F THE C O LD WAR within the alliances were quick to appear. Communist China The Cuban Missile Crisis that we Ho w c o me the re a re quarrelled with the USSR towards began this chapter with was only still two Ko re a s while the late 1950s, and, in 1969, they one of the several crises that the o the r d ivisio ns fought a brief war over a territorial occurred during the Cold War. c re a te d b y the C o ld dispute. The other important The Cold War also led to several Wa r ha ve e nd e d ? development was the Non-Aligned shooting wars, but it is important Do the p e o p le o f Movement (NAM), which gave the to note that these crises and wars Ko re a wa nt the newly independent countries a did not lead to another world war. d ivisio n to c o ntinue ? way of staying out of the alliances. The two superpowers were poised for direct confrontations in Korea Lo c a te the You may ask why the (1950 - 53), Berlin (1958 - 62), the fla shp o ints superpowers needed any allies at Congo (the early 1960s), and in o f the C o ld all. After all, with their nuclear several other places. Crises Wa r o n a weapons and regular armies, they deepened, as neither of the parties wo rld ma p . were so powerful that the combined involved was willing to back down. power of most of the smaller states When we talk about arenas of the in Asia and Africa, and even in Cold War, we refer, therefore, to Europe, was no match to that of areas where crisis and war the superpowers. Yet, the smaller occurred or threatened to occur states were helpful for the between the alliance systems but superpowers in gaining access to did not cross certain limits. A great many lives were lost in some (i) vital resources, such as oil of these arenas like Korea, and minerals, Vietnam and Afghanistan, but the world was spared a nuclear war (ii) territory, from where the and global hostilities. In some superpowers could launch cases, huge military build-ups their weapons and troops, were reported. In many cases, diplomatic communication (iii) locations from where they between the superpowers could could spy on each other, and not be sustained and contributed to the misunderstandings. (iv) economic support, in that many small allies together Sometimes, countries outside could help pay for military the two blocs, for example, the expenses. non-aligned countries, played a role in reducing Cold War conflicts They were also important for and averting some grave crises. ideological reasons. The loyalty of Jawaharlal Nehru — one of the key allies suggested that the superpowers were winning the war of ideas as well, that liberal

8 C o nte m p o ra ry Wo rld Po litic s TH E COLD W AR TI M ELI N E leaders of the NAM — played a crucial role in mediating between 1947 Am e ric a n Pre side nt Ha rry Trum a n’s Do c trine the two Koreas. In the Congo a b o ut the c o nta inm e nt o f c o m m unism crisis, the UN Secretary-General played a key mediatory role. By 1947 - 52 Ma rsha ll Pla n: US a id fo r the re c o nstruc tio n o f and large, it was the realisation the We ste rn Euro pe on a superpower’s part that war by all means should be avoided 1948 - 49 Be rlin b lo c ka de b y the So vie t Unio n a nd the that made them exercise restraint a irlift o f supplie s to the c itize ns o f We st Be rlin and behave more responsibly in b y the US a nd its a llie s international affairs. As the Cold War rolled from one arena to 1950 - 53 Ko re a n Wa r; divisio n o f Ko re a a lo ng the 38th another, the logic of restraint was Pa ra lle l increasingly evident. 1954 De fe a t o f the Fre nc h b y the Vie tna m e se a t However, since the Cold War Die n Bie n Phu did not eliminate rivalries between Sig ning o f the G e ne va Ac c o rds the two alliances, mutual Divisio n o f Vie tna m a lo ng the 17th Pa ra lle l suspicions led them to arm Fo rm a tio n o f SEATO themselves to the teeth and to constantly prepare for war. Huge 1954 - 75 Am e ric a n inte rve ntio n in Vie tna m stocks of arms were considered necessary to prevent wars from 1955 Sig ning o f the Ba g hda d Pa c t, la te r C ENTO taking place. 1956 So vie t inte rve ntio n in Hung a ry The two sides understood that war might occur in spite of 1961 US- spo nso re d Ba y o f Pig s inva sio n o f C ub a restraint. Either side might C o nstruc tio n o f the Be rlin Wa ll miscalculate the number of weapons in the possession of the 1962 C ub a n Missile C risis other side. They might misunderstand the intentions of 1965 Am e ric a n inte rve ntio n in the Do m inic a n the other side. Besides, what if Re p ub lic there was a nuclear accident? What would happen if someone 1968 So vie t inte rve ntio n in C ze c ho slo va kia fired off a nuclear weapon by mistake or if a soldier 1972 US Pre side nt Ric ha rd Nixo n’s visit to C hina mischievously shot off a weapon deliberately to start a war? What 1978 - 89 Vie tna m e se inte rve ntio n in C a m b o dia if an accident occurred with a nuclear weapon? How would the 1979 - 89 So vie t inte rve ntio n in Afg ha nista n leaders of that country know it was an accident and not an act of 1985 G o rb a c he v b e c o m e s the Pre side nt o f the sabotage by the enemy or that a USSR; b e g ins the re fo rm pro c e ss missile had not landed from the other side? 1989 Fa ll o f the Be rlin Wa ll; m a ss pro te sts a g a inst g o ve rnm e nts in e a ste rn Euro pe 1990 Unific a tio n o f G e rm a ny 1991 Disinte g ra tio n o f the So vie t Unio n End o f the C o ld Wa r e ra

The C o ld Wa r Era 9 Dra wn b y we ll- POLITICAL SPRING China makes overtures to the USA. kno wn Ind ia n c a rto o nist Kutty, the se two c a rto o ns d e p ic t a n Ind ia n vie w o f the C o ld Wa r. The first c a rto o n wa s d ra wn whe n the US e nte re d into a se c re t und e rsta nd ing with C hina , ke e p ing the USSR in the d a rk. Find o ut mo re a b o ut the c ha ra c te rs in the c a rto o n. The se c o nd c a rto o n d e p ic ts the Ame ric a n misa d ve nture in Vie tna m. Find o ut mo re a b o ut the Vie tna m Wa r. FOOD FOR THOUGHT President Johnson is in more troubles over Vietnam.

10 C o nte m p o ra ry Wo rld Po litic s FO UNDER In time, therefore, the US and (i) cooperation among these five FIG URES USSR decided to collaborate in countries, O F NAM limiting or eliminating certain kinds of nuclear and non-nuclear (ii) growing Cold War tensions Jo sip Bro z Tito weapons. A stable balance of and its widening arenas, and (1892-1980) weapons, they decided, could be Pre sid e nt o f maintained through ‘arms (iii) the dramatic entry of many Yug o sla via (1945- control’. Starting in the 1960s, the newly decolonised African 80); fo ug ht a g a inst two sides signed three countries into the inter- G e rm a ny in Wo rld significant agreements within a national arena. By 1960, Wa r II; c o m m unist; decade. These were the Limited there were 16 new African m a inta ine d so m e Test Ban Treaty, Nuclear Non- members in the UN. d ista nc e fro m the Proliferation Treaty and the So vie t Unio n; Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty. The first summit was attended fo rg e d unity in Thereafter, the superpowers held by 25 member states. Over the Yug o sla via . several rounds of arms limitation years, the membership of NAM talks and signed several more has expanded. The latest meeting, Ja wa ha rla l Ne hru treaties to limit their arms. the 14th summit, was held in (1889-1964) Havana in 2006. It included 116 First Prim e Ministe r C HALLENG E TO BIPO LARITY member states and 15 observer o f Ind ia (1947-64); countries. m a d e e ffo rts fo r We have already seen how the Asia n unity, Cold War tended to divide the As non-alignment grew into a d e c o lo nisa tio n, world into two rival alliances. It popular international movement, nuc le a r was in this context that non- countries of various different d isa rm a m e nt; alignment offered the newly political systems and interests a d vo c a te d decolonised countries of Asia, joined it. This made the movement p e a c e ful Africa and Latin America a third less homogeneous and also made c o e xiste nc e fo r option—not to join either alliance. it more difficult to define in very se c uring w o rld neat and precise terms: what did peac e. The roots of NAM went back it really stand for? Increasingly, to the friendship between three NAM was easier to define in terms leaders — Yugoslavia’s Josip Broz of what it was not. It was not about Tito, India’s Jawaharlal Nehru, being a member of an alliance. and Egypt’s leader Gamal Abdel Nasser — who held a meeting in The policy of staying away 1956. Indonesia’s Sukarno and from alliances should not Ghana’s Kwame Nkrumah be considered isolationism or strongly supported them. These neutrality. Non-alignment is not five leaders came to be known as isolationism since isolationism the five founders of NAM. The first means remaining aloof from world non-aligned summit was held in affairs. Isolationism sums up the Belgrade in 1961. This was the foreign policy of the US from the culmination of at least three American War of Independence in factors: 1787 up to the beginning of the First World War. In comparison, the non-aligned countries, including India, played an active

The C o ld Wa r Era The idea of a New Inter- 11 national Economic Order (NIEO) role in mediating between the two originated with this realisation. FO UNDER rival alliances in the cause of The United Nations Conference FIG URES peace and stability. Their strength on Trade and Development O F NAM was based on their unity and their (UNCTAD) brought out a report resolve to remain non-aligned in 1972 entitled Towards a New Gamal Abdel despite the attempt by the two Trade Policy for Development. Na sse r (1918-70) superpowers to bring them into The report proposed a reform of Rule d Eg yp t fro m their alliances. the global trading system so 1952 to 1970; as to: e sp o use d the Non-alignment is also not c a use s o f Ara b neutrality. Neutrality refers (i) give the LDCs control over na tio na lism , principally to a policy of staying their natural resources so c ia lism a nd out of war. States practising exploited by the developed a nti-im p e ria lism ; neutrality are not required to help Western countries, na tio na lise d the end a war. They do not get Sue z C a na l, involved in wars and do not (ii) obtain access to Western le a d ing to a n take any position on the markets so that the LDCs inte rna tio na l appropriateness or morality of a could sell their products and, c o nflic t in 1956. war. Non-aligned states, including therefore, make trade more India, were actually involved in beneficial for the poorer Suka rno (1901-70) wars for various reasons. They countries, First Pre sid e nt o f also worked to prevent war Ind o ne sia (1945- between others and tried to end (iii) reduce the cost of technology 65); le d the wars that had broken out. from the Western countries, and fre e d o m strug g le ; e sp o use d the NEW INTERNATIO NAL (iv) provide the LDCs with a c a use s o f greater role in international so c ia lism a nd EC O NO MIC O RDER economic institutions. a nti-im p e ria lism ; o rg a nise d the The non-aligned countries were Gradually, the nature of non- Ba nd ung more than merely mediators during alignment changed to give greater C o nfe re nc e ; the Cold War. The challenge for most importance to economic issues. o ve rthro wn in a of the non-aligned countries — a In 1961, at the first summit in milita ry c o up . majority of them were categorised Belgrade, economic issues had as the Least Developed Countries not been very important. By the (LDCs) — was to be more developed mid-1970s, they had become the economically and to lift their people most important issues. As a out of poverty. Economic result, NAM became an economic development was also vital for the pressure group. By the late independence of the new countries. 1980s, however, the NIEO Without sustained development, a initiative had faded, mainly country could not be truly free. It because of the stiff opposition would remain dependent on the from the developed countries who richer countries including the acted as a united group while the colonial powers from which political non-aligned countries struggled freedom had been achieved. to maintain their unity in the face of this opposition.

