Ken Schultz's Field Guide to Saltwater Fish

One of the smallest members of the requiem shark family,the tope is an active and highly sought species within itsextensive range.The tope has a slender body; a prominent, long, pointedsnout; long pectoral fins; and a large and strong tail fin witha large lower lobe. It is a bottom-roaming inhabitant ofinshore environs that commonly weighs from 20 to 40pounds but may grow as large as 75 pounds and canexceed 5 feet in length. It is reported to live as long as 55years. Despite its size, it is favorably regarded by anglers forits vigorous fight.Tope occur in all oceans. In the eastern Pacific, theyrange from British Columbia to southern Baja California,Mexico, including the Gulf of California, and also Peru andChile.OTHER NAMESflake, greyboy, greyshark,hundshai, school shark,snapper shark, soupfinshark, vitamin shark.248TopeTopeGaleorhinus galeus

A member of the electric ray family, the Atlantic torpedocan generate a shock of 170 to 220 volts. The electricity-generating organs are located in the front half of the body,one on each side, making up about one-sixth of the fish’stotal weight. The Atlantic torpedo may use these to stunprey, to protect itself from predators, and to identify orattract members of the opposite sex.Identification.The Atlantic torpedo has a broad disksquared off in front and a short snout. It is uniformly darkolive to brown or black, occasionally with black blotchesand small white spots, and whitish underneath. The Atlantictorpedo can be distinguished from its relatives by its largesize.Size.The average fish weighs roughly 30 pounds and hasbeen known to reach 200 pounds in weight and 6 feet inlength.Life history.Reproduction takes place in deeper waters inwarm areas, and the young are born alive.Food.Atlantic torpedoes are sluggish bottom dwellers andfeed on such fish as flounder and eels, although they areable to capture fast-swimming prey, such as sharks andsalmon.OTHER NAMEStorpedo, electric ray, darkelectric ray; French: torpillenoire;Spanish:tremolinanegra.Distribution.Strictly anAtlantic Ocean species, itranges from Nova Scotiaand the Bay of Fundy to theFlorida Keys and Cuba, butit is absent from the Gulf ofMexico.Habitat.Atlantic torpe-does live on sandy or rubblebottoms, ranging frombeaches to sounds, andappear to be more commonin the cooler parts of theirrange. They are believed tobe most prevalent in waters60 to 240 feet deep.Torpedo, Atlantic249Torpedo, AtlanticTorpedo nobiliana

Triggerfish are members of the Balistidae family, whichincludes 40 species in 11 genera that inhabit coral reefs inc Oceans. They arefithe Atlantic, the Indian, and the Pacimore common to divers than to anglers, although some areoccasionally caught incidentally, and they have been asso-ciated with poisoning.rst spinefish has a compressed body, and the stout fiThis n is locked into place when erect by thefiof the dorsal much shorter second dorsal spine, which slides forward.rst spine can be lowered again only by sliding thefiThe long second spine back. This can be done by depressing thethird spine—the “trigger”—which is attached by a bonyrst spine andfibase to the second spine. By erecting the sh can lodge itself immov-filocking it in place, the triggerably in crevices.ns are the same size andfiThe second dorsal and the anal ns are lacking, and the belly has a sharp-edgedfishape. Pelvic n.fioutline, with its greatest depth just in front of the anal sh is covered with an armor of bony plates.fiThe triggerIts leathery skin lacks slime or mucus, and it is capable ofrotating each eyeball independently. It normally swims byns but will use itsfiundulating its second dorsal and its anal tail for rapid bursts.shfiThe queen trigger (Balistes vetula)occurs in warmwestern Atlantic waters northward to the Carolinas and alsoin the Caribbean. It usually travels alone or in pairs but isoccasionally seen in small groups. It has been caught to 12pounds.shfiThe gray trigger (B. capriscus)is widely distributed inthe warm Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico, ranging farthersh. It has been caught at morefinorth than most triggershfithan 13 pounds. The ocean trigger a-fl(Canthidermis sufmen)may also weigh more than 13 pounds and is found offthe Florida coasts and in the Caribbean.250shfiTriggerTriggerfishshfiQueen TriggerBalistes vetula

The tripletail gets its name from its second dorsal and analfins, which extend far back on the body so that the fishappears to have three tails. A member of the Lobotidaefamily, it is an excellent food fish.Identification.The tripletail is characterized by its roundeddorsal and anal fins, which reach backward along the caudalpeduncle, giving the fish the appearance of having a three-lobed, or triple, tail. It has a deep, compressed body thatresembles the body shape of the freshwater crappie, and ithas a concave profile. The eyes are far forward on the snout,and the edge of the preopercle is strongly serrated.Compared with other saltwater fish, the tripletail proba-bly most resembles the grouper but lacks teeth on the roofof the mouth. The color is drab, various shades of yellow-brown to dark brown, with obscure spots and mottling onthe sides.Size/Age.The tripletail may reach a length of 3 ⁄ feet1 2and weigh as much as 50 pounds, although 1 ⁄ - to 2 ⁄ -1 21 2foot lengths and weights of less than 20 pounds are morecommon. The all-tackle world record is 42 pounds, 5ounces. The tripletail may live as long as 7 to 10 years.Life history/Behavior.Although little is known abouttheir spawning behavior, tripletail are believed to be sexu-ally mature by the end of their first year. Spawning occurs inthe spring and the summer, and although some fish maymove inshore to spawn, young tripletails have been foundin estuaries and in patches of offshore sargassum. Tripletailswim or float on their sides in the company of floatingobjects.Food and feeding habits.Tripletail feed almost exclu-sively on other fish, such as herring, menhaden, andanchovies, as well as on eels and benthic crustaceans likeshrimp, crabs, and squid.OTHER NAMESAtlantic tripletail, browntripletail, dusky tripletail,sleepfish, buoy fish, buoybass, chobie, triplefin,flasher; Afrikaans: driestert;Bengali:samudra koi;French:croupia roche;Japanese:matsudai;Malay/Indonesian:ikantidur, kakapbato, pelayak,sekusong;Portuguese:furriel, prejereba;Spanish:dormilona.Distribution.Inhabitingtropical and subtropicalwaters of all oceans, triple-tail are found in the westernAtlantic from Massachusettsand Bermuda to Argentina.In the eastern Pacific theyoccur from Costa Rica toPeru.Habitat.Tripletail occur incoastal waters and entermuddy estuaries, commonlyin depths of up to 20 feet.There is some suggestion of a northerly and inshoremigration into warm waters in the spring and the summer.Tripletail251TripletailLobotes surinamensis

Like other tuna, the bigeye is a member of the Scombridaeghting species that is equally reveredfifamily and a strong-esh.flfor sport as for its Identification.A stocky body and large eyes characterizethis species. Generally, there are no special markings on thebody, but some specimens may have vertical rows ofn is deep yel-first dorsal fiwhitish spots on the venter. The n are blackishfin and the anal filow. The second dorsal nletsfibrown or yellow and may be edged with black. The are bright yellow with narrow black edges. The tail does nothave a white trailing edge like that of the albacore.n. Thefins may reach to the second dorsal fiThe pectoral ns never reach back as far asfin and the anal fisecond dorsal n tuna. It has a total of 23 to 31 gillfithose of large yellowrst arch. The margin of the liver is striated.firakers on the rst having 13 to 14fins are close-set, the fiThe two dorsal n has 11 tofispines and the second 14 to 16 rays. The anal 15 rays. On either side of the caudal peduncle is a stronglateral keel between two small keels that are located slightlyfarther back on the tail.Size.Bigeyes are normally found from 16 to 67 inches inlength but may attain 75 inches. The all-tackle world recordsh caught off Peru in 1957.fiis a 435-pound Spawning behavior.Bigeye tuna reach sexual maturity atabout 40 to 50 inches in length and spawn at least twice ayear. This occurs throughout the year in tropical waters,peaking during the summer months.Food.The diet of bigeyes includes squid, crustaceans, mul-let, sardines, small mackerel, and some deep-water species.They frequent the depths, particularly during the day, and,sh at thefiunlike other tuna, are rarely seen chasing bait surface.OTHER NAMESbigeyed tuna, bigeyetunny; French: patudo,thon obèse;Hawaiian:ahi;Indonesian:taguw, tongkol;Italian:tonno obeso;Japan-ese:mebachi, mebuto;Portuguese:albacorabandolim, atum patudo,patudo;Spanish:albacora,atún ojo grande, patudo.Distribution/Habitat.Found in warm temperatewaters of the Atlantic,c Oceans,fiIndian, and Pacithis schooling, pelagic, sea-sonally migratory species issuspected of making ratherextensive migrations.Schools of bigeye tuna gen-erally run deep during theday, whereas schools ofn, and somefin, yellowfiblueother tuna are known tooccasionally swim at thesurface, especially in warmwater.252Tuna, BigeyeTuna, BigeyeThunnus obesus

