Ken Schultz's Field Guide to Saltwater Fish

Numerous members of the Sparidae family that are foundin temperate and tropical waters are referred to as seabream, or seabream. They are related to porgies, have mod-erate to important significance commercially (dependingon abundance and geography), and are commonly caughtby inshore anglers. These fish are tough, dogged fightersthat are commendable on appropriate light tackle, and theyrate as excellent table fare. The more commonly distributedand popular species are noted here.The sea bream (Archosargus rhomboidalis)appears in thewestern Atlantic Ocean from the northeastern Gulf of Mex-ico to Argentina, including the Caribbean and the WestIndies. Its bluish back is streaked with gold, the belly is sil-very, and there is a black spot on each side just above thepectoral fins.Size.Most sea bream can reach a maximum weight ofbetween 7.5 and 10 pounds, but on average they weighbetween 1 and 2 pounds. The sea bream of the westernAtlantic is rarely more than a foot long.Food.Bream are largely omnivorous and feed on crus-taceans; crayfish; mollusks, including oysters and mussels;small fish; worms; and algae. Some will also eat bread,chicken gut, mullet gut, cheese, and meat, all of which aresometimes used for bait.Habitat.Some sea breamare abundant in estuaries,and some are found indeeper, offshore waters.Some move up into brackishwater but not into fresh-water. In the estuarine envi-ronment, bream frequentseagrass beds, underwaterreefs and rocks, bridge pil-ings that grow mussels, andoyster beds.48Bream, SeaBream, SeaArchosargus rhomboidalis

The Atlantic and the Pacific bumper are two of the smallermembers of the jack family. Both species have not beengreatly studied, and there is some speculation that theymay be the same.Identification.Although the bumper doesn’t have a highback, it has an extended belly and a very thin body. With anoverall silvery coloring, it has greenish tints on the back andyellow highlights on the sides and the belly. It also has a yel-lowish tail. There is a black spot on each gill cover and ablack saddle on the base of the tail.Size.Bumper rarely weigh more than half a pound andcan reach a length of 10 inches in the western Atlantic or 12inches in the eastern Atlantic.Life history/Behavior.Small bumper have been observedin offshore waters, but they frequently range along sandybeaches. They travel in extensive schools, and juveniles areoften found in association with jellyfish.OTHER NAMESFrench:sapater;Spanish:casabe.Distribution.In the west-ern Atlantic Ocean, Atlanticbumper are found north toMassachusetts, off Bermudaand south to Uruguay, aswell as in the Caribbean Seaand the Gulf of Mexico.Bumper are said to beabsent from the Bahamasand the Caribbean. ThePacific bumper ranges fromPeru to California.Habitat.Inhabiting brack-ish and saltwater, bumperoccur over soft bottoms inshallow water. They arecommon in bays, lagoons,and estuaries.Bumper, Atlantic and Pacific49BumperBumper, AtlanticChloroscombrus chrysurusBumper, PacificChloroscombrus orqueta

The fatty and oily quality of the meat of the butterfish doesnot detract from its reputation as an excellent food fish. It issold fresh, smoked, and frozen and may be prepared inmany ways; the meat is white, tender, and moist and con-tains few bones. The fat content of the flesh varies greatlyover time, at its minimum in August and its maximum inNovember.Despite its culinary significance, the butterfish’s impor-tance to anglers is as a live or a dead bait for larger saltwa-ter gamefish and as natural forage for assorted species. Theshape of the butterfish resembles that of some members ofthe jack family.Identification.An oval fish, the butterfish has a very thinand deep body and a blunt head. The anal and the dorsalfins are equally long. Butterfish are silvery fish, with paleblue coloring on the back and the upper sides, which oftenhave irregular dark spots and usually possess 17 to 25 largepores directly underneath the dorsal fin.Size/Age.The butterfish grows quickly, although it rarelyexceeds more than 1 pound in weight or more than 12inches in length. It is usually a short-lived fish, although it isthought to be capable of living longer than 4 years.Life history/Behavior.Sexual maturity is reached whenbutterfish are 2 years old and close to 8 inches in length.Spawning occurs once a year from May through August inoffshore waters. The eggs float freely until they hatch within2 days; juveniles enter coves or estuaries to conceal them-selves in floating weeds and among jellyfish tentacles forprotection from predators.Food and feeding habits.Feeding primarily on jellyfish,butterfish are one of very few fish that eat such low-nutrition foods. Their diet also consists of assorted smallworms, crustaceans, squid, shrimp, and fish.OTHER NAMESAmerican butterfish,Atlantic butterfish,dollarfish, pumpkin scad,sheepshead; French: stromaté fossette;Spanish:palometa pintada.Distribution.Inhabitingthe western Atlantic Ocean,butterfish occur in watersoff eastern Newfoundlandand the Gulf of St. Lawrencein Canada, ranging downthe North American coast toPalm Beach, Florida. Theyare also found in the Gulf ofMexico.Habitat.Butterfish liveand feed in large, denseschools along the coast innear-surface waters lessthan 180 feet deep and inthe 40° to 74°F range. Theymay also inhabit brackishwaters and in the wintermay move into deeperwater. Juveniles are usuallyassociated with floatingweeds and jellyfish.50ButterfishButterfishPeprilus triacanthus

A member of the smelt family, the capelin is an importantfood fish for cod, pollock, salmon, seabirds, and whales. Ithas commercial value; females are prized for their roe, andthe meat is used as animal feed and fish meal. Like othersmelt in flavor and texture, it is an excellent table fish, mar-keted canned and frozen and prepared by frying and drysalting.Identification.The capelin has a large mouth with a lowerjaw that extends below each eye. Males have larger anddeeper bodies than do females; also, the male has an analfin with a strongly convex base, whereas the female has astraight anal fin base. Both sexes possess a single dorsal finand extremely small scales. The body is mostly silver, andthe upper back is a darker bluish-green.Size/Age.Capelin may reach a size of 9 inches, althoughthey are usually less than 7 inches long.Life history/Behavior.Between March and October,capelin move inshore in large schools to spawn in shallowsaltwater areas over fine gravel or on sand beaches; how-ever, some may spawn at great depths. Spawning occursmore than once, and each female produces between 3,000and 56,000 eggs; these are released at high tide and hatchin 2 to 3 weeks.Food and feeding habits.Capelin feed primarily onplanktonic crustaceans.OTHER NAMESDanish/Dutch/German/Norwegian: lodde;French:capelin atlantique;Japan-ese:karafuto-shishamo.Distribution.Capelin arefound in the North Atlantic,especially in the Barents Seaup to Beard Island; in theWhite and the NorwegianSeas; off the coast of Green-land; and from Hudson Bayto the Gulf of Maine. In theNorth Pacific, their rangeextends from Korea to theStrait of Juan de Fucabetween Vancouver Island,Canada, and Washington,U.S.Habitat.Inhabiting salt-water, capelin are pelagicand live in the open seas.Capelin51CapelinMallotus villosus

This sea catfish is a common catch by both commercialfishermen and recreational anglers in the Gulf Coast, espe-cially between April and August. Its dark, tender, lean meatis popular as table fare and has a moderate flavor.Identification.The gafftopsail catfish has a steel-blue dor-sal fin, silvery ventral fins, and a robust body, with adepressed broad head, featuring a few flattened barbels.The dorsal and the pectoral fins have greatly elongatedspines.Size/Age.Mature gafftopsails grow to 36 inches and 10pounds. Average small fish weigh less than a pound to 1 ⁄1 2pounds and are 17 inches long. The maximum age isunknown.Life history/Behavior.Gafftopsail catfish move in largeschools and migrate from bays and estuaries to shallowopen waters of the Gulf of Mexico in the winter. This move-ment and migration in gulf coastal and estuarine waters arerelated to spawning activity and environmental conditions.Spawning takes place in the waters of inshore mud flatsbetween April and July and has some unusual characteristics.Gafftopsails reach sexual maturity at the age of 2 and arebetween 10 and 11 inches in length at the time. They havelow fecundity, producing just 20 to 64 eggs per female;their eggs are believed to be the largest of all eggs pro-duced by bony fish. Males carry the eggs and young in theirmouths for 11 to 13 weeks until they are about 3 incheslong; as many as 55 young have been reportedly carried inthis manner at a time.Food and feeding habits.Crabs, shrimp, and varioussmall fish make up their diet, but like all catfish, gafftopsailshave broad dietary interests.OTHER NAMESbandera, sailboat cat,gafftopsail sea catfish,gafftop cat, tourist trout;Portuguese:bagre-fita;Spanish:bagre cacumo.Distribution.These fishrange along the westernAtlantic coast from CapeCod to Panama andthroughout the Gulf of Mex-ico, being abundant alongLouisiana and Texas. Theyare absent from most of theWest Indies and theCaribbean Islands but arepresent in western Cubaand extend to Venezuelaand possibly as far south asBrazil.Habitat.Gafftopsails pre-fer deeper channels, particu-larly brackish water in baysand estuaries with sandybottoms of high organiccontent. They prefer watertemperatures between 68°and 95°F.52Catfish, GafftopsailCatfish, GafftopsailBagre marinus

A member of the Kyphosidae family of sea chub, theBermuda chub is a commonly encountered species,although not one that is aggressively sought by anglers. Itis often caught in clear-water harbors and around reefs.Most individuals are reportedly good table fare, but theirflesh spoils quickly and should be eaten soon after capture.Identification.The Bermuda chub has an ovate profile,with a short head and a small mouth. A yellow stripe, bor-dered in white, runs from the edge of the mouth to theedge of the gill cover. The body is compressed and gener-ally steel or blue-gray with muted yellowish stripes. The finsare dusky, the tail forked, and the scales are usually edgedwith blue. It may occasionally have white spots or blotches.A less common, very similar, but larger-growing relative isthe yellow chub (K. incisor).Size.Bermuda chub commonly weigh 1 ⁄ to 2 pounds1 2and measure 10 to 12 inches in length. Reported maxi-mum lengths and weights vary widely; the all-tackle worldrecord is a 13-pound, 4-ounce Florida fish.Food and feeding habits.The Bermuda chub mainlyfeeds on benthic algae and also on small crabs and mol-lusks. Because of its small mouth, it nibbles food and isregarded by anglers as an accomplished bait stealer.OTHER NAMESBermuda sea chub;French:calicagère blanche;Spanish:chopa blanca.Distribution.In the west-ern Atlantic, the Bermudachub occurs from Massa-chusetts and Bermuda southto Brazil, including the Gulfof Mexico and theCaribbean.Habitat/Behavior.Likemost other sea chub, theBermuda chub is a school-ing species that movesquickly and is often abun-dant in clear water aroundtropical reefs, harbors, andsmall ships.Chub, Bermuda53Chub, BermudaKyphosus sectatrix

The only member of the Rachycentridae family, and with noknown relatives, the cobia is in a class by itself and a popu-lar food and sportfish for inshore anglers in areas where it isprominent.Identification.The body of a cobia is elongated, with abroad, depressed head. The first dorsal fin consists of 8 to10 short, depressible spines that are not connected by amembrane. Both the second dorsal fin and the anal fin eachhave 1 to 2 spines and 20 to 30 soft rays. The adult cobia isdark brown with a whitish underside and is marked on thesides by silver or bronze lines. A cobia’s shape is comparableto that of a shark, with a powerful tail fin and the elevatedanterior portion of the second dorsal fin. It can be distin-guished from the similar remora (Remora remora)by theabsence of a suction pad on the head.Size/Age.Cobia can grow to a length of 6 feet and aweight of 90 pounds, the average size being 3 feet and 15pounds. They generally live 9 to 10 years. The all-tackleworld-record cobia weighed 135 pounds, 9 ounces.Life history/Behavior.Adult cobia often swim alone oramong small schools of other cobia or sharks. They arebelieved to spawn in the offshore waters of the northernGulf of Mexico during the late spring, between April andMay, and the larvae migrate shoreward. Cobia migrate fromoffshore to inshore environs, as well as inshore from east towest and vice versa. Little about their movements has beenconfirmed.Food and feeding habits.Cobia feed mostly on crus-taceans, particularly shrimp, squid, and crabs (thus thename “crab eater”), as well as on eels and various small fishfound in shallow coastal waters.OTHER NAMESling, cabio, lemonfish,crab-eater, flathead, blacksalmon, black kingfish, ser-geant fish, runner; French:mafou;Japanese: sugi;Portuguese:bijupirá.Distribution.Foundworldwide in tropical andwarm temperate waters,cobia inhabit the westernAtlantic from Cape Cod toArgentina (being mostabundant in the Gulf ofMexico).Habitat.Adult cobia prefershallow continental shelfwaters, often congregatingalong reefs and aroundbuoys, pilings, wrecks,anchored boats, and otherstationary or floatingobjects. They are found in avariety of locations overmud, gravel, or sand bot-toms; in coral reefs andman-made sloughs; and atdepths of up to 60 feet.54CobiaCobiaRachycentron canadum