12 C o nte m p o ra ry Wo rld Po litic s INDIA AND THE C O LD WAR cause which had little to do with India’s real interests. A non-aligned FO UNDER As a leader of NAM, India’s posture also served India’s interests FIG URES response to the ongoing Cold War very directly, in at least two ways: O F NAM was two-fold: At one level, it took particular care in staying away First, non-alignment allowed from the two alliances. Second, it India to take international raised its voice against the newly decisions and stances that decolonised countries becoming served its interests rather than part of these alliances. the interests of the super- powers and their allies. Kwa m e Nkrum a h India’s policy was neither (1909-72) negative nor passive. As Nehru Second, India was often able First Prim e Ministe r reminded the world, non- to balance one superpower o f G ha na (1952- alignment was not a policy of against the other. If India felt 66); le d the ‘fleeing away’. On the contrary, ignored or unduly pressurised fre e d o m India was in favour of actively by one superpower, it could tilt mo ve me nt; intervening in world affairs to towards the other. Neither a d vo c a te d the soften Cold War rivalries. India alliance system could take c a use s o f tried to reduce the differences India for granted or bully it. so c ia lism a nd between the alliances and thereby Afric a n unity; prevent differences from India’s policy of non-alignment o p p o se d ne o - escalating into a full-scale war. was criticised on a number of c o lo nia lism ; Indian diplomats and leaders were counts. Here we may refer to only re m o ve d in a often used to communicate and two criticisms: m ilita ry c o up . mediate between Cold War rivals such as in the Korea War in the First, India’s non-alignment early 1950s. was said to be ‘unprincipled’. In the name of pursuing its So , NIEO wa s just a n It is important to remember national interest, India, it was id e a tha t ne ve r that India chose to involve other said, often refused to take a b e c a me a n o rd e r. members of the non-aligned group firm stand on crucial Rig ht? in this mission. During the Cold international issues. War, India repeatedly tried to Na me a ny five activate those regional and Second, it is suggested that c o untrie s, international organisations, which India was inconsistent and whic h we re were not a part of the alliances led took contradictory postures. d e c o lo nise d by the US and USSR. Nehru Having criticised others for fo llo wing the reposed great faith in ‘a genuine joining alliances, India signed e nd o f the commonwealth of free and the Treaty of Friendship in Se c o nd Wo rld cooperating nations’ that would August 1971 with the USSR Wa r. play a positive role in softening, if for 20 years. This was not ending, the Cold War. regarded, particularly by outside observers, as Non-alignment was not, as virtually joining the Soviet some suggest, a noble international alliance system. The Indian government’s view was that

The C o ld Wa r Era 13 India needed diplomatic and STEPS possibly military support ‹ Divid e the c la ssro o m into thre e g ro up s o f e ve n during the Bangladesh crisis and that in any case the num b e r. Ea c h g ro up is to re p re se nt thre e treaty did not stop India from d iffe re nt w o rld s - first w o rld / c a p ita list w o rld , having good relations with se c o nd wo rld / c o mmunist wo rld a nd the third other countries including wo rld / no n-a lig ne d wo rld . the US. ‹ The te a c he r is to se le c t a ny two c ritic a l issue s Non-alignment as a strategy evolved in the Cold War context. w hic h p o se d a thre a t to w o rld p e a c e a nd As we will see in Chapter 2, with se c urity d uring the C o ld Wa r d a ys. ( The Ko re a n the disintegration of the USSR and a nd Vie tna m Wa rs wo uld b e g o o d e xa mp le s). the end of the Cold War in 1991, non-alignment, both as an ‹ Assig n e a c h g ro up to wo rk o n d e ve lo p ing a n international movement and as the core of India’s foreign policy, ‘ e ve nt p ro file ’ . The y ha ve to d e ve lo p , fro m the lost some of its earlier relevance va nta g e p o int o f the b lo c the y re p re se nt, a and effectiveness. However, non- p re se nta tio n tha t c o nta ins a tim e line o f the alignment contained some core e ve nt, its c a use s, the irp re fe rre d c o urse o f a c tio n values and enduring ideas. It was to so lve the p ro b le m. based on a recognition that decolonised states share a ‹ Ea c h g ro up is to p re se nt the ir e ve nt p ro file historical affiliation and can become a powerful force if they b e fo re the c la ss. come together. It meant that the poor and often very small Ide a s fo r the Te a c he r countries of the world need not become followers of any of the big Dra w stud e nts’ a tte ntio n to the re p e rc ussio ns the se c rise s ha d powers, that they could pursue an independent foreign policy. It was o n the re st o f the w o rld a nd o n the re sp e c tive c o untrie s. also based on a resolve to C o nne c t to the p re se nt situa tio n in the se c o untrie s. democratise the international system by thinking about an Hig hlig ht the ro le p la ye d b y the le a d e rs o f the Third Wo rld alternative world order to redress existing inequities. These core (Ind ia ’ s sta nd a nd c o ntrib utio n in Ko re a a nd Vie tna m c o uld ideas remain relevant even after b e ta ke n up fo r re fe re nc e ) a nd the UN to b ring b a c k p e a c e in the Cold War has ended. the se re g io ns. O p e n a d e b a te o n ‘ ho w we c o uld a ve rt the se kind o f c rise s’ in the p o st-C o ld Wa r wo rld .

14 C o nte m p o ra ry Wo rld Po litic s ARMS CON TROL TREATI ES LIMITED TEST BAN TREATY (LTBT) Ba nne d nuc le a r we a p o n te sts in the a tmo sp he re , in o ute r sp a c e a nd und e r wa te r. Sig ne d b y the US, UK a nd USSR in Mo sc o w o n 5 Aug ust 1963. Ente re d into fo rc e o n 10 O c to b e r 1963. NUC LEAR NO N- PRO LIFERATIO N TREATY (NPT) Allo ws o nly the nuc le a r we a p o n sta te s to ha ve nuc le a r we a p o ns a nd sto p s o the rs fro m a q uiring the m . Fo r the p urp o se s o f the NPT, a nuc le a r w e a p o n sta te is o ne w hic h ha s ma nufa c ture d a nd e xp lo d e d a nuc le a rwe a p o n o ro the rnuc le a re xp lo sive d e vic e p rio rto 1 Ja nua ry 1967. So the re a re five nuc le a r we a p o n sta te s: US, USSR (la te r Russia ), Brita in, Fra nc e a nd C hina . Sig ne d in Wa shing to n, Lo nd o n, a nd Mo sc o w o n 1 July 1968. Ente re d into fo rc e o n 5 Ma rc h 1970. Exte nd e d ind e finite ly in 1995. STRATEG IC A RMS LIMITATIO N TALKS I (SA LT- I) The first ro und o f the Stra te g ic Arms Limita tio n Ta lks b e g a n in No ve mb e r 1969. The So vie t le a d e r Le o nid Bre zhne v a nd the US Pre sid e nt Ric ha rd Nixo n sig ne d the fo llo wing in Mo sc o w o n 26 Ma y 1972 – a ) Tre a ty o n the limita tio n o f Anti-Ba llistic Missile Syste ms (ABM Tre a ty); a nd b ) Inte rim Ag re e me nt o n the limita tio n o f stra te g ic o ffe nsive a rms. Ente re d into fo rc e o n 3 O c to b e r 1972. STRATEG IC A RMS LIMITATIO N TALKS II (SA LT- II) The se c o nd ro und sta rte d in No ve mb e r 1972. The US Pre sid e nt Jimmy C a rte r a nd the So vie t le a d e rLe o nid Bre zhne v sig ne d the Tre a ty o n the limita tio n o f stra te g ic o ffe nsive a rms in Vie nna o n 18 June 1979. STRATEG IC A RMS REDUC TIO N TREATY I (STA RT- I) Tre a ty sig ne d b y the USSRPre sid e nt Mikha ilG o rb a c he v a nd the USPre sid e nt G e o rg e Bush (Se nio r) o n the re d uc tio n a nd limita tio n o f stra te g ic o ffe nsive a rms in Mo sc o w o n 31 July 1991. STRATEG IC A RMS REDUC TIO N TREATY II (STA RT- II) Tre a ty sig ne d b y the Russia n Pre sid e nt Bo ris Ye ltsin a nd the US Pre sid e nt G e o rg e Bush (Se nio r) o n the re d uc tio n a nd limita tio n o f stra te g ic o ffe nsive a rms in Mo sc o w o n 3 Ja nua ry 1993.

The C o ld Wa r Era 15 1. Whic h a m o ng the fo llo w ing sta te m e nts a b o ut the C o ld Wa r is Exercises wro ng ? a) It wa s a c o mp e titio n b e twe e n the US a nd So vie t Unio n a nd the ir re sp e c tive a llie s. b) It wa s a n id e o lo g ic a l wa r b e twe e n the sup e rp o we rs. c ) It trig g e re d o ff a n a rms ra c e . d) the US a nd USSR we re e ng a g e d in d ire c t wa rs. 2. Whic h a m o ng the fo llo w ing sta te m e nts d o e s no t re fle c t the o b je c tive s o f NAM a ) Ena b ling ne wly d e c o lo nise d c o untrie s to p ursue ind e p e nd e nt p o lic ie s b ) No to jo ining a ny milita ry a llia nc e s c ) Fo llo wing a p o lic y o f ‘ ne utra lity’ o n g lo b a l issue s d ) Fo c us o n e limina tio n o f g lo b a l e c o no mic ine q ua litie s 3. Ma rk c o rre c t o r wro ng a g a inst e a c h o f the fo llo wing sta te me nts tha t d e sc rib e the fe a ture s o f the milita ry a llia nc e s fo rme d b y the sup e rp o we rs. a) Me mb e r c o untrie s o f the a llia nc e a re to p ro vid e b a se s in the ir re sp e c tive la nd s fo r the sup e rp o we rs. b ) Me mb e r c o untrie s to sup p o rt the sup e rp o we r b o th in te rms o f id e o lo g y a nd milita ry stra te g y. c ) Whe n a na tio n a tta c ks a ny me mb e r c o untry, it is c o nsid e re d a s a n a tta c k o n a ll the me mb e r c o untrie s. d) Sup e rp o we rs a ssist a ll the me mb e r c o untrie s to d e ve lo p the ir o wn nuc le a r we a p o ns. 4. He re is a list o f c o untrie s. Write a g a inst e a c h o f the se the b lo c the y b e lo ng e d to d uring the C o ld Wa r. a ) Po la nd b ) Fra nc e c ) Ja p a n d ) Nig e ria e ) No rth Ko re a f) Sri La nka 5. The C o ld Wa rp ro d uc e d a n a rms ra c e a s we ll a s a rms c o ntro l. Wha t we re the re a so ns fo r b o th the se d e ve lo p me nts? 6. Why d id the sup e rp o w e rs ha ve m ilita ry a llia nc e s w ith sm a lle r c o untrie s? G ive thre e re a so ns.

Exercises16 C o nte m p o ra ry Wo rld Po litic s 7. So me time s it is sa id tha t the C o ld Wa r wa s a simp le strug g le fo r p o we r a nd tha t id e o lo g y ha d no thing to d o with it. Do yo u a g re e with this? G ive o ne e xa mp le to sup p o rt yo ur p o sitio n. 8. Wha t wa s Ind ia ’ s fo re ig n p o lic y to wa rd s the US a nd USSR d uring the C o ld Wa r e ra ? Do yo u think tha t this p o lic y he lp e d Ind ia ’ s inte re sts? 9. NAM wa s c o nsid e re d a ‘ third o p tio n’ b y Third Wo rld c o untrie s. Ho w d id this o p tio n b e ne fit the ir g ro wth d uring the p e a k o f the C o ld Wa r? 10. Wha t d o yo u think a b o ut the sta te me nt tha t NAM ha s b e c o me irre le va nt to d a y. G ive re a so ns to sup p o rt yo ur o p inio n.