A member of the Scombridae family and one of the smallertuna, the blackfin is primarily a sportfish, with minor com-mercial interest.Identification.The pectoral fins of the blackfin tuna reachto somewhere between the twelfth dorsal spine and the ori-gin of the second dorsal fin, but they never extend beyondthe second dorsal fin, as in the albacore (see).There are atotal of 19 to 25 (usually 21 to 23) gill rakers on the firstarch (15 to 19 are on the lower limb), which is fewer thanin any other species of Thunnus.The finlets are uniformlydark, without a touch of the bright lemon yellow usuallypresent in those of other tuna, and they may have whiteedges. Light bars alternate with light spots on the lowerflanks. The first dorsal fin is dusky; the second dorsal and theanal fins are also dusky, with a silvery luster. The back of thefish is bluish-black, the sides are silvery gray, and the belly ismilky white. A small swim bladder is present. The ventralsurface of the liver is without striations, and the right lobe islonger than the left and the center lobes.Size.Blackfin tuna may attain a maximum length of 40inches, although they are common at about 28 inches andweigh in the 10- to 30-pound range. The all-tackle worldrecord is a 45-pound, 8-ounce Florida fish.Spawning behavior.The blackfin’s spawning grounds arebelieved to be well offshore. Off Florida, the spawning sea-son extends from April through November, with a peak inMay; in the Gulf of Mexico, it lasts from June through Sep-tember.Food and feeding habits.The diet of blackfin tuna con-sists of small fish, squid, crustaceans, and plankton. Blackfinoften feed near the surface, and they frequently form largemixed schools with skipjacks.OTHER NAMESBermuda tuna, blackfinnedalbacore, deep-bodiedtunny; French: bonite,giromon, thon nuit;Japan-ese:mini maguro, montemaguro, taiseiyo maguro;Spanish:albacora, atúnaleta negra.Distribution/Habitat.The blackfin is a pelagic,schooling fish that occurs inthe tropical and warm temperate waters of thewestern Atlantic from Brazilto Cape Cod, including theCaribbean and the Gulf ofMexico. It is most commonfrom North Carolina southand is Florida’s most abun-dant tuna.Tuna, Blackfin253Tuna, BlackfinThunnus atlanticus

The bluefin tuna is the largest member of the Scombridaefamily and one of the largest true bony fish. A pelagic,schooling, highly migratory species, it has enormous com-mercial value, especially in large sizes, and is of significantrecreational interest.High demand for its dark red flesh has made the bluefintuna the object of intense commercial and recreational fish-ing efforts and has resulted in a dwindling population ofadult fish. This species, as well as its cousin the southernbluefin tuna, is gravely overfished. According to some esti-mates, the population of the species in the western Atlantichas declined by roughly 87 percent since 1970.Because bluefin tuna are slow to mature, they are espe-cially vulnerable to overexploitation. Although some catchquotas have been established, the continued landing ofsmall bluefins, as well as large ones (called giants), in someregions; the failure to restrict harvest in others; the igno-rance of restrictions by commercial fishermen of somecountries; the lack of punishment or enforcement; and themanagerial treatment of bluefins on a separate two-stockbasis, instead of on one interpolar migratory one, are lead-ing reasons for both species of bluefin tuna to be furthertroubled, if not endangered. In 1996, scientists warned thatexisting worldwide catch quotas would have to be cut by80 percent for populations to recover in 20 years, but thesewere raised instead.Identification.The bluefin tuna has a fusiform body, com-pressed and stocky in front. It can be distinguished fromalmost all other tuna by its rather short pectoral fins, whichextend only as far back as the eleventh or twelfth spine inthe first dorsal fin. There are 12 to 14 spines in the first dor-sal fin and 13 to 15 rays in the second. The anal fin has 11to 15 rays. The bluefin has the highest gill raker count ofany species of Thunnus,with 34 to 43 on the first arch. TheOTHER NAMESAtlantic bluefin tuna,northern bluefin tuna,tunny fish, horse-mackerel;Arabic:tunna;Chinese:cáchan, thu;French:thonrouge;Italian:tonno;Japanese:kuromaguro;Norwegian: sjorjf, thunfisk;Portuguese:atum, rabilha;Spanish:atún aleta azul,atun rojo;Turkish:orkinos.Distribution/Habitat.Bluefin tuna occur in sub-tropical and temperatewaters of the north PacificOcean and the NorthAtlantic Ocean and in theMediterranean and theBlack Seas. They are widelydistributed throughout theAtlantic. Distribution in thewestern Atlantic occursalong Labrador and New-foundland southward toTobago, Trinidad,Venezuela, and the Braziliancoast; they are especiallyencountered by anglers offNova Scotia and PrinceEdward Island; Cape Cod;Montauk, New York; thecanyons offshore of NewYork and New Jersey; theNorth Carolina region; and254Tuna, BluefinTuna, BluefinThunnus thynnus

ventral surface of the liver is striated, and the middle lobe isusually the largest.The back and the upper sides are dark blue to black, witha gray or green iridescence. The lower sides are silvery,marked with gray spots and bands. The anal fin is dusky andhas some yellow. The finlets are yellow and edged withblack. The caudal keel is black at the adult stage but is semi-transparent when immature.Size/Age.Bluefin tuna can grow to more than 10 feet andare commonly found at lengths from 16 to 79 inches.Adults weigh from 300 to 1,500 pounds, although fishexceeding 1,000 pounds are rare. The all-tackle worldrecord is a fish from Nova Scotia that weighed 1,496pounds when caught in 1979. The species reportedly canlive for 40 years.Life history/Behavior.Bluefin tuna are warm bloodedand able to maintain their body temperatures up to 18°Fabove the surrounding water, which makes them superblyadapted to temperate and cold waters. They retain 98 per-cent of muscular heat, may have the highest metabolism ofany known fish, and are among the fastest and most wide-ranging animals on earth. When hunted or hunting, theycan accelerate to 35 miles per hour.Bluefins are schooling fish and do congregate by size,although the largest schools are formed by the smallestindividuals, and the smallest schools are composed of thelargest fish. They swim in a single file, side by side (soldierformation), or in an arc (hunter formation). Extensivemigrations appear to be tied to water temperature, spawn-ing habits, and the seasonal movements of forage species.Bluefins in the western Atlantic are sexually mature atapproximately age 8 (80 inches curved fork length) and inthe eastern Atlantic at about age 5 (60 inches).Food.The diet of bluefin tuna consists of squid, eels, andcrustaceans, as well as pelagic schooling fish such as mack-erel, flyingfish, herring, whiting, and mullet.the Bahamas. Distributionin the eastern Atlanticextends as far north as Nor-way and Iceland and as farsouth as northern WestAfrica. Atlantic bluefin tunaspawn in the Gulf of Mexicobetween April and June andin the Mediterranean Sea inJune and July.Tuna, Bluefin255Tuna, Bluefin(continued)

