The History Book

THE MODERN WORLD 299 See also: The formation of the Royal African Company 176–79 ■ The Siege of Lucknow 242 ■ Nkrumah wins Ghanaian independence 306–07 Indian nationalists demand independence from Britain. Britain makes some concessions, but they don’t go far enough. Gandhi The Muslim Economically Mohandas Gandhi attracts population weakened by millions with clamors for an World War II, The Indian national leader his call for independent Britain is unable known as Mahatma, meaning non-violent state of their “great soul,” Mohandas disobedience. to defend Gandhi (1869–1948) led his own. its empire. country to independence from Great Britain. He came Indian independence is achieved, from a Hindu family and and the country is split in two. studied law in England before spending 20 years in South itself was split between northwest and India’s Muslims had their Africa trying to secure rights and northeast, because both wings own independent state, but for the Indians living there. had a Muslim majority. Immediately, freedom came at a great cost. millions of Muslims trekked to West Gandhi’s involvement and East Pakistan (the latter now The road to independence in Indian politics began in known as Bangladesh), while The spirit of nationalism in India 1919, and he soon became the millions of Hindus and Sikhs headed gained ground in the mid-19th unquestioned leader of the towards the newly independent century and was strengthened in independence movement. India. Thousands never reached it, 1885 by the formation of the Indian He preached the doctrine and many died from malnutrition National Congress (INC). During of Satyagraha (soul force, and disease. Across India there World War I, expectations for greater or passive resistance) which were outbreaks of sectarian self-governance were raised when he applied against the British violence, with Hindus and Sikhs on Britain promised to deliver self-rule with great effect. He adopted one side and Muslims on the other. in return for India’s contribution a simple life believing in the to the war effort. But Britain virtue of small communities By 1948, as the great migration envisaged a gradual progress and campaigned against drew to a close, more than 15 toward self-government, beginning Indian industrialization. million people had been uprooted, with the Government of India Act and between 1 million and 2 million (1919), which created an Indian ❯❯ Gandhi’s life work was were dead. India was independent crowned in 1947, when India finally won independence, but the concessions he had made to the Muslims led to his assassination the following year by a Hindu fanatic, who blamed him for the partition of India, although Gandhi himself bitterly opposed the dismemberment of the subcontinent.

300 INDIAN INDEPENDENCE AND PARTITION parliament where power was rights of Muslims, demanded a Ours is not a drive for shared between Indians and British completely separate Muslim state. power, but purely a officials. This did not satisfy Indian Its leader, Mohammed Ali Jinnah, non-violent fight for nationalists, and the British feared that Muslims could not India’s independence. responded to their protests with protect their minority rights if left Mohandas Gandhi sometimes brutal repression. to live under Hindu rule. Congress rejected the proposal and violence Colonies gain freedom The push for independence on the streets between Hindus After World War II, the European from the 1920s to the 1940s and Muslims began to escalate. colonial powers—mainly Britain, was galvanized by the work of France, the Netherlands, and Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. Pakistan is born Portugal—recognized that change Gandhi not only launched the In 1947, Lord Louis Mountbatten was inevitable. Some colonies won Satyagraha campaign, promoting flew into Delhi as Britain’s final independence by peaceful means, non-violent protest, but also became Viceroy of India. Faced with such as in Burma and Ceylon (1948), an influential figure for millions of irreconcilable differences over the but often, European powers tried to followers. In 1942 Gandhi led the demand for a separate state for hold on to their colonies. “Quit India” campaign, calling India’s Muslims, he persuaded all for civil disobedience to disrupt parties to agree to partitioning During World War II, Japan, itself Britain’s efforts in World War II. The the country into Hindu India and a significant imperial power, drove British immediately jailed Gandhi Muslim Pakistan. the European powers out of Asia. and other nationalist leaders. After the Japanese surrender in From its birth, Pakistan faced 1945, nationalist movements in the By the end of World War II, it many challenges. It had limited former Asian colonies campaigned was clear that Britain lacked the resources and a huge refugee for independence rather than a means to defeat the nationalist problem. There were different return to European colonial rule. campaign. Britain’s officials in India traditions, cultures, and languages, Dr. Ahmed Sukarno, leader of were utterly exhausted, and Britain and Jinnah, its first governor Indonesia’s nationalist movement, itself was almost bankrupt. Britain general, died the following year. declared the Independent Republic agreed to a fully independent India. In 1948, India and Pakistan fought of Indonesia in 1945. The Dutch While Gandhi and Nehru advocated over Kashmir, the only Muslim- sent troops to restore their authority, Indian unity, the Muslim League, majority area to remain within India. and in two military campaigns that founded in 1906 to safeguard the followed, an estimated 150,000 Indonesians and 5,000 Dutch soldiers died. International pressure eventually forced the Dutch to concede independence in 1949. India’s independence was finally declared by Jawaharlal Nehru and Lord Louis Mountbatten at Delhi’s Constituent Assembly, just seconds into August 15, 1947.

THE MODERN WORLD 301 The Japanese occupation of Malaya The process of decolonization Mau Mau suspects captured in during the war had unified the coincided with the new Cold War Nairobi’s Great Rift Valley, Kenya, in Malayan people and greatly between the Soviet Union and the 1952 are led away, with their hands on increased nationalistic feelings. United States. The US became their heads, to be questioned by police Britain clamped down on protests, concerned that, as the European and possibly held in detention camps. which led the militant wing of the powers lost their colonies, Soviet- Malaysian Communist Party to supported communist parties independent states and joined declare war on the British Empire might achieve power in the new the Commonwealth. The British in 1948. Britain responded by states. The US used substantial aid Commonwealth, formed in 1931, declaring a state of emergency and packages to encourage newly became the successor to Britain’s pursuing a bitter campaign against independent nations to adopt old empire, preserving Britain’s Chinese “communist terrorists.” governments that aligned with the global economic and political Independence was not granted West. The Soviet Union deployed influence. In 1931 Britain extended to Malaya until 1957. similar tactics in an effort to dominion status to the already self- encourage new nations to join the governing colonies of Canada Unrest in Africa communist bloc. Many resisted the (1867), Australia (1901), New In Kenya, the imposition of a state pressure to be drawn into the Cold Zealand (1907), and Newfoundland of emergency in 1952, in response War and joined the “non-aligned (1907). Britain and her dominions to the Mau Mau (rebel) uprising, movement.” This movement began shared equal status, and they led to greater insurgency and the out of a 1955 meeting in Bandung, accepted the British monarch as British rounding up of tens of Indonesia, involving 29 African and head of the Commonwealth. In 1949 thousands of Mau Mau suspects Asian countries. Member countries the British Commonwealth became into detention camps. By 1956 the decided they would not be involved “The Commonwealth,” a free and rebellion had been crushed, but the in alliances or defense pacts with equal association of independent methods used by the British to the main world powers, but focus states, but the end of the empire regain control brought international on internal development instead. was drawing near. Britain fought a condemnation. In central Africa, war to retain the Falkland Islands in too, decolonization was born in Terrorism in France 1982, and Hong Kong continued as a violence. In Rhodesia, savage France was determined to British dependency until 1997. conflict erupted between the black maintain its political status in majority and the fiercely racist white Algeria. When independence was Gandhi had a profound leadership, which had unilaterally not realized after World War II, influence on world politics. Other declared independence in 1965. war broke out between Algerian peaceful resisters—such as Martin nationalists and French settlers. In Luther King Jr. and Tibet’s Dalai We are proud of this 1958 the National Liberation Front Lama—emulated his methods. struggle, of tears, of fire, (FLN), the main nationalist group, Around the world, the struggle for led several terrorist attacks, first in countries to secede from nations and of blood, to the Algeria, then in Paris. The crisis led they belong to continues, as the depths of our being. to the return to power of Charles likes of Scotland (United Kingdom), Patrice Lumumba de Gaulle, the wartime leader of the Quebec (Canada), and Palestine Free French. In 1960, de Gaulle, to fight to be seen as nations in First prime minister of the horror of the French settlers, their own right. ■ the Congo (Zaire) (1960) agreed to emancipate Algeria. After a long and bloody conflict in which an estimated 150,000 died, Algeria gained its independence in 1962. Independence gained During the 1960s and 70s, many of the countries that were once held as British colonies became

302 OSTHHUERALNSLATBMATEEEIOSFRAEL THE ESTABLISHMENT OF ISRAEL (1948) IN CONTEXT Zionist theorists Jews begin settling in envisage the possibility of and developing FOCUS Palestine. Creation of Israel a Jewish homeland. BEFORE Jews escaping Nazi control flee to Palestine. 1897 Zionism becomes an organized movement and calls The United Nations grants the land of Israel for a Jewish state in Palestine. to the Jewish people. 1917 In the Balfour Declaration, Many Palestinians are Wars break out Britain promises to help the forcibly displaced and periodically between Jews establish a homeland Arab states and Israel. in Palestine. become refugees. 1946 As part of its campaign A s the sun rose on May 14, Europe, proclaimed the news of of terrorism against Palestine 1948, the British flag was the establishment of the Jewish and Britain, the Jewish lowered at Government state in Palestine. underground army bombs the House, on Jerusalem’s Hill of Evil King David Hotel, killing 91. Counsel, ending the 26-year British Israel’s Muslim neighbors, mandate over Palestine. David united as the Arab League, AFTER Ben-Gurion, the longtime leader rejected the state’s creation and 1967 During the Six Day War, of the Jewish settlers, or Zionists, reacted with an attack. Troops Arabs unite against Israel, but who had fled to Palestine from moved in from Transjordan, Egypt, Israel is victorious and captures Lebanon, and Syria. Hardened to swathes of Arab territory. 1993 Oslo Peace Accords try to initiate peace between Palestinians and Israel. 2014 Sweden becomes the 135th country to recognize the state of Palestine.

THE MODERN WORLD 303 See also: The Young Turk Revolution 260–61 ■ The Treaty of Versailles 280 ■ The Suez Crisis 318–21 ■ The 9/11 attacks 327 ■ The founding of the United Nations 340 Facing increasing attacks, the Jews formed local defense groups under the umbrella term the Haganah. We shall live at Escalation of violence The flag of Israel was adopted in last as free men on In 1939, the rise of anti-Semitism 1948, a few months after the birth of in Europe, particularly in Nazi the state. It was originally designed in our own soil. Germany, forced Jews to flee to 1891 for use by the Zionist movement Theodor Herzl Jerusalem. Facing a much larger and has the Star of David at its center. influx of settlers than they had Zionist writer anticipated, the British proposed (1967), Israel controlled the Sinai, a restriction on the free settlement Gaza, the West Bank, the Golan fighting after years of protecting of Jewish refugees in Palestine. Heights, and Jerusalem. It faced their settlements in Palestine, the many attacks from Arab neighbors, Jews thwarted the Arabs. After World War II, violence in in addition to threats from the Palestine escalated, and in 1947 the paramilitary Palestine Liberation A troubled land British government said it would Army (PLO), formed in 1964. Jews had immigrated to Palestine terminate its rule and hand the to avoid persecution in Europe since “Palestine problem” to the United Arab Palestinians repeatedly the 1880s, believing it to be the Nations. The Holocaust convinced called for an independent state in land promised to them by God. With the UN that the Jewish people the West Bank and Gaza. In the the Balfour Declaration in 1917, the needed a homeland, so they resolved occupied zones, they suffered from British government supported a to partition Palestine into an area poor living conditions, military Jewish homeland. The majority- for Arabs (about 44 percent) and the raids, and restricted movement. ■ Arab population objected to the rest for a Jewish state. The Jews settlers’ claim on their country. agreed with the plan, but the Arabs refused it. Despite this, on May 14, 1948 the state of Israel was born. Israel’s immediate priority was to build a credible defense force from the Haganah. After the Six Day War David Ben-Gurion The founder and first prime His “Law of Return,” announced minister (1948–63) of the state in 1950, granted permission for of Israel, David Ben-Gurion was Jews from around the world to born in 1886 to Zionist parents immigrate to Israel. in Poland. In 1906, he immigrated to Palestine, where he became an He briefly retired in 1953, active supporter of the struggle and in his later years in power for an independent Jewish state. he initiated secret talks with He led the Jewish campaign Arab leaders in an attempt to against the British in Palestine, gain peace for the Middle East. authorizing acts of sabotage. In 1970, Ben-Gurion retired When he became the nation’s fully from the Knesset (Israeli leader, he established the Israeli parliament) and devoted himself Defense Force and guided the to writing his memoirs in Sde- modern development of Israel. Boqer, a kibbutz (communal He promoted the use of Hebrew settlement) in the Negev Desert as the language of the country. in southern Israel. He died in 1973 and is still a revered figure.

304 IPTASRHSOAEEPMELADOAGINNNAGINGFD-MEMASAATRFCOOCHRHIACNEE THE LONG MARCH (1934–1935) IN CONTEXT China is ruled by Communist and regional warlords, and Nationalist parties unite FOCUS Founding Communist there is no central against the warlords. China government. BEFORE The Nationalists have the Incompatible ideologies 1911–12 The Republic of upper hand, and the mean these two groups China is born under Nationalist mostly fight each other. Sun Yat-sen; the last Qing Communists retreat. emperor abdicates. The exertion and The Communists regroup 1919 The May Fourth triumph of the Long and survive to fight until Movement, a student-led the People’s Republic protest, spreads ideas of March cements of China is born. nationalism and communism. Mao’s leadership and 1921 The Communist Party becomes mythic. founded in Shanghai promotes revolution based on Marxism. I n the autumn of 1933, the stronghold and break through the Chinese Communist Party Nationalist blockade. Some 80,000 AFTER (CCP) was on the brink of set out on an extraordinary journey 1958 Mao Zedong introduces annihilation. Nationalists had taken of 3,700 miles (6,000km) that lasted the Great Leap Forward, a control of the country and launched 368 days. It became known as the five-year economic plan. a major attack against their base in Long March. Jiangxi, a southeastern province. 1978 Premier Deng Xiaoping In October 1934, the Communists Guided by their future leader announces a new economic were forced to abandon their Mao Zedong, the Communists program to make China a faced bombs and machine-gun fire major financial power. 1989 Troops kill hundreds of pro-democracy supporters in Tiananmen Square.

THE MODERN WORLD 305 See also: The Second Opium War 254–55 ■ The Treaty of Versailles 280 ■ The Cultural Revolution 316–17 ■ The global financial crisis 330–33 from the air and were constantly Mao Zedong rides his white horse Nationalists against the CCP in under attack by Nationalist troops alongside Communist Party members Shanghai, in April 1927. Hundreds on the ground. They traveled during the Long March of 1934–35. His of Communists were arrested and mostly at night, the unit splitting role in the march ultimately saw him tortured. The massacre triggered into different columns to make rise to leader of the nation. years of anti-Communist violence, them harder to spot. and the Communists retreated to 1921 the CCP was founded. The the Jiangxi countryside. The Tibetan mountains, Gobi Kuomintang, a Nationalist party, Desert, and miles of wilderness also grew and by the mid-1920s The struggle for survival stood between them and their had begun unifying the country. After the Long March, the CCP goal: to reach the safety of regrouped in the north. Nationalists northern China and establish a Massacre in Shanghai and Communists were forced into an new Communist base. Hundreds Nationalists joined forces with uneasy alliance in 1937, when Japan died of starvation: of the original Communists in 1926 under Chiang invaded China. By 1939, large areas 80,000 marchers, only about 8,000 Kai-shek (Jiang Jieshi) in the in the north and east had been survived. Far from being viewed as Northern Expedition to regain conquered. After Japan’s defeat in a failure, however, their feat was territories controlled by regional World War II, tension between hailed as a triumph of endurance warlords. During the expedition, Nationalists and Communists flared and ensured the survival of the CCP. as the CCP increased in strength, up again, leading to civil war in 1946. a bitter rivalry led to an attack by The Communists won after massive Unifying the nation battles with more than half a million In 1895, China had suffered a heavy troops on either side. On October 1, military defeat against Japan. Anti- 1949, Mao Zedong created the Japanese feeling swelled following People’s Republic of China. Japan’s aggression against China during World War I. Huge protests The Long March was a feat erupted after the 1919 Treaty of of remarkable endurance. To the Versailles handed former German survivors, it provided a deep sense colonies in China to Japan. In the of mission and contributed to the wake of these protests, communist perception of Mao as a leader of ideals gained support, and in destiny and revolutionary struggle. ■ Chiang Kai-shek The foremost non-communist attacked by Japan his followers Chinese leader of the 20th forced him to make an alliance century, Chiang Kai-shek (1887– with the Communists against 1975) was a soldier who, in 1925, the invading Japanese. The became leader of the Kuomintang alliance did not survive the end (Nationalist Party), which had of the World War II, and in 1949 been founded by Sun Yat-sen. Chiang and his party were driven from the mainland to the During his various stints as island of Formosa, which by China’s premier, he ruled over a that time had become known troubled country. He attempted to Westerners as Taiwan. While modest reforms but was beset he was there, Chiang set up a by intractable domestic strife, government in exile, which he as well as by armed conflict with controlled until his death in Japanese invaders. 1975. His government was recognized by many states as Despite making attempts to China’s legitimate government. crush his chief rivals, the Chinese Communists, when China was

306 IBGSEHLFAORNVEAEEDYFOOCUROREUVNETRRY NKRUMAH WINS GHANAIAN INDEPENDENCE (1957) IN CONTEXT African The ideology of African nationalism Pan-Africanism experiences in FOCUS gathers pace gains adherents World War II Postcolonial Africa spur demands for during the worldwide. racial equality. BEFORE early 1900s. 1946 The formation of the international Pan-African Nkrumah wins independence for Ghana. Federation promotes African independence. Nkrumah fails in his campaign for the political unity of Africa. 1952–60 The Mau Mau By the mid-1970s, most of Africa has uprising in Kenya against gained independence, if not peace. the British marks a turning point in the struggle for I n February 1948, at a time In response to this, in 1949, independence. when the Gold Coast, a British nationalist Kwame Nkrumah colony in West Africa, had formed the Convention People’s 1956 A humiliating defeat for been demanding independence for Party (CPP), an organization France and Britain in Suez several years, a group of unarmed fighting for self-governance. signals a further decline of African ex-servicemen marched to Nkrumah initiated a campaign the old European powers. the British governor with a petition of positive action inspired by of grievances. Ordered to stop, they Gandhi’s philosophy of non-violent AFTER refused, and the police opened fire. non-cooperation in India against 1957–75 Most African nations achieve independence from French, British, Portuguese, and Belgian rule. 1963 The Organization of African Unity is founded. 1994 South Africans are the last people on the continent to achieve majority rule.