C ha p te r 2 The End o f Bip o la rity O VERVIEW The Be rlin Wa ll symb o lise d the divisio n The Berlin Wall, which had been b e twe e n the c a p ita list built at the height of the Cold War a nd the c o mmunist and was its greatest symbol, was wo rld. Built in 1961 to toppled by the people in 1989. This dramatic event was followed se p a ra te Ea st Be rlin fro m We st Be rlin, this mo re tha n 150 by an equally dramatic and kilo me tre lo ng wa ll sto o d fo r 28 ye a rs a nd wa s fina lly b ro ke n historic chain of events that led b y the p e o p le o n 9 No ve mb e r 1989. This ma rke d the to the collapse of the ‘second unific a tio n o f the two p a rts o f G e rma ny a nd the b e g inning world’ and the end of the Cold War. o f the e nd o f the c o mmunist b lo c . The p ic ture s he re de p ic t: Germany, divided after the Second 1. Pe o p le ma king a tiny ho le in the wa ll World War, was unified. One after 2. A se c tio n o f the wa ll o p e ne d to a llo w fre e mo ve me nt another, the eight East European 3. The Be rlin Wa ll a s it sto o d b e fo re 1989 countries that were part of the C re dit: 1. a nd 2. Fre de rik Ra mm, Soviet bloc replaced their www.re mo te .o rg /fre de rik/c ulture /b e rlin communist governments in 3. www.c s.uta h.e du response to mass demonstrations. The Soviet Union stood by as the Cold War began to end, not by military means but as a result of mass actions by ordinary men and women. Eventually the Soviet Union itself disintegrated. In this chapter, we discuss the meaning, the causes and the consequences of the disintegration of the ‘second world’. We also discuss what happened to that part of the world after the collapse of communist regimes and how India relates to these countries now.

18 C o nte mp o ra ry Wo rld Po litic s LEA DERS O F THE WHAT WAS THE SO VIET machinery production, and a SO VIET UNIO N transport sector that connected its SYSTEM? remotest areas with efficiency. It Vla d im ir Le nin had a domestic consumer (1870-1924) The Union of Soviet Socialist industry that produced everything Fo und e r o f the Republics (USSR) came into being from pins to cars, though their Bo lshe vik after the socialist revolution in quality did not match that of the C o m m unist p a rty; Russia in 1917. The revolution was Western capitalist countries. The le a d e r o f the inspired by the ideals of socialism, Soviet state ensured a minimum Russia n Re vo lutio n as opposed to capitalism, and the standard of living for all citizens, o f 1917 a nd the need for an egalitarian society. This and the government subsidised fo und e r-he a d o f was perhaps the biggest attempt basic necessities including health, the USSR d uring in human history to abolish the education, childcare and other the m o st d iffic ult institution of private property and welfare schemes. There was no p e rio d fo llo w ing consciously design a society based unemployment. State ownership the re vo lutio n on principles of equality. In doing was the dominant form of (1917-1924); a n so, the makers of the Soviet system ownership: land and productive o utsta nd ing gave primacy to the state and the assets were owned and controlled the o re tic ia n a nd institution of the party. The Soviet by the Soviet state. p ra c titio ne r o f political system centred around Ma rxism a nd a the communist party, and no other The Soviet system, however, so urc e o f political party or opposition was became very bureaucratic and insp ira tio n fo r allowed. The economy was planned authoritarian, making life very c o m m unists a ll and controlled by the state. difficult for its citizens. Lack of o ve r the w o rld . democracy and the absence of After the Second World War, freedom of speech stifled people who the east European countries that often expressed their dissent in the Soviet army had liberated from jokes and cartoons. Most of the the fascist forces came under the institutions of the Soviet state control of the USSR. The political needed reform: the one-party and the economic systems of all system represented by the these countries were modelled Communist Party of the Soviet after the USSR. This group of Union had tight control over all countries was called the Second institutions and was unaccountable World or the ‘socialist bloc’. The to the people. The party refused to Warsaw Pact, a military alliance, recognise the urge of people in the held them together. The USSR was fifteen different republics that formed the leader of the bloc. the Soviet Union to manage their own affairs including their cultural The Soviet Union became a affairs. Although, on paper, Russia great power after the Second was only one of the fifteen republics World War. The Soviet economy that together constituted the USSR, was then more developed than the in reality Russia dominated rest of the world except for the US. everything, and people from other It had a complex communications regions felt neglected and often network, vast energy resources suppressed. including oil, iron and steel,

The End o f Bip o la rity 19 In the arms race, the Soviet Gorbachev, did not intervene LEA DERS O F THE Union managed to match the US when the disturbances occurred, SO VIET UNIO N from time to time, but at great and the communist regimes cost. The Soviet Union lagged collapsed one after another. Jo se ph Sta lin behind the West in technology, (1879-1953) infrastructure (e.g. transport, These developments were Suc c e sso r to Le nin power), and most importantly, in accompanied by a rapidly a nd le d the So vie t fulfilling the political or economic escalating crisis within the USSR Unio n d uring its aspirations of citizens. The Soviet that hastened its disintegration. c o nso lid a tio n invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 Gorbachev initiated the policies of (1924-53); b e g a n weakened the system even economic and political reform and ra p id further. Though wages continued democratisation within the ind ustria lisa tio n to grow, productivity and country. The reforms were a nd fo rc ib le technology fell considerably opposed by leaders within the c o lle c tivisa tio n o f behind that of the West. This led Communist Party. a g ric ulture ; to shortages in all consumer c re d ite d with goods. Food imports increased A coup took place in 1991 that So vie t vic to ry in every year. The Soviet economy was encouraged by Communist the Se c o nd Wo rld was faltering in the late 1970s and Party hardliners. The people had Wa r; he ld became stagnant. tasted freedom by then and did not re sp o nsib le fo r the want the old-style rule of the G re a t Te rro r o f the G O RBAC HEV AND THE Communist Party. Boris Yeltsin 1930s, emerged as a national hero in a utho rita ria n DISINTEG RATIO N opposing this coup. The Russian func tio ning a nd Republic, where Yeltsin won a e limina tio n o f Mikhail Gorbachev, who had popular election, began to shake riva ls within the become General Secretary of the off centralised control. Power p a rty. Communist Party of the Soviet began to shift from the Soviet Union in 1985, sought to reform centre to the republics, especially this system. Reforms were in the more Europeanised part of necessary to keep the USSR the Soviet Union, which saw abreast of the information and themselves as sovereign states. technological revolutions taking The Central Asian republics did place in the West. However, not ask for independence and Gorbachev’s decision to normalise wanted to remain with the Soviet relations with the West and Federation. In December 1991, democratise and reform the Soviet under the leadership of Yeltsin, Union had some other effects that Russia, Ukraine and Belarus, neither he nor anyone else three major republics of the intended or anticipated. The USSR, declared that the Soviet people in the East European Union was disbanded. The countries which were part of the Communist Party of the Soviet Soviet bloc started to protest Union was banned. Capitalism against their own governments and democracy were adopted as and Soviet control. Unlike in the the bases for the post-Soviet past, the Soviet Union, under republics.

20 C o nte mp o ra ry Wo rld Po litic s LEA DERS O F THE A C o mmunist Pa rty b ure a uc ra t d rive s d o wn fro m Mo sc o w to a c o lle c tive fa rm SO VIET UNIO N to re g iste ra p o ta to ha rve st. “ C o mra d e fa rme r, ho w ha s the ha rve st b e e n this ye a r? ” the o ffic ia l a sks. Nikita Khrushc he v “ O h, b y the g ra c e o f G o d , we ha d mo unta ins o f p o ta to e s,” a nswe rs the (1894-1971) fa rme r. Le a d e r o f the “ But the re is no G o d ,” c o unte rs the o ffic ia l. So vie t Unio n “ Huh” , sa ys the fa rme r, “ And the re a re no mo unta ins o f p o ta to e s e ithe r.” (1953-64); d e no unc e d The declaration on the there may be more general lessons Sta lin’ s le a d e rship disintegration of the USSR and the to be drawn from this very style a nd formation of the Commonwealth important case. intro d uc e d so me of Independent States (CIS) came re fo rms in 1956; as a surprise to the other There is no doubt that the sug g e ste d republics, especially to the Central internal weaknesses of Soviet “ p e a c e ful Asian ones. The exclusion of these political and economic institutions, c o e xiste nc e ” with republics was an issue that was which failed to meet the the We st; quickly solved by making them aspirations of the people, were invo lve d in founding members of the CIS. responsible for the collapse of the sup p re ssing Russia was now accepted as the system. Economic stagnation for p o p ula r re b e llio n successor state of the Soviet many years led to severe in Hung a ry a nd in Union. It inherited the Soviet seat consumer shortages and a large the C ub a n missile in the UN Security Council. Russia section of Soviet society began to c risis. accepted all the international doubt and question the system treaties and commitments of the and to do so openly. I a m a ma ze d ! Ho w Soviet Union. It took over as the c o uld so ma ny only nuclear state of the post- Why did the system become so se nsitive p e o p le a ll Soviet space and carried out some weak and why did the economy o ve r the wo rld nuclear disarmament measures stagnate? The answer is partially a d mire a syste m like with the US. The old Soviet Union clear. The Soviet economy used this? was thus dead and buried. much of its resources in maintaining a nuclear and WHY DID THE SO VIET UNIO N military arsenal and the development of its satellite states DISINTEG RATE? in Eastern Europe and within the Soviet system (the five Central How did the second most powerful Asian Republics in particular). country in the world suddenly This led to a huge economic disintegrate? This is a question burden that the system could not worth asking not just to cope with. At the same time, understand the Soviet Union and ordinary citizens became more the end of communism but also knowledgeable about the because it is not the first and may economic advance of the West. not be the last political system to They could see the disparities collapse. While there are unique between their system and the features of the Soviet collapse, systems of the West. After years of being told that the Soviet

The End o f Bip o la rity 21 system was better than Western impossible to control. There were LEA DERS O F THE capitalism, the reality of its sections of Soviet society which felt SO VIET UNIO N backwardness came as a political that Gorbachev should have and psychological shock. moved much faster and were Le o nid Bre zhne v disappointed and impatient with (1906-82) The Soviet Union had become his methods. They did not benefit Le a d e r o f the stagnant in an administrative and in the way they had hoped, or they So vie t Unio n (1964- political sense as well. The benefited too slowly. Others, 82); p ro p o se d Communist Party that had ruled especially members of the Asia n C o lle c tive the Soviet Union for over 70 years Communist Party and those who Se c urity syste m; was not accountable to the people. were served by the system, took a sso c ia te d with Ordinary people were alienated by exactly the opposite view. They felt the d é te nte p ha se slow and stifling administration, that their power and privileges in re la tio ns with rampant corruption, the inability were eroding and Gorbachev was the US; invo lve d in of the system to correct mistakes moving too quickly. In this ‘tug of sup p re ssing a it had made, the unwillingness to war’, Gorbachev lost support on all p o p ula r re b e llio n allow more openness in sides and divided public opinion. in C ze c ho slo va kia government, and the centralisation Even those who were with him a nd in inva d ing of authority in a vast land. Worse became disillusioned as they felt Afg ha nista n. still, the party bureaucrats gained that he did not adequately defend more privileges than ordinary his own policies. citizens. People did not identify with the system and with the All this might not have led to rulers, and the government the collapse of the Soviet Union but increasingly lost popular backing. for another development that surprised most observers and Gorbachev’s reforms promised indeed many insiders. The rise of to deal with theseproblems. nationalism and the desire for Gorbachev promised to reform the sovereignty within various economy, catch up with the West, republics including Russia and the and loosen the administrative Baltic Republics (Estonia, Latvia system. You may wonder why the and Lithuania), Ukraine, Georgia, Soviet Union collapsed in spite of and others proved to be the final Gorbachev’s accurate diagnosis of and most immediate cause for the the problem and his attempt to disintegration of the USSR. Here implement reforms. Here is where again there are differing views. the answers become more controversial, and we have to One view is that nationalist depend on future historians to urges and feelings were very much guide us better. at work throughout the history of the Soviet Union and that whether The most basic answer seems or not the reforms had occurred to be that when Gorbachev carried there would have been an internal out his reforms and loosened the struggle within the Soviet Union. system, he set in motion forces and This is a ‘what-if’ of history, but expectations that few could have surely it is not an unreasonable predicted and became virtually