Although commonly called arctic bonito, the skipjack tunais not a bonito and does not venture into arctic waters. Thismember of the Scombridae family is an esteemed light-tackle species and has great commercial value.Identification.The presence of stripes on the belly andcient to dis-fithe absence of markings on the back are suftinguish the skipjack tuna from all similar species. The top ofanks and theflsh is a dark purplish-blue, and the lower fithe belly are silvery and have four to six prominent, dark, lon-n has 14 to 16 spines, andfirst dorsal figitudinal stripes. The ns are short. The body is scale-fithe pectoral and the ventral less, except on the corselet and along the lateral line.sh has no swim bladder. On each side of the caudalfiThis peduncle is a strong lateral keel. There are roughly 30 to 40small conical teeth in each jaw. The teeth are smaller andmore numerous than those of bonito and are unlike the tri-angular, compressed teeth of the mackerel. There are 53 to63 gill rakers on the first arch, more than in any otherspecies of tuna except the slender tuna (Allothunnus).Size/Age.Skipjack tuna can attain a maximum of 40 to 45inches in length but are commonly between 16 and 28inches long and weigh from 5 to 15 pounds. The all-tackleworld record is 45 pounds, 4 ounces. They may live for 12years.Life history/Behavior.In the western Atlantic, skipjacktuna frequently school with blackfin tuna. Skipjack tunareach sexual maturity at about 18 to 20 inches in length.Spawning occurs in spurts throughout the year in tropicalwaters and from spring to early fall in subtropical waters.Food and feeding habits.This gregarious, fast-swimmingsh feeds near the surface, and its diet consists of herring,fish, shrimp, andfisquid, small mackerel and bonito, lanterncrustaceans.OTHER NAMESskipjack, ocean bonito,arctic bonito, striped tuna,watermelon tuna; French:benite à ventre raye;Hawaiian:aku;Italian:tonnetto striato;Japanese:katsuo;Portuguese:gaiado, listão, listado;Spanish:bonito ártico, barrilete, listado.Distribution/Habitat.Skipjack tuna are cosmopol-itan in tropical and subtrop-ical seas, usually in deepcoastal and oceanic waters.They are common through-out the tropical Atlanticsouth to Argentina and mayrange as far north as CapeCod, Massachusetts, in thesummer months. A pelagic,migratory, deep-waterspecies, the skipjack tunamay form schools composedof 50,000 or more individu-als, which makes it a primesher-fitarget for commercial men using purse seines.256Tuna, SkipjackTuna, SkipjackKatsuwonus pelamis

Preferring warm waters, the yellowfin is the most tropicalspecies of tuna in the Scombridae family. It is highlyesteemed both as a sportfish and as table fare. Anglersthroughout the world are familiar with the yellowfin, and itis heavily targeted commercially. The meat of the yellowfinis light in color compared to that of most other tuna, withthe exception of the albacore and the dogtooth tuna,which have white meat.Identification.This is probably the most colorful of all thetuna. The back is blue-black, fading to silver on the lowerflanks and the belly. A golden yellow or iridescent bluestripe runs from each eye to the tail, although this is notalways prominent. All the fins and finlets are golden yellow,although in some very large specimens the elongated dor-sal and the anal fins may be silver edged with yellow. Thefinlets have black edges. The belly frequently shows asmany as 20 vertical rows of whitish spots. Many large yel-lowfins become particularly distinguishable, as they growvery long second dorsal and anal fins.Overall, the body shape is streamlined and more slenderthan that of the bluefin or the bigeye tuna. The eyes andthe head are comparatively small. Just as the albacore hascharacteristically overextended pectoral fins, the yellowfinhas overextended second dorsal and anal fins that mayreach more than halfway back to the tail base in some largespecimens. In smaller specimens under about 60 pounds,and in some very large specimens as well, this may not bean accurate distinguishing factor, as the fins do not appearto be as long in all specimens. The pectoral fins in adultsreach to the origin of the second dorsal fin but neverbeyond the second dorsal fin to the finlets, as in the alba-core.The bigeye tuna and the blackfin tuna may have pectoralfins similar in length to those of the yellowfin. The yellowfinOTHER NAMESAllison tuna, albacore,autumn albacore, yellow-finned albacore; French:albacore, thon à nageoiresjaunes;Hawaiian:ahi, ahi-malai-lena;Italian:alba-core, tonno albacora;Japanese:kihada, kiwade,kiwada maguro;Portuguese:alba-cora,atum amarello;Spanish:atún de aleta amarilla, atúnde Allison, rabil.Distribution/Habitat.This species occurs world-wide in deep, warm, tem-perate oceanic waters. It isboth pelagic and seasonallymigratory but has beenknown to come fairly closeto shore where there arewarm currents. The largestyellowfins have beenencountered by long-rangeparty boats fishing in theRevillagigedo Islands off thecoast of Baja California,Mexico. Specimens exceed-ing 200 pounds are com-mon during many wintertrips, and some in the 300-plus-pound class areboated.Tuna, Yellowfin257Tuna, YellowfinThunnus albacares

n by the black marginsfican be distinguished from the blackn tuna, like albacore, have white mar-finlets; blackfion its n can be distinguished fromfinlets. The yellowfigins on the the bigeye tuna by the lack of striations on the ventraln tuna has a total of 25 to 35fisurface of the liver. The yellowrst arch, and it has an air bladder, as dofigill rakers on the all species of Thunnusexcept the longtail tuna. There is nowhite, trailing margin on the tail.ns with long second dorsal andfiPreviously, large yellownfinned yellowfins were called Allison tuna or long-fianal nnedfituna, and the smaller specimens were called short-n tuna, in the mistaken belief that they were a sep-fiyellowarate species. It is now the general consensus that there isn tuna.fionly one species of yellowSize/Age.Yellowfins are commonly caught under 100pounds in size but may grow to more than 400 pounds.Their maximum length is 75 inches, and the all-tackle worldsh.firecord is a 388-pound, 12-ounce Mexican Life history/Behavior.ns are fairly abundant infiYellowsh are known to form large schoolsfitropical waters. Young near the surface. Adults inhabit fairly deep water but alsolive near the surface, and they are caught close to the sur-face by anglers. They often mix with other species, espe-cially skipjack and bigeye tuna. Yellowfin are sexuallymature when they reach a length of approximately 40inches, and they spawn throughout the year in the coreareas of their distribution, with peaks occurring in the sum-mer months.Food.The diet depends largely on local abundance andsh, squid, and crustaceans.fish, other small fiyingflincludes 258nfiTuna, YellownfiTuna, Yellow(continued)

Although not part of the Thunnusgenus like many tuna, thelittle tunny is a member of the same Scombridae family andis one of the finest small gamefish available. It is frequentlymisnamed “false albacore” and “bonito.”Identification.The little tunny has a scattering of darkspots resembling fingerprints between the pectoral and theventral fins, as well as wavy, “wormlike” markings on theback. These markings are above the lateral line within awell-marked border and never extend farther forward thanabout the middle of the first dorsal fin. The spots and the markings are unlike those of any other Atlantic species.The pectoral and the ventral fins are short and broad, and the two dorsal fins are separated at the base by a smallspace. The body has no scales except on the corselet andalong the lateral line, and there is no air bladder. Unlike theblack skipjack, it has no teeth on the vomer.The little tunny is often confused with the Atlanticbonito, the skipjack tuna, the frigate mackerel, and the bul-let mackerel. There are, however, differences among thesespecies. The Atlantic bonito has a lower, sloping first dorsalfin. The frigate and the bullet mackerel have the dorsal finsset apart. The skipjack tuna has broad, straight stripes onthe belly and lacks markings on the back.Size.Little tunny may attain a length of 40 inches but aremost common to 25 inches. The all-tackle world record isan Algerian fish that weighed 35 pounds, 2 ounces.Spawning behavior.Little tunny reach sexual maturity atapproximately 15 inches in length. Spawning occurs fromabout April through November.Food and feeding habits.Little tunny are common ininshore waters near the surface, where they feed on squid,crustaceans, fish larvae, and large numbers of smallerpelagic fish, especially herring.OTHER NAMESlittle tuna, Atlantic littletunny, false albacore,bonito; French: thoninede l’Atlantique;Italian:tonnetto dell’ Atlantico, tonnella sanguinaccio, alletterato;Japanese:yaito,suma-rui;Portuguese:merma;Spanish:bacoretadel Atlántico, merma, bar-rilete, carachana pintada.Distribution/Habitat.This species occurs in tropi-cal and warm temperatewaters of the AtlanticOcean; in the westernAtlantic, it ranges from theNew England states andBermuda south to Brazil. Itis not as migratory as othertuna species are and isfound regularly in inshorewaters, as well as offshore,usually in large schools.Tunny, Little259Tunny, LittleEuthynnus alletteratus

