The Sociology Book

FAMILIES AND INTIMACIES 299 See also: Judith Butler 56–61 ■ R.W. Connell 88–89 ■ Talcott Parsons 300–01 ■ Ann Oakley 318–19 ■ Jeffrey Weeks 324–25 expressed gender and sexuality another, leads Mead to argue that Gender roles are cultural creations, restricted possibilities for both temperamental attitudes can no according to Mead. There is no men and women. Mead claims longer be regarded as sex-linked. evidence that women are naturally that men and women are punished better than men at doing the and rewarded to encourage gender Her theory that gender roles housework or caring for children. conformity, and what is viewed as are not natural but are created by masculine is also seen as superior. society established gender as a therefore challenge, the ways in critical concept; it allows us to see which social structures such as the Comparing cultures the historical and cross-cultural law, marriage, and the media Mead takes a comparative ways in which masculinity, encourage stereotyped ways of approach to gender in her studies femininity, and sexuality are conducting our intimate lives. of three tribes in New Guinea. Her ideologically constructed. findings challenge conventional In comparison to the early 20th Western ideas about how human Change can happen century, gender roles for both men behavior is determined. Arapesh Mead’s work laid the foundations and women in the 21st century men and women were “gentle, for the women’s liberation have become far less restrictive, responsive, and cooperative” and movement and informed the with women participating more both undertook childcare—traits so-called “sexual revolution” of the in the public sphere. ■ the West would see as “feminine.” 1960s onward. Her ideas posed a fundamental challenge to society’s Similarly, it was the norm for rigid understandings of gender Mundugumor women to behave roles and sexuality. in a “masculine” way by being as violent and aggressive as the Following on from Mead, men. And in a further reversal of feminists such as US cultural traditional Western roles, women in anthropologist Gayle Rubin Tchambuli society were dominant, argued that if gender, unlike while men were seen as dependent. sex, is a social construction, there is no reason why women should The fact that behaviors coded continue to be treated unequally. as masculine in one society Viewing gender as culturally may be regarded as feminine in determined allows us to see, and Margaret Mead Margaret Mead was born in became a popular figure, Philadelphia in 1901. Her father lecturing widely on key social was a professor of finance; her issues such as women’s rights, mother was a sociologist; she sexual behavior, and the family. herself became curator emeritus Mead was the author of more of the American Museum of than 20 books, many of which Natural History, New York. were part of her mission to make anthropology more Mead received her PhD from accessible to the public. She Columbia University in 1929, and died in New York in 1978. went on to become a leading cultural anthropologist, best Key works known for her studies of the people of Oceania. Her early work 1928 Coming of Age in Samoa on gender and sexuality was 1935 Sex and Temperament labeled as scandalous and she in Three Primitive Societies was denounced as a “dirty old 1949 Male and Female woman.” She nevertheless

300 FAMILIES ARE FACTORIES THAT PRODUCE HUMAN PERSONALITIES TALCOTT PARSONS (1902–1979) IN CONTEXT Adults in the nuclear family perform FOCUS gender-appropriate Socialization of children and stabilization of adults roles that ensure a stable society. KEY DATES 1893 In The Division of Labor Children learn their Families are in Society, sociologist Émile gender roles from factories that Durkheim suggests that their parents. produce human divisions in work are essential personalities. for maintaining economic, moral, and social order. M any of the writings have roles that support one another of the sociologist and enable the stable functioning 1938 US sociologist Louis Talcott Parsons of society as a whole. Wirth claims industrialization focused on American society is destroying extended in the 1940s and 1950s. Parsons From Parsons’ perspective, the families and communities. (influenced by the work of Émile modern nuclear family—in which Durkheim and Max Weber) a husband, wife, and their children 1975 British sociologist claimed that the US economic order live relatively isolated from their David Morgan, influenced required a smaller family unit. The extended family and community— by feminist theory, argues in family, Parsons believed, is one of is the prime agent of socialization. Social Theory and the Family several institutions, such as the People derive status and roles from that privileging the nuclear education system and the law, that their various positions in the family. family is potentially harmful. Although during World War II 1988 In The Sexual Contract, British political scientist Carole Pateman reveals that the notion of “separate but equal” hides the power men have in both the private and public spheres.

FAMILIES AND INTIMACIES 301 See also: Émile Durkheim 34–37 ■ Max Weber 38–45 ■ Margaret Mead 298–99 ■ Judith Stacey 310–11 ■ Ulrich Beck and Elisabeth Beck-Gernsheim 320–23 women showed that they were He argues that women are able The nuclear family was once perfectly able to do work previously to use their emotional bond considered the traditional family unit. considered “men’s work,” many with children to steer them into But the existence of diverse family non-feminist authors typically becoming socialized human types is now acknowledged, including assume a natural division of labor beings. For example, children learn same-sex and single-parent families. between men and women, and their sex roles by identification Parsons is no exception. with their same-sex parent. These This way of understanding families roles are internalized so that girls remained dominant in the social Happy families become “feminine” women and sciences until the 1970s and 1980s, The separation of home life and boys become appropriately when feminists, among others, paid employment, with women “masculine” men, ready to take began to question it. The nuclear remaining at home, is logical, their place in heterosexual family family, it is argued, only pertained according to Parsons, because life. So, in much the same way as a to privileged white, middle-class women are natural carers. Men factory produces goods, each stable Western families and ignored the are then able to take the lead in family unit produces grounded differing realities of many other the role of breadwinning. This individuals who are groomed to groups in society. It also served division is considered efficient contribute positively to society. to justify and perpetuate inequality because there is less competition between the genders. ■ for the family wage. Staying out Nuclear power of paid employment allows women For Parsons, this neat division to focus on their caring role: child- avoids tainting the household with rearing and the stabilization of the rational, competitive outside adult personalities. world, although the father can provide the link between the In addition to cooking and outside world and the home cleaning, this role demands when the child is ready. The psychological management to nuclear family, from a Parsonian ensure a happy household. Parsons perspective, can be seen as the is of the opinion that personality is lynchpin of civilization and crucial not born but made, and the family for the moral health of society. is the first place this happens. The importance of the Talcott Parsons society. For most of his academic family and its function for career, he was based at Harvard Talcott Parsons was born in University until he retired in society constitutes the Colarado in 1920 and belonged 1973, after which he continued primary reason why to one of the oldest families in to develop theories and give US history. His father was a lectures. Parsons died of a there is... differentiation liberal academic and a stroke in 1979 in Munich, of sex roles. congregational minister. Germany, where he had been lecturing. Talcott Parsons Parsons graduated from Amherst College with a degree Key works in philosophy and biology and thereafter studied at the London 1937 The Structure of Social School of Economics and at Action the University of Heidelberg, 1951 The Social System Germany. He was a fierce critic 1955 Family, Socialization, of both fascism and communism, and Interaction Process and a staunch advocate of US

302 WESTERN MAN HAS BECOME A CONFESSING ANIMAL MICHEL FOUCAULT (1926–1984) IN CONTEXT W hy do people talk so important relationship between much about sex these confession, truth, and sex. He FOCUS days? This is one suggests that to understand The will to truth of the key questions posed by sexuality in the West, we must the influential French philosopher consider how knowledge operates KEY DATES Michel Foucault in The History and how particular forms of 1782 Jean-Jacques Rousseau, of Sexuality: Volume I (1976). knowledge, such as the science Swiss political philosopher, Foucault claims there is an of sexuality (scientia sexualis) and publishes Confessions, one of the first autobiographies The Christian Church Psychiatry and to focus on worldly life, rather requires confession to psychology require than religious experiences confession of sexual and inner feelings. absolve “sins of desires and obsessions the flesh.” to reveal who we 1896 Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud introduces really are. the term “psychoanalysis.” We are told that telling all to unveil 1992 Sociologist Anthony the “truth” will cure us. Giddens suggests in The Transformation of Intimacy that men are reluctant to disclose feelings publicly and rely on women to do the emotional work in relationships. 2003 Frank Furedi’s Therapy Culture: Cultivating Vulnerability in an Uncertain Age sees the will to talk and reveal as potentially damaging. Western man has become a confessing animal.

FAMILIES AND INTIMACIES 303 See also: Michel Foucault 52–55; 270–77 ■ Norbert Elias 180–81 ■ Therapy culture Arlie Hochschild 236–43 ■ Karl Marx 254–59 ■ Jeffrey Weeks 324–25 In confessing, we give power to confession—admitting to sins and The Hungarian sociologist “experts” (priests, therapists, doctors) seeking penance from a priest in Frank Furedi, emeritus to judge, punish, and correct us. The order to regain the grace of God— professor of sociology at the confessor suffers an endless cycle of became reconstructed in scientific University of Kent, UK, argues shame, guilt, and more confession. form. Revealing sexual habits that we are obsessed with and desires was seen as a way emotion in the modern age. psychology, have increasingly to unearth the “authentic” self. Experiences and emotions dominated our ways of thinking that were once thought about gender and sexuality. According to Foucault, the normal, such as depression confession has become one of and boredom, are now These knowledges are a form of the most valued ways to uncover believed to require treatment “discourse”—ways of constructing “truth” in our society. From being and medical intervention. knowledge of the world that create a ritual, it has become widespread their own “truths.” Incitement to and is now part of family life, We read constantly about discourse, says Foucault, began relationships, work, medicine, and sports stars’ addictions and in the West four centuries ago. policing. As Hungarian sociologist celebrities’ sex lives. And in The Christian Church’s emphasis Frank Furedi posits, confession order to heal, the emotionally on “sins of the flesh” in the 17th now dominates personal, social, injured are encouraged to century led to a greater awareness and cultural life, as evident in share their pain with others, of sexuality, and to the rise in reality TV shows and in social to ignore the boundaries the 18th century of “scandal” media platforms such as Facebook separating public and books—fictional accounts of illicit and Twitter. private. To seek help sexual behavior. The discourse publicly—through a revealing culminated in the 19th-century Healthy relationships, we are autobiography, for example— science of sex that created modern continually assured, require truth- is seen as a virtue in a sexuality—from being an act, it telling. Thereafter, an “expert” (a therapeutic culture. Emotions was transformed into an identity. therapist or doctor, for example) is have come to be seen as required to reveal our “authentic” defining features of identity The confession self. The compelling promise of the and we are encouraged to With the advent of psychiatry and confession is that the more detailed understand them as being psychology at the end of the 19th it is, the more we will learn about indicators of illness. This century, the Christian ritual of ourselves, and the more we will phenomenon, Furedi argues, be liberated. A person who has is intensely disabling. experienced trauma is often told Ironically, the supposedly that retelling the experience will “therapeutic” culture leaves have a curative effect. But this “will society feeling vulnerable. to truth” is a tactic of power, says Foucault, that can become a form Everything had to be told... of surveillance and regulation. sex was taken charge of, Confession, he claims, does not reveal the truth, it produces it. tracked down. Michel Foucault Foucault’s work has had an immense impact on feminism and studies of sexuality since the 1980s. In particular, his ideas have influenced British sociologist Jeffrey Weeks, who uses Foucault to unearth the ways in which legislation has served to regulate gender and sexuality in society. ■

HETEROSEXUALITY MUST BE RECOGNIZED AND STUDIED AS AN INSTITUTION ADRIENNE RICH (1929–2012)



306 ADRIENNE RICH W hat if heterosexuality The most pernicious message is not innate or the only relayed by pornography is IN CONTEXT “normal” sexuality? Heterosexuality is often seen as that women are natural sexual FOCUS a “natural” foundation for society, prey to men and love it; Compulsory but Adrienne Rich challenges heterosexuality this idea in her important essay that sexuality and violence “Compulsory Heterosexuality and are congruent. KEY DATES Lesbian Existence” (1980). Rich 1864 The Contagious was influenced by the French Adrienne Rich Diseases Act in Britain intellectual Simone de Beauvoir, punishes prostitutes who who argues that women have been Women are therefore expected, are infected by their clients. urged to accept the roles placed according to Rich, to behave in upon them in a society that views restrictive ways, as passive and 1979 Sexual Harassment of women as inferior. dependent on men; behavior Working Women, by US lawyer that does not conform to these Catherine A. MacKinnon, Rich suggests that, far from expectations is considered deviant argues that women occupy being natural, heterosexuality is and dangerous. Sexually active markedly inferior positions imposed on women and must be women, for instance, are labeled in the workplace and are seen as a system of power that as abnormal or called promiscuous. sexualized as part of their job. encourages false binary thinking— Patriarchy (a power system that heterosexual/homosexual, man/ assumes male superiority) is a 1993 Marital rape is finally woman—in which “heterosexual” useful conceptual tool for Rich in recognized as a crime by and “man” is privileged over explaining women’s oppression every state in the US. “homosexual” and “woman.” over time; she suggests that it is Compulsory heterosexuality, she necessary to think about male 1996 In Theorizing says, presents “scripts” to us that Heterosexuality: Telling it are templates for how we conduct Straight, British sociologist relationships and “perform” our Diane Richardson introduces gender. We are, for example, a series of key essays that encouraged to think of men as critique the institution of being sexually active and women heterosexuality. as sexually passive, even though there are no studies to prove this. Heterosexuality Heterosexuality Heterosexuality is constructed is promoted and must be recognized as an institution and as normal; men are maintained by a system of power seen as active and ideology and force; women as passive. that benefits men lesbianism is and subjugates denied and denigrated. women. .