22 C o nte mp o ra ry Wo rld Po litic s LEA DERS O F THE view given the size and diversity of Ironically, during the Cold War SO VIET UNIO N the Soviet Union and its growing many thought that nationalist internal problems. Others think unrest would be strongest in the that Gorbachev’s reforms speeded Central Asian republics given their up and increased nationalist ethnic and religious differences with dissatisfaction to the point that the rest of the Soviet Union and their the government and rulers could economic backwardness. However, not control it. as things turned out, nationalist TI MELI N E OF DI SI N TEGRATI ON OF THE SOVI ET UN I ON Mikha il 1985 Ma rc h: Mikha il G o rb a c he v e le c te d a s the G e ne ra l Se c re ta ry o f the G o rb a c he v C o mmunist Pa rty o f the So vie t Unio n; a p p o ints Bo ris Ye ltsin a s the he a d o f the (Bo rn 1931) C o mmunist Pa rty in Mo sc o w; initia te s a se rie s o f re fo rms in the So vie t Unio n La st le a d e r o f the So vie t Unio n 1988: Ind e p e nd e nc e mo ve me nt b e g ins in Lithua nia ; la te r sp re a d s to Esto nia (1985-91); a nd La tvia intro d uc e d e c o no mic a nd 1989 O c to b e r: So vie t Unio n d e c la re s tha t the Wa rsa w Pa c t me mb e rs a re fre e p o litic a l re fo rm to d e c id e the ir o wn future s; Be rlin Wa ll fa lls in No ve mb e r p o lic ie s o f p e re stro ika 1990 Fe b rua ry: G o rb a c he v strip s the So vie t C o mmunist Pa rty o f its 72-ye a r-lo ng (re struc turing ) mo no p o ly o n p o we rb y c a lling o n the So vie t p a rlia me nt (Duma ) to p e rmit multi- a nd g la sno st p a rty p o litic s (o p e nne ss); sto p p e d the a rms 1990 Ma rc h: Lithua nia b e c o me s the first o f the 15 So vie t re p ub lic s to d e c la re its ra c e with the US; ind e p e nd e nc e withd re w So vie t tro o p s fro m 1990 June : Russia n p a rlia me nt d e c la re s its ind e p e nd e nc e fro m the So vie t Unio n Afg ha nista n a nd e a ste rn Euro p e ; 1991 June : Ye ltsin, no lo ng e r in the C o mmunist Pa rty, b e c o me s the Pre sid e nt o f he lp e d in the Russia unific a tio n o f G e rma ny; e nd e d 1991 Aug ust: The C o mmunist Pa rty ha rd line rs sta g e a n a b o rtive c o up a g a inst the C o ld Wa r; G o rb a c he v b la me d fo r the d isinte g ra tio n o f 1991 Se pte m b e r: Thre e Ba ltic re p ub lic s o f Esto nia , La tvia a nd Lithua nia b e c o me the So vie t Unio n. UN me mb e rs (la te r jo in NATO in Ma rc h 2004) 1991 De c e m b e r: Russia , Be la rus a nd Ukra ine d e c id e to a nnul the 1922 Tre a ty o n the C re a tio n o f the USSR a nd e sta b lish the C o mmo nwe a lth o f Ind e p e nd e nt Sta te s (C IS); Arme nia , Aze rb a ija n, Mo ld o va , Ka za khsta n, Kyrg yzsta n, Ta jikista n, Turkme nista n a nd Uzb e kista n jo in the C IS (G e o rg ia jo ins la te r in 1993); Russia ta ke s o ve r the USSR se a t in the Unite d Na tio ns 1991 De c e m b e r25: G o rb a c he v re sig ns a s the Pre sid e nt o f the So vie t Unio n; the e nd o f the So vie t Unio n

The End o f Bip o la rity 23 dissatisfaction with the Soviet Union changed. The end of the Cold War LEA DERS O F THE was strongest in the more left open only two possibilities: SO VIET UNIO N “European” and prosperous part – either the remaining superpower in Russia and the Baltic areas as would dominate and create a Bo ris Ye ltsin (Bo rn well as Ukraine and Georgia. unipolar system, or different 1931) Ordinary people here felt alienated countries or groups of countries The first e le c te d from the Central Asians and from could become important players in Pre sid e nt o f each other and concluded also that the international system, thereby Russia (1991- they were paying too high an bringing in a multipolar system 1999); ro se to economic price to keep the more where no one power could p o we r in the backward areas within the Soviet dominate. As it turned out, the US C o mmunist Pa rty Union. became the sole superpower. a nd wa s ma d e Backed by the power and prestige the Ma yo r o f C O NSEQ UENC ES O F of the US, the capitalist economy Mo sc o w b y was now the dominant economic G o rb a c he v; la te r DISINTEG RATIO N system internationally. Institutions jo ine d the c ritic s like the World Bank and o f G o rb a c he v The collapse of the second world International Monetary Fund a nd le ft the of the Soviet Union and the became powerful advisors to all C o mmunist Pa rty; socialist systems in eastern Europe these countries since they gave le d the p ro te sts had profound consequences for them loans for their transitions to a g a inst the So vie t world politics. Let us note here capitalism. Politically, the notion of re g ime in 1991; three broad kinds of enduring liberal democracy emerged as the p la ye d a ke y ro le changes that resulted from it. best way to organise political life. in d isso lving the Each of these had a number of So vie t Unio n; effects that we cannot list here. Third, the end of the Soviet bloc b la me d fo r meant the emergence of many new ha rd ship s First of all, it meant the end of countries. All these countries had suffe re d b y Cold War confrontations. The their own independent aspirations Russia ns in the ir ideological dispute over whether and choices. Some of them, tra nsitio n fro m the socialist system would beat the especially the Baltic and east c o mmunism to capitalist system was not an issue European states, wanted to join the c a p ita lism. any more. Since this dispute had European Union and become part engaged the military of the two of the North Atlantic Treaty blocs, had triggered a massive Organisation (NATO). The Central arms race and accumulation of Asian countries wanted to take nuclear weapons, and had led to advantage of their geographical the existence of military blocs, the location and continue their close ties end of the confrontation demanded with Russia and also to establish ties an end to this arms race and a with the West, the US, China and possible new peace. others. Thus, the international system saw many new players Second, power relations in emerge, each with its own identity, world politics changed and, interests, and economic and political therefore, the relative influence of difficulties. It is to these issues that ideas and institutions also we now turn.

24 C o nte mp o ra ry Wo rld Po litic s I he a rd so me o ne sa y SHO C K THERAPY IN Each of these countries was “ The e nd o f the required to make a total shift to So vie t Unio n d o e s PO ST- C O MMUNIST REG IMES a capitalist economy, which no t me a n the e nd o f meant rooting out completely so c ia lism.” Is tha t The collapse of communism was any structures evolved during p o ssib le ? followed in most of these the Soviet period. Above all, it countries by a painful process of meant that private ownership transition from an authoritarian was to be the dominant pattern socialist system to a democratic of ownership of property. capitalist system. The model of Privatisation of state assets and transition in Russia, Central Asia corporate ownership patterns and east Europe that was were to be immediately brought influenced by the World Bank in. Collective farms were to be and the IMF came to be known replaced by private farming and as ‘shock therapy’. Shock therapy capitalism in agriculture. This varied in intensity and speed transition ruled out any amongst the former second world alternate or ‘third way’, other countries, but its direction and than state-controlled socialism features were quite similar. or capitalism. PO LITIC AL MAP O F THE C O MMO NWEALTH O F INDEPENDENT STATES, 1997 Lo c a te the C e ntra l Asia n Re p ub lic s o n the ma p . “ C o urte sy o f the Unive rsity o f Te xa s Lib ra rie s, The Unive rsity o f Te xa s a t Austin”

The End o f Bip o la rity about 90 per cent of its industries 25 were put up for sale to private Shock therapy also involved a individuals and companies. Since I c a n se e the sho c k. drastic change in the external the restructuring was carried out But whe re is the orientation of these economies. through market forces and not by the ra p y? Why d o we Development was now envisaged government-directed industrial ta lk in suc h through more trade, and thus a policies, it led to the virtual e up he m ism s? sudden and complete switch to disappearance of entire industries. free trade was considered This was called ‘the largest garage essential. The free trade regime sale in history’, as valuable and foreign direct investment industries were undervalued and (FDI) were to be the main engines sold at throwaway prices. Though of change. This also involved all citizens were given vouchers to openness to foreign investment, participate in the sales, most financial opening up or citizens sold their vouchers in the deregulation, and currency black market because they needed convertibility. the money. Finally, the transition also The value of the ruble, the involved a break up of the existing Russian currency, declined trade alliances among the dramatically. The rate of inflation countries of the Soviet bloc. Each was so high that people lost all state from this bloc was now their savings. The collective farm linked directly to the West and not system disintegrated leaving to each other in the region. These people without food security, and states were thus to be gradually Russia started to import food. The absorbed into the Western real GDP of Russia in 1999 was economic system. The Western below what it was in 1989. The old capitalist states now became the trading structure broke down with leaders and thus guided and no alternative in its place. controled the development of the region through various agencies The old system of social welfare and organisations. was systematically destroyed. The withdrawal of government C O NSEQ UENC ES O F SHO C K subsidies pushed large sections of the people into poverty. The middle THERA PY classes were pushed to the periphery of society, and the The shock therapy administered in academic and intellectual the 1990s did not lead the people manpower disintegrated or into the promised utopia of mass migrated. A mafia emerged in most consumption. Generally, it of these countries and started brought ruin to the economies and controlling many economic disaster upon the people of the activities. Privatisation led to new entire region. In Russia, the large disparities. Post-Soviet states, state-controlled industrial especially Russia, were divided complex almost collapsed, as

26 C o nte mp o ra ry Wo rld Po litic s As a re sult o f between rich and poor regions. TENSIO NS AND C O NFLIC TS ‘ sho c k the ra p y’ Unlike the earlier system, there a b o ut ha lf o f was now great economic inequality Most of the former Soviet Russia ’ s 1,500 between people. Republics are prone to conflicts, b a nks a nd o the r and many have had civil wars and fina c ia l institutio ns The construction of democratic insurgencies. Complicating the we nt b a nkrup t. institutions was not given the picture is the growing involvement This ima g e is tha t same attention and priority as of outside powers. o f Inko mb a nk, the demands of economic Russia ’ s se c o nd transformation. The constitutions In Russia, two republics, la rg e st b a nk, tha t of all these countries were drafted Chechnya and Dagestan, have we nt b a nkrup t in in a hurry and most, including had violent secessionist 1998. As a re sult, Russia, had a strong executive movements. Moscow’s method of the mo ne y o f president with the widest possible dealing with the Chechen rebels 10,000 c o rp o ra te powers that rendered elected and indiscriminate military a nd p riva te parliaments relatively weak. In bombings have led to many sha re ho ld e rs wa s Central Asia, the presidents had human rights violations but failed lo st, a lo ng with the great powers, and several of them to deter the aspirations for mo ne y ke p t in the became very authoritarian. For independence. b a nk b y example, the presidents of c usto me rs. Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan In Central Asia, Tajikistan appointed themselves to power witnessed a civil war that went on Wha t is the d iffe re nc e first for ten years and then for ten years till 2001. The region b e twe e n na tio na lism extended it for another ten years. as a whole has many sectarian a nd se c e ssio nism? If They allowed no dissent or conflicts. In Azerbaijan’s province yo u suc c e e d , yo u a re opposition. A judicial culture and of Nagorno-Karabakh, some local c e le b ra te d a s a independence of the judiciary was Armenians want to secede and na tio na list he ro , a nd if yet to be established in most of join Armenia. In Georgia, the yo u fa il yo u a re these countries. demand for independence has c o nd e mne d fo r c rime s come from two provinces, o f se c e ssio nism. Most of these economies, resulting in a civil war. There are especially Russia, started movements against the existing reviving in 2000, ten years after regimes in Ukraine, Kyrgyzstan their independence. The reason and Georgia. Countries and for the revival for most of their provinces are fighting over river economies was the export of waters. All this has led to natural resources like oil, natural instability, making life difficult for gas and minerals. Azerbaijan, the ordinary citizen. Kazakhstan, Russia, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan are major oil and gas The Central Asian Republics are producers. Other countries have areas with vast hydrocarbon gained because of the oil resources, which have brought pipelines that cross their them economic benefit. Central territories for which they get rent. Asia has also become a zone of Some amount of manufacturing competition between outside has restarted. powers and oil companies. The region is next to Russia, China, Afghanistan, and Pakistan, and