THE MODERN WORLD 307 See also: The formation of the Royal African Company 176–79 ■ The Slave Trade Abolition Act 226–27 ■ The Berlin Conference 258–59 ■ Indian independence and partition 298–301 ■ The release of Nelson Mandela 325 the British. The strikes and protests Kwame Nkrumah, Kojo Botsio, Many African countries gained they encouraged remained peaceful Krobo Edusei, and other Ghanaian independence during the Cold but paralyzed the country, and politicians celebrate the independence War. Used as pawns between Britain agreed to elections in early of their country, which was achieved the capitalist and communist 1951. The CPP won 35 out of 38 peacefully and democratically. superpowers, they accepted loans seats, and the Gold Coast moved and military aid: in the 1970s, rapidly toward independence, The French fought an eight-year Ethiopia was rewarded with billions which was proclaimed on March 6, war to hold on to Algeria, finally of dollars’ worth of Soviet military 1957 with Nkrumah becoming conceding independence in 1962. equipment. Civil wars were also prime minister of the nation of numerous, such as the ethnic civil Ghana. It was a moment of huge The Portuguese, the first wars in Rwanda and Zaire, as well hope for a new kind of Africa. European colonial power in Africa, as the clashes between warlords fought a long war to hold on to their over food supplies in Somalia. The European powers that ruled colonies of Angola, Mozambique, Africa had been impoverished by and Guinea from 1961 to 1974. The Dictatorial rulers World War II, and attitudes to collapse of Belgian authority in Once independence was achieved, colonialism were changing. Nations the Congo in 1960 led to a wave African nationalist leaders sought that had fought against fascism of violence across the nation and to consolidate power by banning found it hard to justify imperialism. the assassination of the first prime political rivals. Coups and military minister, Patrick Lumumba, in 1961. governments predominated—such A domino effect as that of Idi Amin in Uganda. By Events in Ghana had a significant the early 1970s, only Zimbabwe impact in West Africa. In 1958, and South Africa were still ruled by Guinea voted to secede from France. the white political elite. Corruption, Determined not to be left behind, however, existed in most African Nigeria celebrated independence countries. Nkrumah wanted Ghana from Britain on October 1, 1960. to be a beacon of success, but his By 1964, independence had also Pan-Africanism failed, and Ghana’s been granted to Kenya, Northern fortunes began to slide as he Rhodesia (Zambia), Nyasaland became increasingly dictatorial. ■ (Malawi), and Uganda. Kwame Nkrumah sentenced to three years in jail. While in prison, he won Ambitious and well-educated, the general election, and five Kwame Nkrumah had big plans years later, in 1957, he became for both Ghana and Africa as a prime minister of the newly whole. He went to college in the independent Ghana. US and later traveled to England, where he became involved in the Nkrumah’s popularity rose West African Students’ Union. In with the construction of new 1948, he began traveling around schools, roads, and health the Gold Coast as leader of a facilities, but by 1964 Ghana was youth movement calling for a one-party state and Nkrumah “self-government now.” its “life president.” After two assassination attempts and Nkrumah’s calls for positive increasing human-rights abuses, action civil disobedience as head Nkrumah faced a coup in 1966 of the Convention People’s Party and went into exile in Guinea. led to his arrest, and he was He died of cancer in 1972.

308 EWJTYUHEESE’BRTOAEBTLEHLLYIENERAKBNFEADEDLLILLTTOHOWINK THE CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS (1962) IN CONTEXT The USSR and US begin stockpiling nuclear weapons. FOCUS The theory of MAD A struggle develops for Nuclear arms race acts as a deterrent the control of satellite to nuclear war. states, including Cuba. BEFORE 1942–45 The US sets up the Tension comes to a head in the Cuban Missile Manhattan Project to develop Crisis—nuclear war is only narrowly avoided. the first nuclear weapon. The scale of the threat World leaders engage in 1945 The US drops atomic posed by nuclear war diplomacy and reduce bombs on the Japanese cities stockpiles; tensions cool. of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, becomes more apparent. ending World War II. F or 13 days, from October 15 This was no empty threat: from the 1952–53 Both the US and to October 28, 1962, the 1950s, both superpowers had begun USSR develop the H-bomb, world teetered on the edge stockpiling vast nuclear arsenals. 1,000 times stronger than of nuclear destruction. Soviet leader Strategists articulated the mutually the atomic bomb. Nikita Khrushchev had deployed assured destruction (MAD) nuclear weapons in Cuba, and doctrine, which held that if Russia AFTER US president John F. Kennedy attacked the West, the West would 1963 The USA and Russia demanded he remove them. make sure that they retaliate. In agree to a nuclear test-ban Each threatened nuclear war. short, there would be no winners. treaty, and tensions lessen. 1969–72 Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT I) yields a superpower agreement on missile deployment. 1991 Strategic Arms Reductions Treaty I (START I) reduces the numbers of US and Soviet long-range missiles.

THE MODERN WORLD 309 See also: The October Revolution 276–79 ■ Stalin assumes power 281 ■ The Berlin Airlift 296–97 ■ The launch of Sputnik 310 ■ The Bay of Pigs invasion 314–15 ■ The fall of the Berlin Wall 322–23 ■ The 1968 protests 324 When Kennedy became president arise. Turkey shared a border with photographs taken by a U-2 spy in 1961, he inherited a deteriorating the Soviet Union, so this was viewed plane showed nuclear weapon relationship with Cuba. The US as a direct threat to Soviet territory. sites being built by the Soviets. and Cuba had a history of mutual An ultimatum Kennedy’s military advisers sought cooperation, but this had changed Khrushchev came under pressure an immediate attack on the missile with the Cuban Revolution, when, from Soviet hard-liners to take a sites, but Kennedy favored a naval on January 1, 1959, Fidel Castro tough stance. This, and the desire blockade of Cuba to prevent the overthrew the government of to defend his Cuban ally from installation of more missiles. He President General Fulgencio Batista. American aggression, led him to issued an ultimatum to Khrushchev install missiles in Cuba that were to withdraw and informed the world Trade embargo capable of carrying nuclear that nuclear war was an imminent The US accepted Castro as ruler of warheads. On October 14, 1962, possibility. Meanwhile, Khrushchev Cuba, in spite of his communist ordered the captains of Soviet ships leanings, and had a large economic Cuban president Fidel Castro and to hold their course for Cuban ports. presence in Cuba. However, Castro Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev hold began to break the American hold up their joined hands in a show of unity Breaking the deadlock on the economy, nationalizing all on an official state visit Castro made Frantic diplomacy behind the industry without compensation. to Moscow in May 1963. scenes led to a deal that broke the In response, the US imposed a deadlock: Kennedy agreed to remove sweeping trade embargo, so missiles from Turkey in secret if Castro turned to the Soviet Union Khrushchev dismantled all nuclear for support. Fearing communist weapons in Cuba. The Soviet leader expansion, the US tried to topple agreed—only if America would also Cuba’s government with the failed abort its plan to invade Cuba. Bay of Pigs invasion in April 1961, involving CIA-backed Cuban exiles. On October 28, Khrushchev ordered his ships to turn around— Also in 1961, the US deployed a defining moment of the Cold 15 nuclear-tipped Jupiter missiles War. The superpowers became in Turkey, in readiness to strike more cautious, and the threat of against the USSR should the need nuclear war began to diminish. ■ John Fitzgerald The 35th president of the US, where his firm stance against Kennedy John Fitzgerald Kennedy (1917–63) Russia brought him even greater was the first Roman Catholic popularity. His ambitious and, at 43, the youngest man domestic reforms, however, ever to be elected to that office. on issues such as welfare and As president, Kennedy brought civil rights, were increasingly a fresh and youthful style to blocked by Congress. politics, calling his program the “New Frontier.” This included While he was campaigning a challenge to venture into outer for the next presidential space and to eliminate poverty. election, JFK was assassinated His administration quickly won by Lee Harvey Oswald in Dallas, popular support. Texas, on November 22, 1963. Kennedy’s death was a shock Kennedy’s years in power were and a tragedy for Americans, at marked in foreign affairs by Cold a time when tensions were just War tension. His greatest test was starting to ease between the the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962, United States and Russia.

310 PWTAEHRHOEEOPSPLLOAEETINWOETFLOILNTRIHGTLEEDTO THE LAUNCH OF SPUTNIK (1957) IN CONTEXT O n October 4, 1957, the USSR That’s one small step launched the world’s first for [a] man, one giant FOCUS artificial satellite, Sputnik 1. Space race Carrying a simple radio transmitter leap for mankind. to relay information about conditions Neil Armstrong BEFORE in space, the satellite remained in 1926 Robert Goddard orbit until January 4, 1958, when the US had created NASA, the launches the world’s first it re-entered and burned up in National Aeronautics and Space liquid-fueled rocket. Earth’s atmosphere. Administration, but they could only watch in envy as the Soviets sent 1942 Germany successfully Sputnik symbolized far more Yuri Gagarin into orbit in 1961, the launches the first ballistic than a scientific breakthrough. first human to go to outer space. missile, the A4, or V-2. It was a sensational coup for the Soviets during the Cold War with The US caught up by sending AFTER the West. No shots were fired, John Glenn into orbit in 1962, and 1961 Alan Shepard commands but the military and political by 1967 they had built a rocket, Freedom 7 on the first Mercury ramifications were immense. Saturn V, that was powerful enough mission, becoming the first Americans felt more vulnerable to reach the moon. In 1969, 12 years American in space. to a nuclear attack. The USSR was after the launch of Sputnik 1, the now a Superpower, stunning the American astronaut Neil Armstrong July 20, 1969 American Neil US and initiating the “space race,” left Apollo 11 and became the first Armstrong becomes the first a frantic competition between man to walk on the moon. ■ man to set foot on the moon. nations for technological superiority. 1971 Russia’s Salyut 1, the The US catches up world’s first space station, Sputnik was a mass-media event is launched. that ushered in the “Space Age,” capturing the world’s collective 1997 A US rover named imagination. There was a boom Sojourner wheels on to the in science-fiction books, films, and surface of Mars to explore TV dramas set in space. By 1958, the surface. See also: The Berlin Airlift 296–97 ■ The Cuban Missile Crisis 308–09 ■ 2015 Mars Reconnaissance The fall of the Berlin Wall 322–23 ■ The launch of the first website 328–29 Orbiter finds water on Mars.

THE MODERN WORLD 311 IAHDARVEEAM THE MARCH ON WASHINGTON (1963) IN CONTEXT T he March on Washington There are those who say on August 28, 1963 brought to you, we are rushing this FOCUS roughly 250,000 people— issue of civil rights. I say Civil rights movement mostly African-Americans—to we are 172 years too late! the nation’s capital. They were BEFORE calling for equality, an end to racial Hubert Humphrey 1909 National Association for segregation, and for all Americans the Advancement of Colored to have access to a good education, Mayor of Minneapolis (1948) People (NAACP) is founded. decent housing, and jobs that paid a living wage. 1955 Rosa Parks refuses to give up her bus seat to a white One of the speakers was the man and, in doing so, ignites Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King, the civil rights movement. who had been arrested that April during anti-segregation protests in 1960 Four students at a Alabama. “I have a dream,” King whites-only restaurant counter cried, starting his famous speech. are refused food, leading to sit-ins across the US. Calls for equality civil rights marches in Birmingham, The abolishment of slavery after Alabama, led by King were central AFTER the American Civil War of 1861–65 to the campaign. Some extremists, 1965 Malcolm X, founder led to emancipated slaves seeking especially in the South, reacted of the Organization of Afro- American citizenship. However, with gruesome acts of violence. American Unity, is shot dead. while they were no longer slaves, they were not equal with whites, After the March on Washington, 1966 Stokely Carmichael and they endured discrimination, US Congress passed the Civil introduces the idea of “Black segregation, and violent racist Rights Acts of 1964, outlawing Power,” turning away from attacks. In the 1950s, a number of discrimination, and the Voting non-violent protests. African-American groups fought Rights Act of 1965. More than half back against discrimination with a a century later, however, many of 1968 Martin Luther King policy of non-violence. In the 1960s, the goals set on that day are still is assassinated, leading to out of reach to black Americans. ■ rioting across US cities. See also: The formation of Royal African Company 176–79 ■ The Slave Trade Abolition Act 226–27 ■ The Gettysburg Address 244–47 ■ The release of Nelson Mandela 325

312 ILGOAOMSINEGNVOTITEOTNAM THE GULF OF TONKIN INCIDENT (1964) IN CONTEXT Southeast Asian nations The US fears communism want independence is spreading across FOCUS from colonial rule. Southeast Asia. Intervention in Southeast Asia After a war with France, The US increases its Vietnam splits between military presence as a BEFORE a communist North and a response to communist 1947 The Truman Doctrine, successes in the region. pledging American support for US-backed South. free peoples, guides US foreign policy in Southeast Asia. Covert American activity culminates in a US warship being attacked in the Gulf of Tonkin. 1953 Cambodia wins its independence from France. US president Johnson uses the incident to justify military intervention in Vietnam, widening the frontiers of the Cold War. 1963 President Ngo Dinh Diem of South Vietnam is killed in a I n the aftermath of World War II, rule came to an end in 1954, US-backed military coup. the states of Southeast Asia Vietnam was divided at the struggled to create stable Geneva Conference into North AFTER political systems, and the region Vietnam, with a communist 1967 The Association of became embroiled in the Cold War government under Vietnamese Southeast Asian Nations, between the United States and the communist revolutionary leader Ho ASEAN, is established to Soviet Union. In few places were Chi Minh, and the US-backed South promote stability in the region. the battle lines as sharply drawn as Vietnam. In 1960, Ho Chi Minh, in Vietnam. After French colonial with support from communist 1973 The Paris Peace Accords ends US combat in Vietnam, but does not end the conflict between North and South. 1976 The Socialist Republic of Vietnam is proclaimed, and Saigon is renamed Ho Chi Minh City. Many flee abroad.

THE MODERN WORLD 313 See also: The construction of Angkor Wat 108–09 ■ Stalin assumes power 281 ■ Nazi invasion of Poland 286–93 ■ The Berlin Airlift 296–97 ■ The Long March 304–05 The US Navy destroyer Maddox was sailing off the coast of North Vietnam when it came under attack. This incident was the spark that led to the Vietnam War. superpowers Russia and China, controlled much of the country, used civilians were killed, but despite set up the National Liberation the skirmish to pass the Gulf of their technological superiority, the Front (NLF) in South Vietnam, and Tonkin Resolution in Congress. This Americans failed to crush the Viet started a guerrilla war to unite the allowed him to take any measures Cong guerrillas. American troops country under communist rule. necessary to deal with threats to suffered high casualties and US forces in Southeast Asia. gradually became demoralized. Tensions steadily rose until 1964. In August of that year, the US Navy US intervention The specter of communism destroyer Maddox was operating The US feared that if Vietnam The Vietnam War was the first off the coast of North Vietnam in became a communist regime, other televised war in US history. As the Gulf of Tonkin, monitoring radar countries in the region would soon the public watched horrific events and radio from northern coastal follow. Using the Gulf of Tonkin unfolding, an increasing number installations, to support attacks Resolution, Johnson poured troops opposed the conflict. Around the made by the South Vietnamese into the South and bombed North world, peace movements organized navy. North Vietnam, believing the Vietnam by air. Huge numbers of large anti-war demonstrations. Maddox was linked to raids on its coastal targets, launched a torpedo Pol Pot’s brutal regime intended The communists’ Tet Offensive attack. Two days later, the Maddox to style the country into a of 1968, a series of fierce attacks on reported once again coming under classless agrarian society more than 100 cities and towns in fire. This second attack has since inspired by Mao Zedong’s South Vietnam, crushed US hopes been disputed, but US president Cultural Revolution in China. of an imminent end to the conflict, Lyndon B. Johnson, recognizing that The entire population was and peace talks were initiated in South Vietnam could not prevail on marched to the countryside and 1969. In March 1973, the last its own against a communist-led forced to work as rice farmers. American troops withdrew from guerrilla movement that already Over the next 44 months, around Vietnam, and in April 1975 2 million people—a quarter of South Vietnam fell to the North. Pol Pot’s brutal regime Cambodia’s population—died, either killed or starved. The US policy-makers consistently During the Vietnam War, North fields where people died became misinterpreted Asian nationalist Vietnam used Cambodia to known as the “Killing Fields”. movements for Soviet-inspired channel soldiers and supplies After three years of terror, Pol communism. Ultimately, however, to the South along the Ho Chi Pot was driven from power by what the US feared never came to Minh Trail. In 1970, a joint US– a Vietnamese invasion. pass, and with the exception of Laos South Vietnamese force invaded and Cambodia, the region remained Cambodia to flush out the out of communist control. ■ Viet Cong. The US also heavily bombed Cambodia. The military destabilization in Cambodia led to a surge of support for Pol Pot, the leader of the Kampuchean Communist Party, or Khmer Rouge, a guerrilla movement that seized power in 1975.