The Atlantic cod has historically been one of the world’simportant natural resources, and the waters of the NorthAtlantic once teemed with this fish. Today, the commercialcatch of cod is far below historic levels, and cod are gener-ally in a collapsed or near-collapsed condition.Identification.The Atlantic cod has three dark dorsal finsand two dark anal fins, none of which contain any spines.The body is heavy and tapered, with a prominent chin bar-bel, a large mouth, and many small teeth. Its snout isrounded on top, and the tail is almost squared. There is acharacteristic pale lateral line. The coloring is highly variableon the back and the sides (ranging from brownish or sandyto gray, yellow, reddish, greenish, or any combination ofthese colors), gray-white on the underside, and withnumerous light spots covering the body.Size/Age.Young fish ages 2 to 5 generally constitute thebulk of the cod catch, with the average size being from 4 to15 pounds. Larger sizes in New England are not unusual,some with a length of 30 to 40 inches. When they weremore abundant, cod were caught in the 55- to 75-poundrange and have been known to reach 211 pounds. The all-tackle fishing record is 98 pounds, 12 ounces. Atlantic codcan live up to 22 years.Spawning behavior.The spawning season is duringDecember and January off the Mid-Atlantic Bight and fromFebruary through April farther north.Food and feeding habits.Omnivorous feeders, cod areprimarily active at dawn and dusk. Their primary diet isinvertebrates and assorted fish. Very young cod feed oncopepods and other small crustaceans while at the surfaceand, after dropping to the bottom, on small worms orshrimp.OTHER NAMEScod, codfish, codling,scrod; French: morue del’Atlantique;German:dorsch, kabeljau;Italian:merluzzo bianco;Japanese:madara, tara;Norwegian:torsk;Portuguese:bacal-hau;Spanish:bacalao delAtlántique.Distribution.Atlantic codoccur in subarctic and cooltemperate waters of theNorth Atlantic from Green-land to North Carolina.They have generally beenmost abundant in the Gulfof St. Lawrence, off New-foundland. In U.S. waters,cod are assessed as twostocks, the first being that ofthe Gulf of Maine, and thesecond being that ofGeorges Bank and south-ward.Habitat.These fish arefound primarily off thecoasts along the continentalshelf. They prefer cool waterof 30° to 50°F and mayreside in depths of up to200 fathoms. Adults aregenerally found in waterover 60 feet deep, whereasjuveniles may be found inshallower water; both movedeeper during the summer. Cod, Atlantic55Cod, AtlanticGadus morhua

Extremely similar to Atlantic cod, and a member of theGadidae family, the Pacific cod is an excellent food fish anda good sportfish. It is harvested commercially for fish sticksand fillets and is usually sold frozen. In British Columbia, itis the most important trawl-caught bottom fish, with mil-lions of pounds landed there alone.Identification.Characteristic of the cod family, the Pacificcod has three separate and distinct dorsal fins, two anal fins,and one large barbel under the chin. Its body is heavy andelongated, with small scales, a large mouth, and soft rays. Itscoloring ranges from gray to brown on the back, lighteningon the sides and the belly. Numerous brown spots specklethe sides and the back. All the fins are dusky, and theunpaired fins are edged with white on their outer margins. The Pacific cod can be distinguished from the Atlanticcod, which is almost identical, by its smaller body and thepointedness of its fins.Size.The average size is less than 3 feet, with a weight of15 pounds or less. The all-tackle record is 30 pounds.Spawning behavior.The spawning season for the Pacificcod is winter and early spring. The eggs are pelagic, or free-floating. It generally lays great quantities of eggs; depend-ing on the size of the fish, a female may release between 1and 9 million eggs.Food and feeding habits.The Pacific cod is mainlyomnivorous. The adult feeds on dominant food organisms,especially herring, capelin, sand eels, sardines, pollock, andother cod. Its habits are similar to those of the Atlantic cod.OTHER NAMEScod, gray cod, true cod;French:morue du Pacifique;Italian:merluzzo del Pacifico;Japanese:madara;Portuguese:bacalhau-do-Pacifico;Spanish:bacalaodel Pacifico.Distribution.The Pacificcod inhabits waters alongthe U.S. Pacific coast fromSanta Monica, California, tonorthwestern Alaska. It iscommon in the U.S. north-west waters of Oregon,Washington, and Alaska.Habitat.Althoughprimarily a coastal bottom-dwelling fish, the Pacific codcan be found from shallowwaters to depths of nearly800 feet. It prefers rocky,pebbly ground or sandy bot-toms in cold water. 56Cod, PacificCod, PacificGadus macrocephalus

The coney is a member of the Serranidae family of grouper.Identification.Because the coney experiences numerouscolor phases, it is inadvisable to try to identify this fish bycolor. These phases range from the common phase, inwhich the fish is reddish brown; to a bicolor period, inwhich the upper body is dark and the lower body is pale; toa bright yellow phase. The body is covered with small blueto pale spots, although the spots are uncommon in thebright-yellow phase. There are often two black spots pres-ent at the tip of the jaw and two more at the base of the tail,as well as a margin of white around the tail and the soft dor-sal fin. The tail is rounded, and there are nine spines in thedorsal fin.Size.The coney weighs about a pound, although occa-sionally it can weigh as much as 3 pounds. The averagelength is 6 to 10 inches, and the maximum length is 16inches.Life history/Behavior.As with many grouper, coneyfemales transform into males, usually when they reach 20centimeters in length. They are gregarious fish, and themales are territorial.Food.Coney feed mainly on small fish and crustaceans.OTHER NAMESFrench:coné ouatalibi;Spanish:canario, chernacabrilla, corruncha, guativere.Distribution.In the west-ern Atlantic, coney extendfrom Bermuda and SouthCarolina to southern Brazil,including the Gulf of Mexicoand Atol das Rocas; they arecommonly found in theCaribbean and less com-monly in southern Floridaand the Bahamas.Habitat.In the Gulf ofMexico, coney occur in cleardeep-water reefs, and inBermuda and the WestIndies they spend the day incaves and under ledges,preferring shallower waterthe rest of the time. Coneytend to drift immediatelyabove the bottom or restthere in 10- to 60-footdepths, remaining in closeproximity to protectedareas.Coney57ConeyCephalopholis fulva

The California corbina belongs to the Sciaenidae (croakerand drum) family and is a member of the whiting group.Because it lacks a swim bladder, it cannot make the croak-ing or drumming noises characteristic of the croaker family. Identification.The body of the California corbina is elon-gated and slightly compressed, with a flattened belly. Itshead is long and the mouth is small, the upper jaw scarcelyreaching a point below the front of each eye. The first dor-sal fin is short and high, the second long and low. Coloringis uniformly gray, with incandescent reflections and withwavy diagonal lines on the sides.This croaker and the yellowfin croaker (Umbrina roncador)are the only two of the eight coastal croaker present in Cal-ifornia waters that have a barbel on the lower jaw. The Cal-ifornia corbina has only one weak spine at the front of theanal fin; the yellowfin croaker has two strong spines.Size.The average corbina weighs 1 pound. The all-tacklerecord is 6 pounds, 8 ounces, but corbina are reported togrow to 8 pounds.Life history/Behavior.Males mature when 2 years old,at a length of 10 inches; females mature at age 3, at 13inches long. Spawning occurs from June through Septem-ber, although it is heaviest in July and August, and takesplace offshore. California corbina travel in schools or smallgroups, although large individuals are often solitary.Food and feeding habits.A fussy feeder, the Californiacorbina primarily consumes sand crabs and spits out bits ofclam shells and other foreign matter; it also consumes smallcrustaceans and marine worms. Corbina scoop up mouth-fuls of sand and separate the food by sending the sandthrough their gills. Adults are sometimes seen feeding in thesurf, occasionally in water so shallow that their backs areexposed.OTHER NAMESCalifornia whiting, surffish, sucker.Distribution.Californiacorbina occur from the Gulfof California in Mexico toPoint Conception,California.Habitat.Preferring sandybeaches and shallow bays,the California corbina is abottom fish, appearingalong the coastal surf zone.58Corbina, CaliforniaCorbina, CaliforniaMenticirrhus undulatus

Members of the Sciaenidae family (drum and croaker),corvina inhabit the Pacific Ocean and are known for thenoises they make. These fish are often called corbina, as wellas corvina, and both words appear in the Spanish and thePortuguese languages for common names applied to vari-ous drum and croaker.They are typically referred to as croaker by some anglersand as weakfish by others, and they inhabit tropical andtemperate seas. Almost all are inshore bottom-feeding fish,usually found over sandy bottoms, either in schools or insmall groups. Corvina primarily inhabit the Gulf of Califor-nia and waters south of the gulf; they are likely to inhabitthe surf line and to hug the near shoreline, feeding on crus-taceans, worms, and small fish. They generally have a silversandy coloration that blends with this environment. Most, ifnot all, are good to eat.Species that may be encountered include the orange-mouth or yellowmouth corvina (Cynoscion xanthulus),which occurs throughout the Gulf of California in Mexicoand south to Acapulco, as well as in the Salton Sea in South-ern California, and can grow to 36 inches; the Gulf corvina(Cynoscion othonopterus),a resident of the upper Gulf ofCalifornia that grows to 28 inches; the shortfin corvina(Cynoscion parvipinnis),a surf fish also in the Gulf of Califor-nia and south to Mazatlán that grows to 20 inches; the yellowfin corvina (Cynoscion stolzmanni),ranging from the Gulf of California to Peru and growing to 35 inches; thestriped corvina (Cynoscion reticulatus),ranging from theGulf of California to Panama and growing to 35 inches; andthe totuava or totoaba (Totoaba macdonaldi),a whiteseabass lookalike that was once abundant and is nowendangered. It inhabits the middle and upper Gulf of Cali-fornia and once grew to 6 feet and 300 pounds.Corvina59CorvinaOrangemouth CorvinaCynoscion xanthulus

The Atlantic croaker is a member of the Sciaenidae family(drum and croaker) and one of the most frequently caughtestuarine and near-shore marine fish along the eastern coastof the United States. The common name “croaker” isderived from the voluntary deep croaking noises madewhen the fish raps a muscle against its swim bladder.Identification.The Atlantic croaker has a small, elongatedbody with a short, high first dorsal fin and a long, low sec-ond dorsal fin. There are 6 to 10 tiny barbels on the chin.The middle rays of the caudal fins are longer than thoseabove and below, creating a wedgelike appearance. Its col-oring is greenish above and white below, with brownish-black spots and a silver iridescence covering the body. Thereare dark, wavy lines on the sides. During spawning, theAtlantic croaker takes on a bronze hue (thus the nickname“golden cracker”), and its pelvic fins turn yellow.Size/Age.The average fish is 12 inches long and weighs1 ⁄ pounds, although the species may grow to 20 inches. 1 2The all-tackle record weighed 5 pounds, 8 ounces. It canlive up to 5 years.Life history/Behavior.Spawning occurs at sea in thewinter and the spring (the peak month is November), whenthe Atlantic croaker migrates to deeper, warmer water. Inthe southerly range, it is assumed that all croaker spawn inthe open Gulf of Mexico, near the mouths of various passesthat lead into shallow bays and lagoons. Adults migrate inschools or small groups to the bays in the spring and leavethe marsh in the fall to enter deep gulf waters. Food and feeding habits.Adult croaker feed on detritus,larger invertebrates, and fish. Sensory barbels allow theAtlantic croaker to find food on the bottom.OTHER NAMEScroaker, crocus, goldencracker, hardhead, kingbilly; Japanese: ishimoki;Portuguese:corvina;Spanish:corbina, corvinónbrasileño.Distribution.The Atlanticcroaker is found along theAtlantic coast from CapeCod to the Bay ofCampeche. While it is abun-dant off the entire coast ofthe Gulf of Mexico, thecroaker periodically becomesmost common in Louisianaand Mississippi waters.Habitat.The Atlanticcroaker is a bottom-dwelling,estuarine-dependent fishthat becomes oceanic duringspawning. It prefers mud,sand, and shell bottoms;areas around rocks; watersnear jetties, piers, andbridges; and surf. Juvenilesinhabit both open and vege-tated shallow marsh areas.Adult croaker can occupy awide range of salinities, from20 to 75 parts per thousand,and temperatures of 50° to96°F. Large fish are notfound at temperatures below50°F. Larvae and juveniles,however, are more tolerantof lower temperatures.60Croaker, AtlanticCroaker, AtlanticMicropogonias undulatus