The End o f Bip o la rity 27 close to West Asia. After 11 embedded in a history of trust and Ma ke a list o f September 2001, the US wanted common interests and are the simila ritie s military bases in the region and matched by popular perceptions. b e tw e e n paid the governments of all Central Indian heroes from Raj Kapoor to Ind ia a nd the Asian states to hire bases and to Amitabh Bachhan are household USSR in the ir allow airplanes to fly over their names in Russia and many post- p o litic a l a nd territory during the wars in Soviet countries. One can hear e c o no m ic Afghanistan and Iraq. However, Hindi film songs all over the id e o lo g ie s. Russia perceives these states as its region, and India is part of the ‘Near Abroad’ and believes that they popular memory. should be under Russian influence. China has interests here because Russia and India share a vision of the oil resources, and the Chinese of a multipolar world order. What have begun to settle around the they mean by a multipolar world borders and conduct trade. BOLLYW OOD STI RS UZBEK In eastern Europe, PASSI ONS Czechoslovakia split peacefully into two, with the Czechs and the Se ve n ye a rs a fte r the So vie t Unio n c o lla p se d , the Uzb e k Slovaks forming independent p a ssio n fo r Ind ia n film s c o ntinue s. Within m o nths o f the countries. But the most severe re le a se o f the la te st film in Ind ia , p ira te c o p ie s we re a lre a d y conflict took place in the Balkan o n sa le in the Uzb e k c a p ita l, Ta shke nt. republics of Yugoslavia. After 1991, it broke apart with several Mo ha mme d Sha rif Pa t runs a sho p se lling Ind ia n films ne a r provinces like Croatia, Slovenia o ne o f Ta shke nt’ s b ig g e st ma rke ts. He is a n Afg ha n who and Bosnia and Herzegovina b ring s vid e o s fro m the Pa kista ni fro ntie r to w n Pe sha w a r. declaring independence. Ethnic “ The re a re ma ny p e o p le who lo ve Ind ia n films he re . I’ d sa y Serbs opposed this, and a a t le a st 70% o f the p e o p le in Ta shke nt b uy the m. We se ll massacre of non-Serb Bosnians a b o ut 100 vid e o s a d a y. I’ ve just ha d to p ut in a n o rd e r fo r a followed. The NATO intervention tho usa nd mo re ,” he sa ys. “ The Uzb e ks a re C e ntra l Asia ns, and the bombing of Yugoslavia the y a re p a rt o f Asia . The y ha ve a c o mmo n c ulture . Tha t’ s followed the inter-ethnic civil war. why the y like Ind ia n films.” INDIA AND POST- COMMUNIST De sp ite the sha re d histo ry, fo r m a ny Ind ia ns living in Uzb e kista n, the p a ssio n the Uzb e ks ha ve fo r the ir films a nd C O UNTRIES film sta rs ha s c o me a s a b it o f a surp rise . “ Whe re ve r we g o a nd m e e t lo c a l d ig nita rie s - e ve n m iniste rs o r c a b ine t India has maintained good ministe rs - d uring o ur c o nve rsa tio n it is a lwa ys me ntio ne d ,” relations with all the post- sa ys Asho k Sha me rfro m the Ind ia n e mb a ssy in Ta shke nt. “ This communist countries. But the sho ws tha t Ind ia n films, c ulture , so ng s a nd e sp e c ia lly Ra j strongest relations are still those Ka p o o r ha ve b e e n ho use ho ld na me s he re . Mo st o f the m between Russia and India. India’s c a n sing so me Hind i so ng s, the y ma y no t kno w the me a ning relations with Russia are an b ut the irp ro nunc ia tio n is c o rre c t a nd the y kno w the music ,” important aspect of India’s foreign he sa ys. “ I ha ve fo und o ut tha t a lmo st a ll my ne ig hb o urs policy. Indo-Russian relations are c a n sing a nd p la y Hind i so ng s. This wa s re a lly a b ig surp rise to me whe n I c a me to Uzb e kista n.” A re p o rt b y the BBC ’ s C e ntra lAsia C o rre sp o nde nt Lo uise Hida lg o

28 C o nte mp o ra ry Wo rld Po litic s FLASH BACK: I N D I A order is the co-existence of several powers in the AND THE USSR international system, collective security (in which an attack on any country is regarded as a threat to all During the C o ld Wa r e ra , Ind ia a nd countries and requires a collective response), greater th e USSR e n jo ye d a sp e c ia l regionalism, negotiated settlements of international re la tio nship w hic h le d c ritic s to sa y conflicts, an independent foreign policy for all countries, tha t Ind ia w a s p a rt o f the So vie t and decision making through bodies like the UN that c a m p . It w a s a m ulti-d im e nsio na l should be strengthened, democratised, and empowered. re la tio nship : More than 80 bilateral agreements have been signed between India and Russia as part of the Indo-Russian Ec o no m ic : The So vie t Unio n a ssiste d Strategic Agreement of 2001. Ind ia ’ s p ub lic se c to r c o mp a nie s a t a tim e w h e n su c h a ssista n c e w a s India stands to benefit from its relationship with d iffic ult to g e t. It g a v e a id a nd Russia on issues like Kashmir, energy supplies, te c hnic a l a ssista nc e fo r ste e l p la nts sharing information on international terrorism, like Bhila i, Bo ka ro , Visa kha p a tna m , a nd m a c hine ry p la nts like Bha ra t STEPS He a vy Ele c tric a ls Ltd ., e tc . The So vie t Unio n a c c e p te d Ind ia n c urre nc y fo r ‹ Se le c t a ny five C o ld Wa ra llie s e a c h o f the So vie t tra d e whe n Ind ia wa s sho rt o f fo re ig n e xc ha ng e . Unio n a nd the US. Po litic a l: The So vie t Unio n sup p o rte d ‹ Divid e the c la ss a c c o rd ing ly (10 g ro up s). Allo t a Ind ia ’ s p o sitio ns o n the Ka shmir issue in the UN. It a lso sup p o rte d Ind ia c o untry to e a c h g ro up . Assig n the g ro up to d uring its ma jo r c o nflic ts, e sp e c ia lly c o lle c t info rma tio n o n the p o litic a l, so c ia l a nd d uring the wa r with Pa kista n in 1971. e c o no mic p ro file o f the se c o untrie s d uring the Ind ia to o sup p o rte d So vie t fo re ig n C o ld Wa r d a ys. p o lic y in so m e c ruc ia l b ut ind ire c t wa ys. ‹ The y sho uld a lso p re p a re a p ro file o f tha t Milita ry: Ind ia re c e ive d m o st o f its c o untry a fte r the c o lla p se o f c o mmunism a nd m ilita ry ha rd w a re fro m the So vie t sa y wha t d iffe re nc e , if a ny, the d isinte g ra tio n o f Unio n a t a tim e w he n fe w o the r the se c o nd wo rld ma d e to tha t c o untry. c o untrie s w e re w illing to p a rt w ith milita ry te c hno lo g ie s. The So vie t Unio n ‹ Ea c h g ro up is to p re se nt its find ing s to the e ntire e nte re d into va rio us a g re e m e nts a llo w ing Ind ia to jo intly p ro d uc e c la ss. Ensure tha t stud e nts ta lk a b o ut ho w milita ry e q uip me nt. p e o p le o f the se c o untrie s fe lt a b o ut the mse lve s a s c itize ns. C ulture : Hind i films a nd Ind ia n c ulture we re p o p ula r in the So vie t Unio n. A Ide a s fo r the Te a c he r la rg e num b e r o f Ind ia n w rite rs a nd a rtists visite d the USSR. Yo u c o uld link the stud e nts’ find ing s to the wo rking o f the d e mo c ra tic syste m a nd c o mmunist syste m a nd hig hlig ht the p ro s a nd c o ns o f b o th the se syste ms. Yo u c o uld e nc o ura g e the stud e nts to d isc uss if the re is a n a lte rna tive to b o th c o mmunism a nd c a p ita lism.

The End o f Bip o la rity 29 access to Central Asia, and imports from Russia and the balancing its relations with republics of Kazakhstan and China. Russia stands to benefit Turkmenistan. Cooperation with from this relationship because these republics includes India is the second largest arms partnership and investment in market for Russia. The Indian oilfields. Russia is important for military gets most of its hardware India’s nuclear energy plans and from Russia. Since India is an oil- assisted India’s space industry by importing nation, Russia is giving, for example, the cryogenic important to India and has rocket when India needed it. repeatedly come to the assistance Russia and India have of India during its oil crises. India collaborated on various scientific is seeking to increase its energy projects. 1. Whic h a mo ng the fo llo wing sta te me nts tha t d e sc rib e the na ture Exercises o f So vie t e c o no my is wro ng ? a . So c ia lism wa s the d o mina nt id e o lo g y b . Sta te o wne rship / c o ntro l e xiste d o ve r the fa c to rs o f p ro d uc tio n c . Pe o p le e njo ye d e c o no mic fre e d o m d . Eve ry a sp e c t o f the e c o no my wa s p la nne d a nd c o ntro lle d b y the Sta te 2. Arra ng e the fo llo wing in c hro no lo g ic a l o rd e r: a . So vie t inva sio n o f Afg ha nista n b . Fa ll o f the Be rlin Wa ll c . Disinte g ra tio n o f the So vie t Unio n d . Russia n Re vo lutio n 3. Whic h a mo ng the fo llo wing is NO Ta n o utc o me o f the d isinte g ra tio n o f the USSR? a . End o f the id e o lo g ic a l wa r b e twe e n the US a nd USSR b . Birth o f C IS c . C ha ng e in the b a la nc e o f p o we r in the wo rld o rd e r d . C rise s in the Mid d le Ea st 4. Ma tc h the fo llo wing : i. Mikha il G o rb a c he v a . Suc c e sso r o f USSR ii. Sho c k The ra p y b . Milita ry p a c t iii. Russia c . Intro d uc e d re fo rms iv. Bo ris Ye ltsin d . Ec o no mic mo d e l v. Wa rsa w e . Pre sid e nt o f Russia

Exercises30 C o nte mp o ra ry Wo rld Po litic s 5. Fill in the b la nks. a . The So vie t p o litic a l syste m wa s b a se d o n ___________________ id e o lo g y. b . _________________ wa s the milita ry a llia nc e sta rte d b y the USSR. c . ____________________ p a rty d o m ina te d the So vie t Unio n’ s p o litic a l syste m. d . ______________________ initia te d the re fo rms in the USSR in 1985. e . The fa ll o f the ____________________ symb o lise d the e nd o f the C o ld Wa r. 6. Me ntio n a ny thre e fe a ture s tha t d isting uish the So vie t e c o no my fro m tha t o f a c a p ita list c o untry like the US? 7. Wha t we re the fa c to rs tha t fo rc e d G o rb a c he v to initia te the re fo rms in the USSR? 8. Wha t we re the ma jo r c o nse q ue nc e s o f the d isinte g ra tio n o f the So vie t Unio n fo r c o untrie s like Ind ia ? 9. Wha t wa s Sho c k The ra p y? Wa s this the b e st wa y to ma ke a tra nsitio n fro m c o mmunism to c a p ita lism? 10. Write a n e ssa y fo r o r a g a inst the fo llo wing p ro p o sitio n: “ With the d isinte g ra tio n o f the se c o nd wo rld , Ind ia sho uld c ha ng e its fo re ig n p o lic y a nd fo c us mo re o n frie nd ship with the US ra the r tha n with tra d itio na l frie nd s like Russia ” .