The wahoo is a popular gamefish and a close relative of theking mackerel. It is reputedly one of the fastest fish in thesea, attaining speeds of 50 miles per hour and more.Identification.A long, slender, cigar-shaped mackerelwith a sharply pointed head and a widely forked tail, thewahoo is a brilliant or dark blue color along its back. It has25 to 30 bright or dusky blue vertical bands, or “tigerstripes,” that extend down the bright silver to silvery graysides and sometimes join into pairs below.A distinguishing feature is the movable upper jaw, whichhas 45 to 64 teeth, of which 32 to 50 are on the lower jaw;these teeth are large, strong, and laterally compressed. Thegill structure resembles that of the marlin, but it lacks thecharacteristic gill rakers of the latter fish. The lateral line iswell defined and drops significantly at the middle of the firstdorsal fin and extends in a wavy line back to the tail. Thefirst dorsal fin is long and low and has 21 to 27 spines. It isseparated from the second dorsal fin, which has 13 to 15rays; the anal fin has 12 to 14 very small rays. There are aseries of 9 dorsal finlets, both above and below the caudalpeduncle.Size.The wahoo grows so rapidly that both sexes reachsexual maturity during the first year of life. They average 10to 30 pounds, and 4- to 5-foot lengths are common. Themaximum size is 7 feet and more than 180 pounds. The all-tackle world record is a 158-pound, 8-ounce fish taken offBaja California, Mexico, in 1996.Food.Wahoo feed on such pelagic species as porcupine-fish, flyingfish, herring, pilchards, scad, lanternfish, andsmall mackerel and tuna, as well as on squid.OTHER NAMESbarracuda, oahu fish,ocean barracuda, Pacifickingfish, pride of Bermuda,queenfish, tigerfish;Arabic:kanaad znjebari;Creole:bécune grosse race,kin fis, thazard raité;French:paere;Hawaiian:ono;Japanese:kamasu-sawara;Portuguese:cavalagigante, cavala-da-India,cavala empinge;Spanish:guacho, peto, sierra; Tuval-uan:tepala.Distribution.In NorthAmerica, wahoo occur intropical and subtropicalwaters of the Atlantic andthe Pacific. Seasonal con-centrations exist off thePacific coasts of Panama,Costa Rica, and Baja Cali-fornia; off Grand CaymanIsland; and near the west-ern Bahamas and Bermuda.Habitat.An oceanicspecies, wahoo are pelagicand seasonally migratory.They are frequently solitaryor form small, loose group-ings of two to seven fish.They associate aroundbanks, pinnacles, and evenflotsam and are occasionallyfound around wrecks anddeeper reefs, where smallerfish are abundant.260WahooWahooAcanthocybium solandri

The weakfish is a member of the Sciaenidae family (drumand croaker), and its name refers to the tender, easily tornmembrane in the fish’s mouth.Identification.The body of weakfish is slim and shapedsomewhat like a trout’s. The lower jaw projects beyond theupper jaw. There are two large, protruding canine teeth inthe upper jaw and no chin barbels. Its coloring is dark oliveor greenish to greenish-blue on the dorsal surface and blue,green, purple, and lavender with a golden tinge on thesides. Numerous small black spots speckle the top, occa-sionally forming wavy diagonal lines. There is sometimes ablack margin on the tip of the tongue.The weakfish is distinguished from the closely relatedspotted seatrout because its spots do not extend onto thetail or the second dorsal fin and are not as widely spaced.The scales also do not extend onto the fins on the weakfish.Size/Age.In southerly waters, weakfish average 1 to 4pounds. In the upper mid-Atlantic, they typically weigh 4 to7 pounds. The all-tackle record is 19 pounds, 2 ounces, andthe maximum possible growth is believed to be higher. Theaverage life span is roughly 10 years, but some reportedlylive twice that long.Life history/Behavior.Mature weakfish are 3 to 4 yearsold. Spawning occurs in the nearshore and estuarine zonesalong the coast from May through October. A schoolingspecies, weakfish migrate northward in the spring, spend-ing the summer inshore, then moving southward again inthe late autumn.Food and feeding habits.Weakfish feed on crabs, shrimp,other crustaceans, and mollusks, as well as on herring, men-haden, silversides, killifish, and butterfish. Because of theirvaried diet, weakfish forage at different levels and adapt tolocal food conditions.OTHER NAMESsqueteague, commonweakfish, northern weak-fish, common seatrout,northern seatrout, graytrout, summer trout,tiderunner, yellowfin,weakie; French: acouparoyal;Portuguese:pescada-amarela;Spanish:corvinatareal.Distribution.Weakfishinhabit the western AtlanticOcean from Florida to Mass-achusetts, and records showisolated populations occur-ring as far north as NovaScotia. They are most abun-dant from North Carolina toFlorida in the winter andfrom Delaware to New Yorkin the summer.Habitat.Preferring sandyand sometimes grassy bot-toms, weakfish are usuallyfound in shallow watersalong shores and in largebays and estuaries, includ-ing salt marsh creeks andsometimes into rivermouths, although they donot enter freshwater. Theycan be found in depths ofup to 55 fathoms in thewinter.Weakfish261WeakfishCynoscion regalis

Eel-like in body shape, wolffish are blenny relatives that livein the cold to arctic waters of the Atlantic and the Pacific.They are members of the Anarhichadidae family, whichencompasses seven species. The wolffish lacks pelvic fins,and the dorsal fin, which begins just behind the head,extends to the caudal fin but is not joined to it. The anal finextends about half the length of the ventral surface. Wolf-fish have powerful jaws and numerous broad teeth that areused to crush the shells of mollusks and crustaceans. Theyalso have sharp canine teeth.The Atlantic wolffish (Anarhichas lupus)inhabits the west-ern Atlantic from southern Labrador and western Greenlandto Cape Cod, rarely occurring as far south as New Jersey.The sides of its brownish-gray to purplish body are crossedby as many as a dozen vertical black bars. It is sedentary andrather solitary and is commonly found at depths of 45 to 65fathoms. Populations tend to be localized. Although itappears sluggish, it is easily provoked, can move rapidly forshort distances, and gives severe bites.Individuals can attain a length of 5 feet and a weight of40 pounds. They prey on mollusks, crabs, lobsters, and seaurchins. The Atlantic wolffish is seldom caught by anglersand is usually taken commercially by otter trawls. It is over-exploited and depleted in the western Atlantic.Also in the North Atlantic and with similar ranges are thespotted wolffish (A. minor)and the northern wolffish (A. denticulatis).In the North Pacific, the very similar Beringwolffish(A. orientalis)occurs from the Aleutian Islands inAlaska southward to central California. The wolf-eel (Anar-richthys ocellatus)has a similar range; it reaches a length of6 ⁄ feet. These species are also caught by commercial 12trawlers.262WolffishWolffishAtlanitc WolffishAnarhichas lupus