FAMILIES AND INTIMACIES 307 See also: Karl Marx 28–31 ■ Judith Butler 56–61 ■ R.W. Connell 88–89 ■ bell hooks 90–95 ■ Sylvia Walby 96–99 ■ Steven Seidman 326–31 power over women as the key not have to. Heterosexuality to understanding women’s therefore carries with it an subordinate position. insidious assurance of normality. The power of ideology Oppressive tactics Hollywood films such as Basic Rich discusses many of the ways in Karl Marx argued that capitalism Instinct that depict lesbians as killers which the ideology of compulsory is, in part, maintained through provide an ideological endorsement heterosexuality “forces” women violent actions such as conquest of lesbianism as threatening and into sexual relationships with men. and enslavement. Heterosexuality, deviant and heterosexuality as normal. The unequal positions of men and Rich contends, can be viewed in women in the labor market, for a similar way. Under conditions of instance, can result in women compulsory heterosexuality, men being financially dependent on and women no more choose to be men. And the pervasive myth that heterosexual or homosexual than women are at risk of male violence a worker chooses wage labor. in public spaces, and should restrict their movements and Alongside the symbolic violence seek male protection, is another of ideology, physical violence is example of how women are coerced often used to control the behaviors into heterosexual relationships. of women. Acts such as female Women are encouraged to view genital mutilation and punishment themselves as sexual prey, and for female adultery or lesbianism ❯❯ men as “natural” sexual predators (reinforced by beliefs such as Modes of dress that restrict women’s movements stranger danger), so entering into are designed, Rich argues, to inhibit women’s heterosexual relationships offers freedom and prevent them from moving outside women a (false) sense of security. and participating in the public sphere, independent of men: they can then, Despite increasing numbers she says, be kept under control by of people opting to delay marriage, men within compulsory many young women still perceive heterosexuality. it as a normal and inevitable part of their lives: this expectation The veil and niqab is an important aspect of Rich’s argument about the compulsory Tight dress Corset nature of heterosexuality. Once again, ideology helps shore up High heels Bound feet heterosexuality through the promotion of romantic narratives in films such as Titanic and fairy tales like Cinderella. So prevalent is the idea of heterosexuality in society that people are assumed to be heterosexual unless they declare otherwise. The irony then is that when lesbians or gay men “come out” they are viewed as being more sexual than those who do

308 ADRIENNE RICH deny women sexuality. Child and [Heterosexuality] has had Erasure and denial of lesbianism arranged marriage, pornographic to be imposed, managed, in history and culture is one of the images that depict women enjoying organized, propagandized, ways in which heterosexuality is sexual violence and humiliation, and maintained by force. maintained. Rich contends that child sexual abuse, and incest— society is male-identified, meaning all force male sexuality on women. Adrienne Rich it is a place where men and their Rape is another violent tactic; needs are placed above women’s marital rape was not recognized clubs, and from leisure pursuits needs. Women feel the need to look in many Western nations until the such as golf where important beautiful for men, and place more 1990s—a reflection of the belief business deals might be made. value on romantic relationships that a woman must be sexually with men than on their friendships submissive to her husband. And It is in these many different with women. Rich calls upon Rich says that “using women ways that heterosexuality can women to try and reshape their as objects in male transactions” be understood as an institution lives around other women—in other is another oppressive tactic of that operates through rigid social words, to be woman-identified. compulsory heterosexuality— constructions of gender and This does not mean that she urges as revealed, for instance, in the sexuality. Considerable social all women to give up men and sleep trafficking of women for sexual control, including violence, is used with women but, rather, she wants exploitation and the use of to enforce these ideas of gender. all women to experience that which prostitutes for sexual pleasure. The effect is to keep women inside has arguably only been available to heterosexuality and to ensure lesbian communities—namely, to The view, persistent in some that they remain subordinate love other women. cultures, that it is preferable to send within it. A direct consequence the son to school because sons will of heterosexuality, for Rich, is the The lesbian continuum stay in the family, whereas girls oppression of women. Rich challenges preconceptions leave to join the husband’s family about what a lesbian is—it is not after marriage, means that across someone who hates men or sleeps the globe only 30 percent of girls with women, but simply a woman get a secondary-school education. who loves women. This idea is A poor education will inevitably known as “political lesbianism”: mean poor employment prospects. Rich and others saw it as a form of resistance to patriarchy rather Another method whereby male than simply a sexual preference. power is maintained is through the barring of women from exclusive Adrienne Rich Feminist, poet, and essayist rights movement. In 1997, in Adrienne Rich was born in 1929 protest against the inequalities in Maryland. Her home life was in the US, she refused the tense, due to religious and cultural National Medal of Arts from divisions between her parents. President Bill Clinton. Despite later identifying as Key works a lesbian, Rich married, in part to disconnect from her family. 1976 Of Woman Born: During this time she took a Motherhood as Experience teaching post at Columbia and Institution University. Her experiences as 1979 On Lies, Secrets, and a mother and a wife impeded Silence: Selected Prose, her intellectual potential and 1966–1978 radicalized her politics. She was 1980 “Compulsory committed to anti-war protests, Heterosexuality and and was also actively engaged Lesbian Existence” in feminist politics and the civil

FAMILIES AND INTIMACIES 309 Female witches were often feared and persecuted for their “otherness.” In the late 15th century it was believed that they possessed the power to cause impotence and infertility in men. Lesbianism can, then, be placed Sheila Jeffreys, a British radical Carol Smart suggests, heterosexual on a continuum, which includes feminist, argued that it allowed identity, like white colonial identity, those who are sexually attracted heterosexual women to continue has maintained an effortless to women and those who may be their relationships with men while superiority and an ability to heterosexual but are politically feeling politically validated. But remain invisible because it has connected to other women. This the strength of Rich’s work is that constructed itself as the norm. does not mean there are degrees rather than critiquing heterosexual Heterosexual feminists such of lesbian experience, with those women, it critiques heterosexuality as British sociologist Stevi who are “less” lesbian being more as an institution. Jackson have gone on to unpick socially acceptable. Instead, Rich is heterosexuality as a direct result suggesting that there have always Rich’s ideas also challenge of Rich’s work. French feminist been women who have resisted the the hetero/homo binary and thus Monique Wittig argued in 1992 that compulsory way of life and existed anticipate queer theorists such heterosexuality is a political regime in and out of the continuum for as US scholar Eve Kosofsky that relies on the subordination and hundreds of years—from the many Sedgwick, who argues that sexual appropriation of women. women in Europe, in the 16th and identity is a construct of Western 17th centuries in particular, who culture. Sedgwick also opposes The recent revelation in the were hanged or burned as witches, the assumption that these UK of the sexual abuse of girls often for living outside of patriarchy, constructions of sexuality are only by celebrities and the abduction to the late 19th-century “Wigan Pit an issue for “minority” groups such of more than 200 schoolgirls in Brow Lasses,” colliery workers who as lesbians and gay men. Nigeria, Africa, by the militant caused scandal in Britain by Islamist group Boko Haram, insisting on wearing trousers. A conceptual shift are glaring examples of how The ideas put forward in Rich’s heterosexuality is still forced on Rich’s idea of a lesbian 1980 essay have arguably provided women and girls. The arguments continuum has caused considerable the most important conceptual put forward by Rich thus continue debate, partly because it can be shift in studies of sexuality by to inform important explorations seen as desexualizing lesbianism inviting an examination of of heterosexuality as a social and and allows feminists to claim to heterosexuality as an institution. political structure. ■ be part of the continuum without This had never been done before examining their heterosexuality. because, as British sociologist The patriarchal institution of motherhood is not the “human condition” any more than rape, prostitution, and slavery are. Adrienne Rich

310 WESTERN FAMILY ARRANGEMENTS ARE DIVERSE, FLUID, AND UNRESOLVED JUDITH STACEY IN CONTEXT Western Traditional Women are economic family roles rejecting FOCUS structures patriarchal The postmodern family have shifted. of male relationships. breadwinner/ KEY DATES 1970 US radical feminist Kate female Millet argues that the nuclear homemaker are family is a site of subordination for women. no longer relevant. 1977 In Haven in a Heartless World: The Family Besieged, These changes enable “brave new family” forms. US social critic Christopher Lasch gives an anti-feminist Western family arrangements are diverse, account of how traditional fluid, and unresolved. family values are eroded in the modern world. T he “modern” US family detailed research into families unit, praised by the likes in Silicon Valley, California, 1997 In Lesbian Lifestyles: of Talcott Parsons, is Stacey suggests that, in line Women’s Work and the Politics a dated and potentially oppressive with demands from a changing of Sexuality, British academic institution. This is the view of economic structure resulting in Gillian Dunne argues that Judith Stacey, professor emerita of poverty and unemployment, the lesbian relationships are social and cultural analysis at New family has undergone a radical more egalitarian than York University, whose work has shift. Marriage is also weaker heterosexual partnerships. focused on the family, queer theory, because women are rejecting sexuality, and gender. Based on her patriarchal relationships. Instead, 2001 In Same Sex Intimacies: Families of Choice and Other Life Experiments, Jeffrey Weeks and others state that families are increasingly becoming a matter of choice.

FAMILIES AND INTIMACIES 311 See also: Sylvia Walby 96–99 ■ Talcott Parsons 300–01 ■ Adrienne Rich 304–09 ■ Gay parenthood Ulrich Beck and Elisabeth Beck-Gernsheim 320–23 ■ Jeffrey Weeks 324–25 there is a move toward blended The family indeed Stacey notes that US pressure families, lesbian and gay families, is dead, if what we mean groups are claiming that the cohabitating couples, and single country is facing a crisis due parents—all of which are part of by it is the modern to fatherlessness: heterosexual what she calls the “postmodern” family system. men are abandoning pregnant family (although many have argued Judith Stacey partners or opting not to that these forms have always have children at all. New existed and that Parson’s nuclear technologies and the family was only relevant for a few availability of contraceptives privileged middle-class families). have separated sex from To reflect this new reality, Stacey procreation. And having a insists that the work structure child no longer guarantees needs to ensure equal pay for men a future income for parents. and women, and universal health Thus Stacey argues that and child care should be provided. parenting is now more about emotion than finances. A pioneering spirit creating more democratic and The economic role of the family equal relationships. For her, these Yet increasing numbers has declined, Stacey argues, and relationships represent an ideal of gay men are opting for as a result, intimacy and love have of postmodern kinship for which parenthood, even though they become more important. Despite traditional roles are less applicable. face many more challenges the decline of marriage, Stacey than lesbian and heterosexual does not believe that individuals Equal love? couples, including access to no longer form meaningful social The British sociologist Anthony the means of reproduction ties, but rather that complex ties Giddens is in agreement with (eggs and a womb). When continue to be formed as a result Stacey when he suggests that straight couples adopt, they of divorce and remarriage. contemporary family forms bring are often given healthy babies. greater equality to relationships Gay men tend to be offered Because traditional roles and and undermine stereotypes older children or those who legal- and blood-ties within the and traditional gender roles. In are unwell or thought of as family are less relevant today contrast, recent studies in Britain “difficult” in some way. Thus than they were in the past, family have revealed that in heterosexual it is gay men, says Stacey, who members now have greater choice couples, women are still largely are giving homes to some of and are therefore creating more responsible for housework. society’s most needy children. experimental intimacies. She suggests that the heterosexual/ Some have questioned the Gay men who choose to become homosexual binary is becoming extent to which same-sex fathers challenge many of society’s less stable and is being replaced relationships are more equal. stereotypes about masculinity, by a “queering” of family relations. Canadian researcher Janice fatherhood, and gay promiscuity. These “brave new families” are Ristock, for example, has pointed endeavoring to fully embrace to the prevalence of domestic abuse change and diversity and forge among same-sex couples. Others, more unconventional and such as sociologists Beck and egalitarian relationships. Beck-Gernsheim, have emphasized the many difficulties associated Stacey is in line with other key with living a detraditionalized life. thinkers, such as Jeffrey Weeks and Nevertheless, Stacey contends British sociologist Gillian Dunne, that social experiments in ties in suggesting that lesbian and of love are ongoing. ■ gay families are at the forefront of

THE MARRIAGE CONTRACT IS A WORK CONTRACT CHRISTINE DELPHY (1941– )



314 CHRISTINE DELPHY Within a patriarchal system, heterosexuality is a socially constructed institution that encourages marriage. IN CONTEXT Marriage enables the husband, as head of the household, FOCUS to exploit his wife, by benefitting from her unpaid labor… Material feminism …around …in support …in producing KEY DATES the home. of his job. and looking 1974 British sociologist Ann after children Oakley puts housework under (his legitimate feminist scrutiny in The heirs). Sociology of Housework. 1980 US writer and feminist Adrienne Rich suggests that heterosexuality is a political institution that continues to give men power and control over women. 1986 According to British sociologist Sylvia Walby, the gender division of labor in the household is one of the key structures that maintain patriarchy in society. 1989 French materialist feminist Monique Wittig publishes On the Social Contract, suggesting that the heterosexual contract is a sexual and labor contract. The marriage contract is a work contract. F or hundreds of years in any sort is through a Marxist-style she argues, in the way that women many societies, marriage analysis that looks at the material are channeled into marriage and has been the destiny and benefits accruing to any party. motherhood, so that their labor can often the dream of every young girl. But where Marx investigated be exploited by men. Numerous cultural arteficts—from oppression through examining fairy tales to novels and films— class structure, Delphy investigates Domestic production have reinforced this view. However, women’s oppression through the Delphy argues that Marx’s in the 1980s, feminists such as power structure of patriarchy (the concepts can be applied to the Ann Oakley and Christine Delphy power and authority held by men). home environment, which she sees argued that, in reality, marriage is She says that within a patriarchal as a site of the patriarchal mode of a highly abusive institution that system, heterosexuality (and the production. Within this workplace, is fundamental in aiding men’s resulting male–female couple) is not men systematically take advantage continuing oppression of women. an individual sexual preference but of, and benefit from, women’s labor. a socially constructed institution, Under these conditions, women Christine Delphy is a Marxist which acts to maintain male labor for the male head theorist, who claims that the only domination. This is demonstrated, of the household, carrying out way to investigate oppression of