C ha p te r 3 US He g e mo ny in Wo rld Po litic s O VERVIEW The a tta c k o n the twin to we rs o f the Wo rld Tra d e C e ntre in Ne w Yo rk o n 11 Se p te mb e r 2001 ha s b e e n se e n a s a We have seen that the end of Cold wa te rshe d e ve nt in c o nte mp o ra ry histo ry. War left the US without any serious rival in the world. The era since then has been described as a period of US dominance or a unipolar world. In this chapter, we try to understand the nature, extent and limits of this dominance. We begin by narrating the story of the rise of the new world order from the First Gulf War to the US-led invasion of Iraq. We then pause to understand the nature of US domination with the help of the concept of ‘hegemony’. After exploring the political, economic and cultural aspects of US hegemony, we assess India’s policy options in dealing with the US. Finally, we turn to see if there are challenges to this hegemony and whether it can be overcome.

32 A YESHA, JABU AND A NDREI C o nte mp o ra ry Wo rld Po litic s I’ m g la d I d id no t o p t Ayesha was doing very well in her forced to study a subject that he fo r the Sc ie nc e studies at a high school in the has no interest in. In contrast, sub je c ts. O r e lse I to o outskirts of Baghdad, and was Ayesha has lost her leg and is wo uld ha ve b e e n a planning to study medicine in lucky to be alive. How can we even vic tim o f US university. She lost a leg in 2003 discuss their problems in the same he g e mo ny. C a n yo u when a missile slammed into an breath? We can, and must, do so. think ho w a nd why? air raid shelter in which she was As we shall see in this chapter, all hiding with her friends. Now she three have been, in different ways, is learning to walk all over again. affected by US hegemony. We will She still plans to become a doctor, meet Ayesha, Jabu and Andrei but only after the foreign armies again. But let us first understand leave her country. how US hegemony began and how it operates in the world today. Jabu is a talented young artist who lives in Durban, South Africa. We will follow the popular His paintings are heavily usage of the word ‘America’ to influenced by traditional tribal art refer to the United States of forms. He wants to go to art school America. But it may be useful to and later open his own studio. remind ourselves that the However, his father wants him to expression America covers the two study for an MBA and then join continents of North and South the family business. The business America and that the US is only is not doing too well; Jabu’s father one of the countries of the feels that with an MBA degree, American continent. Thus, the use Jabu will be able to make the of the word America solely for the family business profitable. US is already a sign of the US hegemony that we seek to Andrei is a young man living understand in this chapter. in Perth, Australia. His parents are immigrants from Russia. His BEG INNING O F THE ‘ NEW mother gets very angry every time Andrei puts on blue jeans to go to WO RLD O RDER’ church. She wants him to look respectable in church. Andrei tells The sudden collapse of the Soviet his mother that jeans are “cool”, Union took everyone by surprise. that they give him the sense of While one of the two superpowers freedom. Andrei’s father reminds ceased to exist, the other remained his wife how they too used to wear with all its powers intact, even jeans when they were youngsters enhanced. Thus, it would appear in Leningrad, and for the same that the US hegemony began in reason that their son now invokes. 1991 after Soviet power disappeared from the international Andrei has had an argument scene. This is largely correct, but with his mother. Jabu may be we need to keep in mind two riders to this. First, as we shall see in this

US He g e mo ny in Wo rld Po litic s 33 This p ic ture o f b urne d a nd b ro ke n ve hic le s wa s ta ke n o n the ‘ Hig hwa y o f De a th’ , a ro a d b e twe e n Kuwa it a nd Ba sra , o n whic h the re tre a ting Ira q i a rmy wa s a tta c ke d b y Ame ric a n a irc ra ft d uring the First G ulf Wa r in Fe b rua ry 1991. So me c o mme nta to rs ha ve sug g e ste d tha t the US fo rc e s d e lib e ra te ly b o mb e d this stre tc h o f hig hwa y whe re fle e ing a nd ‘ o ut o f c o mb a t’ Ira q i so ld ie rs we re stuc k in a fre nzie d tra ffic ja m a nd tha t the vic tims inc lud e d Kuwa iti p riso ne rs a nd ho sta g e s a nd Pa le stinia n c ivilia n re fug e e s. Ma ny o b se rve rs ha ve c a lle d it a ‘ wa r c rime ’ a nd a vio la tio n o f the G e ne va C o nve ntio n. chapter, some aspects of US series of diplomatic attempts failed hegemony did not emerge in 1991 at convincing Iraq to quit its but in fact go back to the end of aggression, the United Nations the Second World War in 1945. mandated the liberation of Kuwait Second, the US did not start by force. For the UN, this was a behaving like a hegemonic power dramatic decision after years of right from 1991; it became clear deadlock during the Cold War. The much later that the world was in US President George H.W. Bush fact living in a period of hegemony. hailed the emergence of a ‘new Let us therefore look at this world order’. process by which US hegemony got established more closely. A massive coalition force of 660,000 troops from 34 countries In August 1990, Iraq invaded fought against Iraq and defeated Kuwait, rapidly occupying and it in what came to be known as subsequently annexing it. After a the First Gulf War. However, the

34 C o nte mp o ra ry Wo rld Po litic s Is it true tha t the US ha s UN operation, which was called campaigned on domestic rather ne ve r fo ug ht a wa r o n ‘Operation Desert Storm’, was than foreign policy issues. Bill its o wn la nd ? Do e sn’ t overwhelmingly American. An Clinton won again in 1996 and tha t ma ke it e a sy fo r American general, Norman thus remained the president of the Ame ric a ns to g e t into Schwarzkopf, led the UN coalition US for eight years. During the milira y a d ve nture s? and nearly 75 per cent of the Clinton years, it often seemed that coalition forces were from the US. the US had withdrawn into its Although the Iraqi President, internal affairs and was not fully Saddam Hussein, had promised engaged in world politics. In “the mother of all battles”, the foreign policy, the Clinton Iraqi forces were quickly defeated government tended to focus on and forced to withdraw from ‘soft issues’ like democracy Kuwait. promotion, climate change and world trade rather than on the The First Gulf War revealed ‘hard politics’ of military power and the vast technological gap that had security. opened up between the US military capability and that of other states. Nevertheless, the US on The highly publicised use of so- occasion did show its readiness to called ‘smart bombs’ by the US led use military power even during the some observers to call this a Clinton years. The most important ‘computer war’. Widespread episode occurred in 1999, in television coverage also made it a response to Yugoslavian actions ‘video game war’, with viewers against the predominantly around the world watching the Albanian population in the destruction of Iraqi forces live on province of Kosovo. The air forces TV in the comfort of their living of the NATO countries, led by the rooms. US, bombarded targets around Yugoslavia for well over two Incredibly, the US may months, forcing the downfall of actually have made a profit from the government of Slobodan the war. According to many Milosevic and the stationing of a reports, the US received more NATO force in Kosovo. money from countries like Germany, Japan and Saudi Another significant US military Arabia than it had spent on the action during the Clinton years was war. in response to the bombing of the US embassies in Nairobi, Kenya THE C LINTO N YEARS and Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania in 1998. These bombings were Despite winning the First Gulf War, attributed to Al-Qaeda, a terrorist George H.W. Bush lost the US organisation strongly influenced by presidential elections of 1992 to extremist Islamist ideas. Within a William Jefferson (Bill) Clinton of few days of this bombing, President the Democratic Party, who had Clinton ordered Operation Infinite

US He g e mo ny in Wo rld Po litic s 35 This is rid ic ulo us! Do e s it me a n tha t Sri La nka c a n d ro p a missile o n Pa ris if it susp e c ts tha t so me o f the LTTE milita nts a re hid ing the re ? Reach, a series of cruise missile strikes on Al-Qaeda terrorist targets in Sudan and Afghanistan. The US did not bother about the UN sanction or provisions of international law in this regard. It was alleged that some of the targets were civilian facilities unconnected to terrorism. In retrospect, this was merely the beginning. 9/ 11 AND THE ‘ G LO BAL This is ho w The Ne w Yo rk Tim e s re p o rte d 9/11 in its e d itio n the fo llo w ing m o rning . WAR O N TERRO R’ write the month first, followed by On 11 September 2001, nineteen the date; hence the short form ‘9/ hijackers hailing from a number 11’ instead of ‘11/9’ as we would of Arab countries took control of write in India). four American commercial aircraft shortly after takeoff and flew them The attacks killed nearly three into important buildings in the thousand persons. In terms of their US. One airliner each crashed into shocking effect on Americans, they the North and South Towers of the have been compared to the British World Trade Centre in New York. burning of Washington, DC in 1814 A third aircraft crashed into the and the Japanese attack on Pearl Pentagon building in Arlington, Harbour in 1941. However, in terms Virginia, where the US Defence of loss of life, 9/11 was the most Department is headquartered. The fourth aircraft, presumably bound for the Capitol building of the US Congress, came down in a field in Pennsylvania. The attacks have come to be known as “9/11”. (In America the convention is to

36 severe attack on US soil since the C o nte mp o ra ry Wo rld Po litic s founding of the country in 1776. Do the y a lso ha ve Qaeda have remained potent, as p o litic a l d yna stie s in The US response to 9/11 was is clear from the number of the US? O r wa s this the swift and ferocious. Clinton had terrorist attacks launched by o nly e xc e p tio n? been succeeded in the US them against Western targets presidency by George W. Bush since. of the Republican Party, son of the earlier President George H. The US forces made arrests W. Bush. Unlike Clinton, Bush all over the world, often without had a much harder view of US the knowledge of the government interests and of the means by of the persons being arrested, which to advance them. As a part transported these persons of its ‘Global War on Terror’, the across countries and detained US launched ‘Operation them in secret prisons. Some of Enduring Freedom’ against all them were brought to those suspected to be behind Guantanamo Bay, a US Naval this attack, mainly Al-Qaeda and base in Cuba, where the the Taliban regime in prisoners did not enjoy the Afghanistan. The Taliban regime protection of international law or was easily overthrown, but the law of their own country or remnants of the Taliban and Al- that of the US. Even the UN representatives were not allowed to meet these prisoners. © And y Sing e r, C a g le C a rto o ns Inc . © And y Sing e r, C a g le C a rto o ns Inc . Sup p o se yo u a re the Se c re ta ry o f Sta te in the US (the ir e q uiva le nt o f o ur Ministe r o f Exte rna l Affa irs). Ho w wo uld yo u re a c t in a p re ss c o nfe re nc e to the se c a rto o ns?