A member of the Polyprionidae family and related to thegiant sea bass, the wreckfish is a very deep-dwelling andlarge-growing species occasionally caught by heavy-tackleanglers probing extreme depths. It is marketed fresh orfrozen, sometimes as a sea bass or a stone bass, although itis susceptible to overfishing and is regulated in U.S. federalwaters.Identification.The wreckfish has a deep, strongly com-pressed body and a very bumpy head, with a ridge andbony protuberances above each eye. Adult fish are uni-formly dark brown or bluish-gray, and the young are mot-tled. The second dorsal, as well as the caudal and the analfins, are often edged in black, although the rounded caudalfin is otherwise edged in white, as are the pectoral fins. Thespinous and soft parts of the dorsal fins are notched, andthe lower jaw projects past the upper jaw.Size.The wreckfish grows slowly but can eventually reach7 feet or more in length and can weigh 100 or morepounds. The all-tackle world record is a 106-pound, 14-ounce fish taken off Portugal.Food.Wreckfish feed on crustaceans, mollusks, and deep-dwelling fish found around wrecks or underwater objects.OTHER NAMESbass, stone bass, wreckbass, hapuku; Afrikaans:wrakvis;Danish:vragfisk;Dutch:wrakbaars;Finnish:hylkyahven;French:chernier commun, mérotgris;Greek:vláchos;Icelandic:rekaldsfiskur;Italian:cherna di fondale;Norwegian and Swedish:vrakfisk;Portuguese:cherne;Spanish:cherna;Turkish:iskorpit hanisi.Distribution.In the west-ern Atlantic, the wreckfishranges from Newfoundlandto North Carolina.Habitat.Found in thedeep part of the continentalshelf, at up to 2,000-footdepths, wreckfish preferrocky ledges, pinnacles, andoutcroppings around ship-wrecks. They are solitaryfish and are sometimesfound drifting with floatingtimber or other objects.Wreckfish263WreckfishPolyprion americanus

Yellowtail are members of the Carangidae family and areclosely related to amberjack. Although they are commonlyreferenced as three separate species—California yellowtail(Seriola lalandi dorsalis),southern yellowtail (S. lalandilalandi),and Asian yellowtail (S. lalandi aureovittata)—it iscurrently believed that the worldwide yellowtail pool con-sists of one species, S. lalandi.The three varieties are recog-nized distinctly, however, because they are isolated fromeach other and do not appear to interact; there are also sizedifferences with some populations, the southern varietygrowing larger than the others.These are fast-swimming, hard-striking, strong-pullingfish that give anglers a great struggle and are a commer-cially important species.Identification.Yellowtail are readily identifiable by theirdeeply forked, bright yellow caudal fins. Their body color-ing graduates from a purple blue on their backs to a silverywhite on their bellies. The yellowtail’s body is elongate andmoderately compressed, and a brass-colored stripe runs thelength of the body from mouth to tail. There is a small keelon either side of the caudal peduncle.Size.The southern yellowtail is believed to grow to a max-imum weight of 154 pounds and a length in excess of 6 ⁄1 2feet. A 114-pound southern yellowtail from New Zealandholds the all-tackle world record. The world record for theCalifornia yellowtail is nearly 79 pounds, but the averagefish is much smaller.Behavior.Yellowtail can form large schools around reefsand will rise to the surface en masse to feed on schools ofbaitfish, as well as to drive baitfish up against the shore.Their migratory habits are not well known, but large indi-viduals are believed to be less migratory.Food and feeding habits.Yellowtail will eat whatever isavailable, but they feed predominantly on small fish, squid,and pelagic crustaceans. Large specimens will tackle blue-fish, salmon, and small tuna.OTHER NAMESkingfish, yellowtail king-fish, king yellowtail, kingie,amberjack.Distribution.The Califor-nia yellowtail rangesthroughout the Gulf of Cali-fornia and along the Pacificcoast of North America fromBaja California, Mexico, toLos Angeles, California. Onoccasion, it is found as farnorth as Washington.Habitat.Yellowtail are pri-marily coastal schooling fishfound in inshore waters andout to the continental shelf.In addition to schooling inand around offshore reefsand rocky shores, they frequent deep water aroundwharves, jetties, and man-made structures such assunken vessels or artificialreefs, where baitfish arecommon. Occasionally, theywill venture along oceanbeaches and into largerestuaries. Large specimens,especially of the southernvariety, are encountered indeep water around rockypinnacles.264YellowtailYellowtailSeriola lalandi

ADIPOSE EYELIDA translucent tissue partially covering theeyeballs of some species of fish.ADIPOSE FINA small fleshy fin without rays found onthe backs of some fish, behind the dorsalfin and ahead of the caudal fin. Only asmall percentage of fish have an adiposefin; among gamefish, these include vari-ous trout, salmon, grayling, whitefish,and piranhas.ALGAEThe term “algae” refers to a large, het-erogenous group of primitive aquaticplants whose members lack roots, stems,or leaf systems and range from unicellularorganisms to large networks of kelp.Algae exist in both freshwater and salt-water. They can be blue-green, yellow,green, brown, and red; there are morethan 15,000 species of green algae alone.All species of algae photosynthesize.As the primary or lowest plant forms,algae are important in sustaining marineand freshwater food chains. In freshwater,algae occur in three different types oftenencountered by anglers: plankton, fila-mentous, and muskgrass. Plankton is adiverse community made up of sus-pended algae (phytoplankton), combinedwith great numbers of minute suspendedanimals (zooplankton). Filamentous algaeconsist of stringy, hairlike filaments, oftenerroneously described as moss or slimebecause of their appearance when theyform a mat or a furlike coat on objects.Muskgrass, or stonewort, algae are amore advanced form that has no rootsbut attaches to lake or stream bottoms.ALIEN SPECIESA species occurring in an area outside ofits historically known natural range as aresult of intentional or accidental disper-sal by human activities. These are alsoknown as exotic or introduced species.AMPHIPODSA large group of crustaceans, most ofwhich are small, compressed creatures(such as sand fleas and freshwatershrimp). These may be of food impor-tance to juvenile fish.ANADROMOUSFish that migrate from saltwater to fresh-water in order to spawn. Fish that do theopposite are called catadromous.Literally meaning “up running,”anadromous refers to fish that spendpart of their lives in the ocean and moveinto freshwater rivers or streams tospawn. Anadromous fish hatch in fresh-water, move to saltwater to grow toadulthood or sexual maturity, and thenreturn to freshwater to reproduce.Salmon are the best-known anadromousfish, but there are many others, includ-ing such prominent species as steelheadtrout, sturgeon, striped bass, and shad,and many lesser-known or less highlyregarded species. Around the worldthere are approximately 100 species ofanadromous fish.Complicating an understanding ofanadromy is the fact that some anadro-mous species have adapted, either natu-rally or by introduction, to a completelife in freshwater environments. Thesespecies, which include salmon, stripedbass, and steelhead, make spawningmigrations from lakes, where they livemost of their lives, into rivers to spawn.In such instances, these fish are originallysaltwater in origin. They remain anadro-mous when moved into purely fresh-water, although they use the lake as theywould the ocean. There are also species265Glossary••••

offreshwater fish that are native to freshwater and that migrate from lake tostream or river to spawn. These are nottechnically anadromous but adfluvial.Fish that originate in saltwater buthave freshwater forms are often called“landlocked,” whether or not they havea clear path to and from the sea. Some-times these fish are physically blockedfrom reaching the ocean. Fish in a reser-voir or a lake may be unable to leave.Fish in some streams, like those in high-mountain areas, have a clear passagewayto the sea but no means of returningbecause of waterfalls. Coldwater speciesmay be effectively landlocked in thecolder headwaters of a stream becausetemperatures are too high for them inthe lowland parts of that stream or in theocean in that area. Dolly Varden, forexample, are landlocked in the southerntip of their range, but anadromous formsare common farther north.ANAL FINThe median, unpaired, ventrally locatedfin that lies behind the anus, usually onthe posterior half of the fish.AXILLARY PROCESSA fleshy flap, which is usually narrow andextends to the rear, situated just abovethe pectoral or the pelvic fins on somefish.BAITFISHA generic term used by anglers for anyfish species that are forage for predators,although it often specifically pertains tosmaller fish; this term also references fishthat are used in live bait angling.BARBELA whiskerlike feeler on the snouts ofsome fish that contains taste buds and isused for touching and tasting foodbefore ingesting it. One or more barbelsmay be present on either side of themouth of a fish that is primarily a bottomfeeder and is attracted by food odor.Catfish, carp, and sturgeon are amongthe species with such appendages.BASSMany species of fish, in both freshwaterand saltwater, are referred to as “bass.”Some are truly bass and some are not,but all have a physique and a profile thatare generally similar. Three of the mostprominent freshwater sportfish with thisname include the largemouth bass andthe smallmouth bass, both of which areactually sunfish, and the peacock bass,which is actually a cichlid.True bass are members of the Ser-ranidae family of sea bass, which infreshwater includes the white bass andthe yellow bass, and in saltwater includesthe black sea bass, the striped bass, thegiant sea bass, the kelp bass, and manyother species that do not carry the name“bass.”BENTHICThe bottom layer of the marine environ-ment and the fish or the animals that liveon or near the bottom.BILLFISHThe term “billfish” refers to members oftwo families of marine fish: Xiphidae,which has only one genus and onespecies, the swordfish; and Istiophori-dae, which numbers 11 species in threegenera and includes marlin, sailfish, andspearfish. Of the latter family, the term“marlin” is used for the larger species,“spearfish” for the smaller species, and“sailfish” for the species with a highdorsal fin. All are good sportfish, andsome—especially swordfish, blue marlin,and black marlin—are among the largestand most coveted angling quarries.A billfish is characterized by a longspearlike or swordlike upper jaw or beakthat may be used to stun prey duringfeeding; although this bill has beenemployed in apparent aggression tospear objects, including boats, it is notdeliberately used to spear prey. Thesespecies are pelagic, migratory, and foundin all oceans. They are related to tunaand mackerel and, like those fish, areable to swim at great speeds; the sailfishis considered the fastest of all fish, having266Glossary