314 IOASFRNREOVOTOSLAEUSBTEIDON THE BAY OF PIGS INVASION (1961) IN CONTEXT The United States President Kennedy is determined to inherits a CIA FOCUS Revolution and reaction keep communism plan to get rid of in Latin America from the Americas. Fidel Castro. BEFORE The Bay of Pigs 1910 The Mexican Revolution invasion is a disaster, is the first major social and Castro emerges revolution of the 20th century. triumphant. 1952 The National Revolutionary Movement The US steps up its The Cold War (MNR) takes power in Bolivia. support of anti-communist continues to regimes in Latin America, 1954 A military junta is dominate global installed in Guatemala in a while the USSR backs geopolitics. coup organized by the CIA. pro-communist revolutionaries. AFTER September 11, 1973 Salvador O n April 15, 1961, a force of The next day, Castro’s air force sank Allende, president of Chile, Cuban exiles began an two ships loaded with vital supplies. dies during a coup led by army invasion of Cuba to try In the early hours of April 17, a chief Augusto Pinochet. to topple Fidel Castro’s left-wing group of around 1,400 Cuban exiles, regime and replace it with one codenamed Brigade 2506, launched 1981 The US suspends aid more open to American interests. an amphibious assault on the coast to Nicaragua and supports Eight American B-26 bombers flew of southern Cuba, the Bay of Pigs. fighters known as Contras, in from Nicaragua to destroy Castro’s They were driven back by Castro’s an attempt to overthrow the air force on the ground. The air raid forces and ran out of ammunition. left-wing Sandinistas. seemed successful, but at least six It only took three days to thwart of Castro’s fighter planes survived. the exiles’ invasion.

See also: Bolívar establishes Gran Colombia 216–19 ■ The October Revolution THE MODERN WORLD 315 276–79 ■ Stalin assumes power 281 ■ The Cuban Missile Crisis 308–09 ■ The military coup in Brazil 341 ■ Pinochet seizes power in Chile 341 Fidel Castro The failure at the Bay of Pigs was To his supporters, Fidel Castro largely down to poor planning and (b.1926) was a revolutionary President Kennedy’s reluctance to hero who stood up to the US. become too involved. To his detractors, he was a dictator whose close ties with The Bay of Pigs invasion was Pro-Cuba demonstrations the Soviet Union brought the a disaster for the United States, Castro forged a closer alliance with world close to nuclear war. and many anti-Castro forces were the Soviet Union, its ally against captured during the conflict. American aggression, enabling him Jailed as a student in 1953 to export his ideals across Latin for his revolutionary activities, Castro must go America. The invasion incited Castro was released two years After World War II, Latin America pro-Cuba anti-US demonstrations later and went into exile in the became a proxy battleground for from Chile to Mexico. Castro US and Mexico. He returned two competing ideological systems: actively supported guerrilla to Cuba in 1956 with a small capitalism and communism. The warfare, and thousands of Latin guerrilla band, among them US was determined to eradicate American guerrillas went to Cuba the Argentine Marxist communism and supported right- for training. The revolution in Cuba revolutionary Ernesto “Che” wing dictators with anti-reformist inspired similar uprisings through Guevara, and set to work regimes in countries such as Cuba, the 1960s and 70s in Nicaragua, undermining the regime of the Honduras, and Guatemala. Brazil, Uruguay, and Venezuela, dictator Batista. On January 1, where there was disaffection with 1959, he assumed absolute During the 1950s, corruption illiteracy, inequality, and poverty. power. Castro was determined and brutality within the Cuban to improve literacy, offered Batista government forced a slow Latin America continued to free healthcare, and instituted withdrawal of US support. When preoccupy US foreign policy. The land reforms. Castro defeated Batista in 1959, US intervened several times in an the US government had misgivings effort to contain communism. They Castro saw himself as a over Castro’s communist leanings. supported military coups in Chile leader of the world’s oppressed By 1960, Castro had nationalized in 1973 and Argentina in 1976 and, people and helped train all US interests in Cuba without fearing a communist takeover, anti-Apartheid forces in South compensation and had broken funded the El Salvadoran military Africa. In the 1970s, he sent diplomatic ties. To protect their in the late 1970s to prop up their troops to support communist economic assets and defeat regime. In 1983, the US invaded forces in Angola, Ethiopia, communism, US policy-makers Grenada; and in 1989, Panama. ■ and Yemen. decided that Castro must go. Cuba must not In 2008, wracked by ill Within a year of Castro be abandoned to health, Castro stood down taking power, several counter- the communists. as president of Cuba, leaving revolutionary groups were formed John F. Kennedy power in the hands of his by Cuban exiles in Miami. The brother Raúl. American Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) took an interest in these groups, providing them with training and equipment to topple the Cuban government.

316 BOSULCDIALTDWTETORHRELTDHNEEW THE CULTURAL REVOLUTION (1966) IN CONTEXT Mao Zedong fixes on In the Great Leap ambitious plans to Forward, all Chinese FOCUS industrialize China. society is directed to Maoism to capitalism this cause. BEFORE 1943 Mao becomes Chairman Mao launches Famine strikes, and mass of the Communist Party of the Cultural starvation ensues. Tens of China, which bolsters his Revolution. image as a “strong leader.” millions die. 1945–49 A civil war between Mao’s death marks Deng Xiaoping’s adoption Communists and Nationalists a key turning point in of capitalist ideas allows ends with Mao’s victory. China’s post-war history. China to move toward 1958–61 Millions die during superpower status. Mao’s Great Leap Forward, his attempt to modernize China. T he Cultural Revolution was opposition and transform capitalists one of the darkest periods and intellectuals into proletarians – AFTER in Chinese history. Since ordinary workers. He ordered the 1972 US President Richard taking power in 1949, Communist Cultural Revolution, which would Nixon’s trip to China paves Party leader Mao Zedong had attack the “Four Olds”: old ideas, old the way for diplomatic relations neither created his ideal China nor habits, old customs, and old culture. between the two countries. secured his power. To bolster his Squads of young communists, primacy and ignite revolutionary incited by Mao and known as the 1978 Deng Xiaoping becomes fervor, Mao decided to purge any Red Guards, terrorized intellectuals, new leader and starts economic reforms. 2015 The IMF ranks China as the world’s largest economy, overtaking the United States.

THE MODERN WORLD 317 See also: The Second Opium War 254–55 ■ Stalin assumes power 281 ■ The Long March 304–05 ■ The global financial crisis 330–33 ■ Global population exceeds 7 billion 334–39 In this propaganda poster dating Industrial output climbed with steel growth. But while he initiated new from around the time of the Cultural and coal production, the rail network and far-reaching measures, such as Revolution, the Red Guards are shown doubled, and more than half of all inviting foreign firms to invest in with a copy of Mao’s Little Red Book. Chinese land was irrigated by 1961. Chinese industry and supporting developing technologies, he bureaucrats, and teachers. Some However, this development came also resisted pressure to make 36 million people were persecuted, at a terrible cost. Mao transformed democratic reforms. and up to a million died in the rural China into a series of farming turmoil, which lasted until 1976. communes in which villagers pooled By the beginning of the new land, animals, tools, and crops. The millennium, China’s economic The Great Leap Forward authorities took vast amounts of growth was spectacular. In 2001, After creating the Chinese People’s grain from the communes to feed the country was admitted to the Republic in 1949, Mao launched city workers, and this, along with World Trade Organization, and in reforms to transform China’s semi- a series of natural disasters, led 2008 it played host to the Olympic feudal, mostly agricultural society to famine and starvation. The Games in Beijing. Some economists into an industrialized socialist state. consequences were staggering: an predict that by 2026 China will In the late 1950s, in a bid to achieve estimated 45 million people died. boast a gross domestic product rapid economic growth, Mao (GDP) greater than Japan and ordered the Great Leap Forward. A new foreign policy Western Europe. After the Cultural Revolution, Mao needed American expertise to After Mao’s death, the Chinese restore China, and the US wanted Communist Party condemned an ally against the Soviet Union. In the Cultural Revolution as a disaster. 1972, US President Richard Nixon However, as the country experienced traveled to Peking to meet with a period of unparalleled economic Mao. By the time Mao died in 1976, growth, a sense of nostalgia for China had become a major oil Mao’s ideals, focused on the people producer with nuclear capabilities. and self-sufficiency, grew among farmers and members of the urban Deng Xiaoping, who led China working class. Today, Mao’s legacy from 1978 to 1997, was willing to use continues to cast a long shadow capitalist ideas to focus on economic over a modernizing China. ■ Mao Zedong Born in 1893 into a wealthy during the Long March, and farming family from Hunan defeated Chiang during the Province, Mao Zedong was the civil war of 1945–49. leader of Communist China from 1949 until his death in 1976. A devoted Leninist, Mao While working as a librarian at became disenchanted with Peking University, he became a the Soviet policy of “peaceful communist and helped found the coexistence” toward the Communist Party in 1921. Six years West and developed Maoism, later, after leading an unsuccessful a stronger form of communism. rebellion against nationalist leader However, his radical ideas and Chiang Kai-shek, Mao was forced experiments with collectivization to retreat to the countryside, led to the death and suffering where he proclaimed the Chinese of millions. One of his last acts, Soviet Republic in 1931. He took in 1972, was to hold a meeting control of the Communist Party in with Richard Nixon, the first 1935, after proving his leadership American president ever to visit China.

318 IN CONTEXT ESSWWWVHTIIEIRATTLSEHHLWNLHOAGAIMGUTLTGREHLHREBEDTEALVESNAOIFSLGDOEIGNODWRDNAEEINASTNDSDION FOCUS Modern Middle East THE SUEZ CRISIS (1956) BEFORE 1945 Egypt, Iraq, Lebanon, Syria, Saudi Arabia, northern Yemen, and Transjordan form the Arab League. 1948 Israel is established in former Palestine, dividing Arabs and Jews. 1952 A military coup removes Egypt’s King Farouk from power. Colonel Gamal Nasser seizes control two years later. AFTER 1964 The Palestine Liberation Organization calls for an end to the Jewish state. 1993 The Oslo Accords provide for mutual recognition between the PLO and Israel. 2011 Protestors across Arab states demand reforms in a series of popular uprisings. O n July 26, 1956, Egyptian leader, Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser, addressed a crowd in the city of Alexandria, declaring the nationalization of the Suez Canal, the waterway through which most oil bound for Western Europe had to pass. For Egyptians, the nationalization symbolized the liberation of their country from the British imperialist dominance it had been under since the 1880s. In response to Nasser’s bold move, a secret plan was hatched by Britain, France, and Israel. France was eager for Nasser’s downfall because of his support for Algerian insurgents against French colonial rule in Algeria. Israel had many reasons for

THE MODERN WORLD 319 See also: The construction of the Suez Canal 230–35 ■ The Young Turk Revolution 260–61 ■ The Treaty of Versailles 280 ■ The establishment of Israel 302–03 ■ The 9/11 attacks 327 ■ The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan 341 ■ The Iranian Revolution 341 ■ The USA and Britain invade Iraq 341 President Nasser of Egypt the region. Colonialism in the 1800s Ambitious plans announces the nationalization of the and the division of the Ottoman Egypt continued its stance of Suez Canal to a quarter-million-strong Empire after World War I were bitter belligerence toward Israel by gathering in Alexandria celebrating humiliations for peoples who felt closing the Suez Canal to Israeli four years since the revolution. their religion, Islam, was the highest shipping. When Nasser ousted form of divine revelation. In 1948, the regime of King Farouk in toppling Nasser, including Egypt’s the partition of Palestine to form 1954 and sent him into exile, he denial of passage through the canal Israel spilt the land into two states, imported arms from the Soviet to any Israeli-flagged ships. The one Arab and one Jewish, and was Union to build his arsenal for three conspired that Israel would rejected vehemently by Israeli Arabs future confrontations with Israel. attack Egypt, and Britain and and enraged the other Arab nations. Britain had agreed to withdraw its France would intervene a few days The regular armies of the Arab troops from the Suez area by June later posing as peacemakers, taking states—including Iraq, Lebanon, 1856, but as the last troops left control of the canal. On October 29, Syria, Transjordan, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Nasser relied on funds from 1956, the Israelis began their Yemen, and Egypt—attacked Israel Britain and the US to fund assault. British and French troops in the first Arab–Israeli War in May ambitious plans to develop Egypt. invaded on October 31, but faced and June 1948. The war ended in This included the Aswan Dam immediate diplomatic pressure to defeat for the Arabs and disaster for project on the Nile. Nasser was call a ceasefire. The United States, the Palestinians: more than half of angered when Britain and the which was trying to cultivate the country’s Arabs were uprooted United States withdrew its offer of good relations with Arab states, as refugees, and they lost any loans to help him pay for the dam. was appalled by the Anglo-French possibility of a state of their own. The US and Britain backed out ❯❯ invasion, believing it threatened the stability of the whole region. Israel is founded There is a rise in President Dwight Eisenhower in Palestine. Arab nationalism. forced through a United Nations resolution imposing a ceasefire, and The Suez Crisis deals a blow to British and British and French troops had to French imperialism and stirs anti-Western conduct a humiliating withdrawal. sentiments in the Muslim world. The Israeli–Arab The United States There is an dispute widens to becomes the increase in main backer Palestinian become an of Israel. liberation Israeli–Arab movements. conflict. Splitting the land Chaos and violence grip the Middle East. The strong anti-Western sentiment in the Middle East dates back hundreds of years, fueled by the West’s increased involvement in

320 THE SUEZ CRISIS because of Nasser’s association Palestine Liberation Army (PLO) During the First Gulf War, Iraqi with the Soviets and his unceasing and of other Palestinian groups forces set fire to more than 600 Kuwaiti diatribes against the West. Nasser attacking Israel, however, as well oil wells. Saddam Hussein’s desire to felt insulted and immediately as Israel’s invasion of Lebanon in control Kuwaiti oilfields had initially nationalized the Suez Canal. The 1982, where many of the PLO were led to Iraq invading Kuwait in 1990. move was popular in Egypt, as the grouped, destabilized of the fragile canal was a source of Arab pride. peace continuously. provided billions of dollars in loans. Ultimately, Iran was defeated; and Nasser was a secular modernizer The Iran–Iraq War Iraq, now awash with armaments who advocated the separation of Like many countries in the Middle supplied by several Western nations, religion from political life, believing East, modern Iraq was carved out of including Britain, France, and the it the hallmark of Arab modernity, the ruins of the Ottoman Empire in United States, invaded the oil-rich but this was not universally the aftermath of World War I. Iraq state of Kuwait in 1990. The UN welcomed. The Muslim Brotherhood, was a land divided along ethnic demanded their withdrawal, but founded in Egypt in 1928, argued lines between Arabs and Kurds, Saddam announced that Kuwait had for Islam to have a central role in as well as sectarian lines between been annexed by Iraq. The United government. After repeated calls Sunni and Shia Muslims, the latter States, with support from coalition for the application of Sharia law—a being the majority group. Saddam forces, sent in troops during the legal system based on Islam—and Hussein, a Sunni, became leader in First Gulf War (1990–91) and toppled an assassination attempt against 1979, and suppressed ethnic Kurds Saddam from power. Nasser, the organization was finally and Shias alike using immense banned in 1954. brutality. He, like Nasser in Egypt, The 9/11 attacks espoused Arab nationalism and The continued US support of Israel In 1967, Arab countries suffered ruled Iraq as a secular state. led to profound grievances among a crushing defeat at the hands Islamists. To them, the capitalist, of Israel in the Six Day War, in which In 1979, events in Iran inspired secular US, with its greed for oil, Israel took the Sinai from Egypt, the Islamists throughout the Middle symbolized all that was wrong with Golan Heights from Syria, and the East. The secular, Western way of the West, and terrorist strikes on US West Bank and East Jerusalem from life was swept away in an Islamic targets grew. Al-Qaeda carried out Jordan, meaning Israel was now an revolution in which the US-backed the most shocking on September 11, occupier. In the 1970s and 80s, the Shah was ousted. The new regime, 2001, against four targets in the Arab–Israeli conflict largely moved under Ayatollah Khomeini, a Shia United States, including the World in the direction of peace: in 1979 Muslim, based its laws and ideology Trade Center in New York City. the Israeli–Egypt peace deal ended on the strict teachings of the Koran. 30 years of war. The rise of the Saddam felt threatened by the In response to the 9/11 attacks, Islamic revolution and a possible a successful US-led international US President Jimmy Carter (center) Shia uprising in his own country, so intervention brought down the looks on as President Anwar Sadat he invaded Iran on September  22, Taliban regime in Afghanistan, of Egypt shakes hands with Menachem 1980 under the pretext of a territorial which the US believed had given Begin, Israel’s premier, after signing a dispute over the Shatt al-Arab, a sanctuary to Osama bin Laden and peace treaty at the White House in 1979. waterway that lies between the two countries. The invasion triggered a bruising eight-year war that devastated both countries and increased tensions in the Middle East. Iran’s principal ally was Syria, but Libya, China, and North Korea all also sent it weapons. Iraq’s support came mostly from the Arab Gulf states, which viewed Iran as the greater danger to their security; Saudi Arabia and Kuwait