FAMILIES AND INTIMACIES 315 See also: Judith Butler 56–61 ■ Friedrich Engels 66–67 ■ Sylvia Walby 96–99 ■ Arlie Russell Hochschild 236–43 ■ Teri Lynn Caraway 248–49 ■ Adrienne Rich 304–09 ■ Ann Oakley 318–19 ■ Steven Seidman 326–31 the sense that their labor was often appropriated by brothers, fathers, or employers. This view was partly influenced by the book Married to the Job, by British sociologist Janet Finch. This work documents how women are co-opted by employers into a male relative’s job, but without pay. This might be through indirect help, such as entertaining (for businessmen or politicians); direct involvement, such as acting as an assistant (for tradesmen or academics); or providing welfare, for example cooking and cleaning (for members of the clergy). The narrative of films such as the development of a class society Materialist feminism Pride and Prejudice, adapted from the is the basis for women’s oppression. Delphy sees capitalism and novel by Jane Austen, reinforce the idea He said that with the rise in private patriarchy as two distinct social that what every woman wants is to find property during the 19th century, systems, both of which share the the “perfect” man and marry him. there was a corresponding rise appropriation of labor, and which in inequality because men influence and shape each other. potentially limitless work. This role, increasingly controlled the public Her materialist feminist approach she says, has no job description, sphere of production, and so to the family marks a departure no agreed wage, and no limit in became increasingly wealthy and from earlier forms of feminist terms of the hours. In any other powerful. In addition, men wanted analysis, which did not consider working position, such conditions to ensure that their property would the role of capitalism. Delphy would be viewed as exploitative. be inherited by their legitimate pointed out, however, that a ❯❯ And in marriages where a woman male heirs, and the most effective is engaged in paid employment way of doing this was through the Women’s exploitation in the home outside the home, she is also— institution of the monogamous is, says Delphy, a consequence of the in most cases—expected to be patriarchal family. In this way, combined effects of patriarchy and responsible for household and marriage became a relationship capitalism, both of which function to childcare duties. According of property. perpetuate male dominion and control. to Delphy, when the domestic situation is viewed in these Unpaid assistants materialist terms, it becomes Demand for labor increased during obvious that married women and following the Industrial are working for nothing. Revolution. Women were required to produce more children to supply Delphy points out that for that demand. But the more children Marxists, classes only exist in a woman had, the more tightly she relation to one another: there can was tied to the household and be no bourgeoisie (owners of the unable to work elsewhere. Delphy means of production) without the also suggests that unmarried proletariat (the workers). Friedrich women become “wives” too, in Engels wrote extensively on how

316 CHRISTINE DELPHY Surveys conducted among OECD countries (Organisation for unpaid work. Writing with Diana Economic Co-operation and Development) between 2009 and 2011 Leonard, Delphy notes that married have shown a hugely unequal division of labor in the home, with men and women may love each women spending far more time than men caring for family members other—but “loving women does not (preparing food, for example) and doing domestic chores. prevent men from exploiting them.” Care for household Routine housework A woman is made, not born members per day per day Delphy argues that a person’s sex is far from self-evident: maleness 40 mins 16 mins 168 mins 74 mins is not determined solely by the presence of a penis or chest hair, wife’s obligation to perform go away by paying women more. for example, nor is femaleness domestic duties is institutionalized This is because—as Marxist class a function of being able to bear on entering marriage, making analysis has shown—the system children. Sex is emphasized in marriage a labor contract. only works if there is a group that society because we live in a world can be exploited. If there is no where the simple binary division This idea has proven to be exploited group, there is no profit. by gender gives men priority over controversial, but has received The creation of an exploitable group women, and values heterosexuality support from other academics in turn depends on the existence over homosexuality. In this way, including the British political of a dominant ideology that runs gender dictates, or “precedes,” sex, theorist Carole Pateman. Drawing throughout a society, continually and the classification of people by on the ideas of British philosopher positioning a group of people sex maintains hierarchies and John Locke, who envisaged a social in a certain way. In a capitalist, power structures. contract whereby individuals act as patriarchal society, this ideology is good citizens and in return receive sexism (prejudice against women Delphy argues that using sex protection from the state, Pateman because of their sex). as a system to classify people is saw heterosexual relations in terms misguided and leads to serious of a sexual contract. Women might One critique raised against errors in thinking. Why should a be seen to receive protection Delphy’s ideas is that they do not person’s sex be more prominent from men by being married, but take account of the fact that some than other physical traits that husbands had acquired a right to women benefit from marriage, are equally distinguishable? Why their wives’ work and their bodies financially and/or sexually. Delphy is biological sex the only physical (“rape in marriage” was not yet a does not deny this; she claims, trait that splits the world’s criminal offense in England when however, that there is an unequal Pateman wrote her book The exchange. Wives may enjoy some The fact that domestic work Sexual Contract in 1988). of the tasks they complete for their is unpaid is not inherent to own sake and because they love the particular type of work Delphy claims that it is not their husbands, but this does done, since when the same simply a case of women’s work not mask the fact that they are tasks are done outside the being devalued, as some feminists expected to do large amounts of have argued. The problem will not family they are paid for. Christine Delphy & Diana Leonard British sociologist (1941–2010)

FAMILIES AND INTIMACIES 317 Signing a marriage contract feminists were interested in product, not the cause, of means entering a legal partnership. domestic labor and how to inequality. In The End of Equality This has different implications in understand it, but there was (2014), journalist and campaigner different countries, but Delphy considerable disagreement about Beatrix Campbell charted the suggests it always benefits the man. the relationship between feminism ways in which women continue and Marxism. Some Marxist to be exploited in their intimate population into two groups, which feminists, such as British scholars relationships; for instance, there are then loaded with apparently Michele Barrett and Mary are few societies in the world “natural” traits and roles? This McIntosh, were extremely hostile where men equally share the idea of sex as a wholly false to the accusation that men benefit work of childcare with women. classification is a crucial concept from their wives’ labor and For Campbell, contemporary within Delphy’s radical appraisal of therefore directly exploit them. global capitalism has served patriarchy because it undermines Others argued that it is impossible to strengthen and further men’s the notion of sex being used to for two modes of exploitation domination over women. differentiate between those who (patriarchy and capitalism) to exist will dominate (financially, socially, at the same time in a given society. Material oppressions in forms and sexually) and those who will other than economic exploitation, be dominated. Continuing inequality such as the ongoing debate about Delphy and many other feminists abortion in some countries, also In developing her theories, since the 1980s have taken on benefit from Delphy’s analysis. Delphy was greatly influenced by board these criticisms and worked If child-bearing and -rearing are the writings of the French feminist them through in detail, making understood as labor extorted from Simone de Beauvoir, who argued Delphy’s work a continuing women, as Delphy suggests, men that men had made women “other” influence on feminists around the may fear that women will escape in order to support an unequal world. US philosopher Judith Butler, this form of exploitation by limiting patriarchal system. By challenging for instance, has used many of births. In this way the withdrawal the categories of “men” and Delphy’s concepts in her work, of the right to abortion in places “women” as meaningful, Delphy’s in particular her questioning of such as Northern Ireland, and ideas can be seen as a precursor the sex/gender distinction. the fierce debates about abortion to queer theory, which questions In developing Delphy’s ideas, in the US, can be seen as a previously accepted ideas of sex, French feminist Monique Wittig form of male control over women’s sexuality, and gender, and their role has argued that the division of choice, keeping them as an in establishing identity. society into two sexes is the exploited class so as to sustain both capitalism and patriarchy. ■ Feminism and Marxism Christine Delphy Delphy’s ideas created a furor the insulting term “dykes” used in feminism when they were first Christine Delphy was born in for lesbians by referring to it as published. This was at a time when France in 1941 and educated at a revolutionary position. More the universities of Paris, France, recently, she voted against the and California, Berkeley. law that banned Muslim girls Inspired by the political protests from wearing the hijab (veil) in in Paris in 1968, she became French schools, calling the act an active member of the French a piece of racist legislation. women’s liberation movement. In 1977 she cofounded the Key works journal New Feminist Issues with French philosopher 1984 Close to Home: A Simone de Beauvoir. Materialist Analysis of Women’s Oppression Delphy was a member of 1992 Familiar Exploitation (with Gouines Rouge (Red Dykes), a Diana Leonard) group that attempted to reclaim 1993 Rethinking Sex and Gender

318 HOUSEWORK IS DIRECTLY OPPOSED TO SELF-ACTUALIZATION ANN OAKLEY (1944– ) IN CONTEXT Housework in capitalist and patriarchal societies is exploitative... FOCUS Housework as alienation ...because it is ...because it offers little low-status work that is opportunity for creativity KEY DATES assumed to come naturally 1844 Karl Marx introduces or self-fulfillment. his theory of the workers’ to women. alienation from their work. Housework is work directly 1955 Sociologist Talcott opposed to self-actualization. Parsons sees housework as an integral part of the female role. T he majority of women’s at least one child under five. work is still domestic labor The pioneering study looks at 1985 In Contemporary that takes place in the housework from the perspective Housework and the home. More than a generation ago, of these women. Houseworker Role, British in 1974, sociologist Ann Oakley sociologist Mary Maynard undertook one of the first feminist Oakley argues that housework reveals that working women sociological studies of domestic should be understood as a job do far more housework than labor when she interviewed 40 in its own right and not a natural their working husbands. London housewives between the extension of a woman’s role as ages of 20 and 30, all of whom had a wife or mother. This was a 1986 British sociologists controversial standpoint at a time Linda McKee and Colin Bell claim that when men are unemployed, they do less housework: their masculine identity is seen as threatened and wives are unwilling to weaken it still further by asking them to accept greater domestic responsibility.

FAMILIES AND INTIMACIES 319 See also: Sylvia Walby 96–99 ■ Harry Braverman 226–31 ■ Robert Blauner 232–33 ■ Arlie Hochschild 236–43 ■ Talcott Parsons 300–01 ■ Christine Delphy 312–17 when housework was not seen as roles, should be seen as reflecting Women’s domesticity “real work.” Women are compelled cultural and historical processes, is a circle of learned to engage in domestic duties for rather than as being tied to biology. no wages—an essential form of deprivation and exploitation that enables capitalism Alienation induced subjugation. to function and succeed: by Marx claims that workers, in providing the needs of the male a system of private ownership, Ann Oakley worker, housewives ensure male experience alienation or workers are able to provide the estrangement from their work have no autonomy or control; needs of the economy. because they do not own the fruits responsibility for the work is theirs of their labor. Similarly, Oakley alone and if it is not done they risk A woman’s role? insists, the majority of housewives an angry husband or sick children. Domestic duties have often been are dissatisfied with their lot, regarded as natural for women, finding nothing inherently Viewed in this way, housework due to their ability to give birth; satisfying about their work, which prevents women from reaching although why that capacity means is lonely, monotonous, and boring. their full potential. Oakley’s a woman is better able to iron They resent the low status that is findings remain significant today: out creases in clothes is unclear. associated with being a housewife. recent research by, among others, Arguably, it does not occur to most Like factory workers, they find their British sociologist Caroline Gatrell women to demand wages for the jobs repetitive, fragmented, and shows that 40 years later women work they give “for free.” time-pressured. are still doing most of the housework, despite engaging Karl Marx’s argument that Oakley’s studies reveal that more in paid employment. ■ male workers are exploited in women report feelings of alienation paid employment is applicable to from their work more frequently women’s exploitation in the home. than factory workers. This is due Ideology serves to disguise this in part to their sense of social fact by presenting housework as isolation as housewives—many of “natural” for women and also not them had careers before marriage, worthy of a wage. Oakley contends, which they subsequently gave however, that gender, and gender up. These women, Oakley says, Ads for household products from Ann Oakley Oakley’s first novel, The Men’s the 1950s stereotype women as happy Room, was published in 1988 housewives who have an emotional The sociologist and feminist and in 1991 it became a popular attachment to the cleaning agents that Ann Oakley was born in the BBC series starring Bill Nighy. form such a key part of their lives. UK in 1944. She is professor of Oakley remains committed sociology and social policy at to feminism, and much of her the University of London. After work addresses gender issues. completing a degree at Oxford, She also has an interest in where she was one of the first developing environmentally students to take a sociology friendly cleaning products. option, she wrote two novels but was unable to find a Key works publisher for them. She then enrolled for a PhD and her first 1972 Sex, Gender, and Society academic book, Sex, Gender, and 1974 The Sociology of Society, introduced the term Housework “gender” into everyday use. 1974 Housewife

320 IN CONTEXT WHEN LOVE FOCUS FINALLY WINS IT The chaos of love HAS TO FACE ALL KINDS OF DEFEAT KEY DATES 1992 Anthony Giddens’ The ULRICH BECK (1944–2015) AND Transformation of Intimacy ELISABETH BECK-GERNSHEIM (1946– ) presents an optimistic view of egalitarian relationships in a reflexive (self-aware) society. 1994 US right-wing thinker Charles Murray asserts that traditional family values need to be emphasized to halt a breakdown in society. 1998 British sociologist Lynn Jamieson suggests that “intimacies” is the most useful term for describing the organization of our personal relationships. 1999 British academics Carol Smart and Bren Neale suggest parental relationships with children are far more enduring than fragile intimate partnerships. S ustaining a happy, intimate relationship can be a difficult and tiring business, yet at the same time a compelling one. In The Normal Chaos of Love (1995), German husband-and-wife team Ulrich Beck and Elisabeth Beck-Gernsheim try to explain why this is so. They trace the development of a new social order that has transformed the ways in which we conduct our personal lives, arguing that one of the main features of this new order is “a collision of interests between love, family, and personal freedom.” The traditional nuclear family— “built around gender status”— is disintegrating “on the issues

FAMILIES AND INTIMACIES 321 See also: Ulrich Beck 156–61 ■ David Held 170–71 ■ Colin Campbell 234–35 ■ Elisabeth Beck- Talcott Parsons 300–01 ■ Adrienne Rich 304–09 ■ Judith Stacey 310–11 Gernsheim Increased social They still yearn Born in Freiburg, Germany, freedoms today mean for stability and in 1946, Elisabeth Beck- that people have greater emotionally fulfilling Gernsheim is a sociologist, scope than ever before to relationships... philosopher, and psychologist. shape their own lives. Her partly Jewish heritage meant that many of her family Family units are now ...but the social members fled Nazi Germany more fragile; separation, changes have weakened in the 1930s, with some of her divorce, and remarriage uncles moving to London. gender stereotypes are more common. and led to a clash of She has produced several interests between key works in collaboration with her husband, Ulrich Beck love and freedom. (who had his own links to London through the LSE), but When love finally wins it has has also written extensively to face all kinds of defeat. on issues from social change to biotechnologies. More recently, she has developed an interest in transnational marriage, migration, and ethnic identities. She is currently a senior research fellow at the Institute for Cosmopolitan Studies, University of Munich. (See pp.156–61 for Ulrich Beck.) Key works of emancipation and equal rights.” “reflexive modernity” has produced 1995 The Normal Chaos of The fading away of traditional new risks and opportunities. The Love (with Ulrich Beck) social identities means that the particular social and economic 2002 Individualization (with antagonisms between men and conditions of global capitalism have Ulrich Beck) women over gender roles emerge led to a greater sense of individual 2002 Reinventing the Family “in the very heart of the private identity; life is less predictable and sphere,” with the result that more personal narratives have more of People marry for... love couples are divorcing or separating, a sense of “do-it-yourself.” and get divorced for... love. and different family forms are Ulrich Beck & Elisabeth taking shape. All this is part of “the The couple explains that quite normal chaos called love.” “individualization” is the Beck-Gernsheim opposite principle to that used Individualized living in Germany’s Code of Civil Law Following on from Beck’s earlier in the late 19th-century, which Risk Society (1986), which suggests established that “marriage is to that women are torn between be viewed [as] a moral and legal “liberation” and the continuance of order independent of the will of traditional gender roles, the couple the spouse.” Individualization has makes the case that a new age of facilitated new forms of personal and social experimentation. ❯❯