A member of the Sciaenidae (drum and croaker) family, then croaker is a small species caught by bay, surf, andfispotpier anglers and highly valued as table fare. Identification.n croaker is elongatefiThe body of the spotle of the head is steepfibut heavy forward. The upper proand slightly curved and abruptly rounded at the very bluntsnout. The mouth is subterminal, being underneath thehead. The color is silvery gray, with a bluish luster aboveand white below. There are dark wavy lines on the sides andn.fia large black spot at the base of the pectoral n spot, the subterminal mouth, and thefiThe pectoral n croakerfieshy barbel distinguish the spotflabsence of a from other California croaker. Small specimens may be con-n countsfifused with small white croaker, although dorsal nfin has 11 or fewer (usually 10) dorsal fidiffer. The spotnsfispines; the white croaker has 12 to 15. Large male spotin breeding colors are known as “golden croaker.”Size.n croaker is small to medium infiThe average spotsize, and most weigh roughly a pound. The largest caughton rod and reel in California was 27 inches long andweighed 10 ⁄ pounds.1 2Life history/Behavior.n croaker travel consider-fiSpotnite pattern, moving extensively fromfiably but with no debay to bay, usually in small groups but sometimes in groupsnumbering up to four dozen. Spawning season is from Junethrough September, and spawning evidently takes placesh are caught in the surf, althoughfioffshore, as no ripe 1-inch juveniles do appear in the surf in the fall.Food and feeding habits.n croaker have large pha-fiSpotryngeal teeth that are well suited to crushing clams, whichmake up a major portion of their diet; crustaceans andworms are also eaten extensively.OTHER NAMESspotty, spot, goldencroaker.Distribution.nfiSpotcroaker range fromMazatlán, Mexico, to PointConception, California,including the Gulf of Califor-nia; in California they aremost abundant south of LosAngeles.Habitat.ns arefiSpotfound along beaches and inbays over bottoms that varyfrom coarse sand to heavymud and at depths varyingfrom 4 to 50 or more feet.They prefer depressions andholes near shore.nfiCroaker, Spot61Croaker, SpotfinRoncador stearnsii

A member of the Sciaenidae family, the white croaker is asmall North American Pacific coast fish. The common name“croaker” is derived from the voluntary deep croakingnoises made when the fish raps a muscle against the swimbladder, which acts as an amplifier. The resultant distinctivedrumming noise can be heard from a far distance.Although the flesh is edible, the white croaker is consid-ered a nuisance, being easily hooked on most any type oflive bait. Like its cousin the queenfish (Seriphus politus; see:Queenfish),many white croaker are caught accidentally byanglers.Identification.The body of the white croaker is elongateand compressed. Its head is oblong and bluntly rounded,and its mouth is somewhat underneath the head. A deepnotch separates the two dorsal fins. Its coloring is iridescentbrown to yellowish on the back, becoming silvery below.Faint, wavy lines appear over the silvery parts. The fins areyellow to white.The white croaker is one of five California croaker thathave subterminal mouths. They can be distinguished fromthe California corbina (Menticirrhus undulatus; see: Corbina,California)and the yellowfin croaker (Umbrina roncador; see:Croaker, Yellowfin)by the absence of a barbel. The 12 to 15spines in the first dorsal fin serve to distinguish whitecroaker from all the other croaker with subterminal mouths,as none of these has more than 11 spines in this fin.Size/Age.The average weight is 1 pound. It is believedthe white croaker can live up to 15 years, although most livefar fewer years.Food and feeding habits.White croaker consume a vari-ety of fish, squid, shrimp, octopus, worms, small crabs,clams, and other items, living or dead.OTHER NAMESkingfish, king-fish, kingcroaker, shiner, Pasadenatrout, tommy croaker, littlebass; Japanese: shiroguchi.Distribution.Whitecroaker range from Mag-dalena Bay, Baja California,to Vancouver Island, BritishColumbia, but are notabundant north of SanFrancisco.Habitat.Preferring sandybottoms, white croakerinhabit quiet surf zones,shallow bays, and lagoons.Most of the time they arefound in offshore areas atdepths of 10 to 100 feet.On rare occasions, they areabundant at depths asgreat as 600 feet.62Croaker, WhiteCroaker, WhiteGenyonemus lineatus

The yellowfin croaker is a member of the family Sciaenidae(drum and croaker), known for the drumlike noises it makeswhen it raps a muscle against its swim bladder. The result-ing distinctive drumming sound is amplified by the swimbladder and can be heard at some distance.The sciaenids are one of the most important food fish inthe world because nearly all species are good to eat and areharvested commercially. Found along the Pacific coast, theyellowfin croaker is a popular catch for light-tackle surfanglers.Identification.The body of the yellowfin croaker is elliptical-elongate; the back is somewhat arched and thehead blunt. Its coloring is iridescent blue to gray, withbrassy reflections on the back, diffusing to silvery whitebelow. Dark wavy lines streak the sides. The fins are yellow-ish, except for the dark dorsal fins. It has a small barbel onthe chin tip and two strong anal spines; the barbel and theheavy anal spines distinguish the yellowfin from other Cali-fornia croaker.Size.The average weight for a yellowfin croaker is less than1 pound. The all-tackle record is 2 pounds, 11 ounces.Life history/Behavior.Yellowfin croaker are sexuallymature at 9 inches in length. Their spawning season is inthe summer, when this species is most common alongsandy beaches. They move into deeper waters in the winter,traveling in schools or small groups.Food and feeding habits.Although the yellowfin croakerprimarily consumes small fish and fish fry, it also feeds onsmall crustaceans, worms, and mollusks.OTHER NAMESCatalina croaker, yellow-tailed croaker, goldencroaker, yellowfin drum.Distribution.Theyellowfin croaker is foundfrom the Gulf of California,Mexico, to Point Concep-tion, California.Habitat.These fish inhabitshallow parts of bays, channels, harbors, andother nearshore waters oversandy bottoms.Croaker, Yellowfin63Croaker, YellowfinUmbrina roncador

sh are members of the family Trichiuridae, encom-fiCutlasspassing nearly 20 species. They are swift swimmers thatgenerally dwell on the bottom. Used as bait for largersh are a valued foodfish in the United States, cutlassfigameand a commercial species in many other countries, espe-cially Japan, where they may be used for sashimi. They arealso marketed salted/dried and frozen.Identification.Characterized by their long, compressedsh are also com-fibodies that taper to pointed tails, cutlasssh. Their heads are spear-shaped,fimonly known as ribbonsh have sharp, arrowlike teeth in large mouths.fiand the Their coloring is silvery, the jaws edged with black.Size/Age.sh can reach up to 5 feet in length andfiCutlass2 pounds in weight. The average length is 3 feet. The all-shfitackle record for Atlantic cutlass (Trichiurus lepturus)is ash caught in South Africa in 1995.fi7-pound Food and feeding habits.sh feed on anchovies,fiCutlasssardines, squid, and crustaceans. Adults usually feed onpelagic prey near the surface during the daytime andmigrate to the bottom at night. Subadults and small juve-niles do the opposite.OTHER NAMESsh,fish, ribbonficutlass cfish, PacifiAtlantic cutlasssh, largehead hair-ficutlasstail; Japanese: tachinouo,tachiuo, tachuo;Portuguese:lírio, peixe-espada;Spanish:espada,pez sable, sable, savola.Distribution.In NorthAmerica, the Atlantic cut-sh commonly rangesfilassfrom Massachusetts toArgentina and throughoutthe Gulf of Mexico, espe-c,ficially Texas. In the Pacish inhabit watersficutlassfrom Southern California tonorthern Peru.Habitat.Preferring muddybottoms in shallow water,sh gather in largeficutlassnumbers in bays, estuaries,and shallow coastal areas.64shfiCutlassCutlassfish

sh, SpinyfiDog65sh is the most prominent member of thefiThe spiny dogsh sharks. Some live in relativelyfiSqualidae family of dogshallow water close to shore; others inhabit great depths.They vary widely in length, and one of their chief anatomi-n.fical characteristics is the lack of an anal Identification.sh is elongatefiThe body of the spiny dogand slender. The head is pointed. The color is slate gray tobrownish on top, sometimes with white spots, and fadingto white below. It has spines at the beginning of both dor-ns; these spines are mildly poisonous and provide afisal sh.fidefense for the spiny dogSize/Age.sh are common at 2 to 3 feet infiSpiny doglength; the maximum size is about 63 inches and 20pounds. In California waters, a large fat female will beroughly 4 feet long and will weigh 15 pounds. In the north-western Atlantic, maximum ages reported for males andfemales are 35 and 40 years, respectively.Life history.sh tend to school by size and, forfiSpiny doglarge mature individuals, by sex. Females are larger thanmales and produce from 3 to 14 young at a time in alter-nate years. The species bears live young and has a gestationsh are longfiperiod of about 18 to 22 months. Spiny dogshing pressurefilived and nonmigratory; heavy commercial in a given area will rapidly lower populations of this slow-growing, low-reproductive species.Food and feeding habits.sh is voraciousfiThe spiny dogsh, including herring,fiand feeds on practically all smaller shfisardines, anchovies, smelt, and even small spiny dogand crabs. They have been known to attack schools of her-ring and mackerel, as well as concentrations of haddock,cod, sand lance, and other species.OTHER NAMESsh, dog shark, gray-fidogcfish, Pacific grayfish, Pacifish, spinarola, Califor-fidogsh, blue dog,finia dog sh, spinyficommon spiny sh, spikyfish, picked fidogdog, spotted spiny, spur-sh,fidog, white-spotted dogsh;fiVictorian spotted dogFrench:aiguillat;Italian:spinarolo;Japanese:abura-tsunozame;Portuguese:galhudo;Russian:katran;Spanish:galludo.Distribution.Spiny dog-sh occur in temperate andfisubtropical waters. In thewestern Atlantic, they range from Greenland toArgentina; in the easternc, they range from thefiPaciBering Sea to Chile.Habitat.This species iscommon in nearshorewaters along some coastsand may be found inenclosed bays and estuaries;it generally inhabits deepwaters and typically favorsthe bottom. In temperatewaters during the springshfiand the fall, spiny dogcan range into coastalwaters, heading morenortherly in the summer. Inthe winter, they are distrib-uted primarily in deeperwaters along the edge ofthe continental shelf.Dogfish, SpinySqualus acanthias