THE MODERN WORLD 321 We shall not be satisfied 2010 when a street vendor set country descended into civil war. except by the final obliteration himself on fire in a protest against By August 2015, the United Nations police brutality. Protestors reported that more than 210,000 of Israel from the map of throughout Tunisia demanded people had been killed in the the Middle East. democracy, and President Zine el conflict. Capitalizing on the chaos Abidine fled the country on 14 in the region, so-called Islamic Muhammad Salah al-Din January. Disorder spread from State (also referred to as IS, ISIS, or Tunisia to Algeria, where there ISIL), the extremist Muslim group Egyptian foreign minister (1954) was unrest over lack of jobs. that replaced al-Qaeda, took control of huge swathes of territory across al-Qaeda. After September 11, On January 25, thousands of northern and eastern Syria, as well President Bush declared a “War protestors took to the streets in as neighboring Iraq. on Terror” and, in 2002, with help Egypt, and after 18 days of protests from the British government, there, President Hosni Mubarak Middle East instability attacked Iraq on the premise of resigned. By mid-February, civil The Suez Crisis was the end of destroying “weapons of mass unrest had swept through Bahrain, one era in the politics of the destruction” (WMDs) deemed a where it was brutally suppressed, Middle East and the start of threat to national security. Western and into Libya. Muammar Gaddafi’s another. It marked the humiliating intervention in the Muslim world violent response to the dissidents end of imperial influence for two heightened the belief among led to civil war. An international European countries, Britain and Islamists that the West was the coalition led by NATO launched a France, whose role was soon enemy of Islam. campaign of air strikes targeting taken over by the US. It stimulated Gaddafi’s forces, and he was killed Arab nationalism and opened an The Arab Spring in October 2011. era of Arab-Israeli wars and The 9/11 attacks were inspired by Palestinian terrorism. a radical ideology and belief that Further uprisings occurred in the fundamental problems plaguing Jordan, Yemen, and Saudi Arabia, In modern times, the Middle Arab and Muslim people could but the worst violence against East has never seemed so unstable. be resolved by attacking foreign civilians was seen in Syria, where Wars are being fought over religion, powers that were seen to oppress President Bashar Assad promised ethnicity, territory, politics, and Islam. In 2011, young Arabs— reforms but used force to crush commerce, and these conflicts have looking inward to promote change the dissent—a move that merely led to the worst refugee crisis since and blaming their own leaders for hardened the protestors’ resolve. In World War II, with millions fleeing decades of political, economic, and July 2011, hundreds of thousands of anarchy and fanaticism. ■ cultural decline—were at the heart people took to the streets, and the of uprisings across the Arab world. At its core, what became known Terrorism in the Middle East as the Arab Spring was a new generation’s attempt to change the Since the mid-20th century, group linked to the PLO hit the state order. An extraordinary series terrorism has been synonymous Israeli Olympic team during the of pro-democracy uprisings, the with the Middle East. The games in Munich, Germany. Arab Spring caused huge upheavals Israel–Palestine conflict is one in the Middle East and North Africa. of the world’s most challenging. In 1983, Hezbollah, an Iran- It started in Tunisia on December 17, backed fundamentalist Shiite In 1964, Arab leaders Muslim group in Lebanon, blew formed the Palestine Liberation up the Beirut barracks of both Organization (PLO), declaring US Marine and French forces, Israel’s establishment illegal. killing 298 people. Hezbollah The PLO used terrorism to attack pioneered the use of suicide Israel and Western targets for bombers in the Middle East. their support of Israel. In 1970, Palestinian militants blew up Both Jews and Muslims have three hijacked planes in the employed terrorism to derail the Jordanian desert, and in 1972 a many attempts that have been made at peace in the region.

322 SCTHWUERETIPRATIONANSISIDE THE FALL OF THE BERLIN WALL (1989) IN CONTEXT Gorbachev is elected president of the USSR. He introduces radical political and economic reforms. FOCUS Collapse of communism This process of Gorbachev has no democratization reduces intention of using military BEFORE August 1989 After 45 years, Cold War tensions. force to prop up satellite Poland sees the end of communist regimes. communist rule. Solidarity, a trade union, forms a new Uprisings take place across Eastern Europe, non-communist government. and communist regimes are ousted. August 23, 1989 Two million The Berlin Wall is dismantled, followed soon people form a human chain after by the collapse of the Soviet Union. across Estonia, Lithuania, and Latvia in protest at Soviet rule. F or decades, the Berlin of people began converging at Wall, which separated the wall. East German border September 11, 1989 East and West Berlin, guards yielded in the face of Hungary opens its border with stood as a reminder of the Cold ecstatic crowds. On November 10, Austria to allow the departure War, the bitter division between in extraordinary scenes, soldiers of East German refugees. Soviet communism and Western from both sides helped Berliners capitalism. On November 9, 1989, break through the wall. Over the AFTER the East German government lifted next two days, more than 3 million December 3, 1989 The US travel restrictions, and thousands people crossed the border. and USSR jointly declare that the Cold War has ended. October 3, 1990 Germany is reunified. December 1991 The Soviet Union disintegrates into 15 separate states.

THE MODERN WORLD 323 See also: The October Revolution 276–79 ■ Stalin assumes power 281 ■ Nazi invasion of Poland 286–93 ■ The Berlin Airlift 296–97 ■ The Long March 304–05 ■ The Cuban Missile Crisis 308–09 ■ The launch of Sputnik 310 ■ The Red Army Faction’s terrorist activity 341 The fall of the Berlin Wall meant liberation for many people. German reunification, the collapse of the Soviet Union, and the end of communism in Eastern Europe followed soon after. Ruling the Eastern Bloc Aiming for warmer relations with banned trade union, was elected to At the end of World War II, the USSR the West, he set out new reforms: lead a coalition government. As the had banned anti-communist parties glasnost (political “openness”) push for reform gathered pace, the in every Eastern European country, and perestroika (liberal economic East German government declared and created a bloc of satellite states “restructuring”). Critically, he lifted that its citizens would be able to under Soviet leadership, ruthlessly the ban on Eastern Bloc countries visit West Berlin through any border suppressing any opposition. In reforming their political systems. crossing, including the Berlin Wall. the fall of 1956, Hungary rose against its communist government, Collapse of communism The fall of the Berlin Wall was only to be crushed by Soviet tanks, With the threat of Soviet military a momentous event. It marked an and in 1968, the USSR invaded intervention removed, citizens in all era that saw the end of the Cold Czechoslovakia to remove a Eastern Bloc countries protested to War and the dissolution of the government it found too liberal. end communist rule. In June 1989, Soviet Union. It allowed millions to Poland’s Solidarity, originally a travel more freely, and previously In the 1960s, Germany was still stifled economies across Eastern divided between East and West, Europe and the Former Soviet and its former capital Berlin split Union opened up to the world. into the Allied-operated West and Many former communist countries the Soviet-controlled East. Each had were welcomed into NATO and its own German administration: joined the European Union. democratic in the West, communist in the East. Thousands of East The world changed course in Germans escaped to the West, 1989. Communism was dead in and the country hemorrhaged the East, and a reunified Germany its skilled workers. On August 13, was about to take its place at the 1961, the government sealed off heart of Europe. ■ East from West Berlin with a fence, which, over time, became a heavily The break-up of the Soviet Union fortified barrier dividing the city, the nation, and family and friends. In 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev month later, with Gorbachev became leader of a stagnating weakened by an attempted coup In 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev Soviet Union. He laid out by hardline communists, Yeltsin was appointed as General Secretary radical reforms—glasnost and took advantage. He banned the of the Soviet Communist Party. perestroika—and in July 1989 Communist Party in Russia and he announced that countries met secretly with the leaders within the Warsaw Pact could of Ukraine and Belarus, who hold openly contested elections. agreed to secede from the Poles, Czechs, Hungarians, and Soviet Union. On Christmas others opted for democratic Day 1991, Gorbachev resigned, governments, destabilizing the leaving Yeltsin as president Soviet Union itself. of the new Russian state. The former empire split into 15 new In July 1991, the anti- independent states, and the communist Boris Yeltsin was USSR was no more. elected president of Russia. A

324 TAHLLE PPOEOWPELRETO THE 1968 PROTESTS IN CONTEXT I n 1968, a small demonstration equality; and the German Student over poor campus facilities at Movement, led by Rudi Dutschke, FOCUS Nanterre University in a suburb opposed the older generation, who Radical post-war politics of Paris, France, spread across the had been part of World War II. country. In March, riot police were BEFORE called to deal with the unrest, and The French protests lost steam 1963 The Feminine Mystique hundreds of students descended on as elections showed overwhelming by Betty Friedan reignites the Nanterre. By May, the uprising had support for the government. The women’s rights movement. moved to the center of Paris, and revolutionary movements of 1968 the number of protestors swelled to ultimately failed, but they inspired a 1967 The killing in Berlin of thousands. Tension erupted on the generation to question authority. In student demonstrator Benno streets, as demonstrators called for their wake came a rise in left-wing Ohnesorg sparks a revolt. revolutionary social change and the terrorist groups that used bombing collapse of the government. Within and kidnapping while purporting March 1968 Demonstrators a few days, 8 million workers went to fight for social justice. ■ in Italy protest against police on a wildcat strike that brought brutality. France to a standstill. AFTER A momentous year What’s important is that 1969 The Days of Rage France’s journey to near revolution the action took place, demonstrations in Chicago use is the defining event of 1968, a year violence to protest against the of global protest. Much was against when everybody judged Vietnam War and US racism. the Vietnam War, but many people it to be unthinkable. also marched against oppressive Jean-Paul Sartre 1970s The radical group regimes. Politics became more Japanese Red Army protests radical: the “coming out” of sexual the presence of US military minorities, women’s liberation, and bases in Japan. sexual equality came to the fore. In the United States, groups such as 1978 The Italian Red Brigades the Black Panthers fought for racial take former prime minister Aldo Moro hostage as part See also: Nkrumah wins Ghanaian independence 306–07 ■ The March on of their left-wing terrorist Washington 311 ■ The Gulf of Tonkin Incident 312–13 ■ De Gaulle founds campaign. the French Fifth Republic 340 ■ The Red Army Faction’s terrorist activity 341

THE MODERN WORLD 325 NAAGNEVDAEINNREVNEERVER THE RELEASE OF NELSON MANDELA (1990) IN CONTEXT N elson Mandela received a When the Nationalist Party was life prison sentence in 1964 elected to power in 1948, white FOCUS for his role in anti-apartheid Afrikaners implemented a brutal End of apartheid protests held in Sharpeville, South apartheid policy—black people Africa. Mandela was a militant were segregated and could not BEFORE member of the African National vote. Many in the anti-apartheid 1948 The National Party (NP) Congress (ANC), set up to campaign movement advocated non-violent takes power, adopting a policy against apartheid, a system of racial protest, which helped rally white of apartheid (separateness). segregation enforced by the white South Africans to their cause. ruling government. While in prison, Apartheid was globally condemned, 1960 Seventy black protesters Mandela had become a symbol of and tough international sanctions are killed at Sharpeville; the the struggle for racial equality. On were imposed. African National Congress his release in 1990, he was greeted (ANC) is banned. with euphoria. A new dawn In 1990, President F. W. De Klerk 1961 South Africa is declared Friends, comrades, and astounded the world by lifting bans a republic and leaves the fellow South Africans, I greet on the ANC. Seeing the need for Commonwealth. Mandela you all in the name of peace, fundamental change, he had been heads the ANC’s military wing. democracy, and freedom for all. in secret negotiations for two years to end the apartheid system. AFTER Nelson Mandela 1991 F. W. De Klerk repeals Multiracial elections were apartheid laws; international held in 1994, and Mandela won sanctions are lifted. by a huge margin. His release was one of the defining moments 1994 With the first democratic of the late 20th century, ending elections, South Africa joins 300 years of white rule in South the UN General Assembly. Africa. It transformed the country into a multiracial democracy 1996 The Truth and without the bloody civil war that Reconciliation Commission so many had feared. ■ begins hearings on human rights crimes committed in See also: The Slave Trade Abolition Act 226–27 ■ The Berlin Conference 258–59 ■ the apartheid era. Nkrumah wins Ghanaian independence 306–07 ■ The March on Washington 311

326 IHCSSNOIURSTPREUEEAVCATIOTUVEIFAROALIFNTNUOYOURRWFNTLHBTIITOFEEHREATARNLAOBLE THE SIEGE OF SARAJEVO (1992–1996) IN CONTEXT T he Siege of Sarajevo, Bosnia also declared independence Bosnia, was one of the in 1992, the violence intensified. FOCUS most appalling tragedies Bosnian Serbs aimed to create Conflicts since the collapse in Yugoslavia’s civil war (1991– a separate ethnically pure Serbian of the USSR 2002). During the 44-month siege, state, the Republika Srpska, the city’s food and electricity carving it from the new Republic BEFORE supplies were cut off, and the of Bosnia-Herzegovina. Nationalist November 9, 1989 The Berlin civilian population was bombarded Bosnian Serbs, supported by Wall collapses, leading to the by nationalist Bosnian Serbs. neighboring Serbia, launched a reunification of Germany. Thousands of Bosnian Muslims campaign to expel non-Serbs, and were targeted and murdered. during the Siege of Sarajevo, they 1989 Romania overthrows the targeted the majority Bosnian ruthless regime of Nicolae A new wave of nationalism Muslim population. Ceaus¸ escu. Yugoslavia was comprised of six socialist republics: Croatia, The Bosnian War ended in 1995, 1990 In Poland, Hungary, and Montenegro, Slovenia, Bosnia and but fighting continued in Kosovo, Czechoslovakia, newly formed Herzegovina, Macedonia, and where ethnic Albanians began a center-right parties take power. Serbia, each with its own prime separatist movement against the minister and constitution. Overall Serbs. Ethnically based nationalism 1992–95 The war in Bosnia- power in Yugoslavia was held by a also led to bloody anti-Armenian Herzegovina results in the president, notably communist leader pogroms in the Nagorno-Karabakh death of some 100,000 people. Josip Broz Tito from 1953 to 1980. region and in Baku, the capital of Azerbaijan. In Georgia, violence AFTER After the 1991 break-up of the erupted between the Georgian and 1998–99 War breaks out Soviet Union, a nationalist revival Abkhazian population. in Kosovo between ethnic swept Eastern Europe. Croatia and Albanians and ethnic Serbs. Slovenia’s call for independence was The wars in Yugoslavia forced NATO troops intervene. opposed by Serbia, and Vukovar, in the issue of the global community’s eastern Croatia, was destroyed by responsibility to resolve disputes 2014 Fighting erupts between the Yugoslav army under Serbian that threaten wider instability Russians and Ukrainians in leader Slobodan Milosevic. When or cause unacceptable human eastern Ukraine. suffering or rights violations. ■ See also: The October Revolution 276–79 ■ Nazi invasion of Poland 286–93 ■ The fall of the Berlin Wall 322–23

THE MODERN WORLD 327 LCCTIOIAFTMDEIZAEEYOUNUONSRUDRVOEERUFRREAYLTWLFTOARAYWCEEKODFOM THE 9/11 ATTACKS (2001) IN CONTEXT O n September 11, 2001, a We love death more group of Islamic extremists than you love life. FOCUS launched a devastating al-Qaeda motto Rise of Islamic radicalism attack against the US. Two hijacked airliners crashed into the World BEFORE Trade Center in New York; another 1979 The Islamic Revolution of hit the Pentagon, in Washington, Iran replaces the pro-Western DC; and a fourth plane crashed shah with Shia Muslim cleric in Pennsylvania. Almost 3,000 Ayatollah Khomeini. people were killed. 1989 As Soviet troops leave The seeds of extremism The civil war in Syria since 2011 Afghanistan, Saudi millionaire September 11 was not the first terror and the power vacuum left by the Osama bin Laden forms attack on American soil by Islamic departure of US forces in Iraq has al-Qaeda to fight a new extremists. On February 26, 1993, a led to the emergence of ISIS, the jihad (struggle). bomb was detonated at the World so-called Islamic State of Iraq and Trade Center by men thought to Syria, which has taken control of February 26, 1993 Al-Qaeda have links to al-Qaeda, a militant several towns in the region. makes its ambitions clear with Islamist organization. Some an audacious attack on the Muslims had been radicalized and The events of September 11 World Trade Center, New York. adopted international terrorism mark the largest terrorist attack during the struggles over Israel. ever on US soil. Subsequent AFTER In 1979, the Soviet invasion of attacks in London, Madrid, and 2004 Al-Qaeda urges Sunni Afghanistan led to the worldwide Paris, carried out by a diffuse Muslims to rise up against US mobilization of Muslim militants to network of regional terrorist forces in Iraq. Bombings by fight the invaders. Around that time, groups, have added a chilling Islamic extremists in Madrid, Osama Bin Laden formed al-Qaeda. dimension to the threat of Spain, kill 190 people. Intelligence reports suggested that Islamic terrorism. ■ he was the mastermind behind February 2014 Terrorist September 11. He was killed in 2011. group ISIS aims to create an Islamic caliphate that covers See also: The Young Turk Revolution 260–61 ■ The establishment of Iraq and Syria and spreads Israel 302–03 ■ The Suez Crisis 318–21 its influence worldwide.