US He g e mo ny in Wo rld Po litic s 37 THE IRAQ INVASIO N So ld ie r Wo rld Ma p © Are s, C a g le C a rto o ns Inc . On 19 March 2003, the US WHAT DO ES HEG EMO NY launched its invasion of Iraq under the codename ‘Operation Iraqi M EA N? Freedom’. More than forty other countries joined in the US-led Politics is about power. Just as ‘coalition of the willing’ after the UN individuals want to gain and refused to give its mandate to the retain power, groups too want to invasion. The ostensible purpose of gain and retain power. We the invasion was to prevent Iraq routinely talk of someone from developing weapons of mass becoming powerful or someone destruction (WMD). Since no doing something for power. In the evidence of WMD has been case of world politics too, unearthed in Iraq, it is speculated countries and groups of countries that the invasion was motivated by are engaged in constantly trying other objectives, such as controlling to gain and retain power. This Iraqi oilfields and installing a regime power is in the form of military friendly to the US. domination, economic power, political clout and cultural Although the government of superiority. Saddam Hussein fell swiftly, the US has not been able to ‘pacify’ Iraq. Instead, a full-fledged insurgency against US occupation was ignited in Iraq. While the US has lost over 3,000 military personnel in the war, Iraqi casualties are very much higher. It is conservatively estimated that 50,000 Iraqi civilians have been killed since the US-led invasion. It is now widely recognised that the US invasion of Iraq was, in some crucial respects, both a military and political failure. List the p o st- C o ld Wa r c o nflic ts/ wa rs in whic h the US p la ye d a c ritic a l ro le .

© Ang e l Bo lig a n, C a g le C a rto o ns Inc . 3 8 C o nte mp o ra ry Wo rld Po litic s is called a ‘unipolar’ system. This appears to be a misapplication of the idea of ‘pole’ derived from physics. It may be more appropriate to describe an international system with only one centre of power by the term ‘hegemony’. We can identify three very different understandings of what hegemony is. Let us examine each of these meanings of hegemony and relate them to contemporary international politics. Entitle d ‘ Und e r US Thumb ’ , this c a rto o n c a p ture s o ur HEG EMO NY AS HARD c o mmo nse nsic a l und e rsta nd ing o f wha t he g e mo ny me a ns. Wha t d o e s this c a rto o n sa y a b o ut the na ture o f US he g e mo ny? PO WER Whic h p a rt o f the wo rld is the c a rto o nist ta lking a b o ut? The roots of the word hegemony Why use suc h Therefore, if we wanted to lie in classical Greek. The word c o mp lic a te d wo rd s understand world politics, it is implies the leadership or like he g e mo ny? In necessary that we understand the predominance of one state, and my to wn the y c a ll it distribution of power among the was originally used to denote the d a d a g iri. Isn’ t tha t countries of the world. For preponderant position of Athens b e tte r? instance, during the years of the vis-à-vis the other city-states of Cold War (1945-91) power was ancient Greece. Thus, the first divided between the two groups of meaning of hegemony relates to the countries, and the US and the relations, patterns and balances of Soviet Union represented the two military capability between states. ‘camps’ or centres of power in It is this notion of hegemony as international politics during that military preponderance that is period. The collapse of the Soviet especially germane to the current Union left the world with only a position and role of the US in world single power, the United States politics. Do you remember Ayesha, of America. Sometimes, the who lost her leg in an American international system dominated by missile attack? It is hard power a sole superpower, or hyper-power, hegemony that has broken Ayesha’s body, if not her spirit. The bedrock of contemporary US power lies in the overwhelming superiority of its military power. American military dominance today is both absolute and relative. In absolute terms, the US

US He g e mo ny in Wo rld Po litic s 39 US C O MMAND STRUC TURE USNO RTHC O M USEUC O M USC ENTC O M USSO UTHC O M USPA C O M So urc e : http ://www.a rmy.mil/institutio n/o rg a niza tio n/a re a o f_re sp o nsib ility.jp g today has military capabilities chasm that no other power can at Mo st a rme d fo rc e s that can reach any point on the present conceivably span. in the wo rld d ivid e planet accurately, lethally and in the ir a re a s o f real time, thereby crippling the Undoubtedly, the US invasion o p e ra tio n into adversary while its own forces are of Iraq reveals several American va rio us sheltered to the maximum extent vulnerabilities. The US has not ‘ c o m m a nd s’ possible from the dangers of war. been able to force the Iraqi people whic h a re into submitting to the occupation a ssig ne d to But even more awesome than forces of the US-led coalition. To d iffe re nt the absolute capabilities of the US fully understand the nature of c o mma nd e rs. This is the fact that no other power American weakness, however, we ma p d e p ic ts the today can remotely match them. need to have a historical a re a s o f The US today spends more on its perspective. Imperial powers re sp o nsib ility o f the military capability than the through history have used five C o mma nd s o f next 12 powers combined. military forces to accomplish only the US a rme d Furthermore, a large chunk of the four tasks: to conquer, deter, fo rc e s. It sho ws Pentagon’s budget goes into punish and police. As the Iraq tha t the military research and development, invasion shows, the American c o mma nd s o f the or, in other words, technology. capacity to conquer is formidable. US milita ry a re no t Thus, the military dominance of Similarly, the US capability to limite d to the a re a the US is not just based on higher deter and to punish is self-evident. o f the Unite d military spending, but on a Where US military capability has Sta te s; it e xte nd s qualitative gap, a technological thus far been shown to have to inc lud e the who le wo rld . Wha t d o e s this ma p te ll us a b o ut the milita ry p o we r o f the US?

40 C o nte mp o ra ry Wo rld Po litic s The US to d a y sp e nd s mo re o n its milita ry c a p a b ility tha n the ne xt 12 possess both the ability and the p o we rs c o mb ine d . As yo u c a n se e he re , mo st o f the o the r c o untrie s desire to establish certain norms tha t a re b ig milita ry sp e nd e rs a re US frie nd s a nd a llie s. Thus, for order and must sustain the b a la nc ing US p o we r is no t a fe a sib le stra te g y to d a y. global structure. The hegemon usually does this to its own serious weaknesses is in policing advantage but often to its relative an occupied territory. detriment, as its competitors take advantage of the openness of the world economy without paying the costs of maintaining its openness. Hegemony in this second sense is reflected in the role played by the US in providing global public goods. By public goods we mean those goods that can be consumed by one person without reducing the amount of the good available for someone else. Fresh air and roads are examples of public goods. In the context of the world economy, the best examples of a global public good are sea-lanes of communication (SLOCs), the sea routes commonly used by merchant ships. Free trade in an open world economy would not be possible without open SLOCs. HEG EMO NY AS STRUC TURAL © Are s, C a g le C a rto o ns Inc . PO WER The second notion of hegemony is very different from the first. It emerges from a particular understanding of the world economy. The basic idea is that an open world economy requires a hegemon or dominant power to support its creation and existence. The hegemon must Do lla r Wo rld

US He g e mo ny in Wo rld Po litic s sectors of the world economy and 41 in all areas of technology. The US It is the naval power of the share of the world economy Ho w c a n this c o untry hegemon that underwrites the remains an enormous 28 per cent. b e so ric h? I se e so law of the sea and ensures ma ny p o o r p e o p le freedom of navigation in The US also accounts for 15 he re . Mo st o f the m international waters. Since the per cent of world trade, if intra- a re no n-White . decline of British naval power European Union trade is included after the Second World War, the in world trade data. There is not multi-oceanic US Navy has a single sector of the world played this role. economy in which an American firm does not feature in the “top Another example of a global three” list. public good is the Internet. Although it is seen today as It is important to remember making the virtual world of the that the economic preponderance World Wide Web possible, we of the US is inseparable from its should not forget that the Internet structural power, which is the is the direct outcome of a US power to shape the global military research project that economy in a particular way. After began in 1950. Even today, the all, the Bretton Woods system, set Internet relies on a global network up by the US after the Second of satellites, most of which are World War, still constitutes the owned by the US government. basic structure of the world economy. Thus, we can regard the As we know, the US is present in all parts of the world, in all The Ame ric a n e c o no my is the la rg e st in the wo rld , b ut unlike in the sp he re o f milita ry p o we r, the US fa c e s c re d ib le c o mp e tito rs in the wo rld e c o no my. This b e c o me s e ve n c le a re r if we c o nsid e r the wo rld e c o no my in Purc ha sing Po we r Pa rity (PPP) te rms a s in the g ra p hic o n the rig ht. PPP is wha t a na tio n’ s c urre nc y a c tua lly b uys in g o o d s a nd se rvic e s.

42 C o nte mp o ra ry Wo rld Po litic s World Bank, Inter national win the consent of dominated Monetary Fund (IMF) and World classes, by persuading the Trade Organisation (WTO) as the dominated classes to view the products of American hegemony. world in a manner favourable to the ascendancy of the dominant class. A classic example of the Adapted to the field of world structural power of the US is the politics, this notion of hegemony academic degree called the suggests that a dominant power Master’s in Business Administration deploys not only military power but (MBA). The idea that business is also ideological resources to shape a profession that depends upon the behaviour of competing and skills that can be taught in a lesser powers. The behaviour of the university is uniquely American. weaker countries is influenced in The first business school in the ways that favour the interests of world, the Wharton School at the the most powerful country, in University of Pennsylvania, was particular its desire to remain pre- established in 1881. The first MBA eminent. Consent, in other words, courses were initiated around goes hand-in-hand with, and is 1900. The first MBA course often more effective than, coercion. outside the US was established only in 1950. Today, there is no The predominance of the US in country in the world in which the the world today is based not only MBA is not a prestigious academic on its military power and economic degree. This takes us back to our prowess, but also on its cultural South African friend Jabu. presence. Whether we choose to Structural hegemony explains recognise the fact or not, all ideas why Jabu’s father is insisting that of the good life and personal his son gives up painting and success, most of the dreams of studies for the MBA instead. individuals and societies across the globe, are dreams churned out If I ha d o p te d fo r the HEG EMO NY AS SO FT PO WER by practices prevailing in Sc ie nc e sub je c ts twentieth-century America. I wo uld ha ve to sit fo r It would however be a mistake to America is the most seductive, and the e ntra nc e e xa ms to see US hegemony in purely military in this sense the most powerful, me d ic a l o r and economic terms without culture on earth. This attribute is e ng ine e ring c o lle g e . considering the ideological or the called ‘soft power’: the ability to Tha t wo uld me a n cultural dimension of US persuade rather than coerce. Over c o mp e ting with so hegemony. This third sense of time we get so used to hegemony ma ny o the rs who wish hegemony is about the capacity to that we hardly notice it, any more to b e c o me d o c to rs o r ‘manufacture consent’. Here, than we notice the rivers, birds, e ng ine e rs so a s to g o hegemony implies class and trees around us. to the US. ascendancy in the social, political and particularly ideological You couldn’t have forgotten spheres. Hegemony arises when Andrei and his ‘cool’ pair of blue the dominant class or country can jeans. When his parents were youngsters in the Soviet Union,

US He g e mo ny in Wo rld Po litic s 43 blue jeans were the ultimate symbol of ‘liberation’ for their generation. Young men and women often spent over a year’s salary to buy blue jeans from foreign tourists on the black market. Somehow, for an entire Soviet generation blue jeans came to represent aspirations of the ‘good life’ that were not available in their own country. During the Cold War, the US found it difficult to score victories against the Soviet Union in the realm of hard power. It was in the area of structural power and soft power that the US scored notable victories. Although the Soviet centrally-planned economy provided an alternate model of internal economic organisation, the world economy throughout the Cold War years remained a world capitalist economy. But it was in the area of soft power that the US was ultimately triumphant. As the example of blue jeans in Tha t is stra ng e ! I ne ve r think o f the US whe n b uying je a ns fo r myse lf. Ho w c a n I still b e a vic tim o f US he g e mo ny? All the se ima g e s a re fro m Ja ka rta in Ind o ne sia . Id e ntify e le me nts o f US he g e mo ny in e a c h o f the se p ho to g ra p hs. C a n yo u id e ntify simila r e le me nts o n yo ur wa y b a c k fro m sc ho o l to ho me ?