The common dolphin is the larger of the two very similarspecies in the family Coryphaenidae, both of which are cos-mopolitan in warm seas. This fish is one of the top offshoregamefish among anglers and is an excellent, hard-fightingspecies that puts on an acrobatic show once hooked.Identification.The body is slender and streamlined, taper-ing sharply from head to tail. Large males, called bulls, havehigh, vertical foreheads, while the female’s forehead isrounded. The anal fin has 25 to 31 soft rays and is long,stretching over half of the length of the body. The dorsal finhas 55 to 66 soft rays. Its caudal fin is deeply forked; thereare no spines in any of the fins; and the mouth has bands offine teeth.Coloring is variable and defies an accurate, simpledescription. Generally, when the fish is alive in the water,the common dolphin is rich iridescent blue or blue-greendorsally; gold, bluish-gold, or silvery gold on the lowerflanks; and silvery white or yellow on the belly. The sides aresprinkled with a mixture of dark and light spots, rangingfrom black or blue to golden. The dorsal fin is rich blue, andthe anal fin is golden or silvery. The other fins are generallygolden yellow, edged with blue. Dark vertical bands some-times appear when the fish is attacking prey. The colordescription of the dolphin is difficult because it undergoessudden changes in color, which occur in an instant, oftenwhen the fish is excited.When the fish is removed from the water, however, thecolors fluctuate between blue, green, and yellow; the bril-liant colors that were apparent when in the water fadequickly. After death, the fish usually turns a uniform yellowor silvery gray.Size/Age.The average size is 5 to 15 pounds, althoughlarger catches up to 50 pounds are not uncommon. The all-tackle world record is an 87-pounder caught in Costa RicaOTHER NAMESdolphinfish, common dol-phinfish, mahimahi, mahimahi, dorado; Chinese: feiniau fu, ngau tau yue;French:coryphéne com-mune;Italian:lampuga;Japanese:shiira, toohyaku;Portuguese:doirado,dourado;Spanish:dorado,dorado com ún, lampuga.Distribution.The commondolphin is found worldwidein tropical and subtropicalwaters. In the westernAtlantic, it occurs in areasinfluenced by the warmwaters of the Gulf Streamand has been caught as farnorth as Prince EdwardIsland and as far south asRío de Janeiro. In the easternPacific, it ranges from Peruto Oregon.Habitat.Common dolphinare warmwater pelagic fish,occurring in the open oceanand usually found close tothe surface, although inwaters of great depth. Theysometimes inhabit coastalwaters and occasionallyareas near piers, but in theopen ocean they often con-centrate around floating66Dolphin, CommonDolphin, CommonCoryphaena hippurus

in 1976, and it has been rumored that fish up to 100pounds have been caught by commercial longliners. Themaximum length is reportedly 82 inches.Dolphin are fast growing and short lived. Few commondolphin live longer than 4 years, and most live just 3 years.Males grow larger than females and are capable of growingto 60 pounds in just 2 years, although this is exceptionaland the result of consistently favorable warm water tem-peratures and abundant food.Life history/Behavior.The common dolphin is a prolificspawner and grows rapidly, meaning that it must by naturebe an eating machine. Spawning season begins primarily inthe spring or early summer and lasts several months inwarmer waters. Dolphin reach sexual maturity in their firstyear of life and produce a large volume of eggs.Dolphin are schooling fish and are often congregated inlarge numbers, sometimes by the thousands. They arealmost always between the surface and 100-foot depths,but they are encountered by anglers on or just under thesurface and are probably the most surface-oriented of allbig-game fish. This, plus the fact that they are visually ori-ented feeders that primarily forage in daylight, helps endearthem to anglers. Offshore anglers frequently encounterpacks of dolphin and are able to elicit strikes from severalfish in quick order.These fish are evidently also migratory. It is believed thatdolphin in both hemispheres migrate away from the equa-tor in the spring and the summer and toward the equator inthe fall and the winter.Food.Common dolphin are extremely fast swimmers andfeed in pairs, small packs, and schools, extensively consum-ing whatever forage fishes are most abundant. Flyingfishand squid are prominent food in areas where these exist,and small fish and crustaceans that are around floating sar-gassum weed are commonly part of the diet, especially forsmaller dolphin. Dolphin are very aggressive feeders, andthey can move extremely fast to capture a meal.objects, especially buoys,driftwood, and seaweedlines or clusters. The youngcommonly frequent warmnearshore waters in sargas-sum beds or other flotsam.In developing countries,commercial fishermen mayplace floating bundles ofbamboo reeds, cork planks,and the like in the water toconcentrate dolphin beforeseining or gillnettingcommences.Dolphin, Common67Dolphin, Common(continued)

The pompano dolphin is the smaller of the two Cory-phaenidae family species and is often confused with thefemales and the young of its larger relative the commondolphin(C. hippurus).Like its relative, it is caught commer-cially and by anglers, and it is an excellent food fish. Thepompano dolphin is usually presented in fish markets and restaurants under its Hawaiian name, mahimahi. Thisspecies, and its relative, are often referred to as “dolphin-fish” to distinguish them from the so-called dolphin of theporpoise family, which is an unrelated mammal and notsought by anglers.Identification.This species is almost identical to the com-mon dolphin in coloring and general shape, although it hasgreater body depth behind the head than the commondolphin has and a squarish, rather than rounded, toothpatch on the tongue. There are fewer dorsal rays on thepompano dolphin—48 to 55, versus the common dolphin’s55 to 65.Size.The average size is 20 to 24 inches and 4 to 5 pounds,although it reportedly grows to 50 inches.Life history/Behavior.Little is known of the life history ofthe pompano dolphin, other than that it is a schooling trop-ical water species, prone to near-surface feeding andattracted to objects. This fish is similar to the common dol-phin in most behavioral respects.Food.The pompano dolphin’s diet consists of small fishand squid.OTHER NAMESmahimahi, blue dolphin,small dolphin, dolphinfish,pompano dolphinfish;French:coryphéne dauphin;Japanese:ebisu-shiira;Portuguese:dourado;Spanish:dorado.Distribution/Habitat.The pompano dolphin isfound worldwide in tropicalseas; in the United States itis most commonly encoun-tered in Hawaii. The pom-pano dolphin reportedlyprefers surface temperaturesabove 75°F. It is consideredmore oceanic than the com-mon dolphin is but mayenter coastal waters.68Dolphin, PompanoDolphin, PompanoCoryphaena equiselis

The black drum is the largest member of the Sciaenidaefamily (drum and croaker). The common term “drum”refers to the loud and distinctive “drumming” noise thatoccurs when the fish raps a muscle against the swim blad-der. This voluntary noise is assumed to be associated withlocating and attracting mates, and it can sometimes beheard from a good distance, even by people above thewater.Identification.The black drum has a short, deep, andstocky body, with a high, arched back and a slightly con-cave tail. The lower jaw sports numerous barbels, or shortwhiskers. There are large pavementlike teeth in the throat,and the mouth is low. The dorsal fins have 11 spines, 20 to22 dorsal rays, and 41 to 45 scales along the lateral line,which runs all the way to the end of the tail. Coloring is sil-very with a brassy sheen and blackish fins, turning to darkgray after death.Size/Age.Average small drum weigh 5 to 10 pounds;large specimens commonly weigh 20 to 40 pounds. InDelaware Bay, fish from 40 to 70 pounds are fairly commonin the spring. The all-tackle record is 113 pounds. Blackdrum live up to 35 years.Life history/Behavior.Black drum adults form schoolsand migrate in the spring to bay and river mouths for thespawning season; in the Gulf of Mexico this is from Febru-ary to May. Larval black drum remain in shallow muddywaters until they are 4 to 5 inches long; then they movenear shore.Food and feeding habits.Adult black drum feed on crus-taceans and mollusks, with a preference for blue crabs,shedder crabs, shrimp, oysters, and squid. They locate foodwith their chin barbels and crush and grind shells with theirpharyngeal teeth.OTHER NAMESdrum, sea drum, commondrum, banded drum, butterfly drum, gray drum,striped drum, oyster drum,oyster cracker; French:grand tambour;Japanese:guchi, ishimochi, nibe;Portuguese:corvina;Spanish:corvinón negro,corbina, corvina negro, corvina, roncador.Distribution.Black drumare found in the westernAtlantic Ocean, from Massachusetts to southernFlorida and across the Gulfof Mexico to northern Mex-ico. They rarely occur northof New Jersey.Habitat.An inshore bot-tom fish, the black drumprefers sandy bottoms insalt or brackish waters nearjetties, breakwaters, bridgeand pier pilings, clam andoyster beds, channels, estu-aries, bays, high marshareas, and shorelines.Larger fish often favor shoalareas and channels.Black drum can survivewide ranges of salinity andtemperature. The small fishinhabit brackish and fresh-water habitats; the adultsusually prefer estuaries inwhich salinity ranges from 9to 26 parts per thousandand the temperature rangesfrom 53° to 91°F.Drum, Black69Drum, BlackPogonias cromis

Commonly known as a channel bass and a redfish, the reddrum is second only to the black drum (see: Drum, Black)insize among members of the drum family, Sciaenidae, butprobably first in the hearts of anglers. The common term“drum” refers to the loud and distinctive “drumming” noisethat occurs when the fish raps a muscle against the swimbladder. The noise is voluntary and is assumed to be associ-ated with locating and attracting mates, and it can some-times be heard from a good distance, even by people abovethe water.Identification.The red drum is similar in appearance tothe black drum, although its maximum size is smaller and itis more streamlined. The body is elongate, with a subtermi-nal mouth and a blunt nose. On adults the tail is squared,and on juveniles it is rounded. There are no chin barbels,which also distinguishes it from the black drum. Its coloringis coppery red to bronze on the back, and silver and whiteon the sides and the belly. One black dot (also called an eye-spot) or many are found at the base of the tail.Size/Age.The average adult red drum is 28 inches longand weighs roughly 15 pounds. Although red drum canattain enormous sizes, they seldom do so. A 30-pounder isgenerally rare south of the Carolinas or in the Gulf of Mex-ico, although fish weighing up to 60 pounds are caught inoffshore locations. Thirty- to 50-pound fish are most promi-nent in the mid-Atlantic, principally in North Carolina andVirginia; these sizes are considered trophies.Red drum can live 50 or more years. They are reported tolive to at least 40 years in the Gulf of Mexico, and the all-tackle record, a North Carolina fish of 94 pounds, 2 ounces,was reportedly 53 years old.Life history/Behavior.Males are mature by 4 years ofage at 30 inches and 15 pounds, females by 5 years at 35inches and 18 pounds. The spawning season is during thefall, although it may begin as early as August and end as lateas November. Spawning takes place at dusk in the coastalOTHER NAMESchannel bass, redfish, ratred (schooling juvenilesless than 2 pounds), bullred (more than 10pounds), puppy drum(under 18 inches), drum,spottail bass, red bass, redhorse, school drum;French:tambour rouge;Spanish:corvinón ocelado,pez rojo, corvina roja,pescado colorado.Distribution.Red drumare found in the westernAtlantic Ocean from theGulf of Maine to the FloridaKeys, although they are rarenorth of Maryland, and allalong the Gulf Coast tonorthern Mexico.Habitat.An estuarine-dependent fish thatbecomes oceanic later inlife, the red drum is found inbrackish water and saltwa-ter on sand, mud, and grassbottoms of inlets, shallowbays, tidal passes, bayous,and estuaries. The red drumalso tolerates freshwater, inwhich some have beenknown to dwell perma-nently. Larger red drum pre-fer deeper waters of lowerestuaries and tidal passes,whereas smaller drumremain in shallow waters70Drum, RedDrum, RedSciaenops ocellatus

waters of the northern Gulf of Mexico, near passes, inlets,and bays, and is often tied to new- or full-moon phases.Right before spawning, males change color and becomedark red or bright bluish-gray above the lateral line. Bothmales and females, hours before mating, chase and butteach other, drumming loudly. A female may release up to4.5 million eggs, although very few survive to adulthood.Currents and winds carry the larvae into estuarine nurseryareas.Adult red drum form large schools in coastal waters, anactivity presumably associated with spawning, although itoccurs throughout the year. Anglers often see them at thesurface or moving under schools of blue runner and littletunny. Sight casting to schools is a favored activity.Drum are known generally to remain in the waters wherethey were hatched, although some populations migrateseasonally, and large reds may move offshore, as previouslynoted.Food and feeding habits.As a bottom fish, this speciesuses its senses of sight and touch and its downturnedmouth to locate forage on the bottom through vacuumingor biting the bottom. Juveniles consume copepods,amphipods, and tiny shrimp. In the summer and the fall,adults feed on crabs, shrimp, and sand dollars. Fish such asmenhaden, mullet, pinfish, sea robins, lizardfish, spot,Atlantic croaker, and flounder are the primary foods con-sumed during the winter and the spring. In shallow water,red drum are often seen browsing head-down with theirtails slightly out of the water, a behavior called “tailing.”near piers and jetties andon grassy flats.Red drum can survivewide ranges of salinity andtemperature. Smaller drumprefer lower salinity levelsthan do larger ones. Opti-mum salinity levels rangefrom 5 to 30 parts per thousand, optimum temper-atures from 40° to 90°F.More big reds andfewer small ones exist in afairly short stretch of themid-Atlantic because of therich feeding opportunities.This is said to keep the fishfrom migrating southwardeach fall, as they prefer tomove offshore to warmercontinental shelf watersuntil spring.Drum, Red71Drum, Red(continued)