328 WYYOOOUURBALFRDFOBEWYCSTWETHHAET THE LAUNCH OF THE FIRST WEBSITE (1991) IN CONTEXT The US military sets up The ARPANET grows the Advanced Research and develops to become FOCUS Communication Projects Agency the Internet. and computing Network (ARPANET). BEFORE The first website is launched to help 1943–44 John Mauchly and users navigate the Internet. J. Presper Eckert build the Electronic Numerical Integrator The Web becomes a global telecommunications tool and Calculator (ENIAC), the used by millions. forebear of digital computers. The Internet radically changes how the world 1947 The transistor allows for shares information and conducts business. small, powerful electronics, enabling later developments T he first website was titled Berners-Lee was interested in such as the home computer. “World Wide Web” and gave facilitating the exchange of ideas basic information about the between scientists in universities 1962 The Telstar 1 satellite is World Wide Web project and how and research institutes, and he first launched, sending TV signals, to create Web pages. It was built proposed his idea for a worldwide telephone calls, and fax by Tim Berners-Lee, a British network of computers sharing images through space. computer scientist at the European information in 1989. His site went Organization for Nuclear Research live in 1991 and was accessed by 1980s The first mobile phones (CERN) in Geneva, Switzerland. a small group of fellow CERN come onto the market. AFTER 2000s The boom in wireless communication connects nearly all of humankind. 2003 The invention of Skype allows for free communication over the Internet.

THE MODERN WORLD 329 See also: The opening of the Amsterdam Stock Exchange 180–83 ■ Darwin publishes On the Origin of Species 236–37 ■ The Berlin Airlift 296–97 ■ The launch of Sputnik 310 Sir Tim Berners-Lee, creator of more general use. Mosaic could The future is now the World Wide Web, was fascinated show pictures as well as text, Nowhere has the introduction of by computers from a young age. and users could follow Web links microchip technology had more Today, he is an advocate for an open simply by clicking on them with impact than the introduction of the and free Internet. a mouse. The Web became Apple iPhone in 2007. So-called synonymous with the Internet, but smartphones have made the researchers. Crucially, Berners-Lee they are distinct from one another. Internet a mobile resource, with persuaded CERN that the World The World Wide Web facilitated wireless connectivity offering Wide Web should be given to the navigation of the Internet and on-the-go access to news and world as a free resource. helped make the Internet such an satellite navigation, for example. effective mode of communication. Information and ideas can be Although it revolutionized the shared from anywhere at the touch computer and communications The computing revolution of a button via social-networking world like nothing before, the World The introduction in 1981 of IBM’s sites such as Facebook and Twitter. Wide Web was only possible by 5150 personal computer drove a Smartphones have also had an bringing together several existing revolution in home and office impact on education, healthcare, technologies: the telephone, computing. Smaller and cheaper and culture, and have changed the television, radio, and Internet. than the large office computers, it political landscape through use and its successors had access to the by protestors organizing rallies via The Internet Internet and email. With personal social media to undermine regimes. The Soviet Union’s launch of the computers, the Internet saw huge Uprisings such as the Arab Spring, Sputnik 1 satellite in 1957 spurred growth. The first search engines which began in 2010, were partly the US Defense Department to began to appear in the early 1990s; powered by activists who consider means of communication Google, which is now almost communicated across the Internet. after a nuclear attack. This led to synonymous with Web searches, Internet activism, or “clicktivism,” the formation of the ARPANET arrived a little later, in 1997. The has since become a powerful way (Advanced Research Projects launch of online marketplace to share ideas, raise awareness, or Agency Network) in 1969, a system Amazon in 1994 revolutionized the support a cause. With more than initially of four computers. In the way people shopped, allowing the 3 billion users, the World Wide Web mid-1980s, this growing network of purchase of everything from books has transformed every aspect of interconnected computers became and CDs to hotel rooms and airline modern daily life. ■ known as the Internet. Both the tickets from the comfort of home. Internet and the World Wide Web The information highway were limited to academic and The Internet brought about will transform our research organizations. significant changes to the way businesses operated; globalization culture as dramatically It wasn’t until the 1993 launch of escalated, and the world seemed as Gutenberg’s press a user-friendly Web browser called to become a much smaller place, did the Middle Ages. Mosaic that the Web took off for with communication improved by the speed and efficiency of the Bill Gates Internet. Jobs were outsourced, and companies effectively became “nationless,” since it was easier to operate from anywhere in the world. The next wave of technological advances saw devices become smaller and more mobile due to electronic components on tiny integrated circuits, or “chips.”

330 IN CONTEXT FBBMOCAIREFLONCGOORAARASUMTNINSEGGCEIHATIISRNATGOILWCETTCASHHHMOYEHEILACSALWRHTSAKEOPEMRSTLESD’S FOCUS Globalization and THE GLOBAL FINANCIAL CRISIS (2008) inequality BEFORE 1929 The Wall Street Crash leads to the Great Depression, the worst economic crisis of the 20th century. 1944 Delegates of 44 countries meet at Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, to reshape the global financial system. 1975 France, Italy, Germany, Japan, Britain, and the US form the Group of Six (G6) to foster international trade. 1997–98 The Asian financial crisis, starting in Indonesia and spreading around the world, is a precursor to events in 2008. AFTER 2015 World leaders pledge to eradicate world poverty by 2030. T he turn of the 21st century brought troubling signs of a worldwide recession. Low interest rates and unregulated credit had induced more and more people to get into unsustainable debts. Bankers, particularly in the US, offered mortgages to customers with a poor credit history. These mortgages were called “subprime mortgages”. It was hoped that if people could not keep up with their mortgage payments, their houses could be repossessed and sold at a profit, but this depended on house prices rising. In 2007, interest rates crept up, and house prices fell. People began defaulting on their monthly repayments. Across the US,

THE MODERN WORLD 331 See also: The Wall Street Crash 282–83 ■ The 1968 protests 324 ■ The launch of the first website 328–29 ■ Global population exceeds 7 billion 334–339 Many countries enjoy Subprime mortgages Complex financial historically low in the US are considered instruments mask debt interest rates. levels incurred by banks. a safe investment. The world is plunged The interlinking Mortgage defaults into the worst recession of financial soar. Banks and financial institutions risk collapse. since the Great markets leads to Depression. a global crisis. houses were repossessed at a great in the subprime mortgages market, spent less. Ireland became loss, with bankers fearing they was forced to file for bankruptcy. the first European country to would not get their money back. The US government considered fall into recession, a period of Lehman Brothers too insolvent economic decline. Iceland’s The crisis spreads to Europe and did not bail it out. government resigned in October In August 2007, the French bank 2008 after the country became Paribas revealed that it was at The turmoil in financial markets almost bankrupt. Some risk from the subprime mortgage led to a severe economic downturn governments—such as those market. Bankers had gambled with in most Western economies. Share in the US, China, Brazil, and trillions of dollars of investment on prices plummeted, and world trade Argentina—planned stimulus ❯❯ risky mortgages that might now be decreased because governments worthless. Panic set in, and banks stopped lending to one another. British bank Northern Rock faced a shortage of readily available cash, and was forced to ask the British government for an emergency loan. Around the world, shares began to plummet. In September 2008, US mortgage lenders Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac were rescued by the American government, while Lehman Brothers, a powerful investment bank heavily involved Lehman Brothers, an investment bank with a long history of trading, filed for bankruptcy on September 15, 2008, after getting involved in the failing subprime mortgage market.

332 THE GLOBAL FINANCIAL CRISIS The oil crisis that struck Western countries in 1973–74 was the result of the Yom Kippur War. Fuel rationing in the US led to scenes such as this, with motorists getting stranded. packages to boost their economies. and a stable dollar. In 1944, the The role of oil They increased government International Monetary Fund (IMF) By the 1970s, the world was divided spending and decreased taxes. was formed to foster the revival of between rich industrial countries Others, especially in Europe, global trade. The US’s strong post- and poor developing nations, and oil opted for austerity, freezing public war economy and the Marshall had become increasingly important. spending, and increasing taxes. Plan of 1947, a US-led initiative to In 1960, the Organization of Arab Protests and strikes swept through aid Western countries, invigorated Petroleum Exporting Countries Europe in response to these world trade through encouraging (OAPEC), including Saudi Arabia, measures. Portugal, Spain, and capitalism and the free exchange Egypt, Iraq, and Iran, was founded. Greece came under pressure from of goods between nations. Signed As oil reserves in other countries the European Union (EU) to lower in 1947, the General Agreement on dwindled, the states around the their debts. The EU spent billions Tariffs and Trade (GATT) dictated Persian Gulf, where this resource propping up weak economies in an that tariffs be removed to open up had remained plentiful, became attempt to keep the Eurozone, and markets around the world. dominant. In October 1973, when the euro, viable. But the effect of the Egypt and Syria invaded Israel economic crisis was devastating, The Asian tiger during the Yom Kippur War, OAPEC and many people lost their homes Japan, meanwhile, saw massive embargoed oil to any country and jobs. It was the worst economic economic growth. The Japanese helping Israel, and prices tripled. downturn since World War II. government implemented reforms Without oil, industrial output based on efficiency and restricted dropped. The United States Post-war economy foreign imports. They did not introduced strict fuel rationing, After World War II, most of Europe, sign up to the GATT agreement which ended in March 1974, when Japan, China, and the Soviet Union, until 1955. Japan invested in its the oil embargo was lifted. all devastated by war, needed coal and steel industries, as well as time to recover. The US, which shipbuilding and car manufacturing. A new economic model had experienced a huge rise in In the 1960s, Japan specialized in The oil crisis in the mid-1970s led manufacturing for the war effort high-tech products such as cameras to a deep global recession, soaring and was spared destruction, and computer chips. Countries such inflation, and high unemployment. continued manufacturing at as South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, In response, a new “neo-liberal” higher levels than ever before and and Malaysia experienced similar economic policy was adopted, dominated the world economy. growth with an emphasis on transferring control of economic The post-war economic planners electronics and technology. These factors from the public to the sought a new economic order successes became collectively private sector. Welfare programs based on industrial strength known as “Asian tiger economics.” were perceived to be one cause of economic failures, and there were drastic cutbacks. Deregulation became the driving force behind world economics, sweeping away many governmental controls and freeing up organizations to trade across a wider range of territories. The need for this was particularly felt in the United States, which faced stiff competition from a world now fully rebuilt from the

THE MODERN WORLD 333 September and October their barriers to trade and embarked individuals and, thus, increased of 2008 was the worst on economic reform, leading to a inequality. Some countries have also financial crisis in global dramatic improvement in living remained extremely poor—areas of history, including the standards. As East and West sub-Saharan Africa, for example Germany reunited in 1989, after the have fared badly and been left Great Depression. fall of the Berlin Wall, the European behind, in debt to wealthier nations. Ben Bernanke Union (EU), an economic union of 28 European countries, emerged as Economic recessions have Former head of the Federal Reserve a major force in the world economy. occurred throughout history, but the Also in the 1980s, China opened financial crisis of 2008–11 was the destruction of World War II. Some of up to foreign trade, and huge sums worst—at least since the Great the rigid laws and regulations that of foreign investment poured in, Depression of 1929—and maybe had been put in place to protect leading to extraordinary growth. the worst ever. Many felt it was consumers were now considered to an avoidable disaster caused by be interfering with free enterprise. Global economy widespread failures in government The world economy is now far more regulation and heedless risk-taking The global push for deregulation open. Internet use allows people to by investment bankers. Only resulted in the adoption of new order goods in one part of the world massive monetary and fiscal stimuli markets, greater competition, and and have them delivered elsewhere prevented catastrophe. Household openness, especially as the world within a matter of days. World trade and business debts remained high, adapted to the end of the Cold War is made up of global partnerships, and there was widespread fury and the collapse of the Soviet Union. with multinational companies that directed at bankers, whom many felt The example set in east Asia boast huge turnovers. Across the had survived relatively unscathed. influenced policy makers in other globe, people tend to migrate to Austerity measures provoked civil Asian countries, such as India and cities to find work, resulting in unrest. Demonstrations were held China. Mexico and Brazil lowered an increase in urbanization. against capitalism; the Occupy Movement spread, with tens of One complaint that is often thousands marching in New York, aimed at globalization is that some London, Frankfurt, Madrid, Rome, companies exploit cheap labor and Sydney, and Hong Kong. While behave unethically in their bid for financiers argued over the causes of profit. Another is that globalization the Global Recession, the impact has contributed to the extraordinary on the lives of ordinary people had accumulation of wealth by a few profound, lasting consequences. ■ People took to the streets to An era of protest in 2009, they were faced with protest against the actions of banks thousands of angry protestors. and multinationals, which were seen The global economic crisis that Social media became critical as the trigger of the financial crisis. began in 2008 generated much in the organization of large anger at institutional symbols of gatherings and the occupation power and greed, and there was of physical spaces. As protests an upsurge of popular protest. spread throughout Europe, they Demonstrations united those used the banner of “Occupy,” venting at bankers and capitalists, a movement set up in New York anti-globalization protestors, and to protest against social and environmentalists. There was economic inequality. There were growing anger at the level of riots in Rome, strikes in Greece, inequality, corporate greed, demonstrations in Portugal, and the lack of jobs. and occupations in the public squares of Barcelona, Moscow, When the G20, an international Madrid, New York, Chicago, forum for finance ministers, met and Istanbul. in the financial heart of London

ENTIRETHIS IS A DAY ABOUT OUR HUMAN FAMILY GLOBAL POPULATION EXCEEDS 7 BILLION (2011)



336 GLOBAL POPULATION EXCEEDS 7 BILLION IN CONTEXT O n October 31, 2011, a baby countries experience falling birth girl born in Manila, the rates, while population growth FOCUS capital of the Philippines, increased sharply in the relatively Population explosion was chosen by the United Nations underdeveloped areas of Asia, (UN) to symbolically represent Africa, and South America due to a BEFORE the 7 billionth person on earth. much higher birth rate. In 1987, the 1804 The world’s population To mark this global-population 5 billionth person was born; and by reaches 1 billion. Population milestone, October 31st was named 1999, the 6 billionth. It took 123 growth is the fastest in Europe. Seven Billion Day, but with a billion years for the world’s population to people reported to be going hungry go from 1 billion to 2 billion but had 1927 World population reaches at that time, debates were rekindled taken only 12 years to make the 2 billion as death rates fall and about whether the Earth could leap from 6 billion to 7 billion. birth rates stay high. support so many people. The Green Revolution 1959 The approximately Before the 17th century, the During the early 20th century, 3 billionth baby is born. world’s population increased very many countries imported large slowly, but it began to expand quantities of food that they were 1989 Annual World Population rapidly after 1850. This was in part unable to grow themselves, to Day is established by the UN due to a reduction in the number enable them to meet the demands on July 11, inspired by the of children dying in infancy, but of a growing population. Britain, interest in the symbolic death rates fell overall, too, as new for example, imported 55 million 5 billionth baby. farming technology expanded the tons of food each year. food supply and lowered the risk AFTER of famine. The marked increase In the early 1940s, Mexico 2050 Global population is set of industrialization and advances imported half of its wheat, and its to hit 9.7 billion, a slowdown in in medicine improved public health population was rapidly expanding. growth, with fewer babies and living standards. The country requested technical born per household. expertise from the United States on By 1927, the world-population ways to increase wheat production. 2100 Estimates suggest that figure had reached 2 billion. In the By 1944, with the financial support the world population will be early 20th century, population of the American Rockefeller over 11 billion, posing grave growth was highest in the rich Foundation, a group of US scientists, challenges for food supplies. industrialized West, but this including American biochemist pattern began to change. Mid- Norman Borlaug, had begun century saw many European Living longer eradication of some killer Dr. Norman Borlaug shows off his diseases. The antibiotic drug wheat, which he bred specifically for its During the 20th century, life penicillin, which helps fight hardiness against disease and ability expectancy rose dramatically. In bacterial infection, became to produce high yields. It revolutionized 2013, the average life expectancy widely used to treat diseases wheat production in Mexico. worldwide, from birth, was 71.0 such as tuberculosis and years. Health education, which syphilis. Later, mass vaccination focused on diet and basic programs by governments and hygiene, led to a reduction in the United Nations’ World infant mortality, and better Health Organization (WHO) sanitation and clean drinking helped eradicate smallpox and water have reduced the risks of work toward the elimination of spreading infectious diseases, polio. Advances in medicine and including cholera and typhoid. diagnostics have revolutionized healthcare. Some scientists One of the biggest predict that by 2050, the average contributory factors to longer life expectancy will be 100. life expectancy has been the