4 4 C o nte mp o ra ry Wo rld Po litic s the Soviet Union clearly shows, three branches of government the US was able to engineer a places significant brakes upon the generational divide in Soviet unrestrained and immoderate society on the basis of a cultural exercise of America’s military product. power by the executive branch. C O NSTRAINTS O N A MERIC AN The second constraint on American power is also domestic PO WER in nature, and stems from the open nature of American society. History tells us that empires Although the American mass decline because they decay from media may from time to time within. Similarly, the biggest impose or promote a particular constraints to American perspective on domestic public hegemony lie within the heart of opinion in the US, there is hegemony itself. We can identify nevertheless a deep scepticism three constraints on American regarding the purposes and power. None of these constraints methods of government in seemed to operate in the years American political culture. This following 9/11. However, it now factor, in the long run, is a huge appears that all three of these constraint on US military action constraints are slowly beginning overseas. to operate again. However, it is the third The first constraint is the constraint on the US that is institutional architecture of the perhaps the most important. American state itself. A system of There is only one organisation in division of powers between the the international system that The se two p ho to g ra p hs a re fro m a n e xhib itio n o n the Huma n C o sts o f the Ira q Wa r b y the Ame ric a n Frie nd s Se rvic e C o mmitte e o rg a nise d a t the Na tio na l C o nve ntio n o f the De mo c ra tic Pa rty in 2004. To wha t e xte nt d o p ro te sts like this c o nstra in the US g o ve rnme nt?

US He g e mo ny in Wo rld Po litic s 45 could possibly moderate the interrelated. Consider the As so o n a s I sa y I a m exercise of American power today, following facts: fro m Ind ia , the y a sk and that is the North Atlantic me if I a m a Treaty Organisation (NATO). The The US absorbs about 65 per c o mp ute r e ng ine e r. US obviously has an enormous cent of India’s total exports in Tha t fe e ls nic e . interest in keeping the alliance of the software sector. democracies that follow the C o lle c t ne ws market economies alive and 35 per cent of the technical c lip p ing s a nd therefore it is possible that its staff of Boeing is estimated to a rtic le s a b o ut allies in the NATO will be able to be of Indian origin. the re c e nt moderate the exercise of US Ind o -US c ivil hegemony. 300,000 Indians work in nuc le a r d e a l. Silicon Valley. Summa rise the INDIA’ S RELATIO NSHIP WITH p o sitio n o f the 15 percent of all high-tech sup p o rte rs a nd THE US start-ups are by Indian- o p p o ne nts o f Americans. the d e a l. During the Cold War years, India found itself on the opposite side Like all other countries, India of the divide from the US. India’s too has to decide exactly what type closest friendship during those of relationship it wants with the US years was with the Soviet Union. in this phase of global hegemony. After the collapse of the Soviet The choices are not exactly easy. Union, India suddenly found itself Within India, the debate seems to friendless in an increasingly hostile be around three possible strategies. internationalenvironment. However, these were also the years when Those Indian analysts who see India decided to liberalise its international politics largely in economy and integrate it with the terms of military power are global economy. This policy and fearful of the growing India’s impressive economic closeness between India and growth rates in recent years have the US. They would prefer that made the country an attractive India maintains its aloofness economic partner for a number of from Washington and focuses countries including the US. upon increasing its own comprehensive national power. It is important that we do not lose sight of the fact that two new Other analysts see the growing factors have emerged in Indo-US convergence of interests relations in recent years. These between the US and India as a factors relate to the technological historic opportunity for India. dimension and the role of the They advocate a strategy that Indian-American diaspora. would allow India to take Indeed, these two factors are advantage of US hegemony and the mutual convergences to establish the best possible options for itself. Opposing the US, they argue, is a futile

46 C o nte mp o ra ry Wo rld Po litic s LOK SABHA DEBATES I N DO- US strategy that will only hurt RELATI ON S India in the long run. He re a re thre e e xtra c ts fro m the sp e e c he s b y the Prime A third group of analysts Ministe ra nd two o p p o sitio n le a d e rs d uring the d e b a te would advocate that India in Lo k Sa b ha o n the Ind o -US a g re e me nt o n nuc le a r should take the lead in e ne rg y. Are the se thre e p o sitio ns in so me wa y linke d establishing a coalition of to the thre e stra te g ie s me ntio ne d in the c ha p te r? countries from the developing world. Over time, this coalition Dr Ma nm o ha n Sing h, C o ng re ss would become more powerful “ Sir, I w o uld re sp e c tfully urg e this a ug ust Ho use to and may succeed in weaning re c o g nise the c ha ng e d mo o d o f the wo rld to wa rd s the hegemon away from its Ind ia . This is no t to sa y tha t p o we r p o litic s is a thing o f dominating ways. the p a st; tha t the re will ne ve r b e a ny a tte mp t to twist o ur a rms. We will p ro te c t o urse lve s to e nsure a g a inst India-US relations are perhaps the risks tha t a re the re . But it wo uld b e wro ng fo r us too complex to be managed by a no t to ta ke a d va nta g e o f the o p p o rtunitie s tha t a re single strategy. India needs to no w o n the ho rizo n. I sinc e re ly b e lie ve tha t it is in the develop an appropriate mix of inte re st o f o ur c o untry to ha ve g o o d re la tio ns with a ll foreign policy strategies to deal the ma jo r p o we rs. I ma ke no a p o lo g y tha t we se e k with the US. g o o d re la tio ns with the Unite d Sta te s. The Unite d Sta te s is a p re -e mine nt p o we r.” HO W C AN HEG EMO NY BE Shri Ba su De b A c ha ria , C PI(M) O VERC O ME? “ Sinc e Ind e p e nd e nc e , w e ha ve b e e n p ursuing ind e p e nd e nt fo re ig n p o lic y b e c a use o f o ur na tio na l How long will hegemony last? How inte re st. Wha t ha ve we se e n in c a se o f Ira q a nd in do we get beyond hegemony? c a se o f Ira n? Afte rthe July sta te me nt, a nd whe n the re These become, for obvious wa s vo ting in Inte rna tio na lAto mic Ene rg y Ag e nc y, we reasons, some of the burning fo und tha t we sid e d with the Unite d Sta te s o f Ame ric a . questions of our time. History We sup p o rte d the re so lutio n mo ve d b y US a nd P 5. provides us with some fascinating Tha t wa s no t e xp e c te d b e fo re tha t. Whe n we we re clues to answer these questions. trying to b ring g a s fro m Ira n via Pa kista n whic h we But what about the present and ne e d , we sup p o rte d Ame ric a ’ s sta nd in re g a rd to Ira n. the future? In international The re we find tha t the ind e p e nd e nt fo re ig n p o lic y ha s politics, very few factors formally b e e n a ffe c te d .” curtail the exercise of military power by any country. There is no Ma j. G e n. (Re td .) B. C . Kha nd uri, BJP world government like the “ We ha ve a lso to ta ke no te o f the fa c t tha t to d a y US government of a country. As we is — whe the r we like it o r no t — the o nly sup e r p o we r shall see in Chapter 6, in this unip o la r wo rld . But a t the sa me time , we must international organisation is not a lso re me mb e r tha t Ind ia is a lso e me rg ing a s a wo rld world government. Thus, p o we r, a nd a sup e r p o we r. The re fo re , we fe e l tha t international politics is ‘politics we sho uld ha ve g o o d re la tio ns with the USA in the without government’. There are inte rna tio na l sc e na rio , b ut it sho uld no t b e a t the c o st some rules and norms called the o f o ur se c urity.” laws of war that restrict, but do

US He g e mo ny in Wo rld Po litic s 47 © C a m C a rd o w , C a g le C a rto o ns Inc . not prohibit, war. But few states Ho w lo ng d o yo u think the US will sta y o n the sup e r-p o we r will entrust their security to sta g e ? If yo u we re to d ra w this, who wo uld yo u sho w a s wa iting international law alone. Does this in the wing s? mean that there is no escape from war and hegemony? seem to be viable for the big, second-rank powers for very long. In the short term, we must While it may be an attractive, recognise that no single power is viable policy for small states, it is anywhere near balancing the US hard to imagine mega-states like militarily. A military coalition China, India, and Russia or huge against the US is even less likely agglomerations such as the EU given the differences that exist being able to hide for any among big countries like China, substantial length of time. India, and Russia that have the potential to challenge US Some people believe that hegemony. resistance to American hegemony may not come from other states, Some people argue that it is which as we have seen are strategically more prudent to take powerless to confront the US advantage of the opportunities today, but rather from non-state that hegemony creates. For actors. These challenges to instance, raising economic growth American hegemony will emerge rates requires increased trade, in the economic and cultural technology transfers, and realms, and will come from a investment, which are best combination of non-governmental acquired by working with rather organisations (NGOs), social than against the hegemon. Thus, movements, and public opinion; it is suggested that instead of it may arise from sections of the engaging in activities opposed to media and intellectuals, artists, the hegemonic power, it may be and writers. These various actors advisable to extract benefits by operating within the hegemonic system. This is called the ‘bandwagon’ strategy. Another strategy open to states is to ‘hide’. This implies staying as far removed from the dominant power as possible. There are many examples of this behaviour. China, Russia, the European Union—all of them, in different ways, are seeking to stay below the radar, as it were, and not overly and unduly antagonise the US. However, this would not

48 C o nte mp o ra ry Wo rld Po litic s STEPS may well form links across ‹ Assig n stud e nts to ma jo rg e o -p o litic a l re g io ns o f national boundaries, including with Americans, to criticise and the w o rld fro m the va nta g e p o int o f the US resist US policies. ( C e ntra l A m e ric a , So uth A m e ric a , A fric a , Euro p e , fo rme r USSR, We st Asia , So uth Asia , Ea st You might have heard the Asia a nd Austra lia ). Alte rna tive ly, yo u c o uld saying that we now live in a a ssig n stud e nts to ma jo r c o nflic t zo ne s o f the ‘global village’. In this global p o st-C o ld Wa r p e rio d in w hic h the US w a s village, we are all neighbours of invo lve d . (e .g ., Afg ha nista n, Ira q , Isra e l-Pa le stine the village headman. If the o r Ko so vo o r a ny a c tive c o nflic t a t the time o f behaviour of the headman te a c hing ). becomes intolerable, we will not have the option of leaving the ‹ G ro up the stud e nts in e q ua l stre ng th a c c o rd ing global village, because this is the only world we know and the only to the numb e r o f a re a s id e ntifie d . Ea c h g ro up is village we have. Resistance will to p re p a re a fa c t-file o n the ro le o f the US in then be the only option available. the se re g io ns o r c o nflic ts. The fa c t-file sho uld fo c us o n the US inte re st in the re g io n, its a c tivitie s All this so und s like a a nd the p ub lic o p inio n a b o ut the US in the lo t o f je a lo usy. Wha t re g io n. Stud e nts c a n a lso c o lle c t a nd p re se nt is o ur p ro b le m with US re la te d p ic ture s/ c a rto o ns fro m a ll a va ila b le he g e mo ny? Just tha t so urc e s. we we re no t b o rn the re ? O r so me thing ‹ Ea c h g ro up is to p re se nt the ir fa c t-file b e fo re e lse ? the c la ss. Id e a s fo r the Te a c he r Using the fa c t-file a s the b a c kg ro und info rma tio n, the te a c he r ha s to re fo c us o n the inte rve ntio n ma d e b y the USa nd whe the r the se inte rve ntio ns ha ve b e e n in line w ith the p rinc ip le s a d vo c a te d b y the UN. Invite the stud e nts to re fle c t o n the future o f the re g io n o r c o nflic t twe nty ye a rs fro m no w. Ho w lo ng will the US c o ntinue to b e he g e mo nic ? Whic h o the r p o we rs ma y b e in a p o sitio n to c ha lle ng e US he g e mo ny in tha t re g io n?