Conger eels are widely distributed members of the smallCongridae family of marine eels that inhabit temperate andtropical waters.Identification.Conger are distinguished from moray eelsby having pectoral fins (morays have none) and by the darkor black margin on their dorsal and anal fins. Conger eelsare scaleless, and their dorsal fins originate over the tips ofthe pectorals. They grow much larger than American eels,with which they are sometimes confused in inshore envi-rons.Size/Age.The American conger is reportedly capable ofgrowing to 7 ⁄ feet and 87 pounds, although it is most fre-1 2quently encountered at 10 to 20 pounds and 5 feet inlength. Females grow larger than males.Life history.The life history of this fish is similar to that ofthe American eel, although the latter enter freshwater. Sex-ual maturity occurs between 5 and 15 years of age, andspawning congers migrate seaward, spawning in the sum-mer in water that may be more than 1,000 feet deep.Food.The diet of the nocturnal-feeding conger eelincludes fish, shrimp, small shellfish, and crustaceans.OTHER NAMESconger, dog eel, sea eel,silver eel; French: congred’Amerique;Spanish:congrin americana.Distribution.The Ameri-can conger occurs in thewestern Atlantic from CapeCod, Massachusetts, toFlorida and in the northernGulf of Mexico.Habitat.This speciesranges widely from shallowinshore waters, occasionallyin brackish environs, towaters hundreds of feetdeep. The eels usually sus-pend over rocky or brokenbottoms or may lingeraround wrecks, piers, pilings, and jetties.72Eel, American CongerEel, American CongerConger oceanicus

The Muraenidae family of morays is the most infamousgroup within the order Anguilliformes, which are jawed fishcalled eels. They constitute a family of more than 80species, occurring in greatest abundance in tropical andsubtropical waters.The typical moray’s body is flattened from side to side,pectoral fins are lacking, and the scaleless skin is thick andleathery. The dorsal and the anal fins are low, sometimesalmost hidden by the wrinkled skin around them. The gillopening is small and round, and the teeth are large. Mostmorays are large, reaching a length of 5 to 6 feet. Some areas long as 10 feet.Normally, morays are nocturnal, but they never miss anopportunity to appear from their rocky lairs when a meal isin the offing. They feed on small fish, octopus, crustaceans,and mollusks.The green moray (Gymnothorax funebris),which lives intropical and subtropical waters of both North and SouthAmerica and averages 5 to 6 feet long, is an unusual brownish-green, due to a yellow slime that covers the eel’sblue body. The green moray inhabits coral reefs, sometimesgoing into deep water to prowl for food.The spotted moray (G. moringa)occurs in the samerange as the green moray. It is usually under 3 feet long andhas prominent dark spots or a chainlike pattern of dark lineson its usually yellowish body.The California moray (G. mordax)is similar in appearanceand habits to the spotted moray. It grows to 5 feet, is foundup to 65 feet deep, and may live more than 30 years. Theblackedge moray (G. nigromarginatus),prevalent in the sub-tropical Atlantic, the Caribbean, and the Gulf of Mexico, isof similar size, but the black pattern is more pronounced,with black margins on the dorsal and the anal fins.Habitat.Morays live pri-marily in coral reefs or insimilar rocky areas. A moraywill anchor the rear half ofits body in coral and rocks,allowing the front of itsbody to sway with the cur-rent. In this position, withits mouth agape, it is readyto grasp any prey thatcomes close. This gapingstance appears menacing,but it is an adaptationsuited not only to foragingbut also to respiration,allowing the eel to pumpwater across its gills.Eels, Moray73Eels, MorayGreen Moray EelGymnothorax funebris

Snake eels in the Ophichthidae family have long, cylindrical,snakelike bodies and can move backward extremely effec-tively. Their tails are stiff and sharp, rather than broad andflat, as with morays. The snake eel’s tail is used like an awl toburrow tail-first into sand or mud. The nostrils are located intwo short, stout barbels on top of the nose, which the eeluses to probe into crevices and cavities as it searches forfood. Compared to morays and most other eels, snake eelsare docile creatures, commonly seen crawling over the bot-tom like snakes.In most snake eels, the dorsal fins extend almost the fulllength of their bodies, beginning just behind their headsbut stopping short of the tips of their tails. Their anal fins areonly about half as long as their bodies, also stopping beforethe tips of their tails. Pectoral fins are lacking or very small.Only a few of the profuse species reach a length exceeding3 feet; most of them are less than a foot long. They are typ-ically brightly colored and are generally strikingly markedwith bands, spots, or both. Snake eels are found throughoutthe world in subtropical and tropical seas, a few ranginginto temperate waters.One of the several dozen species in the Atlantic and theCaribbean is the spotted snake eel (Ophichtus ophis),aver-aging 2 feet in length and occasionally growing to 4 feet. Itsyellowish body is covered with large brown spots. The yel-low snake eel (O. zophochir)is a similar species that lives inthe Pacific.Another genus represented by numerous species isMyrichthys,which includes the sharptail eel (M. acumina-tus),in the Atlantic, and the tiger snake eel (M. tigrinus),inthe Pacific.74Eels, SnakeEels, SnakeSnake EelOphichtus macrorhynchus

The eulachon is a member of the smelt family, Osmeridae.It is one of the largest members of this family of smallPacific coast fish and has been important to the ChinookIndians. High in oil content (15 percent of its body weight), eulachon used to be dried and fitted with wicks for use ascandles.Like other smelt, the eulachon is important as foragefood for Pacific salmon, as well as for marine mammals andbirds. It is also harvested or caught commercially and is ahighly esteemed seafood by Native Americans from Califor-nia to Alaska. Although some are hard-salted, these surfsmelt are too delicate to be preserved and are generallysmoked.Identification.The eulachon is a small slender fish, with astubby adipose fin just in front of the tail. The lower jawprojects slightly beyond the tip of the snout. Its coloring isbluish-black on the back, fading to silvery white on thebelly. Smelt are so similar in appearance that it is difficult todifferentiate among species. Its larger size, however, helpsdistinguish the eulachon from its relatives.Size/Age.The eulachon can reach up to 12 inches. It gen-erally lives 2 to 3 years.Spawning behavior. Eulachon spawn between March andMay, when they enter freshwater tributaries from NorthernCalifornia to the Bering Sea. They mature when they reach2 to 3 years of age and die following spawning.Food.The eulachon feeds on planktonic crustaceans.OTHER NAMEScandlefish, hooligan;French:eulachon, eulakane.Distribution.This fish iscommon throughout coolnorthern Pacific waters,with a range from west ofSt. Matthews Island andKuskokwim Bay in theBering Sea, and BowersBank in the Aleutian Islandsto Monterey Bay inCalifornia.Habitat.This fish is foundnear shore and in coastalinlets and rivers. It spendsits life at sea prior tospawning.Eulachon75EulachonThaleichthys pacificus

ounder is a member of the Bothidae family of left-flThe gulf sh. It is one of thefiounder and is an excellent table fleyed sh in a large group of important sport and com-fismaller ounder is offlounder. Because of its size, the gulf flmercial cance, and it is mixed in commercialfiminor economic signiand sport catches with summer flounder and southernounder.flIdentification.ounder has the familiar olive-flThe gulf brown background of its relatives, the summer and theounder, but it has three characteristic ocellatedflsouthern spots forming a triangle on its eye side. One spot is abovethe lateral line, one below, and one on the middle, althoughsh. Numerousfithese spots can become obscure in larger white spots are scattered over the body and the fins(albiguttan is infimeans “white-spotted”), and the caudal the shape of a wedge, with the tip in the middle. Thisspecies has 53 to 63 anal rays, which is fewer than the 63 tosh, thefiatflounder. Like other fl73 found on the southern ounder can change color dramatically to match theflgulf bottom.Size/Age.The average fish is under 2 pounds andbetween 6 and 10 inches long, although it is capable ofgrowing to 15 inches. It is believed to live for at least 3years. The all-tackle world-record fish is a 5-pounder,caught in Florida.Spawning.Spawning season is in the winter offshore.Food.ounder feeds on crustaceans and smallflThe gulf sh.fiOTHER NAMESounder; Spanish:fllenguado tres ojos.Distribution.The gulfounder generally occurs inflthe same range as theounder; it is com-flsouthern mon from Cape Lookout,North Carolina, to CorpusChristi, Texas, includingsouthern Florida and theBahamas.Habitat.ounderflGulf inhabit sand, coral rubble,and seagrass areas nearshore. They often range intotidal reefs and are occasion-ally found around nearshorerocky reefs. They commonlyfavor depths of up to 60feet.76Flounder, GulfFlounder,GulfParalichthys albigutta

The southern flounder is thought to be the largest Gulf ofMexico flatfish. A member of the Bothidae family of left-eyed flounder, it is a highly desired food fish, and consider-able numbers are harvested by trawlers.Identification.The southern flounder resembles the sum-mer flounder in appearance. Its coloring is light to darkolive-brown, and it is marked with diffused dark blotchesand spots, instead of distinct ocelli (spots ringed with dis-tinct lighter areas). These spots often disappear in large fish.The underside is white, the simple fins make an even fringearound the body, and its beady eyes are located extremelyclose together. It can be distinguished from the summerflounder by having fewer gill rakers and by the presence ofdistinct spots. It is also similar to the gulf flounder, whichhas no distinct ocelli.Size/Age.Mature individuals grow to 36 inches and morethan 12 pounds. The average size is 12 to 24 inches and 2to 3 pounds. The all-tackle record is 20 pounds, 9 ounces.Southern flounder can live up to 20 years in the Gulf ofMexico.Spawning behavior.Southern flounder spawn in offshorewaters. In the northern Gulf of Mexico, they move out ofbays and estuaries in the fall; this occurs quickly if there is anabrupt cold snap, but it happens more slowly if there isgradual cooling. Spawning occurs afterward, in the late falland the early winter. A female typically releases several hun-dred thousand eggs, which hatch and migrate into theestuaries and change from upright swimmers into left-eyedbottom dwellers.Food and feeding habits.The southern flounder feedspartly by burying itself in the sand and waiting to ambushits prey. Small flounder consume shrimp and other smallcrustaceans, whereas larger flounder eat blue crabs, shrimp,and fish such as anchovies, mullet, menhaden, Atlanticcroaker, and pinfish.OTHER NAMESflatfish, flounder, halibut,mud flounder, plie, south-ern fluke; Spanish:lenguado de Floride.Distribution.The south-ern flounder can be foundfrom North Carolina tonorthern Mexico, althoughit is not present in southernFlorida.Habitat.As an estuarine-dependent bottom fish, the southern flounder com-monly inhabits inshorechannels, bay mouths, estuaries, and sometimesfreshwater. It is tolerant of awide range of temperatures(50° to 90°F) and is oftenfound in waters where salin-ities fluctuate from 0 to 20parts per thousand. Noother flounder of the east-ern United States is regu-larly encountered in thistype of environment.Anglers regularly catch thisfish inshore from bridgesand jetties.Flounder, Southern77Flounder,SouthernParalichthys lethostigma

The starry flounder is a smaller and less common memberof the Pacific coast Pleuronectidae family of right-eyedflounder. Flounder and other flatfish are known for theirunique appearance, having both eyes on either the left orthe right side of the head, although the starry flounder canbe either left-eyed or right-eyed.It is a popular sportfish because of its willingness to biteand its strong fighting qualities. Although the starry floun-der has tasty flesh, it is important mainly as a sportfish, hav-ing only moderate commercial value. Processing is difficultdue to its rough skin, and it must be deep-skinned toremove its unappealing, dark fat layer.Identification.The starry flounder belongs to the right-eyed family of flatfish, but, as noted, it can also be left-eyed.Its head is pointed, and it has a small mouth. The anal spineis strong. The caudal fin is square or slightly rounded. Itscoloring is olive to dark brown or almost black on the upperside and creamy white on the blind side. The unpaired fins,its outstanding feature, are white to yellow to orange withblack bars. There are patches of rough, shiny, starlike scalesscattered over the eyed side of the body, which give rise toits name.Size.The average size is 12 to 14 inches, although it cangrow to 3 feet and 20 pounds. Females grow faster thanmales and attain larger sizes.Spawning behavior.Spawning occurs in the late winterand the early spring in California waters less than 25 fath-oms deep.Food.Adult starry flounder consume a variety of items,including crabs, clams, shrimp, and sand dollars. Large indi-viduals also eat some fish, such as sardines, sanddabs, andsurfperch.OTHER NAMESrough jacket, great floun-der, California flounder,diamond back, emery-wheel, emery flounder,grindstone, sandpaperflounder; Japanese: numagarei.Distribution.The starryflounder ranges from centralCalifornia to Alaska, andsouth from the Bering Seato Japan and Korea. This isone of the most numerousfish of central Northern Cal-ifornia backwaters, particu-larly in San Francisco Bay.Habitat.It is usually foundnear shore over mud, sand,or gravel bottoms. Oftenentering brackish or fresh-water, the starry flounder ismost abundant in shallowwater but can be found indepths of at least 900 feet.Juveniles are often intertidal.78Flounder, StarryFlounder, StarryPlatichthys stellatus