THE MODERN WORLD 337 See also: The outbreak of the Black Death in Europe 118–19 ■ The Columbian Exchange 158–59 ■ Stevenson’s Rocket enters service 220–25 ■ The opening of Ellis Island 250–51 ■ The opening of the Eiffel Tower 256–57 researching methods of developing Death rates decline Better living conditions and a high-yielding strain of wheat that and birth rates rise. medical advances help could resist disease and was short increase life expectancy. in height, so as to reduce wind damage. The work in Mexico was Concern about how to feed the growing population incredibly successful: by 1956, the kick-starts the Green Revolution. country was totally self-sufficient and no longer imported wheat and The global population continues to increase, maize. This success launched particularly in developing countries. what became known as the Green Revolution—the spread of new The world’s population exceeds 7 billion. modern agricultural technologies in the 1960s and 70s that dramatically Increasing strains on the environment such as food shortages, increased food production around water scarcity, and climate change threaten millions of lives. the world. The Green Revolution benefited countries that included this in agricultural science allowed cause cancer and also be bad for the Philippines, Bangladesh, Sri chronically poor countries, in Asia the environment. Silent Spring led Lanka, China, Indonesia, Kenya, in particular, to feed themselves to a nationwide ban on DDT in the Iran, Thailand, and Turkey. and meet the demands of their US and raised enough concern growing populations. to trigger the establishment of the Indian scientists in particular Environmental Protection Agency had followed the work of Borlaug The Green Revolution did not (EPA), an independent body to and his colleagues. In the mid- come without controversy, not safeguard the environment. The 1960s, India had been struck by two least because it involved a move Green Revolution also faced huge back-to-back droughts, which led to toward chemical pesticides. During challenges in many countries in the need for large food imports from the 1940s, the insecticide DDT Africa, where there was a lack of the United States. In 1964, both (dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane) irrigation facilities, unreliable India and Pakistan began importing was introduced as a way of rainfall, high fertilizer prices, and and testing semi-dwarf varieties of controlling a variety of diseases, no credit to buy new seed varieties. wheat from Mexico, and the results including mosquito-borne malaria, were promising: in the spring of with a single treatment. However in GM crops 1966, the harvest was larger than 1962, American biologist Rachel Genetically modified (GM) crops any ever produced in South Asia, Carson highlighted the dangers of were greeted with excitement in the despite it being a dry year. DDT in her groundbreaking book 1990s and regarded as part of the ❯❯ Silent Spring, claiming that it may Miracle rice In 1960, a new so-called miracle rice known as IR-8 was developed at the International Rice Research Institute in the Philippines. With its much reduced growing cycle, this new product brought about a dramatic transformation in farmers’ lives. In countries such as Vietnam, two complete crops of the new rice could now be produced each year, whereas the traditional rice it replaced would only produce one crop. Stunning innovations such as

338 GLOBAL POPULATION EXCEEDS 7 BILLION Second Green Revolution, but this, hunger. The feeling in Europe, This is not a political issue. Or too, proved controversial. GM crops Africa, and Asia is more cautious, a cultural issue. It’s not about are foods produced from organisms with concern about pesticides and saving whales or rainforests … that have had changes added into possible harm to health. their DNA via genetic engineering. This is an emergency. They were introduced in America Despite such opposition, GM Stephen Emmott in 1994 when the US Food and Drug technology is still being developed. Administration (FDA) approved It is thought that 670,000 children Computer scientist and author the Flavr Savr tomato for sale. The die from lack of vitamin A each year, delayed-ripening tomato had a a deficiency that causes diseases the beginning of the 21st century, longer shelf-life than conventional such as malaria and measles and China experienced an onslaught tomatoes, but trials using potatoes leads to blindness. Advances in of urban development that meant suggested that GM produce was the tackling of such deficiencies the loss of a large number of the toxic to rats. Most European Union include, for example, the creation of country’s tiny farms. (EU) governments banned the use of “golden rice,” in which vitamin A GM crops, while supporters of GM is added to ordinary rice. People have historically been suggested that without genetic drawn to cities for employment and intervention, the world was destined Disappearing farmland social opportunities. In 1800, one to starve. Advocates of GM—notably While more—and stronger—crops in four British people lived in cities, the US, Brazil, Canada, Argentina, were needed to feed an ever- but by 1900 this had grown to three and Australia—believe it has the growing global population, cities in four. Many moved from rural potential to combat disease and have swallowed up large tracts areas to the city, but people also of farmland and rural areas. At moved from one country to another seeking refuge and a better life. This graph plots the projected high, 16 BILLIONS OF PEOPLE The urban population in 2014 medium, and low global population 15 accounted for 54 percent of the projections for 2100, based on a 2010 United 14 total global population, up from Nations report, alongside historical estimates 13 34 percent in 1960. In 2014, the (the black dotted line) from the US Census 11 UN predicted that two-thirds of Bureau and actual recorded figures (in blue). 12 the world will live in cities by 10 2050. However, lack of affordable High projection 9 accommodation is a key factor in Almost 16 billion 8 homelessness: in sub-Saharan people worldwide. 7 Africa, 70 percent of city-dwellers Medium projection 6 live in slums. Poor health and More than 10 billion 5 violent crime is an issue in the people worldwide. 4 world’s major cities, as is the huge Low projection 3 disparity between rich and poor. Just over 6 billion 2 people worldwide. 1 Climate change 0 Urbanization and development 1820 have placed increasing stresses on 2100 the environment. As the world’s population grew, it became a

THE MODERN WORLD 339 The severe air pollution caused by power plants in developing nations is having an enormously detrimental effect on the health of those people who live nearby. global challenge to improve living Scientists warned that humans the mid-1980s. This dire prediction standards without destroying the would pass the threshold beyond did not come to pass, but with an environment. Scientists believe which climate change becomes astonishing 7 billion humans on the that human activity is to blame catastrophic and irreversible if planet, there is an inevitable drain for climate change (or “global greenhouse-gas emissions kept on natural resources. Overfishing, warming”). Since the Industrial increasing. Sea levels are also particularly in Indonesia and China, Revolution in the 19th century, rising, eroding coastal areas and has led to fish stocks around the global temperatures have continued obliterating small islands in the world falling rapidly, and the to rise, with 2011–15 the warmest South Pacific. Rainfall patterns are demand for water could soon five-year period on record. changing, leading to severe drought outstrip supply. In 2015, the UN in Africa, and many species of predicted that 1.8 billion people will Some of the reasons behind animals are in danger of extinction. be living in countries or regions climate change are due to natural with absolute water scarcity by occurrences, but in the early 1970s The threat of climate change is 2025. Coal, which drives industry the rise of environmentalism raised now considered so serious that and production, is in increasing public doubts about the benefits leaders from around the world met demand but will eventually run out. to the planet of human activity. in 2015 in Paris, France, at a Developing nations were being conference to agree to reduce the The UN estimates that by 2050 urged to reduce carbon emissions, build-up of greenhouse gases. In the global population will be at 9.7 which are thought to effect climate fraught negotiations, developing billion, and that by 2100, 11.2 billion change. In 2015, India was opening countries demanded that wealthier people will inhabit the Earth. a mine a month to lift its 1.3 billion nations help pay for them to adapt Population dynamics are changing citizens out of poverty rapidly. to the effects of climate change, from high mortality and high Developed countries, which had such as increased floods and fertility to low mortality and low themselves contributed to climate droughts. In all, 196 nations fertility, with an increasingly elderly change, caused a new tension by adopted the first ever universal, population worldwide, which will suggesting that developing nations legally binding, global climate deal, be difficult to support. Challenges should cease exploiting their own limiting global warming to the such as climate change, migration natural resources to improve the relatively safe level of 3.6°F (2°C). and refugee crises, food and water economic well-being of their people. insecurity, poverty, debt, and A hungry world disease are greatly exacerbated by We are not going In the 1970s, ecology movements rapid population growth. Stabilizing to be able to predicted that hundreds of millions the growth of the world’s population burn it all. would die from mass starvation by may be the key to global survival. ■ Barack Obama On fossil fuels

340 FURTHER EVENTS IRISH INDEPENDENCE WORLD WAR II IN DE GAULLE FOUNDS THE THE PACIFIC FRENCH FIFTH REPUBLIC (1922) (1941–45) (1958) In the 1918 general election, republicans seeking independence In December 1941, the Japanese In 1958, France faced a crisis from the United Kingdom won a bombed the US fleet in Pearl over the future of its colony majority of Irish seats. After the Harbor, Hawaii, and launched a Algeria—members of the French republicans set up their own campaign of invasion in Thailand, army opposed that country’s parliament (the Dáil) and declared Malaysia, Burma, the Philippines, independence and were in open Ireland independent, Britain sent and other targets. This action revolt against the Fourth Republic’s troops to quell the rebellion. By brought the US into World War II. policies. The Republic collapsed, 1922, however, the two sides US and Japanese forces were and retired military and political reached an agreement that most of involved in years of bitter fighting, leader General Charles de Gaulle Ireland should become independent including a long air campaign; the proposed a new government system as the Irish Free State, while the six largest ever naval battle at Leyte with a strong executive president. northeastern counties, which had a Gulf, Philippines (1944); a three- This proposal won approval in a Protestant majority, should remain month land campaign to retake referendum, and de Gaulle himself part of the United Kingdom. This the Philippines; the bloody 82- was elected president. This Fifth division is still in place to this day. day battle of Okinawa; and the Republic is still in place in France. dropping of atomic bombs on THE SPANISH CIVIL WAR Hiroshima and Nagasaki (1945). SUHARTO REPLACES SUKARNO IN INDONESIA (1936–39) THE FOUNDING OF THE UNITED NATIONS (1965–67) In 1930–31, republicans overthrew Spain’s military dictatorship and (1944) In 1965 there was an attempted forced King Alfonso XIII into exile. coup against Indonesia’s President The republican government The United Nations was conceived Sukarno, but troops under Major- introduced socialist reforms and during World War II as a way to bring General Suharto, who had led reduced the power of the church the countries of the world together in Indonesia to independence in 1940, and the military. However, a revolt order to prevent further devastating defeated the rebels. Communists by disgruntled army officers and conflicts. Its aims were outlined at were blamed for the coup, and members of the Fascist Falange a 1944 conference at Dumbarton Suharto, having seized power from party led to civil war in 1936. Oaks, Washington, DC, and it Sukarno, had some 500,000 alleged The conflict escalated into an was formally established in 1945. communists killed. As Indonesia’s international ideological clash, Although the UN did not prevent second president, Suharto ruled with Fascist Italy and Germany subsequent wars, it has worked until 1998, leading the country into supporting the right-wing worldwide to promote peace and, a period of economic development, Nationalists, while socialists from through a range of special agencies with better health and living all over Europe volunteered to join and organizations, to champion conditions for many. However, their Republican comrades in Spain. education, health, human rights, his government was corrupt— Nationalist leader General Francisco independence for colonized peoples, he embezzled millions of dollars— Franco led his side to victory and and economic development. Most and his invasion of East Timor ruled as dictator of Spain until 1975. countries are now members. resulted in a massive death toll.

THE MODERN WORLD 341 THE MILITARY COUP PINOCHET SEIZES POWER THE IRANIAN REVOLUTION IN BRAZIL IN CHILE (1979) (1964) (1973) Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, the Shah The 1964 coup ousted Brazilian In 1973, a military coup led by of Iran, headed a secular regime president João Goulart, whose social General Augusto Pinochet deposed that westernized the country and reforms were labeled “communist” Chile’s elected socialist leader brought prosperity for some. In the by opponents. The coup, which was Salvador Allende, bringing Pinochet late 1970s, an increasingly strong carried out by part of the army with to power at the head of a military opposition movement gained US backing, ushered in a military junta. The US opposed Allende’s prominence, led by Islamic leaders government whose policies were left-wing government and backed such as Ayatollah Khomeini, who in line with US views. There was a the coup, because it considered its preached against the country’s huge increase in foreign economic support for right-wing dictatorships encroaching secular capitalism (as involvement in Brazil, and half of the in South America as part of its Cold well as against communism). In country’s largest companies passed War struggle against communism: 1979, the Shah was forced to leave into foreign ownership. Brazil socialist regimes were suppressed the country, and Ayatollah Khomeini enjoyed high economic growth even if they were completely installed a new government that under the dictatorship, but at the democratic. Pinochet, who was was focused on very strict Muslim expense of freedom, as opponents of notorious for imprisoning, killing, values. The revolution had a huge the regime were treated harshly. and torturing his opponents, impact, particularly in highlighting continued to receive American the increasing prominence of Islam THE RED ARMY FACTION’S backing and ruled until 1990. on the world stage and in relations TERRORIST ACTIVITY between the countries of the west THE SOVIET INVASION and the Middle East. (1970s) OF AFGHANISTAN THE US AND BRITAIN In 1968, many western countries (1979) INVADE IRAQ saw anti-capitalist and anti- imperialist demonstrations, strikes, In the late 1970s, Afghanistan’s (2003) and riots. These failed to produce left-wing government (a close ally any change, however, and in the of the Soviet Union) was threatened The 2003 invasion of Iraq started a aftermath, a number of groups by US-backed Muslim fighters, the war that saw forces, mainly from evolved to pursue an armed anti- mujahideen, who objected to the the US and Britain, deposing capitalist struggle. One of the most regime’s modernizing policies in the Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein, long-lasting of these groups was areas such as women’s education. who oppressed his own people, the Germany Red Army Faction, In 1979, the USSR invaded supported international terrorism, founded in 1970 and also known Afghanistan, beginning a 10-year and, according to the US and its as the Baader-Meinhof group, after war in which an estimated 1.5 allies, possessed weapons of mass two of its founders, Andreas Baader million Afghans were killed and destruction. Although the latter and Ulrike Meinhof. The group many others left the country. claim proved to be unfounded, carried out a series of terrorist Groups of mujahideen guerrillas the removal of Saddam Hussein attacks (including kidnappings, fought the invaders, who withdrew was nonetheless welcomed by bombings, robberies, and murders), in 1989. The war left the USSR many Iraqis. However, the lack mostly in the 1970s but also in militarily and politically weakened, of a post-war strategy brought later decades. Their activities— contributing to its collapse. A civil further instability and violence to and those of similar groups such war then broke out between the Iraq, and the war gave extremist as the Revolutionary Cells (also mujahideen and the Afghan army, opponents of the US and their allies operating in Germany in the same and power eventually passed to a pretext for launching terrorist period)—alienated most people. the hardline Islamic Taliban. attacks against them.