been clocked at 68 miles per hour overshort distances. Billfish also have com-plex air (or swim) bladders that enablethem to compensate rapidly for changesin depth and thus can move without dif-ficulty from deep water to the surface.Billfish grow fairly rapidly and feedon various pelagic species. When alive,they are generally ocean blue above andsilvery below. They spawn in the opensea and are usually solitary or travel inpairs or small groups. Sportfishing inter-est in these big-game species is high,although due to their migratory andpelagic nature they are seldom accessi-ble to large numbers of anglers andrarely to those who fish from small boatsand inshore. Fishing in offshore blue-water environments is the norm.Most billfish, particularly swordfish,have good to excellent food value andare of significant commercial interest. Asa whole, and especially in certain parts oftheir range, billfish stocks are overex-ploited and have seriously declined, dueto commercial longlines and gillnets.Sportfishing has not adversely impactedbillfish stocks; only a small percentage of the world’s billfish are caught byrecreational anglers, and a still smallerpercentage of those are killed. Anglertagging of released billfish has con-tributed significantly to scientific knowl-edge about this species. Nevertheless,worldwide, commercial fishermen killmillions of billfish annually. The BillfishFoundation, a research and conservationorganization, reports that more than500,000 billfish in the Atlantic Oceanalone were killed each year from the1970s through 1990s by longlining. Fur-thermore, its data show that for everyporpoise killed by commercial tuna fish-ermen, 10 tons of billfish were killed dur-ing the same period. Although efforts tosave porpoises from commercial destruc-tion have been widely reported andawareness has triggered some success,no organized international effort hasemerged to prevent the commercialoverharvesting and destruction of theworld’s billfish stocks.BIOLUMINESCENCEThe emission of visible nonthermal lightby chemical reaction in living organisms.Bioluminescence is a highly developedcharacteristic of species in the deepestparts of the ocean and a less highlydeveloped characteristic of many near-surface ocean creatures, includingspecies of bacteria, phytoplankton,metazoans, marine invertebrates, andfish. It occurs when luciferin, a com-pound found naturally in the luminesc-ing organism, combines with oxygenand the enzyme luciferase to form oxy-luciferin, water, and energy. Thus, chem-ical energy is transformed into lightenergy, and the resulting light is oftenused to attract prey. Some species havedaily light cycles; others have seasonalones. Individual luminescing organismsare difficult to see, but a large popula-tion of organisms glowing togetherbecomes visible in darkness.Saltwater anglers who fish at nightand boaters traveling at night sometimesobserve an eerie glow in the watercaused by luminescent organisms beingdisplaced by the movement of the boat.BLUE WATERThat portion of the open ocean that isblue in color and usually many milesfrom shore. Blue-water fishing is synony-mous with offshore fishing.The water in the open ocean appearsdeep blue in a manner similar to the bluecolor of the sky. Particulate matter in theopen ocean is relatively scarce, andmarine life has a low concentration incomparison with coastal waters, causingthe water to appear blue due to the sizeof the water molecules and the fact thatthey disperse solar radiation in such away as to mostly scatter wavelengths forblue light. Coastal waters are usuallygreenish in color, partly because of yel-low-green microscopic marine algae incoastal waters but mostly because theyhave more large particulate matter, dis-persing solar radiation so as to mostlyscatter wavelengths for greenish or yel-lowish light.Glossary267

BONY FISHFish that have a bony skeleton andbelong to the class Osteichthyes.Basi-cally, this includes all fish except sharks,rays, skates, hagfish, and lampreys.BREAMMany species of both freshwater andsaltwater fish around the world arereferred to as bream, particularly in Aus-tralia, the United Kingdom, and theUnited States. In the United States,“bream” (pronounced “brim”) is a collo-quial expression for various freshwaterpanfish species, particularly sunfish andespecially bluegills.In Europe, the bream pursued byanglers are members of the Cyprinidaefamily and are relatives of carp, barbel,and tench. These primarily small or mid-size fish (less than 8 pounds) are bottomfeeders and are widely distributed. Theyare also a popular coarse (non-gamefish)species. The primary quarry is the bronzebream, which is also known as the com-mon bream or the carp bream.In saltwater, various members of theSparidae family are known as sea breamand are related to porgies. Sea breamoccur in temperate and tropical watersworldwide.CANINE TEETHPointed canine teeth are found in somecarnivorous fish; they are usually largerthan the surrounding teeth.CATADROMOUSFish that migrate from freshwater tosaltwater in order to spawn. Fish that dothe opposite are called anadromous andare more numerous. Freshwater eels aretypical of catadromous fish; they areborn at sea, migrate upstream to liveand grow to adulthood, and then returnto the sea to migrate to their spawninggrounds.CAUDAL FINThe tail fin, or the fin at the rear ofthe fish. The fleshy section connectingthe caudal fin to the end of the body iscalled the caudal peduncle (see).CAUDAL PEDUNCLEThe fleshy tail end of the body of a fishbetween the anal and the caudal fins.On some fish, the caudal peduncle isrigid and provides a convenient “han-dle” of sorts for holding the fish.CRUSTACEANA group of freshwater and saltwater ani-mals having no backbone, with jointedlegs and a hard shell made of chitin. Insaltwater this group includes shrimp,crabs, lobsters, and crayfish, all of whichmay be used as bait when angling butare not targeted by anglers or deliber-ately sought with sporting equipment.Freshwater crustaceans also include cray-fish, as well as scuds, sowbugs, andshrimp.DEMERSALA term used for fish or animals that liveon or near the seabed or the water bot-tom. Examples include flounder andcroaker. Demersal is often used synony-mously with groundfish.DETRITUSWaste from decomposing organisms,which provides food for many otherorganisms.DIADROMOUSFish that migrate between freshwaterand saltwater.DINOFLAGELLATEUnicellular microscopic organisms, clas-sified as plants or animals, depending onthe presence of chlorophyll or the inges-tion of food, respectively. Found in twomain groups, armored and naked,dinoflagellates have flagella (whiplikeextensions) that provide locomotion,and they move vertically in response tolight. Many dinoflagellates are phospho-rescent, and some greatly increase innumber periodically, occasionally result-ing in toxic red tides. Some dinoflagel-late blooms are toxic to shellfish and cancause gastroenteritis in the organismsthat feed on them, including humans.As a component of phytoplankton268Glossary