The summer flounder, most commonly called fluke, is amember of the Bothidae family of flatfish, or left-eyed floun-der. Fishing for summer flounder off jetties and bridges is amainstay of mid-Atlantic coastal sportfishing.Identification.The body is wide and somewhat flattened,rimmed by long dorsal and anal fins. Its mouth is large andwell equipped with teeth. The eyes are on the left side of thebody and close together. The teeth are well developed onthe right side of the jaw. Background coloring is usually gray,brown, or olive but adjusts to the environment to keep thefish camouflaged. There are also many eyespots that changecolor. The blind side is white and relatively featureless.Size.The average summer flounder weighs 2 to 5 pounds,the latter being about 23 inches long. It is capable of grow-ing to 35 inches in length but rarely does, and the all-tackleworld record is a 22-pound, 7-ounce fish caught at Mon-tauk, New York. Historical data indicate that female summerflounder may live up to 20 years, but males rarely exceed 7years of age.Spawning behavior.Sexual maturity is reached at age 3.Spawning takes place during the fall and the winter, whilethe fish are moving offshore into deeper water or when theyreach their winter location. Currents carry newly hatchedflounder into the estuaries and sounds, where they undergoa transformation in shape and become bottom dwellers.Food and feeding habits.Adults are largely piscivorousand highly predatory, feeding actively in midwater, as wellas on the bottom. Extremely fast swimmers, they oftenchase baitfish at the surface, which is not characteristic ofmost other flatfish. Fluke are known to eat what is available,including shrimp, crabs, menhaden, anchovies, silversides,sand launce, killifish, weakfish, hake, and other flounder.OTHER NAMESfluke, northern fluke,flounder; Dutch: zomervo-gel;French:cardeau d’été.Distribution.The summerflounder occurs in the west-ern Atlantic from Maine toSouth Carolina and possiblyto northeast Florida, and itis most abundant fromCape Cod to NorthCarolina.Habitat.A bottom-dwelling fish, the summerflounder prefers sandy ormuddy bottoms and is com-mon in the summer monthsin bays, harbors, estuaries,canals, and creeks andalong shorelines, as well asin the vicinity of piers andbridges or near patches ofeelgrass or other vegetation.It typically prefers relativelyshallow waters and depthsof up to 100 feet duringwarmer months, thenmoves offshore in the winterto deeper, cooler water of150 to 500 feet.Flounder, Summer79Flounder, SummerParalichthys dentatus

One of the most common and well-known flounder of shal-low Atlantic coastal waters, the winter flounder belongs tothe Pleuronectidae family of flatfish. It is a right-eyed flat-fish, with both eyes on the right side of its body, and gets itsname because it retreats to cold, deep water in the summerand reappears in shallower water close to shore in the win-ter; its relative the summer flounder does the opposite.Identification.The body is oval and flat with a tinymouth. Color varies from reddish-brown to dark brownwith small black spots. The underside is whitish and occa-sionally brown, tinged with blue around the edges. Thecaudal fin is slightly rounded. The winter flounder differsfrom the similar yellowtail flounder in its straight lateral line,no arch over the pectoral fin, thicker body, and widelyspaced eyes.Size.Most winter flounder weigh between 1 and 1 ⁄12pounds and average less than a foot in length, althoughthey are capable of growing to 8 pounds and 2 feet. The all-tackle world record is 7 pounds. Larger fish are sometimescalled “sea flounder” to distinguish them from the smallerbay fish.Life history/Behavior.Spawning occurs in shallow waterover sandy bottoms from January through May. Winterflounder eggs stick together and sink to the bottom, wherethey hatch in roughly 16 days, depending on water tem-perature. These fish move from deep water toward shallowwater during the fall and offshore again in the spring.Food and feeding habits.When on a soft bottom, thewinter flounder will lie buried up to its eyes, waiting toattack prey. Because of its small mouth, its diet includes onlysmaller food like marine worms, small crustaceans, andsmall shelled animals like clams and snails.OTHER NAMESflounder, lemon sole, sole,blackback, blueback, blackflounder, dab, mud dab,flatfish, Georges Bankflounder; French: plierouge;Italian:sogliolalimanda;Spanish:mendolimon.Distribution.Winterflounder are common fromChesapeake Bay north tothe Gulf of St. Lawrence.Stragglers occur south toGeorgia and north toLabrador.Habitat.Winter flounderare found inshore in estuar-ies and coastal ocean areas.In the mid-Atlantic they stayinshore from Januarythrough April. Smaller fishoccur in shallower water,although larger fish willenter water only a footdeep. They range anywherefrom well up into the high-tide mark to depths of atleast 400 feet. Preferringsand-mud bottoms, they arealso found over sand, clay,or fine gravel and on hardbottom offshore.80Flounder, WinterFlounder, WinterPseudopleuronectes americanus

Flyingfish are members of the Exocoetidae family and areclosely related to halfbeaks, balao, and needlefish. The fly-ingfish has normal-length jaws, unlike these other species;the fins are soft rayed and spineless; and the lateral line isextremely low, following the outline of the belly. The dorsaland anal fins are set far back on the body. The pectoral finsof flyingfish are greatly expanded, forming winglike struc-tures. The round eggs are generally equipped with tufts oflong filaments that help to anchor the eggs in seaweeds.These fish travel in schools and are abundant in warmseas. They are an important food fish for pelagic species,especially for billfish, and may be used as rigged trollingbait for bluewater fishing. Flyingfish are readily observed in offshore environs when they suddenly burst through the water’s surface and glide for a short distance beforereentering the water.About 22 species are found off the Atlantic and thePacific coasts of North America. The largest of all NorthAmerican flyingfish is the California flyingfish (Cypseluruscalifornicus),which may be 1 ⁄ feet long. It is found only off1 2the coasts of Southern California and Baja California. It isone of the “four-winged” flyingfish, because the pelvic, aswell as the pectoral, fins are large and winglike.The common Atlantic flyingfish (C. heterurus;alsoC.melanurus), found in warm waters throughout the Atlantic,is two-winged, with a black band extending through thewings. It averages less than 10 inches in length.Other common species of warm Atlantic and Caribbeanwaters are the margined flyingfish (C. cyanopterus),thebandwing flyingfish (C. exsiliens),and the short-winged flyingfish(Parexocoetus mesogaster),the latter rangingthrough all warm seas and noted for shorter wings thanfound in most species.OTHER NAMESFrench:exocet;Spanish:volador.Flyingfish81FlyingfishAtlantic FlyingfishCypselurus heterurus

Gags belong to the branch of the grouper family that ischaracterized by a long, compressed body and 11 to 14rays in the anal fin. Gags have white, flaky flesh that makesexcellent eating, although, like other grouper, they havedeeply embedded scales that are virtually impossible toremove.Identification.Pale to dark gray or sometimes olive gray,the larger gag is darker than the smaller gag and hasblotchy markings on its side and an overall indistinctly mar-bled appearance. The smaller gag is paler and has manydark brown or charcoal marks along its sides. The pelvic, theanal, and the caudal fins are blackish, with blue or whiteedges. The gag is distinguished from the black grouper byits deeply notched preopercles and is distinguished fromthe otherwise similar scamp by the absence of extendedcaudal rays.Size/Age.The gag weighs less than 3 pounds on averagebut may reach a weight of 55 pounds (about 51 inches inlength). It can live for at least 15 years.Spawning behavior.Gags reach sexual maturity when 27to 30 inches long or 5 to 6 years of age, spawning off theCarolinas in February, and from January through March inthe Gulf of Mexico. The female may lay more than a millionpelagic eggs.Food.Gags feed on such fish as sardines, porgies, snapper,and grunts, as well as on crabs, shrimp, and squid; youngthat are less than 20 centimeters feed mainly on crustaceansfound in shallow grassbeds.OTHER NAMEScharcoal belly; French:badèche baillou;Portuguese:badejo-da-areia;Spanish:cuna aguají.Distribution.In the west-ern Atlantic, gags are foundfrom North Carolina (some-times as far north as Massa-chusetts) to the YucatánPeninsula, Mexico, althoughthey are rare in Bermudaand absent from theCaribbean and theBahamas; they are alsoreported along Brazil. Theyare the most commongrouper on rocky ledges inthe eastern Gulf of Mexico.Habitat.Young gagsinhabit estuaries and sea-grass beds, whereas adultsare usually found offshorearound rocky ledges, under-cuts, reefs, and occasionallyinshore over rocky or grassybottoms. Adults may be soli-tary or may occur in groupsof 5 to 50 individuals.82GagGagMycteroperca microlepis

The goosefish has been described as mostly mouth with atail attached. A member of the Lophiidae family of deep-seaanglerfish, this ugly, bottom-dwelling species of temperatewaters is not a targeted gamefish but is occasionally caughtby deep-water bottom anglers. More than two dozenspecies of anglerfish exist worldwide, with the Americangoosefish the largest among them.Identification.The American goosefish is dark brown,with a mottling of dark spots and blotches. It has almostarmlike pectoral fins located about midway in its greatlyflattened body. Small gill openings are just behind them.The head is extremely large for its body size, and the mouthis cavernous, filled with sharp, curved teeth and openingupward. On the tip of the first spine is a flap of flesh thatserves as a lure for attracting small fish within graspingrange of the mouth. If the prey comes close enough, thegoosefish opens its huge mouth and sucks its victim inside.Size/Age.The growth rate is fairly rapid and similar forboth sexes up to about age 4, when they are approximately19 inches long. After this, females grow a bit more rapidlyand seem to live longer, about 12 years, growing to slightlymore than 39 inches. Their maximum weight is 50 pounds,and the all-tackle world record is 49 pounds, 12 ounces.Spawning behavior.Sexual maturity occurs betweenages 3 and 4. Spawning takes place from spring throughearly autumn, depending on latitude. Females lay a nonad-hesive, buoyant mucoid egg raft, or veil, which can be aslarge as 39 feet long and 5 feet wide.Food.The carnivorous and rapacious goosefish eats a widearray of fish, some nearly as large as itself, as well as assortedcrustaceans and squid.OTHER NAMESAmerican goosefish,anglerfish, monkfish, lotte,bellyfish, frogfish, seadevil, American angler;French:baudroied’Amerique;Spanish:rapeamericano.Distribution.This speciesranges from the GrandBanks and the northern Gulfof St. Lawrence south toCape Hatteras, North Car-olina. A similar but smallerspecies, the blackfin goose-fish(L. gastrophysus),occurs in deeper watersfrom North Carolina to theGulf of Mexico and south toArgentina.Habitat.Individuals arefound from inshore areas todepths exceeding 435 fath-oms. Highest concentrationsoccur between 38 and 55fathoms and in deeperwater at about 100 fath-oms. Seasonal migrationsoccur, apparently related tospawning and food avail-ability.Goosefish83GoosefishLophius americanus

A member of the grouper/seabass family, the graysby is asmall, secretive reef fish. Graysby are commonly caught onhook and line, but their small size precludes them frombeing particularly sought after.Identification.Varying from pale gray to dark brown, thegraysby has many darker orangish, red-brown spots on itsbody, fins, and chin. There are three to five distinctivemarks, like pale or dark spots, that run along the base of thedorsal fin. A white line runs between the eyes from thenape to the lower lip. The spots change color, either grow-ing pale or darkening in contrast with the body. The tail ofthe graysby is more rounded than it is in similar species.There are 9 spines and 14 rays in the soft dorsal fin, com-pared to 15 to 17 rays in the closely related coney.Size.The graysby generally grows to a length of 6 to 10inches and can reach a maximum of 1 foot.Food.Graysby are nocturnal predators, feeding mainly onfish.OTHER NAMESSpanish:enjambre, chernaenjambre, cuna cabrilla.Distribution.Graysbyrange from North Carolinato the northern Gulf of Mex-ico and south to Brazil. Theyare common in southernFlorida, the Bahamas, andthe Caribbean and are alsofound in Bermuda.Habitat.Small ledges andcaves in coral beds and reefsare the preferred haunts ofgraysby, where they blendwith the surroundings atdepths between 10 and 60feet.84GraysbyGraysbyCephalopholis cruentata