342 GLOSSARY Annexation The act of annexing: of seizing Coup d’état A sudden, illegal, and violent act Fascism An ideology typified by strong new territory to append to a country or state, of overthrowing a government or leader. It is leadership, stress on a collective identity, and usually using force. often committed by members of the current the use of violence or warfare to further the Autocracy A community or state in political establishment. interests of the state. The term derives from which unlimited authority is exercised Crusade A holy war undertaken on behalf the Italian fascio—a tied bundle of sticks— by a single individual. of a religious cause. Often used to refer to referring to collective identity, and was first Barbarian In ancient times, a group of expeditions launched by European Christians applied to Mussolini’s regime. people, land, or culture not belonging to in the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries to reclaim Feudalism A medieval political system that one of the great civilizations (Greek or the Holy Land from Muslims. consisted of small geographical units—such Roman), and so considered less socially Democracy A form of government in which as principalities or dukedoms—ruled by the advanced and uncivilized. supreme power is vested in the people and nobility, where the peasant population lived Bourgeoisie The middle class, particularly exercised by their elected representatives. in a state of bondage to their ruler. with reference to its perceived materialistic Dictator An absolute ruler, especially one Genocide The deliberate killing of a values or conventional attitudes. who assumes complete control without the large group of people, especially a whole Bureaucracy A government characterized by free consent of the people. This ruler can religious group, race, or nation. specialization of functions, adherence to fixed exercise their power oppressively. Guerrilla A member of an unofficial, often rules, and a hierarchy of authority. Direct democracy Government by the people politically-motivated, military group that Caliphate The rule or rank of a caliph—an in fact, rather than merely in principle—citizens uses surprise attacks and sabotage against Islamic spiritual and political leader regarded vote on every issue affecting them—as larger regular forces, such as the official army as the direct successor of Muhammad. practiced in ancient Athens. or police. Capitalism An economic system in which the Divine right of kings A doctrine that holds Hegemony The winning and holding of means of production are privately owned, firms that a monarch derives legitimacy from God, power and the formation of social groups compete to sell goods for profit, and workers and is not subject to any earthly authority. during that process. exchange their labor for a wage. Dynasty A line of rulers from the same family Ideology A framework of ideas that provide Civil war A war fought by opposing or group, or a period in time when a country is a viewpoint or set of beliefs for a social group. inhabitants of the same country. ruled by them. Immigration The act of entering a foreign Class A status hierarchy within the social Egalitarianism A philosophy that advocates country to live there permanently. system, reflecting power, wealth, education, social, political, and economic equality. Imperialism The policy of extending the and prestige. Emancipation The act of being freed from dominion of a nation through direct intervention Colony The area occupied by a body of legal, social, or political restrictions. in the affairs of other countries, and seizure of settlers living in a new territory, often already Embargo A government order to cease territory and subjugation of peoples in building occupied by an indigenous people that is trade or other commercial activity with an empire. subject to control by the settlers’ parent state. a particular country, often used as a Industrial Revolution A stage of Communism An ideology that advocates the diplomatic measure. development, originating in the UK in the elimination of private property in favor of Emigration The act of leaving one’s own 18th century, during which economies were communal ownership, based on the political country and moving permanently to another. transformed by new forms of mechanization manifesto of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Empire An extensive group of countries or from a mainly agricultural economy to an Conscription Compulsory enrolment into people under the rule of a single leader, urban, industrialized one. the military service. oligarchy, or sovereign state. Insurgency A condition of revolt against Constitution A written collection of the Enlightenment Also known as the Age of a government that is less than an organized fundamental principles and laws of a nation. Reason, a period of intellectual advances in revolution and is not recognized as warfare. Consumerism The state of an advanced the 18th century that involved a questioning of Jihad In Islam, a religious duty to struggle capitalist society in which the buying and religious understandings of the world and the against evil in the name of God, whether selling of various goods and services define application of reason. spiritually or physically. the era. The term also refers to a perception Eugenics The belief, or the study of the belief, Just war theory A doctrine of military ethics that individuals desire goods to construct that the human population can be improved comprising Jus ad bellum (“right to war”), which self-identity. upon by controlling breeding. is the need for a moral and legal basis for war, and Jus in bello (“justice in war”), which is the need for the moral conduct of warfare.

GLOSSARY 343 Labor camp A prison camp where people Prehistory The period of human past before work on his lord’s land. A serf could be are forced to do difficult manual labor, often written records began, and so largely transferred with the land should it be sold in bad conditions. understood through archaeological history. to a new landowner. Leftism, left wing Ideology of the political Proletariat The lowest social or economic Socialism An ideology and method of “left.” It is characterized by an interventionist class of a community. government that advocates state ownership approach to social welfare and an Propaganda The organized spread of and regulation of industry, and central control internationalist worldview. The concept information, ideas, and opinion, often via over the allocation of resources, as opposed originated in 18th-century France, when the media, to either promote or damage to allowing these to be determined by nobility who sought to improve the peasants’ a government, movement, institution etc. market forces. conditions sat to the left of the king. Puppet state A country that is nominally Sovereignty Supreme power as exercised by Liberalism A philosophy originating in independent, but in fact relies on an external an autonomous state or ruler, free from any the 18th century that advocates the rights foreign power, which often controls the state external influence or control. Usually used to of the individual over those of the state or using military force. refer to a nation’s right to self-determination in Church, opposing absolutism and the divine Racism The belief that all members of a internal affairs and international relations with right of kings. certain race share similar characteristics and other countries. Martial law The law temporarily imposed by attributes, and that this means that certain Space Age A period in the 20th century the military when civil law is suspended in a races are inherently superior or inferior. characterized by space exploration. It is country or state. Rationalism The belief that reason, not considered to have started in October 1957 Marxism The philosophy underpinning the emotion or intuition, should govern the actions when the Soviet Union first launched the writings of Karl Marx, proposing that the that people take. satellite Sputnik I into orbit. economic order of society determines the Reformation A 16th-century European State An organized authority that has political and social relationships within it. political and religious movement that sought legitimate control over a territory, and a Meritocracy The belief that rulers should be reform from the Roman Catholic Church and monopoly of the use of force within its territory. selected on the basis of ability, rather than papal authority, and resulted in the Suffrage The right to vote in elections or wealth or birth. establishment of the Protestant Churches. referenda. Universal suffrage refers to the right Militia A body of citizens, who may have Renaissance A period of time in Europe to vote of citizens regardless of their gender, some level of military training, who are called from the 14th–17th century marked by great race, social status, or wealth. Women’s on to supplement a country’s professional army achievements in the arts, literature, and suffrage describes the right of women to vote in times of emergency. learning, often regarded as the transition on the same basis as men, as campaigned for Nation-state A sovereign state inhabited by a from the medieval to the modern world. in the early 20th century by activists such as largely homogenous group of people, who Reparations Compensation—usually money, the “suffragettes.” share common features such as language, material, or labor—paid by a defeated nation Superpower A sovereign nation with great descent, and traditions. to make up for damage, injuries, and economic political and military power, capable of Nationalism Loyalty and devotion to the losses suffered by another country as the influencing international politics. home nation, and the political belief that its result of war. Totalitarianism A regime that subordinates interests should be pursued as the primary Republic A state with no monarch, in which the rights of the individual in favor of the goal of a political policy. power resides with the people and is exercised interests of the state, through control Nomadic Relating to, or characteristic of, by their elected representatives. of political and economic affairs and nomads—a group of people who move from Revolution An overthrow of the current prescription of the attitudes, values, and place to place, often in relation to the seasons, political regime or social order, sometimes beliefs of the population. and within a specific territory. using violent measures, by the governed people. Treaty A formal contract that sets out Oligarchy A form of government in which Rightism, right wing The ideology of agreements—such as an alliance, the end of power is held by a small group and exercised the political “right,” loosely defined as hostilities, or a trade agreement—between in their own interest, usually to the detriment favoring conservative, pro-market attitudes, two or more states. of the general population. a preference for individual rights over Vassal In a feudal system, a man granted Paramilitary A group of civilians that have interventionist government, a strict approach the use of land by a king, lord, or other military training and are organized according to law and order, and nationalism. The concept superior landowner, in return for homage to military structure, which often acts as originated in 18th-century France, when those and allegiance. support for a country’s official military force. who were broadly in support of the monarchy Viceroy A ruler who controls a colony on Partisan An absolute supporter of a particular sat to the right of the king. behalf of his or her sovereign. political leader, party, or cause who typically Separatists A group of people who advocate Zionism A worldwide political movement that exhibits unquestioning allegiance. separation from an organization or group. proclaims that the Jewish people constitute a Pilgrimage A journey to a shrine or sacred Serf Especially in medieval Europe, a lower nation, and are therefore entitled to a homeland. site as an act of religious devotion. class person bound to undertake agricultural It originally focused on creating a country for Jewish people, and now looks to develop and protect the modern state of Israel.

344 INDEX Numbers in bold refer to main entries. al-Andalus 91–2 Barbarian invasions 68–9 al-Andalusi, Said 89 Barentsz, Willem 182 9/11 attacks 320, 327 Angkor Wat 108–9 Bastille, storming of the 208–13 1848 revolutions 228–9, 239, 240, 251 Angola 307 Batista, General Fulgencio 309, 315 1968 protests 324 Anhalt, Christian of 168 Bay of Pigs invasion 309, 314–15 anti-Semitism 251, 285, 289, 292 Bayt al Hikma (House of Wisdom) 89–90, 91, 93 A apartheid 235, 325 Belisarius 76–7 Arab invasions 74, 78, 80–1, 132 Ben-Gurion, David 302, 303 Abd ar-Rahman I, Emir of Córdoba 91–2 Arab League 302, 318 Berlin Airlift 296–7 Abdul Hamid II, Sultan 260 Arab Spring 318, 321 Berlin Conference 258–9 Abraham ibn Ezra 92 Arab–Israeli War 319 Berlin Wall 296, 322–3, 326, 333 absolutism 190, 210 Archimedes 91 Bernanke, Ben 333 Abu ’Abd Allah, Emir 128 architecture 152–3, 170, 171, 256–7 Berners-Lee, Tim 328–9 Abu Bakr 80 Arianism 66, 67 Bessemer, Henry 222, 225 Abu Simbel, Temples of 38–9 Aristotle 51, 53, 92, 93, 194 Bill of Rights 101, 175 Acampichtli 114 Armstrong, Neil 310 bin Laden, Osama 320, 327 Achaemenid Empire 44–5 art 22–7, 152, 153–5, 183 al-Biruni 91 Actium, Battle of 60, 64 artillery 156–7 Bismarck, Otto von 240, 241, 258 Afghanistan, Soviet invasion of 341 Ashoka the Great, Emperor 40, 41 Black Death 15, 75, 104, 118–19 African National Congress (ANC) 325 Asian financial crisis (1997-98) 330 Black Panthers 324 African Americans 311 Assad, Bashar 321 Boer Wars 235, 258, 265 agriculture 19, 30–1, 158–9, 181, 202, 222–3, 336–8 Assyrians 70 Bolívar, Simón 216, 217, 218–19 Ahuitzotl 115 astronomy 90, 91, 127 Bolsheviks 276–9, 296 Akbar the Great, Emperor 170–1 Atahuallpa 117 Borlaug, Norman 336, 337 al-Qaeda 320, 321, 327 Atatürk, Mustafa Kemal 141, 260, 261 Bosnian War 326 Alberti, Leon Battista 153 Athens 44, 45, 46–51, 70 Boudica, Queen of the Iceni 71 Alcaçovas, Treaty of 149 atomic bomb 293.340 Boulton, Matthew 224 Aleandro, Cardinal Girolamo 163 Attila the Hun 69 Boxer Rebellion 254, 255 Alesia, Battle of 71 Augustus, Emperor 52, 60, 64–5 Breitenfeld, Battle of 166, 168 Alexander II, Tsar 243 Aurangzeb, Emperor 170 Bretton Woods system 330 Alexander III, Tsar 243 Auschwitz 294, 295 Britain, Battle of 288, 290–1 Alexander VI, Pope 149 Australia, first humans arrive in 20–1 Bronze Age 34, 37, 42, 43 Alexander the Great 44, 45, 51, 52–3 Austro-Hungarian Empire 240–1, 272–3 Brunel, Isambard Kingdom 224, 234 Alexios I Komnenos, Emperor 106, 107 Axayactl 115 Brunelleschi, Filippo 152, 153, 155 Alexis, Tsarevich 196 Axum 71 Brutus, Marcus Junius 63, 64 Alfonso VI of Castile 92 Ayacucho, Battle of 219 Buchanan, James 233 Alfonso XIII of Spain 341 Ayutthaya 109 Buddhism 35, 40–1, 108, 109 Alfred the Great, King of the English 132 Azerbaijan 326 Bureau, Jean 156 Ali ibn Abi Talib 81 Aztec Empire 75, 114–17, 148, 150 Byzantine Empire 53, 67, 74, 76–7, 80, 81, 88, Allende, Salvador 341 Almoravid Empire 110, 111 B 138–9, 141, 154 alphabets 34–5, 42, 43, 130, 131 Altamira, cave paintings 22–5 Baader, Andreas 341 C Álvarez, Fernando 168 Babur, Emperor 170, 171 American Civil War 15, 244–7 Babylon 36, 37, 44, 45, 53, 70 Cabral, Pedro Álvarez 148, 149 American Indians 132, 159, 173, 249, 264 Bacon, Francis 188 Caesar, Julius 53, 58–65, 71 American Revolution 101, 204, 218 Baghdad, foundation of 86–93 California Gold Rush 248–9 Amin, Idi 307 Balfour Declaration 298, 303 Calvin, John 160, 161 Amorites 37 Balkan Wars 1912-13 241, 260, 261, 272 Cano, Sebastien del 151 Amsterdam Stock Exchange 180–3 Banks, Joseph 189 Cape Town, Dutch colony at 199 An Lushan, revolt of 84–5 Bannockburn, Battle of 133 capitalism 137, 178, 182, 202, 229, 268, 269, 278, 279, 315, 316, 317, 322, 332, 333

INDEX 345 Carmichael, Stokely 311 Confederacy 246–7 Diocletian, Emperor 66 Carolingian Renaissance 83 Confucius/Confucianism 57, 125, 130, 131 disease, spread of 136, 149–50, 151, 158, 159, 269 Carson, Rachel 337–8 Congress of Vienna 228, 229, 240 divine right 101 Carter, Jimmy 320 conquistadors 75, 116, 136, 149–51, 158 DNA 21, 236, 338 Carthaginians 70–1 Constantin I, Emperor 66–7 Dollar Diplomacy 233 Cartier, Jacques 198 Constantine XI, Emperor 139 Dollfuss, Engelbert 285 cartography 93 Constantinople, fall of 138–41, 154, 156 Drogheda, Siege of 199 Casas, Bartolome de las 146 Continental System 215 Dunkirk, evacuation of 290 Cassius Longinus, Gaius 63, 64 Cook, Captain James 189 Dürer, Albrecht 155 Castiglione, Giuseppe 186 Cortés, Hernán 116, 148, 150 Dutch East India Company 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, Castillon, Battle of 156–7 cotton trade 234–5 Castro, Fidel 309, 314, 315 Council of Nicaea 66, 67 185, 199 Çatalhöyük 30–1 Council of Trent 160, 163 Dutch Republic 180–3 Catherine II (the Great) of Russia 196, 197 Counter-Reformation 160, 163 Dutch Revolt 166, 181, 198 Catherine of Aragon 198 Coverdale, Miles 161, 162 Dutch War, Second 177 cave paintings 22–7 Crassus, Marcus Licinius 62 Dutschke, Rudi 324 Cavour, Camillo 239, 240 Crimean War 243, 265 Ceauçescu, Nicolae 326 Cromwell, Oliver 174–5, 199 E Celts 70 crops 158–9, 181, 337–8 Central America 114–17, 150, 151, 158–9, 216–19 Crusades 75, 96, 106–7, 139 Eastern Bloc 269, 281, 323 Chamberlain, Neville 289 Cuban Missile Crisis 308–9 Eastern Roman Empire 67, 68, 69, 83 Champa 108, 109 Culcuhuacán, Lord of 114 ecological change 158–9 Charlemagne, Emperor 74, 82–3, 88, 89 Culloden, Battle of 199 economics Charles I of England 101, 174–5 Cult of the Supreme Being 213 Charles II of England 174, 175 Cultural Revolution 313, 316–17 global financial crisis (2008) 330–3 Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor 151, 158, 162, 198 Cumberland, Prince William, Duke of 199 Great Depression 282–3 Charles VII of France 156, 157 Custer, Lieutenant Colonel George 249 Edict of Milan 67 Charles X of France 228 Cuzco 114, 116 Edict of Nantes 166, 167, 190, 198 Chiang Kai-shek 305, 317 Cyrus II the Great 44, 45 Edo Period 184–5 Childeric 71 Czechoslovakia 289, 323, 326 Edward II of England 133, 156 Chile 150, 151, 341 Edward III of England 101, 133 Chimú culture 114, 116 D Edward the Confessor 132 Chiphyon-jon (Hall of Worthies) 130, 131 Eichmann, Adolf 295 Chosön dynasty 130–1 D-Day Landings 288 Eiffel, Gustave 256 Christianity, spread of 13, 66–7 da Gama, Vasco 144, 146, 149 Eiffel Tower 256–7 Churchill, Winston 13, 290, 296 Dachau 294 Eighty Years’ War 166 Cicero 51, 61 Dance of Death 118, 119 Einhard 83 city-states 44, 45, 48, 50, 52, 60, 70, 105, 154–5 Darius I of Persia 44, 45 Einstein, Albert 188 civil rights movement 269, 311 Darius III of Persia 44, 53.52 Eisenhower, Dwight D. 319 civil service, Chinese 84, 85, 124–5 Darwin, Charles, On the Origin of Species 236–7 Elizabeth I of England 166 civilizations 19, 34, 35, 36–7 Davison, Emily 262–3 Elizabeth of Bohemia 168 Claudius, Emperor 71 DDT 337–8 Ellis Island 250–1 Cleisthenes 49 de Gaulle, General Charles 291, 301, 340 emigration 250–1, 264 Clemenceau, Georges 280 De Klerk, F. W. 325 Engels, Friedrich 229 climate change 28–9, 30, 69, 75, 338–9 Declaration of Independence 204–7 English Civil War 174–5 Clive, General Robert 191 Declaration of the Rights of Man 211 Enlightenment 13, 137, 188, 192–5, 197, 205, 206, Clovis, King of the Franks 71, 82 Defenestration of Prague 164–9 210, 227 Colbert, Jean-Baptiste 190 Delian League 45, 48, 50 environment 28, 29, 269, 337–9 Cold War 268, 296–7, 300, 307, 308–9, 310, 322, 341 democracy, Athenian 46–51 Ephialtes 48, 49 Columbian Exchange 158–9 Deng Xiaoping 304, 316, 317 equality 202, 212, 244, 311, 324, 325 Columbus, Christopher 15, 129, 136, 142–7, 148, Denisovan hominins 20, 21 Erasmus 155 Denmark 240, 290 Erik the Red 95 149 Descartes, René 13, 188 Eriksson, Leif 95 Communism 229, 268, 276–9, 281, 285, 296, 297, Dias, Bartolomeu 144, 146 Esen Khan 126 Diaz, Porfirio 265 Euclid 90, 91 304–5, 312–17, 322, 323 Diderot, Denis 192–3, 194, 195 European Union 323, 331, 333, 338 Company of Royal Adventurers 176, 177 Diet of Worms 161, 162 Evans, Arthur 42 computer science 328–9 evolution 236–7 concentration camps 294, 295 Expedition of the Thousand (1860) 238–9 Concordat of Worms 96, 97