(microscopic organisms that photosyn-thesize), dinoflagellates are an importantbasis for marine life.DORSAL FINA median fin along the back, which issupported by rays. There may be two ormore dorsal fins, in which case they arenumbered, with the fin closest to thehead called the first dorsal fin.ENDANGERED SPECIESIn the United States, a species is classifiedas endangered if it is in danger of extinc-tion throughout all or a significant por-tion of its range. Elsewhere, a species isclassified as endangered if the factorscausing its vulnerability or decline con-tinue to operate, as defined by the Inter-national Union for the Conservation ofNature and Natural Resources.EXOTIC SPECIESOrganisms introduced into habitatswhere they are not native are calledexotic species. They are often the agentsof severe worldwide, regional, and localhabitat alteration. Also referred to asnonindigenous, nonnative, alien, trans-plant, foreign, and introduced species,they can be the cause of biological diver-sity loss and can greatly upset the bal-ance of ecosystems.Exotic species have been introducedaround the world both intentionally andaccidentally; occasionally, exotic speciesoccur in new places through naturalmeans, but usually the agent is someaction of humans. That includes trans-portation of fish or larvae via the ballastof ocean freighters and the bait bucketsof small-boat anglers, passage of newspecies via newly constructed canals, theintroduction of plants by using them inpacking shellfish that are shippedtranscontinentally, the dumping ofaquarium plants and fish into localwaterways, the experimental stocking ofpredator and prey species by scientistsand nonscientists, and many othermeans. Exotic species can be transportedby animals, vehicles, commercial goods,produce, and even clothing.While some exotic introductions areecologically harmless, many are veryharmful and have even caused the extinc-tion of native species, especially those ofconfined habitats. Freed from the preda-tors, the pathogens, and the competitorsthat have kept their numbers in check intheir native environs, species introducedinto new habitats often overrun their newhome and crowd out native species. Inthe presence of enough food and a favorable environment, their numbersexplode. Once established, exotics rarelycan be eliminated.FINAn organ on different parts of a fish’sbody that may be used for propulsion,balance, and steering.FINFISHAn alternative collective term for allspecies of fish, used to separate true fishfrom crustaceans and mollusks, whichare collectively termed shellfish. Theterm is rarely used in reference to fresh-water species but is commonly used torefer to saltwater and anadromous fish,particularly by fisheries managers.FINGERLINGA young fish about 2 to 4 inches long.FISHERYIn a biological sense, all the activitiesinvolved in catching a species of fish or agroup of species; the place where aspecies or a group of species is caught. Incommon usage by the general public,fishery also refers to fishing opportunity orspecies availability in either a recreationalor a commercial sense, as in “the fisheryfor coho salmon does not commenceuntil the annual migration run.” This termis used interchangeably with fisheries.FISHKILLThe die-off of fish, usually in numbers.Fishkills may occur as the result ofchemical pollution, especially from pesti-cides in agricultural runoff, but mostoften happen as a result of insufficientoxygen in the water.Glossary269

A winter fishkill occurs when ice andsnow cut off the transfer of oxygen fromthe air to the water; the oxygen in thewater gets used up, and fish die. Thisdoes not happen if there is enough oxy-gen in the water to last throughout thewinter until the ice and snow melt.A summer fishkill usually occurswhen inadequate amounts of oxygenexist in the water during extended peri-ods of hot, calm, and cloudy days. Warmsummer water temperatures, highdemands for oxygen, and days with nosunlight or wind to mix the surfacewater may lead to oxygen demandsexceeding oxygen production. Whenthis happens, distressed fish may be seenas they rise to the surface and gasp foroxygen, and dead fish may be seen float-ing on the surface.FLATFISHThe term “flatfish” broadly refers to agroup of more than 500 species ofunique, compressed fish that have devel-oped special features for living on thebottom, the most interesting of which isthat both eyes are on one side of thehead. They are capable of excellent cam-ouflaging and are widespread, rangingfrom cold, boreal habitats to warm, trop-ical environments. The flatfish groupincludes some of the world’s most impor-tant commercial, recreational, and foodfish, such as sole, flounder, halibut, dab,plaice, and turbot—names that oftenapply to species in different families.FRESHWATERWater with less than 0.5 gram per liter oftotal dissolved mineral salts.GILLA breathing organ with much-dividedthin-walled filaments for extracting oxy-gen from the water. In a living fish, thegills are bright red feathery organs thatare located on bony arches and areprominent when the gill covers of thefish are lifted.GILL RAKERSToothlike extensions, located along theanterior margin of the gill arch, thatproject over the throat opening andstrain water that is passed over the gills.These protect the gill filaments and, insome fishes, are used to sieve out tinyfood organisms. The number of gill rak-ers on the first gill arch is sometimesused as an aid in identifying or separat-ing species that closely resemble oneanother.GRILSEA salmon, usually male, that returns tofreshwater rivers after 1 year at sea.These are small fish, generally weighingfrom 2 to 4 pounds.GROUNDFISHA species or a group of fish that livesmost of its life on or near the seabed.The term may be used synonymouslywith demersal. Groundfish refers toAtlantic cod, haddock, pollock, Ameri-can plaice, white hake, redfish, and vari-ous flounders.HYBRIDThe offspring of two individuals of differ-ent species. The offspring of two individ-uals belonging to different subspecies ofthe same species are not hybrids.Hybridization may occur in the wildor under artificial conditions. Somespecies that have been known to cross-breed naturally, although not frequently,include lake trout and brook trout(splake), northern pike and muskellunge(tiger muskie), and walleye and sauger(saugeye). Hybrid fish have been culti-vated in hatcheries by fisheries managersfor stocking purposes; hybrid stripedbass (known as whiterock bass, wiper,and sunshine bass), which result from across of pure-strain striped bass andwhite bass, have been extremely popularfor stocking and are widely spread infreshwater lakes and reservoirs. Mosthybrid fish are sterile (although some,like whiterock bass, are not), so thestocking of these fish is attractivebecause they can be controlled fairlywell; if the initial stocking experimentdoes not achieve the desired results, thepopulation of hybrids can be extin-guished by discontinuing stocking.270Glossary

INSHOREThe waters from the shallower part ofthe continental shelf toward shore. Insaltwater fishing parlance, inshore is aloose and variable term referring to thatportion of the water from which land isvisible or is nearly visible, usually on theshoreward side of major currents orshelves, and is populated by nonpelagicspecies. This term is seldom used byfreshwater lake anglers.INTERTIDAL ZONEThe shallow area along shore and in anestuary between high- and low-watermarks that is exposed at low tide andcovered at high tide; also known as thelittoral zone.KRILLSmall pelagic shrimplike crustaceanswith bristled tails. Krill range from about1⁄ inch to 3 inches long. Most are trans-2parent, and many have light-producingorgans. They migrate vertically and areplentiful enough to be a major foodsource for seabirds, fish, and whales.LACUSTRINEHaving to do with, or living in, a lake.LANDLOCKEDA term for anadromous fish that haveadapted to a completely freshwater exis-tence, spending the greater portion oftheir lives in a lake and returning to natalrivers or streams to spawn. Any fish—usually salmon but also striped bass—with such behavior and without accessto saltwater is landlocked.LARVAEThe early life forms of a fish or other ani-mal between the time of hatching andtransforming to a juvenile.LATERAL LINEA series of sensory cells, usually runningthe length of both sides of the fish’s body,that performs an important function inreceiving low-frequency vibrations.LITTORALLiving in or related to nearshore waters;the intertidal zone of the marine envi-ronment that is exposed at low tide andcovered at high tide.LUNATEUsed to describe a caudal fin that isshaped like a crescent moon.MARINEPertaining to the sea and saltwater envi-rons, from the open oceans to the high-water mark and into estuaries; also usedto refer to seawater or saltwater.MIDWATERIn or near the middle layer of water. Thisterm is generally used by biologists todescribe the habitat of fish that are notsurface or bottom (benthic or demersal),dwellers.MIGRATIONA regular journey made by a particularspecies of fish, on an annual or a lifetimebasis, usually associated with propaga-tion patterns but also associated with theseasonal availability of food. Most migra-tions are mass movements and involvetravel over a particular route, usually atthe same time annually. Migration is notto be confused with the relocation of fishbecause of pollution, sedimentation,storms, or the temporary relocation offood sources. Anglers, for example, oftenrefer to fish as making migrations fromdeep water to shallow water to feed, anaction that is really a localized move-ment. The periodic movement of fish ina water body is not necessarily a migra-tion, although the movement of a fishspecies to and from breeding grounds(such as walleye in the spring movingfrom a spawning river back to the mainlake) is a migration.Migrations occur in various speciesand in both freshwater and saltwater. Allfreshwater fish that move from lake orriver environs to a tributary in order tospawn will migrate to and from thespawning grounds at or around the sametime each year. All anadromous andcatadromous fish undertake spawningmigrations, the former from saltwater tofreshwater and the latter from freshwaterto saltwater, also around the same timeGlossary271