322 ULRICH BECK AND ELISABETH BECK-GERNSHEIM The pursuit of love and marriage remains a feature of modern society, despite the fact that the pressures on our lives mean that marriages are more likely to end in divorce than in the past. The couple’s views echo those Individualization may have persist until men become more of Anthony Giddens who, in released people from the gender accepting of women’s participation The Transformation of Intimacy roles prescribed by industrial in the workplace and until men (1992), argues that in contemporary society, but the material needs of engage in more domestic labor. society we make our identity rather modern life are such that they are than inherit it. Such a change has, forced to build up a life of their own Fragile yet resilient he says, altered how we experience that is adapted to the requirements Beck and Beck-Gernsheim contend the family and sexuality. of the labor market. The family that, for the most part, intimate model, Beck and Beck-Gernsheim relationships cannot be egalitarian; According to Giddens, in say, can mesh “one labor if equality is what is required, then the past, when marriages were market biography with a lifelong relationships must be abandoned: economic partnerships rather housework biography, but not “Love has become inhospitable.” than love matches, expectations two labor market biographies,” were lower and disappointments because their inner logic demands Men and women face choices fewer. Now that men and women that “both partners have to put and constraints that differ are increasingly compelled to themselves first.” Inequality will significantly from those faced reflexively create their identity by their counterparts in previous through day-to-day decisions, For individuals who... eras because of the contradiction Giddens argues that they are able invent... their own social between the demands of to choose partnerships on a basis setting, love becomes the... relationships of any kind (family, of mutual understanding, leading marriage, motherhood, fatherhood) to what he describes as “pure pivot giving meaning and the demands of the workplace relationships”—entered for their to their lives. for mobile, flexible employees. own sake and only continuing These choices and constraints while both parties are happy. Such Ulrich Beck & Elisabeth are responsible for pulling families partnerships, he says, bring greater Beck-Gernsheim apart. Rather than being shaped equality between individuals and by the rules, traditions, and challenge traditional gender roles. rituals of previous eras, Beck and Beck-Gernsheim argue Intimate but unequal that contemporary family units Although Beck and Beck- are experiencing a shift from Gernsheim agree with Giddens a “community of need,” where that there is far more scope in the ties and obligations bound us modern world for men and women in our intimate lives, to “elective to shape their own lives and thus affinities” that are based on weaken gender stereotypes, they are not wholly optimistic. Individuals are subject to forces beyond their control; life may be do-it-yourself but it is not do-as- you-like. Women and men, say the couple, are “compulsively on the search for the right way to live”— trying to find a model of the family that will offer a “refuge in... our affluent, impersonal society.”

FAMILIES AND INTIMACIES 323 choice and personal inclination. nor women would wish to, the The child... promises a tie... In spite of these difficult changes, pressures of an individualized more... profound and durable the lure of the romantic narrative life mean that it can be tinged than any other in... society. remains strong. In an uncertain with nostalgia and a longing for Ulrich Beck & Elisabeth society, “stripped of its traditions certainties that perhaps never and scarred by all kinds of risk,” as existed—those “family values” that Beck-Gernsheim Beck and Beck-Gernsheim put it, governments often hark back to. love “will become more important The more fragile our relationships the child in this context becomes than ever and equally impossible.” are, the more we hanker after love. ego-driven and intense, providing a feeling of permanence not found Individuals now have a greater One way in which this yearning in the chaos of adult relationships. desire for emotionally fulfilling for the past exerts itself is through relationships, which has fueled the increased significance placed Inevitably, criticisms have industries such as couples’ therapy upon children in contemporary been leveled at Beck and Beck- and self-help publishing. But the society. While love between adults Gernsheim’s arguments. Several ties that bind are fragile and people might be viewed as temporary theorists, including Swedish tend to move on if perfection is not and vulnerable, love for children scholars Diana Mulinari and achieved. As the couple say, even becomes more important, with Kerstin Sandell, have objected to when individuals do fall in love both parents investing emotionally the implication that women are (“when love finally wins”), there are in their children, who are seen responsible for the increased often more battles ahead—division, as providing unconditional love. divorce rates. Nevertheless, The resentment, and divorce, for example. Normal Chaos of Love transformed In this respect, Beck and Beck- academic work on the family—from Beck and Beck-Gernsheim Gernsheim suggest that men may being seen as an institution that suggest that nurturing personal be challenging women for the role responds to social change, it was relationships and attending to the of emotional caretakers in the acknowledged as one that actually demands of a rapidly changing family. This can be seen in the contributes to change. ■ economic world require a delicate increased numbers of fathers who balancing act; as a consequence, seek custody of their children post- there is a rise in divorce. Yet so divorce and the rise of groups strong is the hope of happiness advocating equal parenting rights that many divorcees marry again. for fathers, such as Fathers4Justice. The importance of children The feminist academic Diana While Beck and Beck-Gernsheim Leonard supports this view, saying argue that we have come too far to that parents are “spoiling” their return to old ways, and neither men children with gifts to keep them close to them. Connection with Marriage and divorce rates FIGURES PER ’000 ADULTS 10 in the Western world during 9 the past 50 years have altered 8 significantly. Changes in the 7 law and society have seen 6 marriage decline and divorce 5 increase. Although the pattern 4 seems to have stabilized, the 3 family unit is now more fragile. 2 1 1960: 2012: 0 Marriage Marriage Divorce Divorce GERMANY * Divorce not permitted in Spain until UK US SPAIN* FRANCE NORWAY 1981. Earliest data is from 1990.

324 SEXUALITY IS AS MUCH ABOUT BELIEFS AND IDEOLOGIES AS ABOUT THE PHYSICAL BODY JEFFREY WEEKS (1945– ) IN CONTEXT J effrey Weeks, arguably the Inspired by the work of British most influential British sociologist Mary McIntosh, he FOCUS writer on sexuality, offers a argues that industrialization and The social construction detailed historical account of how urbanization consolidated gender of sexuality sexuality has been shaped and divisions and increased the stigma regulated by society. He sees of male same-sex relations. KEY DATES sexuality not so much as rooted in 1885 The Criminal Law the body, but as a social construct Weeks examines how Victorian Amendment Act is passed that is ideologically determined. society used the new “sciences” of in the UK, recriminalizing psychology and sexology (the study male homosexuality and strengthening the laws Sexology Marriage is The law against prostitution. invents promoted regulates the categories as necessary for sexuality 1968 An essay by British “homosexual” a healthy and by deciding who sociologist Mary McIntosh, stable society. can do what. “The Homosexual Role,” and helps promote the view “heterosexual.” that sexuality is socially not biologically determined. Homosexuality is constructed as abnormal; heterosexuality is constructed as normal. 1976 The History of Sexuality: Volume I, by Sexuality is as much about beliefs and French philosopher Michel ideologies as about the physical body. Foucault, examines the role of “experts” in the classification of sexuality. 2002 Same-sex couples are legally entitled to adopt in the UK. 2014 Same-sex marriage is legalized in the UK.

FAMILIES AND INTIMACIES 325 See also: Sylvia Walby 96–99 ■ Margaret Mead 298–99 ■ Jeffrey Weeks Michel Foucault 302–03 ■ Adrienne Rich 304–09 ■ Steven Seidman 326–31 The social historian Jeffrey heralded as the norm and essential Weeks was born in Rhondda, for society, “homosexuality,” Weeks Wales, UK, in 1945. His says, was invented. Acts that work has been influenced might be homosexual had been by his early participation as criminalized previously, but for the a gay rights’ activist in the first time in history, sexologists Gay Liberation Front (GLF). identified a new type of people: “homosexuals” (the category Weeks was a founding “heterosexuality” was invented member and editor of the soon after). Many of the studies on journal Gay Left, and his work sexuality were influenced by the continues to be informed by teachings of the Christian Church. ideas from lesbian and gay politics, socialism, and Oscar Wilde was tried and convicted Sexuality as social control feminism. He has published in the late 19th century of “gross Male homosexuality was viewed as over 20 books and numerous indecency” with other men. The trials a perversion and, increasingly, as a articles on sexuality and of the Irish writer helped construct social problem, leading to tighter intimate life, and is currently homosexuality as a social problem. legal and social control. The 1885 a research professor at the Criminal Law Amendment Act, for eponymous Weeks Centre of sexuality that claimed to be a example, broadened and redefined for Social and Policy Research science but was often undertaken the legal definition of homosexual at South Bank University in by wealthy amateurs) to pass acts. This construction of London, England. In 2012, he sentence on homosexuals. homosexuality as abnormal, along was awarded an OBE for his with essentialist ideas of femininity services to social science. The growing interest in and masculinity, served to support classifying sexuality assumed that the belief that heterosexuality was Key texts women were naturally sexually normal and the only legitimate form passive and men were naturally of sexual behavior. 1977 Coming Out: Homosexual active, without having any Politics in Britain evidence for such assumptions. It is possible, Weeks suggests, 1989 Sex, Politics, and Society Anything contrary to these to see this defining of sexuality as 2001 Same Sex Intimacies: “essentialist” views (that sexuality both a social construction and a Families of Choice and Other reflects biology) was often form of social control. The law can Life Experiments considered abnormal. The new decide who is allowed to marry, sciences thus firmly upheld adopt children, have sex, and at Social processes construct existing patriarchal ideas. what age. Religion can instruct subjectivities not just as society that any sex that does not categories but at the level of Weeks observes that there was lead to procreation is sinful. an increasing tendency to view individual desires. the institution of marriage as But cultural ideals about who Jeffrey Weeks essential to the maintenance of should have sex, and who should a stable, “healthy” society. There not, can have a significant negative was also, therefore, a concern to impact. There has, for example, regulate men’s “natural” lustfulness been a notable rise in sexually by steering them toward marriage. transmitted diseases among the At the same time marriage was over-50s in the UK and the US because ideas that sex between older people is, among other things, distasteful, has led to fewer older people seeking medical care. ■

QUEER THEORY QUESTIONS THE VERY GROUNDS OF IDENTITY STEVEN SEIDMAN (1950– )



328 STEVEN SEIDMAN Queer theory argues that... IN CONTEXT ...sexuality is ...there is ...few “men” a social no original or “women” fit FOCUS on which gender neatly into the Queer theory construct. binary sex is based. KEY DATES system. 1976 Michel Foucault’s work The History of Sexuality. There is no such thing as “normal” sexuality. Volume I: An Introduction traces the social construction Queer theory questions the of sexuality; he sees sexual very grounds of identity. identities emerging through history and produced by power, and thus not based on nature or biology. 1987 ACT UP (AIDS Coalition to Unleash Power) forms in New York as a response to homophobic AIDS campaigns. 1990 In Gender Trouble, Judith Butler argues that gender is socially constructed and produced from actions and behaviors that are constantly repeated. 1998 US academic Judith (“Jack”) Halberstam examines masculinity without men in Female Masculinity. I n the early 1980s, the AIDS includes any category that debunks categories, believing that the crisis was wrongly identified the heterosexual male–female differences within categories such in the public mind as an “natural” model—not just gays as “woman” or “gay” undermine epidemic that mainly affected gay and lesbians, but transgendered their usefulness. Queer theory, men. The resultant health panic people, cross-dressers, and others, like some feminist theory, was and growth of homophobia made including heterosexuals who reject also initially critical of the lesbian the lesbian and gay community the “norm.” and gay communities, which were feel isolated and marginalized. seen as assimilationist—seeking Queer theory and its political to enter the mainstream by Politically activist gay men and approach has grown out of feminist campaigning for things such as lesbians responded by originating and lesbian and gay theory. marriage rights. “queer” politics and theory, trying Influenced by Michel Foucault to deprive the term “queer” of its and Judith Butler, the key queer Constructed sexuality derogatory power. As a reverse theorists, such as Eve Kosofsky Steven Seidman is an important affirmation of a pejorative word, Sedgwick, Gayle Rubin, and Steven figure in the history of queer “queer” is still a contentious term Seidman, have disrupted traditional thinking due to his interpretation for some. In its widest sense it unitary identity—or social—