The black grouper is a fairly large and hard-fighting mem-ber of the Serranidae family. It is an excellent food fish,although the flesh is occasionally toxic and can causeciguatera.Identification.Depending on location, the black groupermay be olive, gray, or reddish-brown to black. It has black,almost rectangular blotches and brassy spots. It can pale ordarken until its markings are hardly noticeable. It has a thin,pale border on its pectoral fins, a wide black edge and athin white margin on its tail, and sometimes a narroworangish edge to the pectoral fin; the tips of the tail and thesoft dorsal and anal fins are bluish or black. The blackgrouper has a squared-off tail and a gently rounded gillcover.Size.Regularly reaching 40 pounds, black grouper cangrow to more than 100 pounds; the all-tackle world recordis shared by two 114-pound fish, one from Texas and theother from Florida. The average length of the black grouperis 1 ⁄ to 3 feet; the maximum is 4 feet.1 2Life history/Behavior.Black grouper spawn betweenMay and August. As in many species of grouper, the youngstart out predominantly female, transforming into males asthey grow larger.Food and feeding habits.Adult black grouper feedmainly on fish and sometimes squid, and juveniles feedmainly on crustaceans.OTHER NAMESrockfish; Portuguese:badejo-ferro, badejo-quadrado;Spanish:bonaci,cuna bonací, cuna guarei.Distribution.Blackgrouper occur fromBermuda and Massachu-setts to southern Brazil,including the southern Gulfof Mexico, and occur com-monly to occasionally in theFlorida Keys, the Bahamas,and Cuba and throughoutthe Caribbean. Adults areunknown on the northeast-ern coast of the UnitedStates.Habitat.Black grouper arefound away from shore,near rocky and coral reefsand dropoff walls in watermore than 60 feet deep.Although black grouper typically drift just above thebottom, young fish mayinhabit shallow waterinshore, and adults occa-sionally frequent open waterfar above reefs.Grouper, Black85Grouper, BlackMycteroperca bonaci

The largest grouper and a member of the Serranidae family,the goliath grouper is an important gamefish and an excel-lent food fish.Identification.The goliath grouper is yellowish-brown toolive green or brown. Dark brown blotches and blackishspots mottle the entire body, including the head and thefins; these markings are variable and are more prominenton the young. Irregular dark bands run vertically along thesides, although these are usually obscure. The bodybecomes darker with age, as the blotches and spotsincrease and become less noticeable in contrast to thebody. The first dorsal fin is shorter than, and not separatedfrom, the second dorsal fin. The goliath grouper is differen-tiated from the giant sea bass by its dorsal fin soft rays, ofwhich it has 15 to 16; the giant sea bass has only 10.Distinctive features also include very small eyes, arounded tail fin, and large rounded pectoral fins. Speci-mens smaller than 1 ⁄ feet long bear a strong resemblance1 2to spotted cabrilla but can be distinguished by the numberof dorsal spines, of which the goliath grouper has 11 andthe spotted cabrilla 10.Size/Age.Goliath grouper can reach 8 feet in length and700 pounds in weight. Although the average fish weighsroughly 20 pounds, weights of 100 pounds are not unusual,nor are 4- to 6-foot lengths. The all-tackle world record is a680-pounder. They have been known to live for 30 to 50years.Life history/Behavior.There is some indication that thegoliath grouper starts out as a female and undergoes a sexchange later in life, as occurs in certain grouper. Spawningtakes place over the summer months.Food and feeding habits.A sluggish but opportunisticfeeder, the goliath grouper feeds chiefly on crustaceans,especially spiny lobsters, as well as on turtles, fish, andstingrays.OTHER NAMESjewfish, spotted jewfish,southern jewfish, junefish,Florida jewfish, esonuegrouper; Fon (spoken inBenin):tokokogbo;French:mérou géant;Portuguese:garoupa, mero;Spanish:cherna, cherne, mero,guasa, meroguasa.Distribution.In the west-ern Atlantic, goliath grouperoccur from Florida to south-ern Brazil, including the Gulfof Mexico and theCaribbean, although theyare rare in Florida, theBahamas, and theCaribbean. In the easternPacific, goliath grouperoccur from the central Gulfof California to Peru.Habitat.Goliath grouperinhabit inshore waters andare usually found in shallowwater at depths between 10and 100 feet. They preferrocky bottoms, reefs, ledges,dock and bridge pilings, andwrecks, where they can findrefuge in caves and holes.86Grouper, GoliathGrouper, GoliathEpinephelus itajara

The most important commercial grouper in the West Indiesand a member of the Serranidae family, the Nassau grouperhas been very heavily fished and is continually vulnerable tooverfishing, especially during its spawning and migratingseasons.Identification.Although its color pattern varies, the Nas-sau grouper usually has a light background, with a wide,dark brown stripe running from the tip of the snout througheach eye to the start of the dorsal fin, as well as four to fiveirregular dark bars running vertically along the sides. Twodistinctive features are the black dots always present aroundthe eyes, and a large black saddle on the caudal peduncle,also always present no matter what color the fish is. Thethird spine of the dorsal fin is longer than the second, thepelvic fins are shorter than the pectoral fins, and the dorsalfin is notched between the spines. It has the ability tochange color, from pale to almost black.Size.The Nassau grouper is usually 1 to 2 feet in length,reaching a maximum of 4 feet and about 55 pounds,although most catches are under 10 pounds. The all-tackleworld record is a 38-pound, 8-ounce Bahamian fish.Spawning behavior.Spawning around the new moon,Nassau grouper come together in large masses of up to30,000, making them highly vulnerable to overharvesting.Food.Nassau grouper feed mainly on fish and crabs and,to a lesser degree, on other crustaceans and mollusks.OTHER NAMEShamlet; Creole: negue;French:mérou rayé;Spanish:cherna criolla,mero gallina.Distribution.In the western Atlantic, Nassaugrouper are found inBermuda, Florida, theBahamas, and the YucatánPeninsula, and throughoutthe Caribbean to southernBrazil. They are absent fromthe Gulf of Mexico, exceptat Campeche Bay off thecoast of Yucatán, at Tortugas, and off Key West.Habitat.Found in depthsof 20 to 100 feet, althoughalmost always dwelling inless than 90 feet of water,Nassau grouper prefer cavesand shallow to midrangecoral reefs. Smaller fish areusually closer to shore andcommon in seagrass beds;adults are usually fartheroffshore on rocky reefs. Nassau grouper tend to reston the bottom, blendingwith their surroundings.They are usually solitaryand diurnal but occasionallyform schools.Grouper, Nassau87Grouper, NassauEpinephelus striatus

The red grouper was one of the most abundant grouper inthe Caribbean and surrounding waters until spearfishingand general overfishing depleted its numbers.Identification.Of varying coloration, the red grouper isusually dark brownish-red, especially around the mouth,and may have dark bars and blotches similar to those on theNassau grouper, as well as a few small whitish blotches scat-tered in an irregular pattern. It is distinguished from theNassau grouper by its lack of a saddle spot and its smooth,straight front dorsal fin. On the Nassau grouper the dorsalfin is notched. It has a blackish tinge to the soft dorsal, theanal, and the tail fins; pale bluish margins on the rear dor-sal, the anal, and the tail fins; and small black spots aroundthe eyes. The lining of the mouth is scarlet to orange. Thesecond spine of the dorsal fin is longer than the others, thepectoral fins are longer than the pelvic fins, and the tail isdistinctively squared off.Size/Age.The red grouper is commonly 1 to 2 feet longand weighs up to 15 pounds, although it can reach 3 ⁄ feet1 2and 50 pounds. The male red grouper lives longer than thefemale does and has been known to live for 25 years.Spawning behavior.Like many other grouper, redgrouper undergo a sex reversal; females transform intomales, in this case between ages 7 and 14, or when they are18 to 26 inches long. Spawning takes place from Marchthrough July, with a flurry of activity in April and May, inwater temperatures ranging from 63° to 77°F and in depthsbetween 80 and 300 feet.Food and feeding habits.Red grouper feed on a widevariety of fish, invertebrates, and crustaceans, includingsquid, crabs, shrimp, lobsters, and octopus.OTHER NAMESgrouper; Portuguese:garoupa de Sao Tomé;Spanish:cherna americana,cherna de vivero, meroamericano, mero paracamo.Distribution.In the west-ern Atlantic, red grouperrange from North Carolinato southern Brazil, includingthe Gulf of Mexico, theCaribbean, and Bermuda;some fish stray as far asMassachusetts. They arefound only occasionally inFlorida and the Bahamasand rarely in the Caribbean.Habitat.Red grouper arebottom-dwelling fish, occur-ring over rocky and muddybottoms, at the margins ofseagrass beds, and inledges, crevices, and cavernsof rocky limestone reefs;they are uncommon aroundcoral reefs. They preferdepths of 6 to 400 feet,although they more com-monly hold between 80 and400 feet. Red grouper areusually solitary, resting onthe bottom and blendingwith their surroundings.88Grouper, RedGrouper, RedEpinephelus morio

The warsaw grouper is one of the largest members of theSerranidae family of grouper and sea bass, second only tothe goliath grouper in size. It has white, flaky meat that ismarketed fresh. It is more widespread than the goliathgrouper and caught more frequently.Identification.The warsaw grouper has a gray-brown ordark red-brown body, occasionally irregularly spotted withseveral small, white blotches on the sides and the dorsalfins, although these are indiscernible in death. The youngwarsaw has a yellow tail and a dark saddle on the caudalpeduncle. The warsaw is distinctive as the only grouperwith 10 dorsal spines, the second of which is much longerthan the third. It also has a squared-off tail. In contrast tothe goliath grouper, the rays of the first dorsal fin on thewarsaw grouper are much higher and the head is muchlarger.Size/Age.The average weight of the warsaw grouper isroughly 20 pounds or less, although 100-pound fish are notuncommon. It can reach a length of 6 ⁄ feet and can weigh1 2up to 580 pounds. The all-tackle world record is a 436-pound, 12-ounce Florida fish. The warsaw grouper growsslowly and can live as long as 25 to 30 years.Spawning behavior.The eggs and the larvae of the war-saw grouper are thought to be pelagic, although little elseis known about spawning and other behavior.Food and feeding habits.Warsaw grouper feed on crabs,shrimp, lobsters, and fish, swallowing prey whole afterambushing it or after a short chase.OTHER NAMESSpanish:mero de lo alto,mero negro.Distribution.In the western Atlantic, warsawgrouper range from Massachusetts to the Gulfof Mexico and south to Ríode Janeiro in Brazil,although they are rare inCuba, Haiti, and Trinidad.They are otherwise fairlycommon along both coastsof Florida.Habitat.Usually foundover rough, rocky bottoms,deep rocky ledges, anddropoffs, warsaw grouperprefer depths of 300 to1,000 feet. Young warsawgrouper are occasionallyseen or caught near jettiesand shallow-water reefs.Grouper, Warsaw89Grouper, WarsawEpinephelus nigritus

The scientific name of this member of the Serranidae familymeans “venomous,” a reference to the yellowfin grouper’sassociation with ciguatera poisoning. Despite this, its flesh isgood to eat and is usually considered safe for commercialsale.Identification.The yellowfin grouper has highly variablecoloring, usually with a pale background and horizontalrows of darker, rectangular blotches covering the entire fish;the ends of these blotches are rounded, and they can beblack, gray, brown, olive green, or red. There are also smalldark spots running across the body, which grow smallertoward the belly and usually appear bright red. The outerthird of the pectoral fins is bright yellow, whereas the tailhas a thin, dark, irregular edge. An overall reddish cast ispresent in fish from deep water, and the yellowfin grouperhas the ability to change color dramatically or to pale ordarken.Size.The yellowfin grouper is common to 20 pounds inweight and 3 feet in length; the all-tackle world record is a40-pound, 12-ounce Texas fish caught in 1995.Life history.As with other grouper, the yellowfin under-goes a sex reversal, transforming from female to male in thelatter part of life.Food.Yellowfin grouper feed mostly on coral reef speciesof fish and squid.OTHER NAMESprincess rockfish, red rock-fish; Spanish: arigua,bonaci cardenal, cunacucaracha, cuna de piedra.Distribution.Found in thewestern Atlantic, the yellowfin grouper is mostcommon in Bermuda,Florida, and the southernGulf of Mexico, and itranges to Brazil.Habitat.Young yellowfingrouper prefer shallowturtlegrass beds, and adultsoccur on offshore rocky andcoral reefs. They also holdover mud bottoms in thenorthern Gulf of Mexico.90Grouper, YellowfinGrouper, YellowfinMycteroperca venenosa