annually. Pelagic ocean species migratefrom winter to summer grounds, both forspawning and for food procurement, alsoaround the same time annually.Migrations occur in north-south,south-north,offshore-inshore,andinshore-offshore patterns, and in combi-nations of these (some sea organismsmigrate up and down in the water col-umn). Some fish migrations cover greatdistances, even thousands of miles, andsome are extremely short, perhaps just ashort distance up a river.MOLLUSKA group of freshwater and saltwater ani-mals with no skeleton and usually one ortwo hard shells made of calcium carbon-ate. This group includes the oyster, theclam, the mussel, the snail, the conch,the scallop, the squid, and the octopus.Mollusks may be used as bait whenangling, but they are not targeted byanglers or deliberately sought withsporting equipment.NATIVEA species of fish that is endemic to aregion, a watershed, or a specific bodyof water. A native species is distinguishedfrom an introduced or exotic species,which occurs outside its endemic rangeand has been placed there by unnaturalmeans (usually deliberate but sometimesaccidental planting by humans). Theterm “native” is particularly applied inNorth America to endemic trout, espe-cially brook trout.NEARSHOREThe shallow portion of inshore saltwatersadjacent to the shoreline. In fishing parl-ance, inshore is a more common termthan nearshore, and they are generallyinterchangeable, although nearshore ismore specific.NESTA visible bed, often circular, made byegg-laying fish on the bottom of a bodyof water for spawning. Eggs are laid inthe nest, and sometimes they areguarded by one or more of the parents.NURSERYThe part of a fish’s or an animal’s habitatwhere the young grow up.OFFSHOREAlthough this term practically signifiesthe direction away from land, in fishingparlance it generally means that portionof the water from which land is not visi-ble, and to most saltwater anglers it per-tains to deep-water areas, on the edge ofocean currents or shelves, where big-game species, particularly billfish andtuna, are pursued.ONSHOREWaters abutting a coastline. This word isalso used synonymously with ashore,meaning physically on the land adjacentto water, but is even more specific thannearshore. It is not the opposite of off-shore in common angling usage.OPERCULUMThe largest and uppermost bone thatforms the gill cover of a fish.PALATINE TEETHTeeth located on the palatine bonesinside the upper jawbone, usuallybehind the vomerine tooth patch.PANFISHThis term is used widely by anglers andfisheries managers to collectively describea variety of small fish of several species.There is no individual species called a pan-fish. The term is used almost universally infreshwater, seldom in saltwater; althoughcommon to anglers, it may be unfamiliaror even confusing to nonanglers.The term “panfish” often refers tofish that, when fried whole, can fit into apan, but it is also frequently understoodto mean species that are not technicallyclassified as gamefish and that are usu-ally abundant and as valued for theirtasty flesh as for the enjoyment of catch-ing them.Although panfish are commonlylinked by these factors, the species thatfit under this umbrella are not all linkedbiologically. Many “panfish” are mem-272Glossary

bers of the sunfish family, perch family,bass family, catfish family, and suckerfamily. These include, but are not lim-ited to, such sunfish as green, longear,orangespotted, spotted, and redear vari-eties; plus bluegill, Sacramento perch,rock bass, warmouth bass, black crappie,white crappie, yellow bass, white bass,yellow perch, and white perch. In someareas, people include suckers, bullhead,pickerel, and even carp in this category.PARRSmall, young anadromous fish, particu-larly salmon and trout, living in freshwa-ter prior to migrating out to sea. Duringthis life stage, parr develop large verticalor oval rounded spots (sometimes calledbars) on the sides. Called parr marks,these help camouflage the fish and alsoidentify it; they will gradually disappearas the fish becomes silvery, regardless ofwhether the fish goes to sea (some donot). In the silvery phase, the fish isknown as a smolt. Migration to seaoccurs between 2 and 8 years.PECTORAL FINThe fin usually found on each side of thebody, directly behind the gill opening.PELAGIC FISHFree-swimming fish that inhabit theopen sea and are independent of theseabed or the water bottom.PELVIC FINThe pair of adjoining fins ventrallylocated beneath the belly and in front ofthe anus; also called ventral fins.PHARYNGEALBones in the throat of certain fish thatare used like teeth to crush food. Thesebones are hard and strong and will crushsuch objects as clams, mussels, andsnails. Carp have pharyngeal teeth,which play an important role in their for-age habits.PHYTOPLANKTONMicroscopic suspended algae in the sur-face waters of seas and lakes, wherethere is enough light for photosynthesisto occur.PISCIVOROUSFish eating. Most predatory fish, andmost of those considered sportfish, arepiscivorous.PLANKTONPassively floating or weakly swimmingorganisms in a body of water. Planktonicorganisms may drift and float freely,range widely in size, and include the lar-val stages of many fishes. Some are invis-ible without magnification, and othersare visible to the unaided eye.PODA small, tight group of fish swimmingtogether.POTAMADROMOUSFish that migrate within rivers or streamsto spawn.PREDATORA species that feeds on other species.Most of the fish species that are pursuedby anglers are predators at or near thetop of the food chain.PREYA species that is fed upon by otherspecies.ROEThe eggs of a female fish; also a term fora female fish with eggs.SALTWATER/SEAWATERCommonly used terms for water withmany dissolved salts in or from theocean, as well as in connected seas,bays, sounds, estuaries, marshes, andthe lower portion of tidal rivers.SCHOOLA closely spaced collection of fish whosemembers swim in association with eachother. Fish in a school are often of thesame species and of similar size, butspecies may intermingle and may vary insize. Some species are noted for theirtendency to school, while other speciesare more solitary.Glossary273

SCHOOLING(1) The behavioral grouping of fish, usu-ally of the same or related species, whichmove together as a unit and exhibit aspecific geometrical relationship. Similarto herding, schooling may be a naturalmeans of reducing predation and ensur-ing the survival of some individuals.Many species of fish school throughouttheir lives, and young fish, as well as preyspecies, are especially likely to school.Fish of different species seldom inter-mingle, although related species (suchas white bass and striped bass, for exam-ple) may do so.Schools are composed of many fishof the same species moving in more orless harmonious patterns throughout theoceans. A very prevalent behavior,schooling is exhibited by almost 80 per-cent of all fish species during somephase of their life cycles. Many of theworld’s commercial fishing industriesrely on this behavior pattern to producetheir catch, especially for species likecod, tuna, mackerel, and menhaden.SEA-RUNAnother term for anadromous, referringto fish that move from the sea to fresh-water to spawn.SHOALA school of fish, usually at the surface orin shallow water (a term used in Europeand sometimes in South America).SMOLTA young silvery salmon migrating fromfreshwater to the sea.THREATENED SPECIESIn the United States, a species is classifiedas threatened if it is likely to becomeendangered within the foreseeablefuture throughout all or a significant por-tion of its range. Elsewhere, a species isclassified as vulnerable rather thanthreatened, according to the Interna-tional Union for the Conservation ofNature and Natural Resources.TUBERCLEA small hard knob on the skin thatappears seasonally on some breedingmale fish.VERMICULATIONSShort, wavy, wormlike lines on the backsand sides of some fish.VOMERINE TEETHTeeth located on the vomer, a medianbone in the front of the roof of themouth of a fish.ZOOPLANKTONMinute suspended animals in the watercolumn of seas and lakes.274Glossary