FAMILIES AND INTIMACIES 329 See also: Judith Butler 56–61 ■ R.W. Connell 88–89 ■ Michel Foucault 302–03 ■ Adrienne Rich 304–09 ■ Christine Delphy 312–17 ■ Jeffrey Weeks 324–25 and critique of other queer many of the social inequalities that Let’s declare war against theorists. Seidman argues, like persist, such as the divisions the center, against all Foucault and British sociologist between men and women. centers, all authorities Jeffrey Weeks, that sexuality is “constructed.” Industrialization Questions of identity in the name of difference. and urbanization, which gendered Because queer theorists such as Steven Seidman social space by creating the public Seidman regard identity as socially male world of work and the private constructed, it is considered middle class (and men, in the case female world of the home, produced unstable and lacking coherence; of lesbian and gay politics). At significant changes in how we even something seemingly times, such groups also took understand masculinity and as stable as biological sex is essentialist approaches to identity, femininity, and the regulation of questioned. Few individuals fit meaning that they saw identities sexuality. Many of the qualities of neatly into the categories “man” as rooted in biology and therefore gender and sexuality that we now or “woman”—when tested on natural or normal. As Butler argues, see as natural (“heteronormative” chromosomes, hormones, genes, in this context the marginalized means heterosexuality deemed to or anatomy most will fit somewhere identities themselves, by producing be the normal sexual orientation) on a continuum. Some men may fixed meanings, become complicit were established at this time, such look very masculine but have high in reaffirming the binary regimes. as women being seen as nurturing levels of “female” hormones, or a Seidman argues that queer theory and caring, men being regarded as micropenis, while some women provides a necessary challenge sexually active, and homosexuality may be very tall or hairy, which to the normative gay and lesbian being viewed as a perversion. are qualities we are encouraged politics because these sexual to view as masculine. identities reproduce the processes Seidman suggests that up until of power they seek to challenge. the late 20th century, the study of When babies are born with sexuality can be seen as a history ambiguous sex, surgeons have Challenging the norm of homosexuality. To the sciences often intervened, removing a boy’s In his influential text The Trouble of the 19th century, as well as to small penis and suggesting that he with Normal: Sex, Politics, and the sexology and Freudian psychology, be brought up a girl: a paradoxical Ethics of Queer Life (1999), Michael heterosexuality was normal and not response that is at one and Warner argues that the concept of in need of examination. In effect, the same time essentialist, by “queer” is not just about resisting this moment in history established assuming that a characteristic of the norm but challenging the very “real” men is that they have large idea of normal behavior. Because In India, the Supreme Court in penises, and social constructionist, “queer” is about attitude rather 2014 upheld the right of transgender by implying that identity is really than identity, anyone who individuals, an ancient group called a matter of social conditioning. challenges the norm or the hijra, to self-identify their sex, thereby By challenging the idea of unitary expected can be ”queer”—for creating a third gender status in law. identity, such as straight, and instance, couples who decide rejecting binary ways of thinking, not to have children. ❯❯ such as man/woman, Seidman is fundamentally critiquing identity- based theory and politics. Feminism and the lesbian and gay movements emerged as forms of identity politics to challenge patriarchal and heteronormative society. However, critics argued that these movements were promptly dominated by the white

330 STEVEN SEIDMAN Seidman, in Difference Troubles: His aim is to challenge all norms Queer is by definition Queering Social Theory and Sexual by recognizing difference and whatever is at odds with Politics (1997), while acknowledging having “an affirmative politics of the normal, the legitimate, the important contribution that difference” rather than an “illiberal queer theory has made to modern kind of identity politics,” such that the dominant. politics and culture, explores the “difference and democracy might David Halperin difficulties that can arise for those coexist.” Seidman insists that who champion the politics of queer theorists must, just as US academic (1952– ) difference. How do social thinkers other social thinkers do, take into conceptualize differences, such as account other forms of social theory refers to gay men, lesbians, sexuality or race, without falling and continue to critique key social bisexuals, and transgender people. into the trap of reducing them to institutions and examine how In essence, “queer” can be seen inferior status? people live their lives. as a new label for an old concept. In this way it has been used to His pragmatic response is There are many criticisms of the unify many diverse categories of to argue for what he calls a “less “queer” concept and its theoretical people and has been accused of repressive view of difference”—a approach. Although it argues ignoring important differences social postmodernism in which against the concept of identity, and inequalities. “queer” is a verb, describing it has nevertheless become an actions, and no longer a noun. umbrella term that particularly Groups asserting self-identification sexuality have in recent years challenged the assumption that male–female heterosexuality is the normal sexual orientation. The symbols below are just a few of the many now used to declare to the mainstream that different sexual identities exist. Self-identification symbols Symbol Orientation Inspiration A flawed approach? Because queer theorists such as Female couple Paired mirror of Venus astrological and the American David Halperin have alchemical signs, traditionally used to denote understood “queer” as a position Male couple that can be taken by anyone who an organism of female gender. feels they have been marginalized An intersex or due to their sexual preferences, genderless person Paired shield and spear of Mars astrological Australian academic Elizabeth and alchemical signs, traditionally used to Grosz warns that it could be used A transgender to validate ethically questionable person denote an organism of male gender. practices, such as those by “sadists, pederasts... pimps.” A bisexual The circle element of the Venus person and Mars signs, without the Queer theory has been accused gender-defining additions. of focusing on sexuality to the exclusion of other categories: when A combination of the male Warner argues that pornography is and female gender signs. “queer” because—as a result of its uninhibited enactments of sexual The double-moon symbol is widely used in fantasies—it is the opposite of northern Europe, in preference to a “reclaimed” “normal,” he ignores the ways in Nazi-era pink triangle used in some countries. which the use of women in much pornography relies on assumptions of “normal” masculinity. In Queer Race, South African academic Ian

FAMILIES AND INTIMACIES 331 Barnard contends that queer approach also yields a great “Queer” interpretations have now theory has created a whitewashed, deal when applied to novels and been given to many films. In Alien Western version of “queer” that films. He argues that the goal of Resurrection, Ellen Ripley—part ignores race. British historian contemporary literary criticism has human, part alien—has a potentially Jeffrey Weeks has accused it of been to deconstruct the binaries erotic liaison with a female android. ignoring the material constraints, present in much literature—and such as a lack of money, that mean “queer” makes this possible. romantic friendship between the decision to be transgressive is Holmes and Watson; the cross- not available to all. It could, then, For those whose sexualities are dressing in Shakespeare’s plays be argued that queer theory has marginalized and who often find can also be given a “queer” become a white, middle-class, gay that their representations are interpretation; and films in the male position. limited, a “queer” reading that Alien series are open to a new twist reinterprets the narrative opens on the “predatory female” trope. Queer theory also claimed to be up possibilities that the author or “Queer” has also filtered into TV the first social theory to challenge creator may not have foreseen—for shows such as the US reality series the sex/gender distinction. But example: Conan Doyle’s Sherlock Queer Eye for the Straight Guy. ■ as British sociologist Diane Holmes novels can suggest a Richardson points out, this claim is exaggerated: radical feminists such as Christine Delphy, author of The Main Enemy (1970), had begun this task as early as the 1970s. Despite such criticisms, queer theory has influenced a range of academic areas, particularly in studies of masculinity. For example, the work of US academic Judith Halberstam has been lent a “queer” bent by arguing that if we want to understand masculinity it is important to consider marginalized or subordinate forms such as female masculinity. Seidman contends that a queer theory US drag king Murray Hill (shown Female masculinity understood as “queer,” argues here) is described by Halberstam that there has been a tendency as “transforming masculinity and Judith (“Jack”) Halberstam argues to lump all gender-“queer” exposing its theatricality.” that masculinity can exist without women under the umbrella term men, and challenges the ways lesbian; but words like “lesbian” in which “masculine” females, and “gay” are not sufficient such as tomboys, are denigrated. to explain the broad array Femaleness does not necessarily of erotic activity that is not produce femininity; maleness does conventionally heterosexual. not always lead to masculinity. Female maleness becomes a gender rather than an imitation. This idea poses a fundamental challenge to the gender/sex “Drag kings” (women who distinction whereby socially dress as men) highlight the constructed gender (masculinity) ways in which male masculinity is perceived as the natural is not based on an authentic expression of biological sex (man). essence but is produced through Halberstam, whose work is repeated everyday actions.

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334 DIRECTORY A lthough sociology was recognized only relatively recently as a social science, its roots go back to the ancient philosophers, such as Plato, who reflected on the “ideal” society. Its main themes have long been of interest to rulers, who had much to gain from understanding the ways in which people form large groups (societies), and how they distribute information, cultural values, wealth, and power. Social reformers realized that such theories could be used to change society, and their voices became ever louder as sociology came of age as a “science.” Leaders in the field have been described already in the main part of the book; this section includes other thinkers who have also made key contributions to the discipline and to our understanding of social life. HERBERT SPENCER the basis for the sociological theory and Ernst Bloch at the Frankfurter of “socialization.” Zeitung newspaper as film 1820–1903 See also: G.H. Mead 176–77 ■ and literature editor and began Erving Goffman 190–95 analyzing society’s cultural British sociologist and philosopher artifacts, from advertising to Herbert Spencer was one of the ROBERT E. PARK films. In 1933, he fled from the earliest evolutionary theorists. He Nazi threat, first to Paris and then coined the phrase “the survival 1864–1944 the US. Kracauer was a major of the fittest,” and suggested influence on Theodor W. Adorno. that societies follow the same Robert E. Park, a US sociologist, See also: Walter Benjamin 334 ■ evolutionary principles as the is widely recognized for his work on Theodor W. Adorno 335 human body: they change naturally, collective behavior, race relations, evolving from simple states to and “human ecology” (the idea that WALTER BENJAMIN highly complex forms, and only humans function similarly to plants the stronger societies survive and animals). His approach to 1892–1940 and grow. This view became urban sociology—treating the city known as “social Darwinism.” as a “research laboratory”—was a Born in Berlin, Walter Benjamin See also: Harriet Martineau 26–27 hallmark of what became known became a well-known cultural ■ Karl Marx 28–31 as the Chicago School of sociology. theorist. He was awarded a PhD See also: Georg Simmel 104–05 ■ in literature from the University CHARLES H. COOLEY G.H. Mead 176–77 of Berne, Switzerland, in 1919. He returned to Germany, but fled from 1864–1929 SIEGFRIED KRACAUER the Nazis in 1933. While in exile, he contributed articles on art and Charles Horton Cooley, from 1889–1966 culture to the Institute for Social Michigan, developed the theory of Research in Frankfurt. In 1939 he the “looking-glass self,” which Born in Frankfurt, Germany, was interned in a camp in France, claims that our sense of identity Siegfried Kracauer is best known and after his release tried to flee to develops mainly from a sense of for his theories on modern culture Spain across the Pyrenees. When how we are perceived by others, and his idea that technology refused entry, he took his own life. and therefore through social threatens to supersede memory. See also: Jürgen Habermas interactions. The concept formed Kracauer joined Walter Benjamin 286–87 ■ Siegfried Kracauer 334

DIRECTORY 335 KARL MANNHEIM Husserl. In 1938 he moved to Paris, He was reunited with it in the US and then to New York. Following and helped it to become a leading 1893–1947 Husserl’s phenomenological voice against US capitalism’s approach, which examines how the “illusory” pleasures. In 1949, the Karl Mannheim cofounded the world is experienced in a person’s institute and Adorno returned sociology of knowledge, which subjective consciousness, Schütz to (West) Germany. Adorno spent looks at the processes involved set out the basis for the new field his retirement in Switzerland. in “knowing” the world. He claimed of phenomenological sociology, See also: Herbert Marcuse that we “see” the world through the which focuses on the nature of 182–87 ■ Jürgen Habermas 286–87 lenses of our culture and ideologies, social reality. ■ Siegfried Kracauer 334 ■ Walter and as a function of our position See also: Max Weber 38–45 ■ Benjamin 334 in society; “truth” is relative and Peter L. Berger 336 depends on subject-positions. ANSELM L. STRAUSS Hungarian-born, Mannheim HERBERT BLUMER studied under Georg Simmel in 1916–1996 Berlin, Germany. In 1933 he joined 1900–1987 the London School of Economics. US sociologist Anselm L. Strauss See also: Karl Marx 28–31 ■ Herbert Blumer gained his PhD developed, with Barney Glasser, Max Weber 38–45 ■ Georg Simmel in sociology at the University of an innovative method of qualitative 104–05 ■ Norbert Elias 180–81 Chicago, where he taught for analysis known as “grounded 27 years. In 1952, he became theory,” which sought to build a BARBARA ADAM WOOTTON the first chair in sociology at the theory from research, rather than University of California, Berkeley. In find research to prove a theory. 1897–1988 Symbolic Interactionism (1969), his Strauss studied at the University best-known work, he suggested of Chicago under Herbert Blumer, Sociologist Barbara Adam Wootton that individual and collective then later wrote Social Psychology is best known for her work Crime actions reflect the meaning that (1949) with Alfred R. Lindesmith. and the Criminal Law (1963), which people place on things, and these He became part of the “Second reversed commonly accepted views meanings arise from within the Chicago School,” with Howard S. about “the criminal personality.” context of human group life. Becker and Erving Goffman. She studied economics at the See also: G.H. Mead 176–77 ■ See also: Erving Goffman 264–69 University of Cambridge, UK, in Howard S. Becker 280–85 ■ ■ Howard S. Becker 280–85 ■ 1919, and for an MA in 1920, but Charles H. Cooley 334 Herbert Blumer 335 as women then were not formally recognized as students, she was THEODOR W. ADORNO LOUIS ALTHUSSER not awarded the degrees. She later taught sociology at the universities 1903–1969 1918–1990 of London and Bedford. See also: Sylvia Walby 96–99 ■ Theodor W. Adorno was a proponent French Marxist philosopher Louis Ann Oakley 318–19 of neo-Marxist “critical theory.” Althusser was a major figure of Born in Frankfurt, Germany, he the structuralist movement of the ALFRED SCHÜTZ studied under Siegfried Kracauer 1960s, a philosophy that analyzed and received a PhD in philosophy society through the study of signs 1899–1959 from the University of Frankfurt in (semiotics). His reinterpretation 1924. In 1931 he cofounded the of Marx pointed to the role of Alfred Schütz gained a PhD in the Institute for Social Research (also “ideological state apparatuses” that philosophy of law at the University known as the Frankfurt School) underlie and perpetuate particular of Vienna, Austria, and became with Max Horkheimer, but with the ideologies. Born in Algeria, he interested in the work of Max rise of Nazism he moved to the UK, moved to France in 1930. He spent Weber and the philosopher Edmund while the institute moved abroad. most of World War II in a prison