The California grunion is a member of the Atherinidae fam-ily of fish known as silversides. It is an important foragespecies for predator fish; in season, large numbers of anglersgather on the beaches to fill buckets with grunion that areundergoing a remarkable spawning ritual in the sand.Identification.The California grunion has an elongatebody and head that are more or less compressed. Themouth is small, and the scales are small, smooth, and firm.Its coloration is bluish-green above and silvery below; abright silvery band tinged with blue and bordered abovewith violet extends the length of the body.Size/Age.The maximum known size of grunion is 7 ⁄12inches. The life span is usually 3 years, with some individu-als surviving 4 years.Life history/Behavior.The most rapid growth takesplace during the first year, at the end of which they are 5inches long and capable of spawning. The spawning behav-ior of grunion is one of the more unusual among all marinefish. Females, accompanied by one to eight males, swimonto the beach with an incoming wave, dig themselvesinto the sand up to their pectoral fins, and lay their eggs.The males wrap themselves around the female and fertilizethe eggs. With the next wave, the fish return to the sea.Thus, the spawning process is effected in the short period oftime between waves. Most females spawn from four toeight times a year, and thousands of the fish may be alongthe beach at a time.Spawning takes place from early March through Sep-tember and then only for 3 or 4 nights following the fullmoon, during the 1 to 4 hours immediately after high tide.Food.The feeding habits of this species are not wellknown; however, they subsist on small crustaceans and fisheggs.OTHER NAMESsmelt, little smelt, grunion,lease smelt.Distribution.The Califor-nia grunion occurs fromMagdalena Bay, Baja Cali-fornia, to San Francisco;however, the principal rangeis between Point Abreojos,Baja California, and PointConception, California. Asimilar species, the gulfgrunion(L. sardina),isrestricted to the Gulf of California.Habitat.Californiagrunion are nonmigratoryand are most often found inschools a short distancefrom shore in water 15 to40 feet deep.Grunion, California91Grunion, CaliforniaLeuresthes tenuis

sh when young becausefiFrequently used as an aquarium cent coloring, the bluestriped grunt is alsofiof its magnish and is easily caught onficonsidered an excellent table natural bait.Identification.The bluestriped grunt is distinguished fromall other grunts by its color pattern of continuous blue hor-izontal stripes over a yellow-gold body. The tail and the dor-nsfins are dark and dusky with a yellow tinge. Other fisal are yellow. The inside of its mouth is blood red. It has 12dorsal spines, 16 to 17 dorsal rays, and 9 anal rays.Size.Its average length is up to 1 foot, but it can reach asmuch as 18 inches in length.Behavior.sh, the bluestriped grunt gathersfiA schooling in medium-size groups along reefs during the day. Scaringeasily, the grunt will swim away quickly when slightly startled.Feeding habits.Adults feed on the bottom at night overopen sandy, muddy, or grassy areas, primarily foraging oncrustaceans. They also consume bivalves and occasionallysh.fismall OTHER NAMESSpanish:ronco catire.Distribution.Thebluestriped grunt is commonfrom southern Floridathrough the Caribbean tothe West Indies and south-ward along the Gulf of Mexico and along the coastof Central and South Amer-ica to Brazil.Habitat.The bluestripedgrunt drifts along reefs,especially near the deepedges. It remains relativelyclose to the shore in shallowwater from 12 to 50 feetdeep. Juveniles are found inseagrass beds in bays,lagoons, and coastalwaters.92Grunt, BluestripedGrunt, BluestripedHaemulon sciurus

sh infiThe French grunt is one of the most abundant pansouthern Florida. These and other grunts often make up thelargest biomass on reefs in continental shelf areas. Althoughit is too small to be of commercial value, the French gruntsh.fish. It is also a common aquarium fiis an excellent panIdentification.Its coloring is white to bluish or yellowish,with bright-yellow stripes. The stripes set below the lateralline are diagonal. There are yellow spots on the bottom ofns are yellow, and the inside of the mouth isfithe head. The blood red. It has 14 to 15 dorsal rays, 8 anal rays, and 16 to17 pectoral rays.Size.The average length is 6 to 10 inches, although thissh can reach 12 inches.fiBehavior.sh, drifting infiThe French grunt is a schooling small to large groups that can number in the thousands.The schools travel in shadows during the day. Juveniles hidein grassbeds in bays, lagoons, and coastal waters.Feeding habits.French grunts are nocturnal bottom feed-ats and grassbeds near reefs forflers that scavenge sand crustaceans.OTHER NAMESSpanish:ronco amarillo.Distribution.The Frenchgrunt is abundant inFlorida, the Bahamas, andthe Caribbean. It alsoinhabits the waters of SouthCarolina, Bermuda, and theGulf of Mexico, and south toBrazil.Habitat.Preferring shal-lower water close to shore,the French grunt inhabitscoastlines and deeper coralreefs in depths from 12 to60 feet. Grunt populationsare less prominent aroundislands lacking largeexpanses of grassbeds andats.flsand Grunt, French93Grunt, FrenchavolineatumflHaemulon

The white grunt is a wide-ranging and abundant fish. Thisand other grunts often make up the largest biomass onreefs in continental shelf areas. The white grunt has somecommercial value, as it grows to larger sizes than do mostother grunts, and it is a tasty panfish that is also commonlyused in aquariums.Identification.One of the more colorful grunts, this fishhas a silver-gray body, with moderate yellow body stripingand numerous blue and yellow stripes on its head. Thescales may be tipped with bronze and produce a checkeredpattern. The inside of the mouth is red. It has 12 dorsalspines and 15 to 17 dorsal rays, 8 to 9 anal rays, and 17pectoral rays.Age/Size.The average length and weight are 8 to 14inches and about a pound, although white grunts can reach25 inches and weigh 8 pounds. They are reported to live upto 13 years.Life history/Behavior.Like other grunts, this species is aschooling fish, often found in large groups. Schools travel inshadows during the day and are often located along theedges of reefs and at the base of coral formations. Fish aresexually mature at about 10 inches, and spawning takesplace in the southeastern United States in the late springand the summer.Food and feeding habits.White grunts are bottom feed-ers that root in the sand and the bottom matter near reefs.They feed on worms, shrimp, crabs, mollusks, and smallfish.OTHER NAMESredmouth; Spanish: roncomargariteño.Distribution.The whitegrunt exists in the westernAtlantic, from the Chesa-peake Bay throughout theCaribbean and the Gulf ofMexico south to Brazil. Itwas reportedly introducedunsuccessfully to Bermuda.Habitat.White gruntsprefer shallower water fromnearshore to outer reefareas.94Grunt, WhiteGrunt, WhiteHaemulon plumieri

A member of the barracuda family, the guaguanche is along, slender, silvery fish often mistaken for a young greatbarracuda. There is no concerted sportfishing effort for thespecies, but it is occasionally caught by anglers.Identification.Silvery olive-brown above, the guaguanchehas silvery sides with a yellow to golden stripe running alongthe middle of its body. Like other members of the barracudafamily, it has an elongated body and large canine and shear-ing teeth. Its caudal fin is large, forked, and blackish, and it has widely separated dorsal fins. The pelvic fin beginsbelow a point just in front of the first dorsal fin, which dis-tinguishes it from the similar-looking sennet. On the youngguaguanche, there are three broad bars at the rear of thebody that are often interrupted in the middle of each side.Size.The guaguanche can grow to 2 feet, although itmore commonly measures 6 to 14 inches.Food.Guaguanche feed on fish and shrimp.OTHER NAMESguachanche barracuda;Spanish:picudaguaguanche;French:bécune guachanche.Distribution.Foundoccasionally in Florida, the Bahamas, and theCaribbean, guaguancheoccur from Massachusettsto the northern Gulf of Mex-ico and south to Brazil. Habitat.Guaguancheinhabit shallow and gener-ally turbid coastal waters,including sand flats, grass-beds, mud bottoms, bays,and estuaries, althoughthey are rare around reefs.The guaguanche is aschooling species, formingschools at depths from 3 to40 feet, and can be foundnear the surface at night.Guaguanche95GuaguancheSphyraena guachancho

A cross between a skate and a shark in appearance, theAtlantic guitarfish is a member of the Rajiformes family,along with the skate and the ray. It is occasionally encoun-tered by anglers but is not a targeted species.Identification.The head and the pectoral fins of theAtlantic guitarfish form a triangular disk at the front of thebody. The rear of the body is thick and tapered like ashark’s, and it has two large dorsal fins and a well-developedcaudal fin. The Atlantic guitarfish varies in color from grayto brown, with several pale spots on its body.Size.This species is normally 1 to 2 feet long and canattain a maximum length of 2 ⁄ feet. Females are some-1 2what larger than males.Life history.Atlantic guitarfish are ovoviviparous, whichmeans they bear live young, with up to six in a litter. Atbirth they are 20 centimeters long.Food.Small mollusks and crustaceans form the diet of theguitarfish.OTHER NAMESFrench:poisson-guitarretacheté;Italian:pesce vio-lino;Spanish:guitarra.Distribution.Atlanticguitarfish extend fromNorth Carolina to the Gulfof Mexico, although theyare not reported in theBahamas or the Caribbeanand are uncommon inFlorida and the Yucatán.The Brazilian guitarfish (R. horkeli)and the southern guitarfish (R. percellens) are twoclosely related species thatrange from the West Indiesto Brazil.Habitat.Inhabiting sandyand weedy bottoms,Atlantic guitarfish are foundnear small reefs, usuallyburied in seagrass, sand, ormud at depths of 1 to 45feet.96Guitarfish, AtlanticGuitarfish, AtlanticRhinobatos lentiginosus

Closely related to the genus Gadus,the haddock is oftenconsidered a member of the Gadidae, or codfish, family.Haddock have long been important commercially and arean even more highly valued food fish than Atlantic cod,although stocks of haddock have declined rapidly since the1960s due to overfishing.Identification.The haddock has three dorsal fins and twoanal fins; the first dorsal fin is high and pointed. The smallchin barbel is sometimes hidden. Its coloring is purplishgray on the back and sides, fading to pinkish reflections anda white belly. There is a black lateral line along the side anda black shoulder blotch. The dark lateral line and the shoul-der blotch can distinguish it from its close relatives in thecod family. Three dorsal fins distinguish the haddock fromits relative the silver hake (see: Hake, Silver).Size/Age.The average haddock is 1 to 2 feet long andweighs 1 to 5 pounds. The all-tackle record is 11 pounds, 3ounces, but they have been reported to attain 16 ⁄ pounds.1 2Haddock can live for 14 years.Life history/Behavior.The spawning season is betweenJanuary and June, and activity peaks during late March andearly April, when large congregations form in depths of 20to 100 fathoms. Major spawning concentrations occur oneastern Georges Bank, although some spawning also occursto the east of Nantucket Shoals and along the Maine coast.Haddock swim in large schools, and there is some sea-sonal migration to the north in the spring and south againin the fall. Adult haddock on Georges Bank appear to be rel-atively sedentary, but seasonal coastal movements occur inthe western Gulf of Maine. There are extensive migrationsin the Barents Sea and off Iceland.Food and feeding habits.Primarily consuming crabs,snails, worms, clams, and sea urchins, the haddock seldomfeeds actively on fish.OTHER NAMEShaddie, scrod; French:eglefin;Italian:asinello;Norwegian: kolje;Portuguese:arinca, bacal-hau;Spanish:eglefino.Distribution.In NorthAmerica the haddock isfound from Newfoundlandand Nova Scotia southwardto southern New Jersey. Itoccasionally inhabits thedeep water to Cape Hat-teras. The highest concen-trations off the U.S. coastoccur on the northern andthe eastern sections ofGeorges Bank and in thesouthwestern Gulf of Maine.Two stocks occur in U.S.waters: the Gulf of Mainestock and the Georges Bankstock.Habitat.Preferring deeperwater than do cod, haddockinhabit depths of 25 to 75fathoms. Although generallya coldwater species, prefer-ring temperatures of 36° to50° F, they are commonlyfound in warm water overbottoms of sand, pebbles, orbroken shells.Haddock97HaddockMelanogrammus aeglefinus