346 INDEX F global economy 232, 235, 268 Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor 96, 97 global financial crisis (2008) 269, 330–3 Henry VIII of England 160, 162, 198 farming, and health 31 globalization 333 Henry the Navigator, Prince 145–6 Farouk, King of Egypt 318, 319 Glorious Revolution 175 Herbert of Ketton 92 fascism 284–5, 289, 340 Godfrey of Bouillon 107 Hermann of Carinthia 92 Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor 198 Goebbels, Joseph 295 Herodotus 12, 45 Ferdinand II of Aragón 128, 129, 144, 146–7, 149 Gold Rush 248–9 Herzl, Theodor 303 Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor 167, 168 Gold Standard 232 Heyrick, Elizabeth 227 Ferdinand VII of Spain 218 Gorbachev, Mikhail 296, 322, 323 Hezbollah 321 feudalism 55, 100, 157, 211, 252, 253 Gordon, Charles George 265 Hezekiah, King of Judah 70 Fibonacci, Leonardo 93 Göring, Hermann 285 Hidalgo, Miguel 218 Final Solution 294–5 Goryeo dynasty 130 Hidetada 185 First Gulf War 320, 321 Goths 69, 76–7 Hideyoshi, Toyotomi 184, 185, 199 First Triumvirate 62 Goulart, João 341 Himmler, Heinrich 295 Flinders, Matthew 189 Gran Colombia 216, 218–19 Hinduism 40, 41, 90–1, 108, 109 Florence, Renaissance 152–5 Granada, fall of 128–9 Hiroshima 293, 340 Forbidden City (Beijing) 125 Grand Canal (China) 125 historiography 12–15 Franco, General Francisco 285, 289, 340 Grant, General Ulysses S. 245, 247 Hitler, Adolf 280, 283, 284–5, 288, 289, 290, 291, Franco-Prussian War 241, 256, 265, 272–3 Great Depression 268, 282–3, 330, 333 Franklin, Benjamin 192 Great Eastern 224, 225, 234 294, 295 Franks 69, 71, 82, 83, 88, 89, 132 Great Leap Forward 316, 317 Ho Chi Minh 312 Franz Ferdinand, Archduke 273 Great Northern War 197 Holbein, Hans (the Younger) 155 Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor (Barbarossa) 107 Great Schism 132 Holocaust 294–5, 303 Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor 93 Great Terror 281 Holy Roman Empire 74, 82, 132, 167–8, 198, 199, 215 Frederick II (the Great) of Prussia 191, 197 Great Wall of China 56, 126 Homestead Act (1862) 248 Frederick V, Elector Palatine 168 Greek War of Independence 228, 239, 241, 260, 261 Hong Kong 254, 301 Frederick the Wise, Elector of Saxony 162 Green Revolution 336–8 Hong Xiuquan 265 French Revolution 190, 195, 203, 206, 207, Gregory VII, Pope 96–7 Hongwu, Emperor 103, 120–7 Grunwald, Battle of 133 Houtman, Cornelis de 180 208–13, 229 Gulf of Tonkin Incident 312–13 Hu Hai, Emperor 57 gunpowder 127, 136, 156, 157 Huayna Capac 116 G Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden 166, 168–9 Hugo, Victor 210 Gutenberg, Johannes 155 Huguenots 162, 167, 190 G6 330 human origins 16–31 G20 333 H human rights 202, 307, 325, 340 Gaddafi, Muammar 321 humanism 13, 155, 162 Gagarin, Yuri 310 Habsburg dynasty 166, 167–9, 198, 199 Humayun 170, 171 Galen 90, 93 Hadrian, Emperor 65 Hume, David 194 Galerius, Emperor 66 Haganah 303 Hundred Years’ War 13, 133, 156–7 Galilei, Galileo 188, 192 Haig, Sir Douglas 274 Huns 68, 69 Gandhi, Mohandas 13, 299, 300, 301, 306 Haiti slave revolt 226, 227 hunter-gatherers 19, 24, 26–7, 30, 31 Garibaldi, Giuseppe 238–9 Hallstatt culture 70 Hus, Jan 133, 160, 162 Gautama, Siddartha 40–1 Hamilton, Alexander 207 Husayn ibn Ali 81 Gempei War 98, 99 Hammurabi, King of Babylon 36–7 Husayn ibn Ishaq 90 Genetically modified (GM) crops 338 Han dynasty 12, 35, 54, 57, 71, 104, 131 Hussein, Saddam 320, 341 Genghis Khan 102, 103, 104 Han’gul alphabet 130, 131 Hussite Revolt 133 George II of Great Britain 199 Hannibal 70–1 Huxley, Thomas 236 George III of Great Britain 206 Harald Hardrada of Norway 95 Huygens, Christiaan 188 George V of Great Britain 262 Harrison, John 189 Hyksos 39 Gerhard of Cremona 92 Harun al-Rashid, Caliph 88–90 Germanic tribes 68–9 Hawkins, John 176 I Gettysburg, Battle of 244–5 Al-Haythem 91 Gettysburg Address 244, 246, 247 Hegel, Georg 14, 240 Ibn Abdun, Muhammad ibn Ahmad 90 Ghana 110, 111, 306–7 Hellenistic culture 35, 51, 52–3, 90 Ibn Khaldun 13 Giotto 152 Henry I, King 100 Ibn Sina (Avicenna) 91, 93 Girondins 212 Henry IV of France 167, 198 Ice Age 19, 21, 24, 26, 27, 28–9, 30 Glenn, John 310 Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor 96–7 Al-Idrisi 88, 93 Ieyasu, Tokugawa 184, 185

INDEX 347 immigration 249, 250–1 Junkau, Battle of 169 Li Zicheng 127 Inca Empire 75, 114, 116–17, 148, 150 Jurjis ibn Jibril ibn Bukhtishu 89 life expectancy 269, 336 independence movements 216–19, 268–9, Justinian, Emperor 76–7 Lincoln, Abraham 13, 207, 244, 245 Lindisfarne 94–5 298–301, 306–7 K Linear A script 42, 43 Indian independence and partition 298–301 Little Bighorn, Battle of 249 Indian Mutiny 242 Kangxi, Emperor 186–7 Liu Bang 57 Indian National Congress 298, 299, 300 Kansas-Nebraska Act 244, 245 living standards 257, 269, 333 Indus Valley civilizations 36, 70 Kant Immanuel 192 Locke, John 195 Industrial Revolution 220–5, 229, 339 Kapur Singh, Nawab 264 Lombards 76, 77 industrialization 202, 224–5, 243, 251, 253, 257, Kennedy, John F. 308, 309, 315 Long March 304–5, 317 Kepler, Johannes 188 Louis XIV of France 190, 196, 198–9, 210–11 281, 297 Kerensky, Alexander 278 Louis XVI of France 206, 210–12 inequality 34, 269, 330, 333 Khartoum, Siege of 265 Louis-Philippe of France 228 internal-combustion engines 222 Khmer Empire 108–9 Louis the Pious 83 International Monetary Fund (IMF) 332 Khmer Rouge 313 Louisiana Purchase 206 Internet 329 Khomeni, Ayatollah 320, 327, 341 Loyola, Ignatius 163, 187 Investiture Controversy 96–7 Khrushchev, Nikita 308, 309 Lucknow, Siege of 242 Iranian Revolution 320, 341 Khufu 38 Lucretius 64 Iran–Iraq War 320 Khusrau, Shah 58 Lumumba, Patrice 301, 307 Iraq, invasion of 320–1, 341 Al-Khwarizmi 88, 91 Luther, Martin 160–3 Iron Age 34 King, Martin Luther Jr. 13, 15, 301, 311 Lvov, Prince Georgi Y 278 Isaac II Angelos, Emperor 139 Kitchener, Lord Horatio 265 Isabella I of Castile 128, 129, 144, 146–7, 149 Knights Templar 106, 107 M Isandiwana, Battle of 264 Knossos, Palace at 42–3 Islam, rise of 74, 78–81, 132 Korea, japanese invasion of 199 Maccartney, Lord 254 Islamic scholarship 74, 75, 88–93 Korean War 297 Machiavelli, Nicolò 157 Islamic State (IS/ISIS/ISIL) 321, 327 Kornilov, General Lavr 278 US Maddox 313 Ismail I, Shah 198 Kosovo 326 Madero, Francisco 265 Israel, establishment of 302–3 Kronstadt naval rebellion 279 Magellan, Ferdinand 144, 151 Italian Wars 156 Kublai Khan 102–3, 104, 105, 109, 122, 133 Magna Carta 15, 100–1 Itzcoatl 115, 116 Kuomintang 305 Magyars 69, 74, 132 Ivan the Terrible, Tsar 196 Mahdists 265 Iwo-Jima, Battle of 293 L al-Majusi, Ali ibn al-Abbas (Haly Abbas) 92 Malcolm X 311 J Langton, Stephen, Archbishop of Canterbury 101 Mamelukes 93, 138, 139 Last Glacial Maximum 21, 26, 27, 28–9 mammoths 28, 29 Jacobins 212 Lausanne, Treaty of 260, 261 al-Mamun, Caliph 89 Jacobites 199 Law Code of Hammurabi 36–7 man, early 18–27 Jahangir, Emperor 171 League of Nations 275, 280 Manchu invasion 122, 126, 127, 186–7 James I of England 175, 176 Lee, Richard Henry 205 Manco Capac 116 James II of England 101, 175 Lee, General Robert E. 244, 245, 246, 247 Mandate of Heaven 70 Jamestown, Virginia 172, 173 Lefèvre d’Étaples, Jacques 161 Mandela, Nelson 325 Janissaries 140–1 Lehman Brothers 331 Manhattan Project 308 Jayavarman VII, King 108 Leipzig, Battle of 215 Mansa Musa 110–11 Jefferson, Thomas 206–7 Lenin, Vladimir Ilyich 276–9, 277, 281, 296, 297 Al-Mansur, Caliph 88, 89, 90 Jerusalem, fall of 106–7 Leo III, Pope 82, 83 Manzikert, Battle of 106, 139 Jews 118, 119, 128, 129, 241, 285, 288, 292, 294–5, 303 Leo IX, Pope 96, 132 Mao Zedong 57, 304, 313, 316–17 Jiang Ziya 70 Leo X, Pope 160, 162 Maragha 88, 91 Jibril ibn Bukhtishu 89 Leonardo da Vinci 152, 153 Marathon, Battle of 45 Jin dynasty 71 Leonidas of Sparta 44, 45 Marie-Antoinette, Queen of France 212 Jinnah, Mohammed Ali 300 Leopold II of Belgium 258, 259 Marius 60 Joan of Arc 133 Lepanto, Battle of 141 Mark Anthony 64 João VI of Portugal 217 Lepidus 64 Marx, Karl/Marxism 14, 229, 234, 268 John, King 100–1 Lesseps, Ferdinand de 233 Mary II, Queen of England 175 John II of Portugal 146, 149 Li Su 57 mathematics 90–1 Johnson, Lyndon B 313 Matthias, Holy Roman Emperor 167 José I of Spain 218 Judah 70

348 INDEX Mau Mau uprising 301, 306 Muslim League 298, 300 Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor 82, 132 RMS Mauretania 234 Mussolini, Benito 275, 284, 285, 289 Ottoman Empire 93, 104, 105, 136, 138–41, 144, Mauryan Empire 40, 41 al-Musta’sim, Caliph 93 156, 199, 228, 241, 260–1, 272, 275, 280, 302, 319 Maxentius, Emperor 66 Mycenaean civilization 42 Mayan civilization 34, 36, 71, 115 P Mayflower 172–3 N Mazzini, Giuseppe 238–9, 240 Pachacuti 116 Mecca 78, 79–80, 110–11 Nagasaki 293, 340 Pacific, War in the 292–3 Medici dynasty 152, 155 Napoleon I, Emperor 210, 213, 214, 215, 218, 227, Paleolithic Era 19, 22–7 medicine 89, 91, 92, 93, 202 paleoclimatology 29 Mehmed V, Sultan 260 240, 250 Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) 318, 321 Mehmed VI, Sultan 261 Napoleon III, Emperor 228, 240, 256, 265 Pan-African Federation 306 Mehmet II, Sultan 138, 140, 141 Napoleonic Wars 214–15, 216, 217 Panama Canal 232–3 Meiji, Emperor 252–3 Narmer, King 38 Panipat, Second Battle of 170, 171 Meinhof, Ulrike 341 Nasser, Colonel Gamal 318–20 Pankhurst, Emmeline 263 Mellaart, James 30 nationalism 14, 203, 229, 238–41, 306, 319, 320, Papacy 82, 83, 96–7, 132, 154, 155 Mendel, Gregor 236 Paris Commune 228 Merovingian dynasty 71 321, 326 Paris Peace Accords 312 Mesopotamia 34, 36–7 NATO 297, 321, 323, 326 Parks, Rosa 311 Metaxas, General Ioannis 285 natural selection 237 Parthenon (Athens) 48, 49 Metternich, Prince Klemens von 240 Nazi Party 275, 280, 283, 284–5, 288–9, 294–5 Partitions of Poland 197, 264 Mexican Revolution 265, 314 Neanderthals 20, 21, 24 Passchendaele, Battle of 270–5 Mexican-American War 248 Nehru, Jawaharlal 298, 300 Paul, St. 66 Michael I, Patriarch 132 Neolithic Revolution 19, 30–1 Paul, Alice 263 Michelangelo 152, 153, 154, 156 Nero, Emperor 66 Paul III, Pope 163 migration 20–1, 269, 339 New Deal 283 Pax Romana 64–5 Militia United in Righteousness 255 New World 129, 136, 142–51, 158–9 Pearl Harbor 292, 340 Milvian Bridge, Battle of 66–7 Newcomen, Thomas 223 Peasant’s Revolt 161 Minamoto Yoritomo 98–9 Newton, Isaac, Principia 188, 192 Pedro I of Brazil 216, 217, 218 Ming dynasty 74, 103, 120–7, 130, 137, 186, 187 Ngo Dinh Diem 312 Peking Convention 254, 255 Minoan civilization 42–3 Nicholas II, Tsar 243, 276, 277, 278 Peloponnesian Wars 12, 44, 45, 50, 51, 70 Minoan Crete 42–3 Nicolas Canabus, Emperor 139 Penn, William 172 Mississippi culture 132 Nightingale, Florence 265 Pericles 48, 49, 50 Missouri Compromise 244, 245 Nile, River 38, 39 Pernier, Luigi 42 Moctezuma I 115 Nixon, Richard M 316, 317 Persian Wars 44–5, 50, 53 Moctezuma II 150 Nkrumah, Kwame 306–7 Pétain, Marshal Philippe 291 Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Shah 320, 341 Nobunaga, Oda 185 Peter the Great, Tsar 196–7 monasticism 97 non-aligned movement 300 Phaistos disc 42, 43 Möngke, Great Khan 93, 103 Norman Conquest 132–3 Philip II of Macedon 51, 52 Mongol Empire 75, 93, 102–5, 108, 109, 122–3, nuclear arms race 268, 297, 308 Philip II of Spain 166, 198, 199 Nuremberg Trials 295 philosophy 35, 50–1, 192–5 125, 126, 133 Nystad, Treaty of 196 Pilgrims 158, 172–3, 246 Montesquieu 193, 195 Pinochet, General Augusto 341 Montgolfier brothers 195 O Pippin III, King 82, 83 Montgomery, Field Marshal Bernard 292 Pisistratus 49 Moon landings 310 Octavian see Augustus, Emperor Pizarro, Francisco 117, 148, 150 Morelos, José 218, 219 October Revolution (1917) 276–9 Plassey, Battle of 191 Moro, Aldo 324 Odoacer 69, 76 Plataea, Battle of 45 Morse, Samuel 234 Ohnesorg, Benno 324 Plato 48, 51 Mosley, Sir Oswald 285 Olmec culture 34, 36 Plutarch 64 Mountbatten, Lord Louis 300 Opium Wars 254–5 Plymouth, Massachusetts 172, 173 Muawiya 78, 81 Optimates 61, 62 Pol Pot 313 Mubarak, Hosni 321 Organization of African Unity 306 Poland, Nazi invasion of 286–93 Mughal dynasty 137, 170–1 Orñate, Juan de 148 pollution 339 Muhammad, the Prophet 78–81, 88 Oslo Peace Accords 302, 318 Polo, Marco 103, 104–5 Muhammad Ahmad, ruler of Sudan 265 Ostrogoths 68, 69 Poltava, Battle of 196 Munich Agreement 289 O’Sullivan, John 248 Pompeii 60 Murad II, Sultan 140 Oswald, Lee Harvey 309 Muslim Brotherhood 320