336 DIRECTORY camp in Germany, and began to the dominant male standpoint. and went on to study sociology at suffer the psychological problems Smith studied sociology at the the London School of Economics. that would afflict him for the rest of London School of Economics and Lockwood taught at Cambridge his life. In 1945 he began studying in 1955 studied at the University of and Essex universities. In philosophy at the prestigious l’École California, Berkeley. She later 1998 he was honored for his Normale Supérieure (ENS), Paris. taught one of the first courses in contributions to sociology and He received great acclaim for his women’s studies at the University made a Commander of the Order essays and books, despite writing of British Columbia. of the British Empire (CBE). them between hospitalizations. In See also: Karl Marx 28–31 ■ See also: Karl Marx 28–31 ■ 1980, he murdered his wife and Alfred Schütz 335 Émile Durkheim 34–37 died, aged 72, in a mental hospital. See also: Karl Marx 28–31 ■ ROBERT N. BELLAH PETER L. BERGER Antonio Gramsci 178–79 1927–2013 1929– PABLO GONZÁLEZ CASANOVA US sociologist Robert Neelly Bellah Born in Austria, Peter Ludwig is arguably the leading sociologist Berger is best known for his 1922– of religion in the 20th century. He idea that “reality” is constructed first won acclaim with the essay through a kind of social consensus, Pablo González Casanova is a “Civil Religion in America,” which as explained in his book, The Social Mexican historian and sociologist examined the political use of Construction of Reality (1966), who wrote a groundbreaking 1965 religious symbolism. Born in written with Thomas Luckmann. article, “Internal Colonialism and Oklahoma, Bellah graduated in Berger emigrated to the US at the National Development.” The idea social anthropology from Harvard age of 17 and received an MA and of a “nation within a nation” was University, staying there to gain PhD in sociology from the New first raised by W.E.B. Dubois in the a PhD under the mentorship of School for Social Research, New 1930s, but Casanova revealed the Talcott Parsons. After spending York. He became professor of structural underpinnings of the two years studying Islamic studies sociology and theology at Boston idea in practice. His in-depth at McGill University, Montreal, University, and in 1985 director analysis of the political and social Canada, he returned to Harvard to of Boston’s Institute for the Study structures of Mexico have provided teach. In 1967 he became professor of Economic Culture, which insights into developing countries of sociology at the University of examines the relationships in general. In 2003 his work was California, Berkeley. between economic development recognized by UNESCO, when See also: Bryan Wilson 278–79 ■ and sociocultural change. it awarded him the prestigious Jürgen Habermas 286–87 ■ Talcott See also: Karl Marx 28–31 ■ International José Martí Prize. Parsons 300–01 Karl Mannheim 335 ■ Alfred See also: W.E.B. Dubois 68–73 ■ Schütz 335 David McCrone 163 DAVID LOCKWOOD FERNANDO HENRIQUE DOROTHY E. SMITH 1929–2014 CARDOSO 1926– British sociologist David Lockwood 1931– was an influential figure in the Dorothy E Smith is from Yorkshire, theory of class stratification. His In 1986, Fernando Cardoso became UK. She developed “a sociology father died when he was 10, and senator for São Paulo, Brazil, and for women” that adopted a his mother struggled financially, in 1995 and 1998 he was elected phenomenological viewpoint, which forced him to leave school as the country’s president. He is using the subjective, everyday at an early age to start work. While acclaimed for bringing economic experience of lives, rather than doing National Service in the stability and social reforms to the intellectual theories from armed forces he discovered Marx, Brazil. Cardoso studied sociology

DIRECTORY 337 at the University of São Paulo, layer structure now used in Europe, economists, sociologists, and becoming a professor there in 1958. Australasia, and North America. psychologists. He has taught in the His left-wing articles made him He is a critic of the concepts of UK, US, and France. In 1995 he popular with the public, but they “cultural capital” and “habitus,” became the first Robert K. Merton antagonized the military regime, especially as formulated by Pierre Professor of the Social Sciences at which forced him into exile in Bourdieu. He was a fellow of Oxford Columbia University in New York. 1964. He taught at universities University from 1969 to 2002 and See also: Karl Marx 28–31 ■ Max in Latin America, Europe, and holds a US visiting professorship Weber 38–45 ■ Talcott Parsons the US before returning to Brazil. at Cornell University. 300–01 See also: Karl Marx 28–31 ■ See also: Max Weber 38–45 ■ Immanuel Wallerstein 144–45 Pierre Bourdieu 76–79 JULIA KRISTEVA CHRISTOPHER LASCH MICHAEL LÖWY 1941– 1932–1994 1938– Julia Kristeva was born in Bulgaria. Her writings on linguistics, The US political theorist and The French-Brazilian sociologist semiotics, psychoanalysis, and historian Christopher Lasch was an and professor Michael Löwy grew feminism have received worldwide only child of left-wing intellectuals. up in São Paulo, Brazil, in a family acclaim. After graduating from He graduated from Harvard of immigrants from Austria. He is university in Sofia, she gained University in 1954 and took an MA best known for developing Georg a scholarship to study in Paris. in history at Columbia. While on a Lukács’ idea of “romantic anti- She became part of the left-wing sabbatical in the UK, he wrote The capitalism,” which seeks to disrupt intellectual group associated with New Radicalism in America (1965). capitalism not through socialism, St. Germain (the Parisian “Left It portrayed intellectuals as self- but by a return to a pre-industrial Bank”), and her study of language indulgent strivers, who professed to past and way of thinking. Löwy and linguistics was heavily offer guidance, but were really was politicized by reading the influenced by the work of interested in status and power. An Marxist theorist Rosa Luxemberg, contemporaries such as Michel iconoclast who tried to disrupt and studied sociology at the Foucault and Roland Barthes. consensus thinking, his work University of São Paulo under She became a psychoanalyst, included strong critiques of Fernando Cardoso and Antonio and increasingly interested in democratic citizenship, elite Candido. He gained a PhD from the nature of the relationship groups, consumerism, mass the Sorbonne, France, focusing between language and the body. culture, US institutions, and the on Marxist theory. See also: Michel Foucault 52–55; idea that Western societies are See also: Karl Marx 28–31 ■ 302–03 ■ Elizabeth Grosz 339 making some kind of “progress.” Pierre Bourdieu 76–79 ■ Walter See also: Karl Marx 28–31 ■ Benjamin 334 NANCY CHODOROW Jürgen Habermas 286–87 ■ Theodor W. Adorno 335 JON ELSTER 1944– JOHN GOLDTHORPE 1940– Born in New York, Nancy Chodorow is a leading theorist 1935– Norweigan sociologist Jon Elster in feminist thought. She studied focuses on rational-choice theory— anthropology at Radcliffe College, John Goldthorpe was born in the idea that people make decisions Massachusetts, then trained as a Yorkshire, UK, and attended the based on rational considerations psychoanalyst in San Francisco. London School of Economics. An of fact (although his later work In 1975, she received a PhD in expert in social mobility and class reveals his disenchantment with sociology from Brandeis University, stratification, he invented the the power of reason). Elster’s ideas Boston. Using an interdisciplinary Goldthorpe Class Scheme, a seven- have influenced governments, approach, she formulated a

338 DIRECTORY psychoanalytic theory of feminism Union, the first such group in the globalization and religion, that opened up the field of feminist US. She wrote the influential book religious authority and electronic psychology. She teaches at the The Dialectic of Sex: A Case for information, religious consumerism University of California at Berkeley. Feminist Revolution (1970), arguing and youth cultures, and human See also: Harriet Martineau that women are an oppressed class, rights and religion. In The Body 26–27 ■ Judith Butler 56–61 ■ and gender inequality is ultimately & Society (1984; 2008), he argues Erich Fromm 188 dictated by biology. Echoing Marx, that the body, not abstract ideas she felt the answer was for women such as class, should be the focus DONNA HARAWAY to seize control of the means of of sociological analysis. human reproduction (made possible See also: Edward Said 80–81 ■ 1944– by new forms of contraception). Max Weber 220–23 She subsequently produced only “Technoscience” expert Donna one book, but her impact on BRUNO LATOUR Haraway, from Colorado, studied feminism remained undiminished. evolutionary philosophy and See also: Harriet Martineau 26–27 1947– theology in Paris, before returning ■ Karl Marx 28–31 to the US to take a triple major in Bruno Latour was born in zoology, philosophy, and literature. WALDEN BELLO Burgundy, France, and trained as Her PhD in biology at Yale a philosopher, then anthropologist. examined the use of metaphor in 1945– In the 1980s, along with Michel shaping experiments—she sees Callon and John Law, he developed biology as part of politics, religion, Walden Bello was born in Manila, “actor–network theory” (ANT)— and culture. Professor emerita the Philippines, and became a the idea that knowledge does not in the History of Consciousness political activist in the 1970s, depend on a “truth” waiting to be department at the University of following the declaration of martial found, but is gained by analyzing California, Santa Cruz, Haraway law by Ferdinand Marcos. Bello’s the interaction between actors is the leading authority on the official roles have included a and networks, where the “actors” now-intimate relationship between professorship in sociology at involved in creating meaning are people and technology. Her essay universities in the Philippines, the both physical and symbolic. Latour “A Cyborg Manifesto” suggests US, and Canada; Chairperson is professor at Sciences Po, Paris. that people are already part-human, of the board of Greenpeace South See also: Harold Garfinkel 50–51 ■ part-machine, and that this blend Asia; and Member of the Philippine Michel Foucault 302–03 ■ allows women to reconstruct House of Representatives. Bello Donna Haraway 338 themselves anew, in an age of is a leading critic of globalization. “cyborg feminism.” See also: Robert N. Bellah 336 ■ THEDA SKOCPOL See also: Karl Marx 28–31 ■ Michael Löwy 337 Michel Foucault 52–55; 302–03 ■ 1947– Bruno Latour 338 BRYAN S. TURNER US sociologist and political theorist SHULAMITH FIRESTONE 1945– Theda Skocpol is Victor S. Thomas professor of government and 1945–2012 Born in Birmingham, UK, Bryan S. sociology at Harvard University. Turner is a world authority on the Her research focuses on US social Revolutionary feminist Shulamith sociology of religion. His first book, policy, health reform, and civic Firestone was born in Ottawa, Weber and Islam (1974), is a classic. engagement in US democracy. She Canada. She studied art at He became professor of sociology began her career studying Washington University, St. Louis, at the University of Cambridge in the French, Russian, and Chinese and then at the Art Institute of 1998, and has held professorships revolutions, and in the 1970s she Chicago, where she became part in Australia, the Netherlands, and became the main advocate of state of the Chicago Women’s Liberation the US. His interests include autonomy theory. As a result, she is

DIRECTORY 339 credited with the creation of a new of women’s studies at Duke nothing essential actually changes. paradigm, in which institutions University, Durham, North Rosa is professor of general and (including the state) are seen Carolina. Her best-known work is theoretical sociology at Friedrich as structuring political life and Becoming Undone (2011), Schiller University, Jena, Germany. embodying ideas, and therefore in which she outlines a feminist See also: Karl Marx 28–31 ■ Max open to causal analysis. Her 1992 theory of postmodern Darwinism. Weber 38–45 ■ Jürgen Habermas book, Protecting Soldiers and See also: Michel Foucault 52–55; 286–87 Mothers: The Political Origins 302–03 ■ Julia Kristeva 337 of Social Policy in the United TOM SHAKESPEARE States, won five major awards. TARIQ MODOOD See also: Max Weber 38–45 ■ 1966– David McCrone 163 ■ Arjun 1952– Appadurai 166–69 Tom Shakespeare studied at the Tariq Modood was born in Karachi, University of Cambridge before ANGELA MCROBBIE Pakistan, but raised in the UK. spending five years working for the After studies at Durham and World Health Organization (WHO) 1951– Swansea universities, in 1997 he in Geneva, Switzerland. A medical became founding director of the sociologist who is disabled himself, Cultural theorist Angela McRobbie Centre for Study of Ethnicity and he is an important voice in the is a professor at Goldsmiths Citizenship at the University of sociology of difference. He is College, London, UK. She claims Bristol, UK. Also a professor of interested in the ethical aspects that in the 1990s there was a sociology, politics, and public policy of genetics and disability studies, backlash against feminism, despite at Bristol, he is an expert on racism, particularly in the areas of sexual a general consensus that gender multiculturalism, and secularism. politics and human rights. Now a equality had been achieved. In He argues that contemporary lecturer in medical sociology at the her 2009 book, The Aftermath of Muslim assertiveness is inspired University of East Anglia, UK, he Feminism, she draws on the work of by identity politics, rather than claims that people “are disabled Ulrich Beck and Anthony Giddens theological demands. Modood by society and by their bodies.” to argue “female individualization” is the cofounding editor of the See also: G.H. Mead 176–77 ■ is a post-feminist masquerade that international journal Ethnicities. Erving Goffman 190–95 ■ Howard reinforces masculine hegemony. See also: Stuart Hall 200–01 ■ S. Becker 280–85 See also: Anthony Giddens Bryan S. Turner 338 148–49 ■ Stuart Hall 200–01 ■ BEVERLEY SKEGGS Beverley Skeggs 339 HARTMUT ROSA Beverley Skeggs studied sociology ELIZABETH GROSZ 1965– at the universities of York and Keele, before becoming Director 1952– German sociologist Hartmut Rosa of women’s studies at Lancaster is best known for his theory of University (with Celia Lury). In Cultural and feminist theorist “social acceleration,” the title of his Formations of Class & Gender Elizabeth Grosz was born in 2013 book. The theory suggests (1997), she argues that class should Sydney, Australia, where she that not only is society accelerating feature prominently in theories studied philosophy. Influenced by in three ways (technological of gender, identity, and power. post-structuralist thinkers such innovation, societal change, and Skeggs is a professor of sociology as French philosopher Jacques the pace of life), it also has zones of at Goldsmiths College, London. Derrida, her work focuses on deceleration, in which large groups See also: Karl Marx 28–31 ■ gender studies (particularly sexual of people may be left behind. He Pierre Bourdieu 76–79 ■ Ann difference), female sexuality, and also claims that the world is at a Oakley 318–19 the nature of time from a feminist point of “frenetic standstill” where perspective. She is professor nothing remains as it is, while

340 GLOSSARY Agency Within sociology, self- production, in which firms various goods and services define determination or free will. compete to sell goods at a profit the era. The term also refers to a and workers labor for a wage. perception that individuals desire Alienation As identified by Karl goods to construct self-identity. Marx, the condition of workers who Capitalists The social class of feel estranged from themselves people that owns the means of Conspicuous consumption A or society due to a lack of power, production in industrial societies. concept originated by Thorstein control, fulfillment, and satisfaction. Veblen that describes members of Marx attributed this to capitalist Chicago School Not to be a wealthy leisure class using luxury society, where the means of confused with a free-market goods to display their status. See production are privately owned. economic way of thinking, this also material culture. The concept has been developed sociological school of thought since the post-war era by various developed in the 1920s and 30s. Culture The languages, customs, thinkers, including Robert Blauner. Although its interests were knowledge, beliefs, values, and eclectic, it is often identified with norms that combine to make up Anomie A state of confusion or the origin of urban sociology. the way of life of any society. May “normlessness” resulting from rapid also refer to the arts (such as music, social change. When the social Class conflict The tension that theatre, literature, and so on). norms and values governing daily can arise between different social conduct change suddenly, people classes as a result of competing Delinquency Minor crime are liable to feel disorientated and socioeconomic interests. committed by a young person; purposeless until a social order is the term can also describe behavior re-established. See also deviant. Colonialism A phenomenon judged “unacceptable,” according whereby one country exerts control to a society’s norms. Bourgeoisie In Marxist theory over another, often exploiting it (see Marxism), the social class economically. The term commonly Determinism The belief that a of people that owns the industrial refers to the conquest, settlement, person’s behavior is determined by means of production. and exploitation of parts of the some form of external force world by European powers. (such as God, genetics, or the Bureaucracy Defined by Max environment) so that genuinely Weber as a system of organization Communism An economic free choice is not possible. See also that is characterized by a hierarchy system based on collective economic determinism. of rule-bound officials who keep ownership of property and the detailed records of every action. means of production. Deviant A behavior or type of person deemed “rule-breaking” in Capital Financial assets (such as Construct, social A concept or terms of the norms of a particular machinery) or the value of financial perception created in society. society or social group. assets (cash) used to produce an income. One of the key ingredients Consumer An individual who Discourse In general use, of economic activity, along with buys goods or services for personal communication in speech or land, labor, and enterprise. use or consumption. writing; in sociological use, a framework or system of ideas that Capitalism An economic system Consumerism The state of an provides a perspective on life and based on the private ownership advanced capitalist society in governs the way in which it can of property and the means of which the buying and selling of be discussed. Discourse imparts

GLOSSARY 341 a meaning to events, and varies in Ethnography The study of Gentrification A change in the different eras, geographical areas, peoples and cultures. character of a run-down urban and within social groups. community that is observable Ethnology The comparative study through rising property prices and Domestic labor Unpaid work of the differences between peoples an influx of wealthier individuals. in the home, such as cooking, and cultures. cleaning, childcare, and looking Globalization The increasing after the sick and elderly. Feminism A social movement that interconnectedness and advocates the social, political, and interdependence of societies Economic determinism economic equality of the sexes. around the world, as media and A materialistic view of history that Feminism is recognized as having culture, consumer goods, and claims that economic forces cause had several “waves,” or eras, each economic interests spread globally. all social phenomena and the with a different agenda of issues. evolution of human society. Glocalization The modification of Feudalism A dominant historical global forms—from fashion trends Elite A small group of people who social system in which a warrior to musical genres—by contact with hold a disproportionate amount of nobility was rewarded with land for local communities and individuals. wealth and power in a society. providing military services to the monarch, and then ruled over those Habitus Building on Thomas Emotional labor As defined by lands, benefitting from labor and Aquinas’s idea that each of us Arlie Hochschild, paid work that produce offered by vassals, or thinks of ourselves as a certain requires an employee to display peasants, in return for protection. kind of person, Pierre Bourdieu’s certain emotions with the aim concept refers to a set of acquired of inducing particular responses. Frankfurt School A school of dispositions whereby people of a interdisciplinary social theory, social class share cultural values. Empirical evidence Evidence originally known as the Institute that can be observed by the senses for Social Research, and affiliated Hegemonic masculinity A given and measured in some way. to the University of Frankfurt. society’s ideal of manliness. In The school fostered new Marxist Western nations, this is associated Enlightenment, the A cultural thinking in the 20th century. with heterosexuality, “toughness,” and intellectual movement in 17th- wealth, and the subordination of and 18th-century Europe, which Functionalism In sociology, the women. The idea emphasizes that fused ideas about God, rational idea that society is structured masculinity is an acquired identity. thought, and nature into a world like a biological organism, with view that prized logic and reason specialized functions. Every aspect Hegemony The winning and over emotion and intuition. of this society is interdependent holding of power and the formation and contributes to the overall of social groups during that Essentialism The belief that functioning and stability. process. Antonio Gramsci says that entities or people have inherent hegemony is how the dominant characteristics, properties, or Gender The socially constructed, social class maintains its position. “essences” that define who or what rather than biological, differences they are. This idea leads to the between men and women. Heterosexuality An attraction view that specific categories of toward people of the opposite sex. people possess intrinsic traits. Gender identity The way that individuals are seen, by themselves Homosexuality An attraction Ethnicity The shared culture of and others, in terms of their toward people of the same sex. a social group (such as language gender roles and biological sex. or religious belief) that gives its Hyper-reality As defined by members a common identity and Gender role The social behavior Baudrillard, the idea that there is no differentiates it from others. expected from men and women. longer a separate “reality” to which

342 GLOSSARY images and symbols refer, but Mass culture Products (books, Norms Social rules that define instead a simulated version of TV shows, and so on) that are what is expected behavior reality that seems more real created as entertainment for (“normal”) for an individual in than anything that exists in sale to the general public. a particular society or situation. the physical world. Material culture The history and Nuclear family A two-generation Iatrogenesis The danger that philosophy of objects; relationships household of parents and children— arises from a medical system that between people and things. a prime agent of socialization. harms more people than it heals. Means of production The key Other, the A concept introduced Identity The ways that individuals resources (such as land, factories, by Simone de Beauvoir to explain see and define themselves, and raw materials, and machinery) how a group (men, in her example) how other people define them. needed to produce society’s goods. sees itself as the norm, and judges anyone outside the group (women) Ideology A framework of ideas Mode of production A Marxist in terms of its own standards and that provides a viewpoint or set concept about the way a society is attributes, rather than seeing that of beliefs for a social group. organized to produce goods and group independently, with the services; this includes the means attributes it actually has. Industrial Revolution A stage of of production and the relations development, originating in the UK among the labor force. Patriarchy A social stratification in the 18th century, during which system in which men dominate, the economy was transformed by Modernity The condition of exploit, and oppress women. new forms of mechanization from society from the 17th century a mainly agricultural economy to onward, especially the social Positivism Within sociology, the an urban, industrialized one. change created by the Industrial idea, pioneered by Auguste Comte, Revolution and urbanization. that it is possible to observe social Interpretive The subjective life in a measurable, verifiable, approach to examining society, Nation A body of people united scientific way and establish truths which contrasts with the objective by culture, history, or language, about a society. This belief gave and scientific positivist approach. and usually sharing a particular rise to the “positivist” opinion that geographical area. science could build a better world. Left-wing In the political spectrum, the ideas of those who Nationalism A shared sense Postmodernism A perspective favor reforming or socialist ideas. of identification that is attached that denies there can be a defining to a nation and stems from “truth” about anything, instead Marginalization The process by a commitment to a common suggesting that a text, person, which a person or group of people is ideology and culture. or society can be deconstructed pushed outside a powerful or ruling according to many different group, with a consequent loss of Neo-liberalism Political and perspectives into many different power, status, and influence. economic philosophies rooted in “truths.” By its nature, postmodern a belief that free markets, limited social theory rejects being defined Marxism A structural theory government, and the responses of and it is difficult to define. of society developed by Karl Marx individuals provide better solutions and Friedrich Engels that claims to problems than action by the Poverty Seebohm Rowntree that history consists of epochs and state can. defined poverty as a state in which that social change arises out of earnings are insufficient to provide conflict between social classes— Neo-tribalism Short-lived, flexible, a person’s bare necessities, which the owners of the means of and fluid groupings that people, in is a subsistence level of poverty. production and the exploited a world of rapid change, seek out The term absolute poverty refers working masses. to provide meaning in their lives. to a living standard based upon

GLOSSARY 343 providing basic wants such as Sexual orientation An Status The amount of prestige food, housing, fuel, and clothing. In individual’s attraction toward or importance a person has in the wealthier countries today, poverty people of a particular biological sex. eyes of other members of society. is usually measured in relation to the generally accepted standard Simulacra Images that have no Stereotype A widely held but of living of the time, known as basis in reality yet appear to reflect overly simplified image of a person relative poverty. Some definitions things in the physical world. or social group. of poverty now take account of factors, such as skills or health, that Social class A status hierarchy Stigma A mark of disgrace or might produce social exclusion. within the social system, reflecting an undesirable characteristic, power, wealth, education, and physical or social, that disqualifies Proletariat In Marxist theory prestige. Although these classes an individual from being fully (see Marxism), the social class vary by society, Western models accepted by society. The of people who labor for a wage. generally recognize three broad marginalization of individuals groups. The upper class is a small in society, because they evoke Queer theory A cultural theory social group that has the highest negative responses from others, that challenges binary notions of status and owns a disproportionate has been attributed to their having sexuality and instead suggests that amount of society’s wealth. The assumed stigmatized identities, sexualities are cultural constructs term middle class refers to well- which are demeaning in some way. influenced by time and place. educated people who do non- manual work, often in offices. Structuralism The idea that we Racism Discriminating against Working class refers to people with must understand things—such as people, typically identified by manual jobs, such as factory or a text, human mind, or society—by skin color, on the basis of alleged agricultural work. examining the elements, or pattern biological differences, when in fact of relationships, in its structure. such biological differences have Social mobility The movement of been proven by science not to exist. people or categories of people, such Subculture A group that is seen as families, from one social class as a distinct and separate one Right-wing In the political to another. within the larger society because spectrum, the conservative ideas while its members may agree with of those who favor traditional social Social networks The links most of a society’s values, beliefs, arrangements and values. between individuals, families, and customs, they differ in others. and groups with similar interests. Roles The patterns of behavior that Symbolic interactionism The are expected from individuals in Social structure The social theory that the self is an entity that society. See also gender role. institutions and relationships that arises through social interactions. form the framework of a society. Secularization The process Urbanization The process of whereby religion and its Socialism A political doctrine people moving from rural areas to institutions lose social significance. that aims to establish social and live in towns and cities, and the economic equality. Socialists argue social changes accompanying that. Self-estrangement The sense that if the economy was under The world is increasingly urban. of alienation from oneself, either the control of the majority of the through a negative view of self or population, a more equitable social Values Ideas or beliefs about a sense that one’s labor belongs structure would be created. the worth of a thing, process, or to another person or organization. behavior. A person’s values govern State An organized authority the way they behave; a society’s Sexism Prejudice, discrimination, that has legitimate control over values dictate what is important or stereotyping of people because a territory, and a monopoly of the or not important, and what is of their male or female sex. use of force within its territory. acceptable or unacceptable.

344 INDEX Main page references are in bold. Bellah, Robert N. 118, 207, 336 legitimation crisis 286–87 Bello, Walden 338 marriage as labor contract 316 A Benjamin, Walter 334 and Marxism 18, 107, 134, 145, 221, Berger, Peter L. 278, 336 Adorno, Theodor W. 59, 139, 247, 287, Bernstein, Basil 292 307 335 Blauner, Robert 212, 213, 232–33 medieval 223 Blumer, Herbert 335 monopoly and de-skilling 226–31 Agnew, Robert 262 Bourdieu, Pierre 14, 65, 76–79, 195, neo-liberalism 277 Alexander, Jeffrey 175, 204–09 and patriarchy 98 alienation 40–45, 87, 122, 123, 155, 186, 208, 213, 219, 288, 289 and pecuniary emulation 218–19 Bowles, Samuel 253, 288–89 pre-industrial past, disruption by 213, 228–230, 232–33, 236, 239, Braverman, Harry 212, 213, 226–31, 242, 259, 293, 297 return to 337 and Marxism 155, 232, 238, 319 243 Protestant work ethic 41–42, and religion 256, 257 Bryman, Alan 103, 126–27 of self 188 Burawoy, Michael 213, 231, 244–45 220–23, 258 Althusser, Louis 335–36 bureaucracy 40–45 pursuit of profit 221–22, 231 Anderson, Benedict 175, 202–03 rational modernity 38–45 Anderson, Elijah 65, 82–83 and political oligarchy 260 and religion see religion anomie 29, 30, 31, 34, 37, 188, 252, 253 Butler, Judith 19, 54, 56–61, 297, 317, and self-interest 21, 30–31 and strain theory 262–63 social class and de-skilling 230–31 Appadurai, Arjun 135, 166–69 329 workforce oppression 47 asabiyyah (solidarity) 20 world-system theory 144–45 Atkinson, Will 138 C see also consumerism; work and B Calvin, John 222, 223 consumerism Campbell, Colin 212, 213, 219, 223, Caraway, Teri Lynn 213, 248–49 Barthes, Roland 235 Cardoso, Fernando Henrique 336–37 Bates, Inge 293 234–35 Casanova, Pablo González 336 Baudrillard, Jean 126, 175, 189, capitalism 174–75 Castells, Manuel 135, 152–55 Chicago School 102, 104, 105, 128, 164, 196–99, 235 and alienation of self 188 Bauman, Zygmunt 105, 134, 136–43, and cognitive justice 150–51 334 commodities and value 198 Chodorow, Nancy 337–38 155, 222 and competition 33 Cicourel, Aaron 282 Beck, Ulrich and consumer desire 235 civic spirit 21 cultural hegemony 178–79 civilizing process 180–81 chaos of love 297, 320–23 and dehumanization 42–43 class risk society 134, 135, 156–61 digital technology 152–55 Beck-Gernsheim, Elisabeth 297, emotional labor 236–43 class structure, leveling of 186–87 and gentrification 128–31 conflict 28–31 320–23 hierarchy 93 consciousness 30, 64 Becker, Howard S 252, 253, 280–85 historical materialism 29–31 and cultural hegemony 178–79 Bell, Daniel 212, 213, 224–25, 234 and individualism 21, 43–45, 94, cultural reproduction and education 321–22, 337 292–93 industrious and leisure classes and de-skilling 230–31 exploitation 66–67 216–17, 219 and feminism 95, 338 and gender 339 habitus 76–79 identification 181

INDEX 345 inequality 84–87 cultural hegemony 178–79 deviance leisure, and capitalism 216–17, 219 cultural identity 200–01 labeling theory 282–83, 284 and Marxism 28–31, 64, 315, 316 cultural reproduction and education stigma 190–95 and pecuniary emulation 218–19 strain theory/anomie 262–63 and queer theory 331 292–93 stratification 336 cultural sociology 204–09 Disney 126–27, 199 see also culture and identity culture, independent nature of Disneyization 126–27 climate change 148–49 division of labor 13, 19, 33, 35–37, 102, Cobb, Jonathan 64, 84, 87 207–08 cognitive justice 150–51 culture industry 182–87 212, 238, 243, 248, 293, 300, 301 Cohen, Stanley 253, 266, 290 culture and reality, lack of gap domestic violence 98–99 colonialism 94, 95 Du Bois, W.E.B. 64, 65, 68–73, 82 and Orientalism 80–81 between 186–87 Dunne, Gillian 311 and world-system theory 144–45 culture and social order 174–75 Durkheim, Émile 13, 19, 24, 31, 33, communication systems 110–11, development of self 176–77 emotional labor 236–43 34–37, 44, 77, 102, 206, 207, 209, 152–55 “false needs,” government imposition 220, 252, 253, 262 communitarianism 112–19 community 12, 13, 20, 21, 108–09, of 185–86 E gender performativity 56–61 112–19, 124–25 gender roles across different cultures education neo-tribalism 291 communitarian school 118 and society 32–33 298–99 compulsory heterosexuality 308 competition, and capitalism 33 globalization and modernity 166–69 and cultural reproduction 292–93 compulsory heterosexuality 308 nationalism and imagined de-skilling 229 Comte, Auguste 18, 22–25, 29, 35, 36 hidden curriculum 288–89 confession 302–03 communities 202–03 liquid modernity 141 Connell, R.W. 65, 88–89 sacred nature of 207 and Marxism 293 conspicuous consumption 214–19 secularization 279 “separate but equal” schools, US 70 consumerism simulacra 196–99 standardization of 123 and advertising industry 235 stigma 190–95 conspicuous consumption 214–19 structure 44–45, 208–09 efficiency 31, 40–45, 122–23, 221, 228–31 consumer credit 143 structure of feeling 189 Elias, Norbert 174, 180–81 and gentrification 131 symbolic interactionism 192 Elster, Jon 337 globalization and modernity 168 virtual and actual social identity 193 emotional labor 236–43 and liquid modernity 141–42 working-class integration 184–85 Engels, Friedrich 18, 64, 66–67, 134, and self-identity 142, 143, 201 see also class see also capitalism; work and 212, 256, 315 D Enlightenment, the 12, 21, 23, 24, 54, consumerism Cooley, Charles H. 176, 334 Darwin, Charles 35, 217 64, 139–40 Cooley, Michael 231 de Beauvoir, Simone 58, 59, 306, 317 environment Crenshaw, Kimberlé 92–93 de Sousa Santos, Boaventura 134, crime 282–85 climate change and Giddens’ paradox 150–51 148–49 criminal personality 335 de-skilling 226–31 strain theory/anomie 262–63 Deagan, Mary Jo 192 and neo-liberalism 277 culture and identity Declaration of Independence, US risk assessment 160, 161 alienation of self 188 waste and conspicuous consumption civilizing process 180–81 26–27 cultural capital and class habitus 78, Delphy, Christine 296, 297, 312–17, 217–18 epistemologies of the South 150–51 79 331 ethnomethodology 50–51 cultural exchange, and globalization democracy, and political oligarchy 260 etiquette, and civilizing process 181 Devasahayam, Theresa 238 Etzioni, Amitai 21, 103, 112–19, 188 170–71

346 INDEX F women’s liberation movement 299 cosmopolitanism and risk 161 see also gender; patriarchy; sexuality and culture see culture and identity families and intimacies 296–97 Ferguson, Adam 18, 21 digital technology 152–55 chaos of love 320–23 Feuerbach, Ludwig 256 downsizing of firms 141 children in contemporary society 323 Finch, Janet 315 epistemologies of the South 150–51 communitarianism 117–18, 119 Firestone, Shulamith 338 feminization of work 248–49 compulsory heterosexuality 304–09 Foucault, Michel financial risk 161 confessions and truth 302–03 governmentality 252–53, 270–77 gender well-being 249 family roles 296–97 power/resistance 15, 19, 52–55, 267 global cities 164–65 gay parenthood 311 sexuality 19, 302–03 globalization 170–71 gender roles across different cultures will to truth 58–59, 296, 297, 302–03 globalization and modernity 166–69 298–99 Frankfurt School 31, 44, 232, 247 glocalization 146–47 housework as alienation 318–19 French Revolution, effects of 24–25 hyper-globalism 171 and industrialization 300 Fromm, Erich 174, 188 liquid modernity 136–43 interpersonal relationships 297 functionalism 34–37, 267, 296 mobilities 162 marriage and divorce rates 323 Furedi, Frank 303 neo-nationalism 163 marriage as “healthy” 325 network society 152–55 material feminism 312–17 G and patriarchy 317 men as breadwinners, women as post-industrialism 153 carers 301 G-7 formation 150 risk society 156–61 nuclear family 300, 301, 311, 320–21 Garfinkel, Harold 19, 50–51 skeptics 171 postmodernism 310–11 gender solid modernity, move from 138–40 queer theory 326–31 terrorism risk 161 same-sex relationships 311, 324 cultural reproduction and education transformationalist 171 social construction of sexuality 292–93 world-system theory 144–45 324–25 see also modern living socialization of children and inequalities and emotional labor glocalization 146–47 stabilization of adults 300–01 242–43 Goffman, Erving therapy culture 303 institutionalization 252, 253, 264–69 performativity 56–61 stigma 174, 190–95 Featherstone, Mike 200 queer theory 58, 61, 297, 309, 310, Goldthorpe, John 337 feminism Gouldner, Alvin 285 311, 317 326–31 governmentality 270–77 and class 95, 338 roles across different cultures 298–99 Gramsci, Antonio 174, 175, 178–79, and communitarianism 119 see also feminism; sexuality compulsory heterosexuality 304–09 gentrification and urban life 128–31 252 feminist psychology 337–38, 339 Gerth, Hans Heinrich 19, 44 Green, Gill 195 feminization of work 248–49 ghetto, iconic 82–83 Grosz, Elizabeth 330, 339 “first-wave” 97–98 Giddens, Anthony 44, 135, 148–49, grounded theory 335 housework as alienation 318–19 and intersectionality 90–95 195, 311, 322 H and Marxism 92, 97–98, 319 Giddens’ paradox 148–49 material feminism 312–17 Gilroy, Paul 65, 75 Habermas, Jürgen 253, 259, 286–87 and queer theory 329, 331 Gintis, Herbert 253, 288–89 habitus 76–79 and religion 258 Glassner, Barry 158, 335 Halberstam, Judith 328, 331 “second wave” 26, 58, 65, 92, 98 global warming 148–49, 160 Hall, Stuart 175, 200–01 and slimming and dieting 275 Haraway, Donna 338 and social justice 26–27 see also environment “third wave” 98 global world 15, 134–35 climate change and Giddens paradox 148–49 cognitive justice 150–51

INDEX 347 health and medicine, iatrogenesis 261 cultural reproduction and education Luckmann, Thomas 278, 336 Hegel, Georg 29, 111, 246, 256 292–93 Luhmann, Niklas 103, 110–11 Lutz, Helma 92 dialectic view of history 29 education and the hidden curriculum hegemonic masculinity 88–89 288–89 M Held, David 135, 170–71 hidden curriculum 288–89 female domestic duties 316 McCrone, David 135, 162 Hochschild, Arlie Russell 213, 236–43 governmentality 270–77 McDonaldization 120–23 hooks, bell 65, 89, 90–95 iatrogenesis 261 McGrew, Anthony 135 housework as alienation 318–19 individualism and society 253 McRobbie, Angela 290, 339 hyper-reality 199 institutionalization 264–69 Maffesoli, Michel 253, 291 labeling theory 280–85 management I legitimation crisis 286–87 moral panic theory 290 empowerment, and worker iatrogenesis 261 neo-tribalism 291 productivity 230 Ibn Khaldun 18, 20 oligarchy 260 Ichijo, Atsuko 163 religion 254–59 workers’ consent, managing 244–45 Illich, Ivan 253, 261 secularization 252–53, 278–79 Mannheim, Karl 181, 335 imagined communities 202–03 surveillance and control 54 Marcuse, Herbert 175, 182–87, 247 imperialism see colonialism intersectionality 90–95 Marron, Donncha 143 individualism Martineau, Harriet 18–19, 25, 26–27, JKL and capitalism 21, 43–45, 94, 321–22, 64–65 337 Jackson, Philip W. 288 Marx, Karl 13, 14, 22, 28–31, 40, 41, 45, Jacobs, Jane 102, 103, 108–09 and communitarianism 114, 116, job satisfaction, and workplace “games” 64, 138, 144, 189, 220, 228, 254–59 118–19 see also Marxism 245 Marxism and institutionalization 268–69 knowledge and alienation 155, 232, 238, 319 institutions 253 and capitalism 18, 44, 107, 134, 145, and social interaction 239–40 actor–network theory (ANT) 338 184, 221, 307 industrial relations, workers’ consent, as “law of three stages” 24 and class 28–31, 64, 66–67, 315, 316 and power 55 and economics 25, 31, 178, 179, 286 managing 244–45 sociology of 335 and feminism 92, 97–98, 319 Industrial Revolution 12, 13, 15, 66, 196 Kracauer, Siegfried 334 and religion 252, 253, 254–59, 279 industrialization 102–03 Kristeva, Julia 337 see also Frankfurt School; Marx, Karl labeling theory 280–85 material culture 246–47 automation and alienation 232–33 Lasch, Christopher 310, 337 material feminism 312–17 class exploitation 66–67 Latour, Bruno 247, 338 materialism, historical 29–30 and de-skilling 226–31 Lefebvre, Henri 103, 106–07 Matza, David 285 division of labor 33, 36–37, 293, legitimation crisis 286–87 Mead, G.H. 174, 176–77, 201 leisure classes, and capitalism 216–17, Mead, Margaret 13, 58, 296, 297, 300, 301 298–99 and families and intimacies 300 219 media female unpaid labor 315 Lemert, Edwin 283 and class conflict 187 and sexuality 329 Lemke, Thomas 272 and consumerism 235 inequalities see social inequalities Leonard, Diana 316, 323 and globalization 168 Inglis, David 150 liquid modernity 136–43 moral panic theory 290 innovation, technological see Lockwood, David 336 public anxieties, feeding on 160 love, chaos of 320–23 mental life of the metropolis 104–05 technological innovation Löwy, Michael 337 institutions 14–15, 37, 252–53 anomie/strain theory 262–63 causal analysis 338–39

348 INDEX meritocracy, and cultural reproduction OPQ rational modernity 38–45 292 rational-choice theory 337 Oakley, Ann 296, 318–19 rationalization 40–45, 228–31 Merton, Robert K. 252, 253, 262–63 oligarchy 260 Michels, Robert 252, 260 Orientalism 80–81 and McDonaldization 120–23 Miller, Daniel 213, 246–47 Park, Robert E. 102, 334 and social control 240–41 mobilities 162 Parsons, Talcott 44, 50, 111, 207, 296, sociological imagination 46–49 modern living 134–35 Raz, Aviad 243 300–01 reality bureaucracy restrictions 42–43, 45, Pateman, Carole 316 hyper-reality 199 139 patriarchy 96–99 and simulacra 196–99 social construction of 336 civic engagement 125 domestic violence 98–99 religion communication systems 110–11 and gender equality 65 and identity politics 339 communitarianism 112–19 and global world 317 and Marxism 252, 253, 254–59, 279 Disneyization 126–27 hegemonic masculinity 88–89 political use of religious symbolism emotional labor 127 and lesbianism, political 308–09 gentrification and urban life 128–31 and material feminism 312–17 336 globalization and modernity 166–69 rules of 94, 95 Protestant work ethic 41–42, liquid modernity 136–43 and slimming and dieting 275 McDonaldization 120–23 see also feminism 220–23, 258 rational modernity 38–45 pecuniary emulation, and class 218–19 and secularization 252–53, 278–79 right to the city 106–07 Perrow, Charles 158 and social inequalities 257–58, 259 sidewalks, importance of 109 Peterson, Richard 219 sociology of 338 social capital 124–25 phenomenological sociology 335, 336 Rich, Adrienne 296, 304–09 see also global world; urbanization Pickett, Kate 65 Richardson, Diane 306, 331 Modood, Tariq 339 positivism 22–25, 36, 40, 44 right to the city 106–07 moral panic theory 290 post-industrialism 224–25 risk society 156–61 morality postmodern family 310–11 Ritzer, George 103, 120–23, 127 and communitarianism 117, 118, 119 poverty, relative 74 Robertson, Roland 134, 146–47 moral entrepreneurs 283–84 power, political and social, sociological Romantic ethic 234–35 and religion 256–57 Rosa, Hartmut 339 Morgan, David 300 imagination 46–49 Rose, Nikolas 277 multiculturalism 200–01 power/resistance 52–55 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques 29, 302 multinational urban culture, and global Protestant work ethic 41–42, 220–23, Rubin, Gayle 299 Rubio, Fernando Dominguez 247 cities 165 258 Putnam, Robert D. 20, 103, 115, 124–25 S N queer theory 58, 61, 297, 309, 310, 311, 317, 326–31 nationalism R Said, Edward 65, 80–81 and imagined communities Saint-Simon, Henri de 13, 18, 23, 24 202–03 race and ethnicity 68–73 Sassatelli, Roberta 234 neo-nationalism 163 racism 64–65, 75, 92–93 Sassen, Saskia 134, 164–65 Savage, Mike 219 Neale, Bren 320 iconic ghetto 82–83 Schütz, Alfred 335 neo-liberalism 277 radicalism, and religion 258–59 Scull, Andrew T. 266 neo-nationalism 163 secularization 252–53, 278–79 neo-tribalism 291 network society 152–55 and Protestant work ethic 223 nuclear family 300, 301, 311, 320–21 Sedgwick, Eve Kosofsky 309